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Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Main difference – action research vs case study.

Research is the careful study of a given field or problem in order to discover new facts or principles. Action research and case study are two types of research, which are mainly used in the field of social sciences and humanities. The main difference between action research and case study is their purpose; an action research study aims to solve an immediate problem whereas a case study aims to provide an in-depth analysis of a situation or case over a long period of time.

1. What is Action Research?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

2. What is Case Study?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

What is Action Research

Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem. It may involve a variety of analytical, investigative and evaluative research methods designed to diagnose and solve problems. It has been defined as “a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions” (Sagor, 2000). This type of research is typically used in the field of education. Action research studies are generally conductors by educators, who also act as participants.

Here, an individual researcher or a group of researchers identify a problem, examine its causes and try to arrive at a solution to the problem. The action research process is as follows.

Action Research Process

• Identify a problem to research
• Clarify theories
• Identify research questions
• Collect data on the problem
• Organise, analyse, and interpret the data
• Create a plan to address the problem
• Implement the above-mentioned plan
• Evaluate the results of the actions taken

The above process will keep repeating. Action research is also known as cycle of inquiry or cycle of action since it follows a specific process that is repeated over time.

What is a Case Study

A case study is basically an in-depth examination of a particular event, situation or an individual. It is a type of research that is designed to explore and understand complex issues; however, it involves detailed contextual analysis of only a limited number of events or situations. It has been defined as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.” (Yin, 1984)

Case studies are used in a variety of fields, but fields like sociology and education seem to use them the most. They can be used to probe into community-based problems such as illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, and drug addiction. 

Case studies involve both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions. Furthermore, case studies can be classified into three categories, known as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory case studies.

However, case studies are also criticised since the study of a limited number of events or cases cannot easily establish generality or reliability of the findings. The process of a case study is generally as follows:

Case Study Process

• Identifying and defining the research questions
• Selecting the cases and deciding techniques for data collection and analysis
• Collecting data in the field
• Evaluating and analysing the data
• Preparing the report

Action Research : Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem.

Case Study : Case study is an in-depth analysis of a particular event or case over a long period of time.                         

Action Research : Action research involves solving a problem.

Case Study : Case studies involve observing and analysing a situation.

Action Research : Action research studies are mainly used in the field of education.

Case Study : Case studies are used in many fields; they can be specially used with community problems such as unemployment, poverty, etc.

Action Research : Action research always involve providing a solution to a problem.

Case Study : Case studies do not provide a solution to a problem.

Participants

Action Research : Researchers can also act as participants of the research.

Case Study : Researchers generally don’t take part in the research study.

Zainal, Zaidah.  Case study as a research method . N.p.: n.p., 7 June 2007. PDF.

 Soy, Susan K. (1997).  The case study as a research method . Unpublished paper, University of Texas at Austin.

Sagor, Richard.  Guiding school improvement with action research . Ascd, 2000.

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Difference between Case Study and Action research

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1. Action Research : Action Research is a type of qualitative research. As the name suggests it is more action oriented in order to solve an immediate problem. Action research helps the researcher to improvise its current practices and is applied for researching into issues. It aims to learn through action leading to personal or professional development means focuses on improving and/or refining actions. This type research generally used in field of education to bridge the gap between educational theory and professional practice by improvising their current practices. This helps in observing the problem and identifying the cause and then addressing the issue so mainly it is more focused on immediate addressing to practical problems and in generating knowledge to produce change.

2. Case Study : Case study research refers to an in-depth examination of a particular event or individual or a group of individuals. It is more of a qualitative method of research where it understand complex issues by deeply observing and analyzing the event or situation by collecting and reporting the data related to the event or situation. Case study research is more towards description rather than immediate cause and effect finding. Case study is categorized into three ways i.e., exploratory, explanatory and descriptive based on research method. These studies involve both quantitative and qualitative data. This type of research can be used to address community-based problems like illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, and drug addiction.

Difference between Case study and Action Research :

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Action Research vs. Case Study: What's the Difference?

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Comparison chart, primary aim, participant role, methodology, action research and case study definitions, action research, who conducts "action research", does a "case study" focus on one entity, is "action research" participatory, are subjects in "action research" considered co-researchers, can "action research" effect immediate change, is a "case study" used for theoretical insights, is "action research" iterative, can a "case study" be used in qualitative research, is "action research" subjective, can "case studies" be subjective, where is "action research" common, what's the scope of a "case study", how is data collected in "action research", are multiple sources used in a "case study", how long does a "case study" take, what's a key benefit of "action research", do "action research" results apply beyond the initial situation, does a "case study" require participant involvement, what fields use "case studies", why choose a "case study" approach.

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• What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

Published on 27 January 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on 21 April 2023.

Table of contents

Types of action research, action research models, examples of action research, action research vs. traditional research, advantages and disadvantages of action research, frequently asked questions about action research.

There are 2 common types of action research: participatory action research and practical action research.

• Participatory action research emphasises that participants should be members of the community being studied, empowering those directly affected by outcomes of said research. In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived experiences considered formative to the research process.
• Practical action research focuses more on how research is conducted and is designed to address and solve specific issues.

Both types of action research are more focused on increasing the capacity and ability of future practitioners than contributing to a theoretical body of knowledge.

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Action research is often reflected in 3 action research models: operational (sometimes called technical), collaboration, and critical reflection.

• Operational (or technical) action research is usually visualised like a spiral following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”
• Collaboration action research is more community-based, focused on building a network of similar individuals (e.g., college professors in a given geographic area) and compiling learnings from iterated feedback cycles.
• Critical reflection action research serves to contextualise systemic processes that are already ongoing (e.g., working retroactively to analyse existing school systems by questioning why certain practices were put into place and developed the way they did).

Action research is often used in fields like education because of its iterative and flexible style.

After the information was collected, the students were asked where they thought ramps or other accessibility measures would be best utilised, and the suggestions were sent to school administrators. Example: Practical action research Science teachers at your city’s high school have been witnessing a year-over-year decline in standardised test scores in chemistry. In seeking the source of this issue, they studied how concepts are taught in depth, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used by each teacher.

Action research differs sharply from other types of research in that it seeks to produce actionable processes over the course of the research rather than contributing to existing knowledge or drawing conclusions from datasets. In this way, action research is formative , not summative , and is conducted in an ongoing, iterative way.

As such, action research is different in purpose, context, and significance and is a good fit for those seeking to implement systemic change.

Action research comes with advantages and disadvantages.

• Action research is highly adaptable , allowing researchers to mould their analysis to their individual needs and implement practical individual-level changes.
• Action research provides an immediate and actionable path forward for solving entrenched issues, rather than suggesting complicated, longer-term solutions rooted in complex data.
• Done correctly, action research can be very empowering , informing social change and allowing participants to effect that change in ways meaningful to their communities.

Disadvantages

• Due to their flexibility, action research studies are plagued by very limited generalisability  and are very difficult to replicate . They are often not considered theoretically rigorous due to the power the researcher holds in drawing conclusions.
• Action research can be complicated to structure in an ethical manner . Participants may feel pressured to participate or to participate in a certain way.
• Action research is at high risk for research biases such as selection bias , social desirability bias , or other types of cognitive biases .

Action research is conducted in order to solve a particular issue immediately, while case studies are often conducted over a longer period of time and focus more on observing and analyzing a particular ongoing phenomenon.

Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

Action research is particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry because it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Educators are able to simultaneously investigate an issue as they solve it, and the method is very iterative and flexible.

A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research . It is usually visualized in a spiral shape following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2023, April 21). What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/action-research-cycle/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education (8th edition). Routledge.

Naughton, G. M. (2001).  Action research (1st edition). Routledge.

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Action research or case study?

When planning for a practice-based enquiry or small-scale study you will most often be confronted with the choice between an action research or case study approach. Strictly speaking, there are many approaches to enquiries, but for practical reasons the action research or case study approaches are amongst the most popular for teacher-researchers.

Your decision for one or the other approach must be well justified and to this end you must consult research methodology literature. However, in the following there will be a simplified exploration of the two approaches to get you started.

What is action research? Action research should be considered as a way of life in the classroom. As a reflective practitioner you will observe what happens in your class and then identify an issue or problem that you need to address. After consulting relevant literature you will then formulate a new approach or intervention, which you carry out in your classroom. Once you have worked with this intervention you will reflect and reconsider its effectiveness and impact and the cycle can start again. For a practice-based enquiry you may go through several cycles or through one cycle only. The advantage of the action research is that it naturally develops from your teaching practice and that it addresses real issues within your classroom. Typical critique of action researches would be that they are not rigorous or systematic enough.

What is case study? A case study is more difficult to understand because it can be a method as well as a methodology. Here we only look at case studies for their methodological function. If you want to learn more about a specific issue or you want to explore a particular problem or occurrence, then the case study is for you. The description of what makes a “case” differs in various research methodology publications, but generally speaking a “case” can refer to a group of people, a specific person or issue, a collective of ideas. The advantage of a case study is that you get to know the status quo in all its facets and so you gain a deep insight into your field of study. Common critique of the case study approach is that it is so specialised and specific to the context of the research that generalisability is lost. Sometimes it is also said that the mere description of a status quo is not practical for teachers because there are no changes. My argument would be that detailed knowlegde of what happens in your classroom or school can lead to recommendations for future practice. It is just that you do not enter a cyclical approach of evaluating and revisiting your suggested changes.

Action research or case study? Both approaches have their benefits and limitations within the realm of practice-based enquiries. The choice therefore depends on what it is that you want to find out. Are you planning to introduce a new teaching strategy or changes or interventions with some or all of your pupils? Or are you trying to explore a specific topic? The former would be a justification for action research, whereas the latter hints at a case study. You must be guided by your research focus, your research question or hypothesis and by the research methodology publications you consult.

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Action Research vs Case Study : Know the Key Difference Between Two Qualitative Research Methods

A research method is nothing but a technique of inquiry which proceeds from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection. Specific research methods imply various assumptions, skills, research practices and the choice of research approach influences the manner in which the data is collected. 

Among various research methods, the most popular and widely used design is qualitative research. This design consists of many philosophical perspectives and various research methods, of which includes  action research and case study research.

Action Research

Action research is a type of qualitative research, which is adopted by the researcher in order to solve the immediate problem arisen during the particular course of time. It is a way which bridges the gap between educational theory and professional practice by improvising their current practices. This type of research helps the researcher to improvise its current practices and is applied for researching into issues.

The main purpose of action research is to learn through action leading to personal or professional development. It enables researchers not only to suggest appropriate lines of action but also to investigate the actual effects of such actions. Further, this type of research is situation based, is useful in problem-solving and deals with individuals or groups with a common purpose of improving practice.

Action research is conducted in classrooms and organisations, where the practitioner will observe what happens and then identify an issue or problem that they need to address. Further according to the issues, ways to solve the problems are identified and applied by the practitioner in their practices. This approach is applied using qualitative designs to explain what is happening and to understand the effects of some educational intervention. 

Further, this research helps in addressing practical problems and in generating knowledge to produce change.

Methods used in collecting data in action research are:

• Observing individuals or groups
• Using audio and videotape recording
• Using structured or semi-structured interviews
• Taking field notes
• Conducting surveys or questionnaires

Case study research is more of a qualitative method of research where there is an in-depth study of an individual or a group of individuals. It explores a contemporary prodigy within its real-life context and provides an organised way of observing the events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results.

Further, the case study method focuses on the description or exploration of a particular phenomenon, rather than identifying the cause and effect. This method includes both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions like illiteracy, poverty, etc. 

Case studies is categorised in 3 ways: exploratory, explanatory and descriptive.

Exploratory case studies explore any event in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher. For example, a researcher conducting an exploratory case study on an individual’s learning process may ask questions, such as, “Does a student use any strategies when he learns a text?” This type of question results in further examination of the phenomenon. 

On the other hand, the explanatory case study examines the data carefully and explains the phenomenon occurred in the data.

Descriptive case studies describe the natural phenomena which occur within the data. For example, what are the strategies used by the learner?, etc. 

Case studies are useful as they help the researcher to analyse the data at a small level but there is a  tendency for the researcher to be biased at the time of interpreting the data. 

Methods used in collecting the data in the case study method are:

• Interviews, transcript analyses or protocol 
• An exploration of artifacts.
• A review of documents and archived record
• Direct participant observations
• Field studies

Difference between action research and case study

At times people confuse the action research method with that of case study as both are a little bit similar to each other. But in real-time, they are quite different.

• Action research focuses on solving the immediate problem whereas, case studies focus on a particular phenomenon for a longer period of time.
• Action research method emphasis on solving the problem whereas case study method emphasis on observing, analysing and interpreting a particular phenomenon or scenario.
• Researcher at times can also be the part of the action research whereas in case study researcher don’t take part in the research.

Now that you know the difference between the two approaches, choose the method accordingly and accomplish your research.

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Action Research vs. Case Study — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Table of contents, key differences, comparison chart, role of researcher, data collection, generalizability, compare with definitions, action research, common curiosities, is action research qualitative or quantitative, what's the primary purpose of action research, what is action research, how does action research differ from traditional research, when is a case study used, who typically conducts action research, how is data gathered in action research, how is data collected in a case study, is action research collaborative, is a case study qualitative or quantitative, how long does a case study last, does action research require a hypothesis, what are some criticisms of action research, can action research be published, are case study findings generalizable, can a case study cover multiple cases, how are case study findings presented, what's the main criticism of case studies, is a case study used only in social sciences, what is a case study, share your discovery.

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Journal of Systems and Information Technology

ISSN : 1328-7265

Article publication date: 1 March 1997

Action researchers contend that a complex social process can be studied best by introducing changes into that process and observing the effects of these changes. The approach used by organizational consultants must also introduce change, but in this case, the theoretical development and the rigorous empirical foundation are prerequisite elements of the activity. Participative case studies are a common scientific report proceeding from consulting projects. This paper discusses the contrasts between the action research method, consulting, and participative case studies. Ethical problems arise when action research is knowingly or unknowingly conflated with consultation practices, since this combination makes the usual set of action research dilemmas even more problematic. An improved understanding of the action research‐consulting contrasts aids in distinguishing the contributions of participative case studies to the information systems literature.

• Action research
• Research‐consulting
• Prerequisite elements

Baskerville, R.L. (1997), "Distinguishing action research from participative case studies", Journal of Systems and Information Technology , Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 24-43. https://doi.org/10.1108/13287269780000733

Copyright © 1997, MCB UP Limited

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Case Study vs. Research

What's the difference.

Case study and research are both methods used in academic and professional settings to gather information and gain insights. However, they differ in their approach and purpose. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation, aiming to understand the unique characteristics and dynamics involved. It often involves qualitative data collection methods such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. On the other hand, research is a systematic investigation conducted to generate new knowledge or validate existing theories. It typically involves a larger sample size and employs quantitative data collection methods such as surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis. While case studies provide detailed and context-specific information, research aims to generalize findings to a broader population.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to conducting studies and gathering information, researchers have various methods at their disposal. Two commonly used approaches are case study and research. While both methods aim to explore and understand a particular subject, they differ in their approach, scope, and the type of data they collect. In this article, we will delve into the attributes of case study and research, highlighting their similarities and differences.

A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, event, or phenomenon. It involves a detailed examination of a particular case to gain insights into its unique characteristics, context, and dynamics. Case studies often employ multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation.

One of the key attributes of a case study is its focus on a specific case, which allows researchers to explore complex and nuanced aspects of the subject. By examining a single case in detail, researchers can uncover rich and detailed information that may not be possible with broader research methods. Case studies are particularly useful when studying rare or unique phenomena, as they provide an opportunity to deeply analyze and understand them.

Furthermore, case studies often employ qualitative research methods, emphasizing the collection of non-numerical data. This qualitative approach allows researchers to capture the subjective experiences, perspectives, and motivations of the individuals or groups involved in the case. By using open-ended interviews and observations, researchers can gather rich and detailed data that provides a holistic view of the subject.

However, it is important to note that case studies have limitations. Due to their focus on a specific case, the findings may not be easily generalized to a larger population or context. The small sample size and unique characteristics of the case may limit the generalizability of the results. Additionally, the subjective nature of qualitative data collection in case studies may introduce bias or interpretation challenges.

Research, on the other hand, is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering new knowledge or validating existing theories. It involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. Research can be conducted using various methods, including surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis, depending on the nature of the study.

One of the primary attributes of research is its emphasis on generating generalizable knowledge. By using representative samples and statistical techniques, researchers aim to draw conclusions that can be applied to a larger population or context. This allows for the identification of patterns, trends, and relationships that can inform theories, policies, or practices.

Research often employs quantitative methods, focusing on the collection of numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. Surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis allow researchers to measure variables, establish correlations, and test hypotheses. This objective approach provides a level of objectivity and replicability that is crucial for scientific inquiry.

However, research also has its limitations. The focus on generalizability may sometimes sacrifice the depth and richness of understanding that case studies offer. The reliance on quantitative data may overlook important qualitative aspects of the subject, such as individual experiences or contextual factors. Additionally, the controlled nature of research settings may not fully capture the complexity and dynamics of real-world situations.

Similarities

Despite their differences, case studies and research share some common attributes. Both methods aim to gather information and generate knowledge about a particular subject. They require careful planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Both case studies and research contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Furthermore, both case studies and research can be used in various disciplines, including social sciences, psychology, business, and healthcare. They provide valuable insights and contribute to evidence-based decision-making. Whether it is understanding the impact of a new treatment, exploring consumer behavior, or investigating social phenomena, both case studies and research play a crucial role in expanding our understanding of the world.

In conclusion, case study and research are two distinct yet valuable approaches to studying and understanding a subject. Case studies offer an in-depth analysis of a specific case, providing rich and detailed information that may not be possible with broader research methods. On the other hand, research aims to generate generalizable knowledge by using representative samples and quantitative methods. While case studies emphasize qualitative data collection, research focuses on quantitative analysis. Both methods have their strengths and limitations, and their choice depends on the research objectives, scope, and context. By utilizing the appropriate method, researchers can gain valuable insights and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

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Prime energy, sports drinks contain PFAS and excessive caffeine, class action suits say

YouTubers Logan Paul and KSI founded Prime Hydration in 2022, and while their products have become increasingly popular and profitable, the company continues to face class action suits over the ingredients in their energy and sports drinks.

Prime Hyrdation LLC was sued April 8 in the Southern District of New York over "misleading and deceptive practices" regarding the company's 12-ounce energy drinks containing between 215-225 milligrams of caffeine as opposed to the advertised 200 milligrams, according to the class action suit.

Lara Vera, a Poughkeepsie, New York resident, filed the suit in federal court on behalf of herself and others who bought Prime products across the U.S., the complaint says. Vera purchased Prime's Blue Raspberry products several times in August 2022 for about $3 to $4 each, but she would have never bought the drinks if she had known the actual caffeine content, according to the suit.

Vera's suit is seeking $5 million from the company owned by Paul and KSI, real name Olajide Olayinka Williams "JJ" Olatunji, court records show.

Court records do not say whether Prime Hydration retained legal counsel for Vera's suit.

How much caffeine is in Prime energy drinks?

Prime's advertised 200 milligrams of caffeine is equivalent to "half a dozen Coke cans or nearly two (12-ounce) Red Bulls," Vera's class action suit says.

A 12-ounce can of Red Bull energy drink contains 114 milligrams of caffeine, and a cup of coffee contains around 100 milligrams of caffeine, according to the suit.

The suit continues to say that "there is no proven safe dose of caffeine for children." Side effects of kids consuming caffeine could include rapid or irregular heartbeats, headaches, seizures, shaking, upset stomach and adverse emotional effects on mental health, according to the complaint.

Sen. Charles Schumer , D-N.Y., called on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to investigate Prime energy drinks in 2023 because of dangerously high caffeine levels. Schumer alleged in a letter to the FDA that vague marketing targeting young people influenced parents to buy a “cauldron of caffeine" for their kids.

Schumer's call to action to the FDA is referenced in Vera's suit.

USA TODAY contacted Prime Hydration's attorneys Tuesday afternoon but did not receive an immediate response.

What are the Prime Hydration lawsuits?

Vera's legal battle is beginning, but Prime is still dealing with another class action suit from 2023 alleging a flavor of the company's sports drinks contains PFAS, or "forever chemicals."

Independent third-party testing determined the presence of PFAS chemicals in Prime Hydration grape flavor, according to a class action suit filed Aug. 2, 2023, in the Northern District of California by the Milberg law firm on behalf of Elizabeth Castillo and others similarly affected.

"Lead plaintiff Elizabeth Castillo, a resident of California, purchased Prime Hydration on multiple occasions but says she would not have bought it at all if the product had been accurately marketed and labeled as containing PFAS," the Milberg law firm said in an August 2023 news release . "These chemicals were not reasonably detectible to consumers like herself."

Castillo's suit is seeking a $5 million judgment, court records show.

As of April 18, the judge in the case has heard Prime's argument to dismiss the suit due to Castillo not alleging "a cognizable injury" and her not alleging "facts showing a concrete (and) imminent threat of future harm," according to the drink company's motion.

Paul addressed Castillo's claims Wednesday in a 3-minute TikTok video.

"First off, anyone can sue anyone at any time that does not make the lawsuit true," Paul said in the TikTok video. "And in this case, it is not… one person conducted a random study and has provided zero evidence to substantiate any of their claims."

What are forever chemicals?

PFAS are called forever chemicals because they "bioaccumulate, or accrue in the body over time," the Milberg law said in its news release.

"These man-made chemicals are well-studied and have been found to have adverse effects on the human body and environment," the New York City-headquartered law firm said.

Many PFAS are found in people's and animal's blood and can be detected at low levels in a variety of food products and in the environment, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said. Forever chemicals can be found in water, air, fish and soil at locations across the nation and the globe, according to the EPA.

"There are thousands of PFAS chemicals, and they are found in many different consumer, commercial, and industrial products," the EPA said. "This makes it challenging to study and assess the potential human health and environmental risks."

Who made Prime energy drinks?

Before founding Prime Hydration LLC, Logan Paul, 29, and KSI, 30, were YouTubers who turned their millions of subscribers into supporters of their boxing, wrestling, music, social media content and other endeavors.

Going into the drinks business proved to be profitable for both YouTubers as "Prime Hydration generated more than $250 million in retail sales in its first year, including $45 million in a single month," according to the Milberg law firm.

Paul and KSI continue to keep Prime products in the spotlight whether it is paying for an ad during Super Bowl 57 , having livestreamer IShowSpeed dress up in a Prime sports drink bottle during Wrestlemania 40 or signing athletes including Patrick Mahomes, Aaron Judge, Israel Adesanya, Tyreek Hill, Kyle Larson, Alisha Lehmann and others to sponsorship deals.

EDITORIAL article

This article is part of the research topic.

Small non-coding RNAs in Gram negative bacteria

Editorial on the Research Topic: Small non-coding RNAs in Gram negative bacteria Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Long Island University, United States
• 2 Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital (IRCCS), Italy

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Ongoing efforts to discover and characterize small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) in bacteria, often known as microRNA-size small RNAs (msRNAs) or more broadly as bacterial-derived small RNAs (bsRNAs), are deepening our knowledge of how they regulate post-transcriptional process. Although poorly described so far, they play an important role in controlling various biological functions of bacteria such as virulence, biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance, pathogenesis, adaptation to stress, and expression of outer membrane proteins. The objective of this research topic was to pool down the knowledge available so far in addition to attract promising new studies in sRNA regulatory network, which would enable forefront studies in the field of regulatory sRNAs to effectively tackle bacterial pathogens. This research topic includes some original articles that explore how bacteria utilize sRNAs to survive under antibiotic stress conditions as well as their involvement in mediating differences in immune response in the case of respiratory syncytial virus versus rhinovirus bronchiolitis. It also includes valuable review articles that discuss Hfq interactions with sRNAs and how bacterial pathogens produce sRNAs encapsulated in outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Through this process, sRNAs can be transferred into eukaryotic cells and other bacteria, highlighting their potential as therapeutic agents in the treatment of various diseases. Kim et al. reported how bacteria switch from active aerobic respiration to anaerobic adaptation upon exposure to moderately effective first-generation antibiotics (Kim et al., 2024). The overuse and misuse of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug resistant bacteria, and this situation has worsened with the overuse of antibiotics during Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic (Andersson and Hughes, 2014;Rawson et al., 2020). The authors used a transcriptome analysis approach to understand the change in gene expression when the bacteria switch to anaerobic respiration (Kim et al., 2024). It has been noticed that the treatment of sublethal concentrations of antibiotics increased the expression of genes related to anaerobic respiration. In addition, the transition was dependent on the transcriptional regulators, AcrA (aerobic respiratory control) and FMR (fumarate and nitrate reduction) (Kim et al., 2024). It has been reported that the expression of these regulators is modulated by oxygen availability (Levanon et al., 2005). The authors in turn report that the antibiotic stress leads to specific reprogramming of non-coding RNAs including small RNAs FnrS and Tp2 (Kim et al., 2024). It was noticed that FnrS is involved in reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, thereby increasing cell survival. Overall, the study demonstrates how bacteria strive to maintain cellular homeostasis via sRNA-mediated gene regulation upon sublethal antibiotic exposure. As the authors pointed out, this study provides insights for developing novel antimicrobial compounds targeting sRNAs to combat multi-drug resistance.Another valuable original article in our research topic demonstrates the role of bacterial sRNAs in mediating immune response in Bronchiolitis (Krohmaly et al., 2024). Bronchiolitis is a viral infection caused by many viruses including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinovirus (RV), and others (Marguet et al., 2009). It has been reported that bronchiolitis caused by RSV is majorly associated with Streptococcus pneumoniae, while bronchiolitis caused by RV is frequently associated with Haemophilus influenzae (Hasegawa et al., 2018;Stewart et al., 2018). In this study, the authors identified many novel sRNAs from different bacterial species and studied their influence on immune response during bronchiolitis (Krohmaly et al., 2024). Through RNA-Seq database, several bacterial sRNAs were found to be associated with RSV and RV-only bronchiolitis in human nasal. They found that some bacterial sRNAs were differently expressed in infants with RSV compare to RV-only bronchiolitis from the MARC-35 cohort. They found that the sRNAs associated with RSV-only bronchiolitis may relatively activate the IL-6 and IL-8 pathways and relatively inhibit the IL-17A pathway, compared to those associated with RV-only bronchitis (Krohmaly et al., 2024). This is the first study to report that bacterial sRNAs may be contributing to inflammation differences seen in RSV-and RV-only bronchiolitis.Nowadays, it is known that production and regulation of bacterial sRNAs that are involved in facilitating sRNA-mRNA base-pairing is coordinated through several components, including other sRNAs, mRNAs, and sRNA-binding proteins (sRBPs). Among several sRBPs (e.g., Hfq, ProQ, and CsrA), Hfq is the most extensively studied chaperon that protects sRNAs from degradation and aids in their binding to mRNA. Watkins and Arya have written an interesting review on how the structures of Hfq have defined the difference in interactions of the Gram-negative and Grampositive homologues with RNA (Watkins and Arya, 2023). While it appears that Hfq is a vital virulence factor in Gram-negative bacteria, it remains unclear how this chaperone is involved in mediating sRNA-mRNA interactions, a function that is worth exploring.Another interesting review paper published by Ajam-Hosseini et al. discussed bacterial OMVs that can serve as vehicles for the delivery of sRNAs to target cells (Ajam-Hosseini et al., 2024). It has been shown that sRNAs encapsulated in OMVs can regulate gene expression in recipient cells, leading to changes in cellular behavior and function. Additionally, targeting sRNAs involved in bacterial virulence or antibiotic resistance has the potential to disrupt the pathogenicity of bacteria and improve the effectiveness of antibiotic treatment. This suggests that OMV-encapsulated sRNAs could be used as potential therapeutic strategy in treating various bacterial diseases.In summary, the current Research Topic highlights the importance of regulating bacterial sRNAs in shielding bacterial lifestyle under stress conditions and in modulating the immune response. It also provides valuable insights into the clinical significance of Gram-negative bacterial sRNAs in biomedical applications. Despite its importance, detailed studies on the expression patterns of bacterial sRNAs are scarce. Therefore, we believe that further research could enhance our understating of their role as a versatile toolkit for bacterial adaptation to the host environment. Such studies could also reveal their potential utility as novel therapeutics, including their use in natural or synthetic OMVs.We would like to express our gratitude to the authors and reviewers for their valuable contributions to this research topic. We hope that this collection of reviews, and original articles will be helpful for clinicians, researchers, and students seeking for information about sRNAs in bacterial virulence and communication.

Keywords: Small non-coding RNA (sRNA), Hfq, multidrug resistance, antibiotics, Bronchiolitis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs)

Received: 30 Apr 2024; Accepted: 02 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Subhadra and Sarshar. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Bindu Subhadra, Long Island University, Brookville, United States

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