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American Psychological Association (APA) style includes parenthetical in-text citations and a reference list .
APA uses parenthetical citations as its form of in-text citation. Provide a parenthetical citation before the period directly following the information you are citing. These citations should correspond to a more detailed citation in the reference list but only need to specify a page number if directly quoting or borrowing from the source material. The essential elements for this in-text citation are the author's last name and the date for the specific publications. The last name may be omitted if the sentence states or makes clear the source material.
APA uses a reference list , an alphabetized list of sources following the end of the book or paper, for its complete list of sources referenced. This list should be titled "References" in bold and alphabetized by the first item in the citation, which, in most cases, is the author's last name. Each reference from this list must be cited in your paper and vice versa.
Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year of publication). Title . Publisher Name.
Print Articles
Author Last Name, Author First Initial, & Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year). Article Title. Periodical Title , volume number(issue number), pages.
Electronic Articles
Author Last Name, Author First Initial. (Year). Article Title. Periodical Title , volume number(issue number), pages. doi or static url.
Physical Images/Artwork
Artist Last Name, Artist First Initial. (Year). Artwork Title [medium]. Host Institution Name, City, State, Country. URL of institution.
Electronic Images/Artwork
Artist Last Name, Artist First Initial. (Year). Image Title [medium]. Source Title. URL of image.
Standard case :
"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet , consectetur adipiscing elit" (Last name, 2000, p.10).
If the author is not available , the title of the source may be used:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet , consectetur adipiscing elit ("Source title", 2000, pp.10-11).
If multiple authors cited have the same last name , use the author's first initial along with their last name:
"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet , consectetur adipiscing elit" (E. Bronte, 1847, p.10).
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet , consectetur adipiscing elit (C. Bronte, 1847, p.10).
Archival material :
Child, J. (1974). Journal, 1974 . [Unpublished journal]. Papers of Julia Child, 1925-1993(MC 644, item 4). Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe Institute, https://id.lib.harvard.edu/ead/c/ sch00222c00006 /catalog .
Child, P. (1967). Julia Child at the White House [Photograph]. Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe Institute, https://id.lib.harvard.edu/images/olvwork539731/urn-3:RAD.SCHL:4510469/catalog.
Beck, S., Bertholle, L., & Child, J. (1961). Mastering the art of French cooking. Knopf.
Child, J. & Child, P. (1968). The French chef cookbook . Alfred A. Knopf .
Journal article :
Muneal, M. (2011). Studies in Popular Culture , 34(1), 152–154. www.jstor.org/stable/23416357.
Nussbaum, D. (2005). "In Julia Child's Kitchen, October 5 1998". Gastronomica , 5(3), 29-38. doi: 10.1525/gfc.2005.5.3.29.
Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy
Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts
This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.
Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
If you are having trouble locating a specific resource please visit the search page or the Site Map . The Citation Chart provides a detailed overview of MLA Style, APA Style, and Chicago Manual of Style source documentation by category.
These OWL resources will help you conduct research using primary source methods, such as interviews and observations, and secondary source methods, such as books, journals, and the Internet. This area also includes materials on evaluating research sources.
These OWL resources will help you use the research you have conducted in your documents. This area includes material on quoting and paraphrasing your research sources, as well as material on how to avoid plagiarism.
These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the American Psychological Association (APA) citation and format style. This section contains resources on in-text citation and the References page, as well as APA sample papers, slide presentations, and the APA classroom poster.
These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and format style. This section contains resources on in-text citation and the Works Cited page, as well as MLA sample papers, slide presentations, and the MLA classroom poster
This section contains information on the Chicago Manual of Style method of document formatting and citation. These resources follow the 17th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style, which was issued in 2017.
These resources describe how to structure papers, cite sources, format references, and handle the complexities of tables and figures according to the latest Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) guidelines.
These resources provide guidance on how to cite sources using American Medical Association (AMA) Style, 10th Ed., including examples for print and electronic sources.
We live in an age overflowing with sources of information. With so many information sources at our fingertips, knowing where to start, sorting through it all and finding what we want can be overwhelming! This handout provides answers to the following research-related questions: Where do I begin? Where should I look for information? What types of sources are available?
Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.
Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations, aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. online sources, and evaluating Internet sources.
This section covers finding information online. It includes information about search engines, Boolean operators, Web directories, and the invisible Web. It also includes an extensive, annotated links section.
This page contains links and short descriptions of writing resources including dictionaries, style manuals, grammar handbooks, and editing resources. It also contains a list of online reference sites, indexes for writers, online libraries, books and e-texts, as well as links to newspapers, news services, journals, and online magazines.
This resource discusses conducting research in a variety of archives. It also discusses a number of considerations and best practices for conducting archival research.
This resources was developed in consultation with Purdue University Virginia Kelly Karnes Archives and Special Collections staff.
Article (with doi).
Alvarez, E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07
Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent. Society & Natural Resources , 27 , 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554
Use the DOI number for the source whenever one is available. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"
Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972
For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.
For more on citing electronic resources, see Electronic Sources References .
Found in a common academic research database or in print.
Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.
If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.) Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.
Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm
Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.
Weinstein, J. A. (2010). Social change (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized.
American Nurses Association. (2015). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (3rd ed.).
If the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher.
Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ
As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information.
Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.), Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.
Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title.
Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.), Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.
Also include the volume number or edition number in the parenthetical information after the book title when relevant.
Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)
When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.
Citing classroom resources.
If you need to cite content found in your online classroom, use the author (if there is one listed), the year of publication (if available), the title of the document, and the main URL of Walden classrooms. For example, you are citing study notes titled "Health Effects of Exposure to Forest Fires," but you do not know the author's name, your reference entry will look like this:
Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com
If you do know the author of the document, your reference will look like this:
Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com
A few notes on citing course materials:
Note: The web location for Walden course materials is not directly retrievable without a password, and therefore, following APA guidelines, use the main URL for the class sites: https://class.waldenu.edu.
Clear author:
Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu
Unclear author:
Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu
Feinman, Y. (2018, July 27). Alternative to proctoring in introductory statistics community college courses [Poster presentation]. Walden University Research Symposium, Minneapolis, MN, United States. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/symposium2018/23/
Torgerson, K., Parrill, J., & Haas, A. (2019, April 5-9). Tutoring strategies for online students [Conference session]. The Higher Learning Commission Annual Conference, Chicago, IL, United States. http://onlinewritingcenters.org/scholarship/torgerson-parrill-haas-2019/
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Leadership. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . Retrieved May 28, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leadership
When constructing a reference for an entry in a dictionary or other reference work that has no byline (i.e., no named individual authors), use the name of the group—the institution, company, or organization—as author (e.g., Merriam Webster, American Psychological Association, etc.). The name of the entry goes in the title position, followed by "In" and the italicized name of the reference work (e.g., Merriam-Webster.com dictionary , APA dictionary of psychology ). In this instance, APA 7 recommends including a retrieval date as well for this online source since the contents of the page change over time. End the reference entry with the specific URL for the defined word.
Osborne, C. S. (2010, June 29). Re: Environmental responsibility [Discussion post]. Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com
Retrieved From a Database
Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website
Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations
Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis
Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.
For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.
For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.
Court Decisions
Reference format:
Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL
Sample reference entry:
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483
Sample citation:
In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.
Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper.
Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL
Sample reference entry for a federal statute:
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf
Sample reference entry for a state statute:
Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171
Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).
Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset. Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code." Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow. Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.
Unenacted Bills and Resolutions
(Those that did not pass and become law)
Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL
Sample reference entry for Senate bill:
Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472
Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:
Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099
The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.
These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.
Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology
Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.
Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html
Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.
Oasis webpage.
OASIS. (n.d.). Common reference list examples . Walden University. https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/apa/references/examples
For all OASIS content, list OASIS as the author. Because OASIS webpages do not include publication dates, use “n.d.” for the year.
OASIS. (n.d.). Embrace iterative research and writing [Interactive guide]. Walden University. https://academics.waldenu.edu/oasis/iterative-research-writing-web
For OASIS multimedia resources, such as interactive guides, include a description of the resource in brackets after the title.
Walden University. (2013). An overview of learning [Video]. Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com
Use this format for online videos such as Walden videos in classrooms. Most of our classroom videos are produced by Walden University, which will be listed as the author in your reference and citation. Note: Some examples of audiovisual materials in the APA manual show the word “Producer” in parentheses after the producer/author area. In consultation with the editors of the APA manual, we have determined that parenthetical is not necessary for the videos in our courses. The manual itself is unclear on the matter, however, so either approach should be accepted. Note that the speaker in the video does not appear in the reference list entry, but you may want to mention that person in your text. For instance, if you are viewing a video where Tobias Ball is the speaker, you might write the following: Tobias Ball stated that APA guidelines ensure a consistent presentation of information in student papers (Walden University, 2013). For more information on citing the speaker in a video, see our page on Common Citation Errors .
Taylor, R. [taylorphd07]. (2014, February 27). Scales of measurement [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDsMUlexaMY
OASIS. (2020, April 15). One-way ANCOVA: Introduction [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/_XnNDQ5CNW8
For videos from streaming sites, use the person or organization who uploaded the video in the author space to ensure retrievability, whether or not that person is the speaker in the video. A username can be provided in square brackets. As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, include the publisher after the title, and do not use "Retrieved from" before the URL. See APA 7, Section 10.12 for more information and examples.
See also reference list entry formats for TED Talks .
Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402
Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.
Reference list entires for TED Talks follow the usual guidelines for multimedia content found online. There are two common places to find TED talks online, with slightly different reference list entry formats for each.
If you find the TED Talk on the TED website, follow the format for an online video on an organizational website:
Owusu-Kesse, K. (2020, June). 5 needs that any COVID-19 response should meet [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/kwame_owusu_kesse_5_needs_that_any_covid_19_response_should_meet
The speaker is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on the TED website. For citations, use the speaker's surname.
If you find the TED Talk on YouTube or another streaming video website, follow the usual format for streaming video sites:
TED. (2021, February 5). The shadow pandemic of domestic violence during COVID-19 | Kemi DaSilvalbru [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PGdID_ICFII
TED is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on YouTube since it is the channel on which the video is posted. For citations, use TED as the author.
To include the Walden course catalog in your reference list, use this format:
Walden University. (2020). 2019-2020 Walden University catalog . https://catalog.waldenu.edu/index.php
If you cite from a specific portion of the catalog in your paper, indicate the appropriate section and paragraph number in your text:
...which reflects the commitment to social change expressed in Walden University's mission statement (Walden University, 2020, Vision, Mission, and Goals section, para. 2).
And in the reference list:
Walden University. (2020). Vision, mission, and goals. In 2019-2020 Walden University catalog. https://catalog.waldenu.edu/content.php?catoid=172&navoid=59420&hl=vision&returnto=search
Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html
For webpages on the open web, include the author, date, webpage title, organization/site name, and URL. (There is a slight variation for online versions of print newspapers or magazines. For those sources, follow the models in the previous sections of this page.)
American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm
If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.
In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.
Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .
Departments.
Walden University is a member of Adtalem Global Education, Inc. www.adtalem.com Walden University is certified to operate by SCHEV © 2024 Walden University LLC. All rights reserved.
Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.
Get 10% off with 24start discount code, assembling bibliographies and works cited.
The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.
A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.
Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.
A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:
Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.
A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:
Format: Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.
For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:
Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.
Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.” Pet Place . 10 November 2006. 23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >
After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!
Back to How To Write A Research Paper .
General information.
For more special circumstances regarding authors and in-text citations, consult the Purdue OWL linked below.
Basic Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date). Title of the work. Source where you can retrieve the work . URL or DOI if available
American psychological association (apa) style manuals, modern language association (mla) style manuals, selected web guides.
Proper citation is an essential aspect of scholarship. Citing properly allows your reader or audience to locate the materials you have used. Most importantly, citations give credit to the authors of quoted or consulted information. Failure to acknowledge sources of information properly may constitute plagiarism. For an explicit definition of plagiarism, see the Boston University Academic Conduct Code .
For detailed instructions on how to cite within the text of your paper, please consult a style manual listed below. Please also note: some of the resources below do not cover every possibility you might encounter when trying to cite your sources. For this reason, it is suggested that you consult a style manual to create your bibliography.
1. Lynda Gratton, The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014), 67-71.
Shortened note:
10. Gratton, The Key , 67-71.
Bibliography entry:
Gratton, Lynda. The Key: How How Corporations Succeed by Solving the Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014.
13. Peter Weill and Stephanie L. Woerner, What's Your Digital Business Model?: Six Questions to Help You Build the Next-Generation Enterprise (Harvard Business Review Press, 2018), 21-23, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.
Shortened note :
15. Weill and Woerner, What's Your Digital Business? , 21-23, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.
Weill, Peter and Stephanie L. Woerrner. What's Your Digital Business?: Six Questions to Help You Build the Next-Generation
Enterprise . Harvard Business Review Press 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central ,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bu /detail.action?docID=5180058.
Journal Article from a database
19. Sam son Nambei Asoba and Nteboheng Patricia Mefi , "Functional Strategies for Small Businesses During Crisis Situations," Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, n o. 3 (2021): 2-3. https://ezproxy.bu.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fscholarly-journals%2Ffunctional-strategies-small-businesses-during%2Fdocview%2F2565213471%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D9676.
27. Asoba and Mefi, "Functional Stategies," Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, 2-3. https://ezproxy.bu.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fscholarly-journals%2Ffunctional-strategies-small-businesses-during%2Fdocview%2F2565213471%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D9676
Asoba, Samson Nambei and Nteboheng Patricia Mefi. "Functional Strategies for Small Businesses During Crisis
Situations." Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 27, no. 3 (2021): 1-7. [place url here].
Mergent Online (Electronic database)
25. Thomas Key, "Comprehensive Technical and Fundamental Analysis for AAPL," Mergent Online, Stock Trader's Daily (via Investext), Sept. 15, 2021, accessed 9-17-21, [place url here].
Key, Thomas. "Comprehensive Technical and Fundamental Analysis for AAPL." Mergent Online.
Stock Trader's Daily (via Investext). Sept. 15, 2021, accessed 9-17-21, [place url here].
MarketLine Company Profile via Business Source Complete (Electronic database)
31 . “Company Profile: Apple Inc., “Company Profile: Apple Inc.,” MarketLine Report via Business Source Complete, accessed October 17, 2014, [place url here].
“Company Profile: Apple Inc., 19 September 2014.” MarketLine Report via Business Source Complete.
Accessed October 17, 2014. [place url here].
APA Sample Citations: Note- initially no indent and then following lines indented.
Book (print):.
Gratton, L. (2014). The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education .
Bloomberg L.P. (2014). Historical Price Line Chart for Apple, Inc. 11/1/03 to 11/1/04 . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Bloomberg L.P.
MarketLine Report. (2014, September 19). Company Profile: Apple Inc . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Business Source Complete database.
Apple, Inc. (2013, September 28). Form 10-K . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Mergent Online database.
Mintel. (2014, October). Mobile Apps – US – October 2014 . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from Mintel Reports database.
SRDS Media Solutions. (n.d.). U.S. News & World Report Profile . Retrieved October 17, 2014 from SRDS Media Solutions database.
University Reporter . (2014, Spring). 2014 Spring Reporter Apparel/Accessories . Retrieved February 23, 2016 from University Reporter database.
Abi/inform global.
Overman, S. (2014). The Culture of Conscience. Leadership Excellence , 31 (10) , 49-51.
Annual report available online:.
Apple Inc.(2013). Apple, Inc. Form 10-K for the Fiscal Year Ended September 28, 2013 . Retrieved from http://investor.apple.com/financials.cfm.
MLA Sample Citations: Note- initially no indent and then following lines indented.
Gratton, Lynda. The Key: How Corporations Succeed by Solving the World’s Toughest Problems . New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014. Print.
Bloomberg (electronic database): bloomberg l.p..
Bloomberg L.P. “ Historical Price Line Chart for Apple, Inc. 11/1/03 to 11/1/04." Bloomberg L.P. ,2014. Web. 17 October 2014.
MarketLine Report. “ Company Profile: Apple Inc. ” Business Source Complete database, 19 September 2014. Web. 17 October 2014.
Apple, Inc. “ Form 10-K," Mergent Online database . 28 September 2013. Web. 17 October 2014.
Mintel. “ Mobile Apps – US ." Mintel database, October 2014. Web. 17 October 2014.
SRDS Media Solutions. “U.S. News & World Report Profile." SRDS Media Solutions, n.d. Web. 17 October 2014.
University Reporter . 2014 Spring Reporter Apparel/Accessories . Web. February 23, 2016.
Overman, Steven. “The Culture of Conscience." Leadership Excellence 31.10 (2014): 49-51. ABI-Inform Complete. Web. 17 October 2014.
Apple Inc. Apple, Inc. Form 10-K for the Fiscal Year Ended September 28, 2013 . Apple Inc., 28 September 2013. Web. 17 October 2014.
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Web of Knowledge
Bibliometrics (such as impact factors and journal rankings) are an attempt to quantify importance, prestige, and value of scholarly publishing.
There are many kinds of metrics that measure different things, as well as many different inputs and algorithms that lead to those metrics.
Journal Citation Reports (JCR) provides ranking for journals in the areas of science, technology, and social sciences. They also calculate journal Impact Factor , the average number of times articles from the journal published in the past two years have been cited in the JCR year. This measure is a frequently used indicator as to the significance and influence of the journal in its field. Please note that the Library does not currently subscribe to the JCR. Please check with your local public or academic library to access them.
Opinions vary widely as to what constitutes a "good" impact factor. Click here for a chart which provides some context, in terms of how many journals achieve the various ranking levels. Also, please keep in mind that consideration of a good impact factor may vary by discipline. A number that is considered low in one field might be considered quite high in another field. Therefore, the Library recommends consulting with your Dissertation Chair to find out if they require a minimum impact factor for your concept paper or dissertation references.
While the Library does not subscribe to the JCR there are some databases which provide impact factor for their published journals. Follow the instructions in the below box to find impact factor in the Library and online.
Contents: Scholarly journals and other resources covering science, technology, business, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences, 1997 to present
Purpose: Millions of scientific documents on a large variety of disciplines.
Special Features: Browse by discipline or keyword search. Filter results by article, book chapter, reference book, discipline, and sub-discipline. Coverage for most journals is from the first issue to the current issue.
Follow the instructions below to find impact factor using the Library’s SpringerLink Journals database.
You can use Google to find impact factors for individual journals and for rankings by subject areas. For example, entering "Journal of Business Research impact factor" will display the impact factor in the search results as shown below.
Content: Scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles only, in health science, biomedical science, engineering, social science, and the humanities.
Purpose: Use for scholarly research in most fields.
Special Features: Includes discipline hubs for browsing and citation search.
Follow the instructions below to find impact factor using the Library’s SAGE Journals database.
Content: Scholarly journals, e-books, and reference materials.
Purpose: Subject areas include Anthropology, Business, Economics, Finance, Geography, Family Studies, Law, Management, and Psychology.
Follow the instructions below to find impact factor using the Library’s Wiley Online Library database.
Content: Elsevier’s science database covering computer science, health science, and social sciences. Contains peer-reviewed and open-access journal articles and book chapters.
Purpose: A great resource that covers foundational science to new and novel research.
Special Features: Covers theoretical and practical aspects of physical, life, health, and social sciences.
Follow the instructions below to find impact factor using the Library’s ScienceDirect Journals database.
Content: Literature review database covering psychology, sociology, anthropology, environment and resources, law and social science, political science, and public health.
Purpose: Provides articles that synthesize primary research and discuss the topic in historical context. Discover seminal works and literature gaps.
Special Features: Multimedia and supplemental materials.
Follow the instructions below to find impact factor using the Library’s Annual Reviews database.
Note that Library subscribes to the following Annual Reviews titles only.
Annual Review of Anthropology Annual Review of Clinical Psychology Annual Review of Environment and Resources Annual Review of Law and Social Science Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Annual Review of Political Science Annual Review of Psychology Annual Review of Public Health Annual Review of Sociology
Scimago Journal and Country Rank (SJR) is an open-access database containing citation information on more than 17,000 scholarly and professional journals based on content from Elsevier's Scopus collection.
SJR is a prestige metric based on the idea that ‘all citations are not created equal’. With SJR, the subject field, quality and reputation of the journal has a direct effect on the value of a citation. SJR differs from other bibliometric measures in that it:
Follow the instructions below to find SJR using the Scimago Journal and Country Rank website.
Content: Citations and articles in multi-disciplines not found through a NavigatorSearch.
Purpose: Used to conduct topic searches as well as find additional resources that have cited a specific resource (citation network).
Follow the instructions below to find a journal's ranking using the Library’s Web of Knowledge database.
The quartile is given as either Q1, Q2, Q3 , or Q4 where Q1 indicates that the journal is in the top 25% of its subject category while Q4 indicates it is in the bottom 25% of the journals in that category.
Google Scholar Metrics provides a way for researchers to easily assess article visibility and influence. Google Scholar Metrics has compiled a list of the top 100 Publications in Several Languages . The publications in this list are ranked by their 5 year h-index and h-median metrics. By clicking on the number under the h-index, you can view a list of that publication's most cited articles as well as who cited them.
Example: Click on the h-index number to view the most cited articles within the publication, Nature.
This will identify a list of those articles in addition to the subcategory under which Google Scholar Metrics has labeled Nature.
Google Scholar has also compiled lists of the top publications within the following fields. Each category maintains supplemental subcategories as well. Please note that these are only English-language lists at the moment.
Click here to learn more about Google Scholar Metrics.
The Microsoft Academic Search Engine offers Journal Rankings based on the dynamic eigencentrality measurement. The Journal Analytics feature automatically extracts information from publications and their metadata. Journals are indexed in a variety of disciplines, and are more likely to be included if they are easily discoverable on the web.
Microsoft Academic's Journal Analytics allows users to filter by the following measurements:
Users can also filter by topic, year, and keyword search.
To access the Journal Analytics from the Microsoft Academic main page, click on 'Journals' located to the right of the screen. This will redirect you to the Journal Analytics page.
There have been numerous criticisms regarding the use of impact factor to measure the quality of a journal. Therefore, alternate bibliometric measures have evolved to address shortcomings, and to provide alternate perspectives on journal or article significance. These alternate measures further described below include: Eigenfactor Score, Article Influence Score, SCImago Journal and Country Rank (SJR), H-Index, and SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Publication).For further details about journal impact criticism, see the scholarly article below.
Eigenfactor.org is an academic research project sponsored by the Bergstrom Lab in the Department of Biology at the University of Washington with the purpose of ranking and mapping scientific knowledge. Eigenfactor Scores and Article Influence Scores are calculated similarly to the methodology used by Google to rank webpages. Scholarly references link journals together in a large network of citations and allows for a comparison across disciplines.
The Eigenfactor Score measures the number of times articles from the journal published in the past five years have been cited in the JCR year. Eigenfactor scores are intended to give a measure of how likely a journal is to be used, and are thought to reflect how frequently an average researcher would access content from that journal.
The Article Influence Score calculates measures the relative importance of the journal on a per-article basis.
Follow the steps below to search a database of Eigenfactor and Article Influence scores from 1997 to 2015.
Developed by J.E. Hirsch, the h-index is a number intended to represent both the productivity and the impact of a particular scientist or scholar, or a group of scientists or scholars (such as a departmental or research group). The h-index is calculated by counting the number of publications for which the scientist has been cited by other authors at least that same number of times. In comparison with the ISI Impact factor, the h index corrects for highly cited papers not found in highly cited journals. This presents an unbiased way of comparing people within a discipline, especially in the sciences.
Follow the instructions below to find h index using the Library’s Web of Knowledge database.
Scimago Journal & Country Rank
Follow the instructions below to find h index using the Scimago Journal & Country Rank website.
Google Scholar Google Scholar has adapted the h-index method of impact. h5-index is the h-index for articles published in the last 5 complete years. It is the largest number h such that h articles published in 2013-2017 have at least h citations each. You can browse the top 100 publications in several languages, ordered by their five-year h-index and h-median metrics.
Follow the instructions below to find h index using Google Scholar Metrics.
CWTS Journal Indicators provides free access to bibliometric indicators on scientific journals. The indicators have been calculated by Leiden University’s Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS) based on the Scopus bibliographic database produced by Elsevier. Indicators are available for over 20,000 journals indexed in the Scopus database.
A key indicator offered by CWTS Journal Indicators is the SNIP indicator, where SNIP stands for source normalized impact per paper . This indicator measures the average citation impact of the publications of a journal. Unlike the well-known journal impact factor, SNIP corrects for differences in citation practices between scientific fields, thereby allowing for more accurate between-field comparisons of citation impact. CWTS Journal Indicators also provides stability intervals that indicate the reliability of the SNIP value of a journal. More information on the indicators offered by CWTS Journal Indicators is available on their Methodology page.
Follow the instructions below to locate SNIP using the CWTS Journal Indicators website.
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Citation management software (or bibliographic management software) allows you to create your own personal library of references to books, articles and documents. References can include citation information (author, title, publisher, etc.) as well as annotations, graphics, and even copies of the documents themselves.
The software works with Microsoft Word and other word processors to automatically add references to your paper and format your bibliography in the proper style (MLA, APA, Chicago Style, etc.).
Learn more about the following citation management software packages on this guide:
For citation management software training and support, contact one of the following library staff members:
Chris Benda (Divinity Library) Honora Eskridge (Science & Engineering Library) Ramona Romero (Central Library) Rachel Lane Walden (Eskind Biomedical Library)
Honora Eskridge (Science & Engineering Library) Camille Ivey (Eskind Biomedical Library) David Golann (Peabody Library)
Chris Benda (Divinity Library) David Golann (Peabody Library) Kashif Graham (Divinity Library) Heather LaFerriere (Eskind Biomedical Library) Pam Morgan (Central Library) Keegan Osinski (Divinity Library) Ramona Romero (Central Library) Bobby Smiley (Divinity Library)
Apa style (7th edition), chicago style (17th edition), mla style (9th edition), ama style (11th edition).
Students should consult with their instructors regarding the use of AI tools in their coursework. When permissible to use that information directly, use the suggestions below.
To cite the informational product generated by ChatGPT or other AI, the recommendation is for the Methodology and/or Introduction of your paper to specify the following:
Please remember that if AI connects you to another resource, you need to cite that resource, just as you would in a literature review.
As for the in-text citation and the Bibliography/Reference/Works Cited item that will follow this description, apply the appropriate Association's suggestions for citing ChatGPT and AI.
While the American Psychological Association (APA) has not released official guidelines on citing generative AI quite yet, the recent post on the APA Style Blog provides guidance on citing ChatGPT adaptable to other AI tools.
In-text example:
(OpenAI, 2023)
Reference example:
OpenAI (2023). ChatGPT (May 24 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat
The Chicago Manual of Style provides guidance for citing ChatGPT and generative AI tools via the Chicago Manual of Style Online and within an online Q&A, such as in this example.
Note example: 1. Text generated by ChatGPT, May 24, 2023, OpenAI. https://chat.openai.com/ Bibliography example : OpenAI. Text generated by ChatGPT, Version GPT-3.5. Accessed May 24, 2023. https://chat.openai.com/chat
MLA now provides preliminary official guidance for citing information produced by generative AI. According to MLA, writers should not credit the AI as an author. Additionally, the description of the content of the generated product should be treated as the title of the source, as if it were an article or chapter title.
In-text example:
While the green light in The Great Gatsby might be said to chiefly symbolize four main things: optimism, the unattainability of the American dream, greed, and covetousness (“Describe the symbolism”), arguably the most important—the one that ties all four themes together—is greed.
Works Cited example:
“Describe the symbolism of the green light in the book The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald” prompt. ChatGPT , 13 Feb. version, OpenAI, 8 Mar. 2023, chat.openai.com/chat.
AMA Style Guidance
The AMA Manual of Style includes guidance on AI in the following sections of Chapter 5 - Ethical and Legal Considerations : Section 5.1.12 - Use of Artificial Intelligence and Language Models ; Section 5.2.1 - Acknowledging Support, Assistance, and Contributions of Those Who Are Not Authors ; Section 5.2.1.1 - Acknowledgment of Use of Artificial Intelligence and Language Models in Writing and Editing . It is recommended to mention the use of AI tools in the Acknowledgements or Methods section of your paper, depending on what you used the tool for.
"Authors should report the use of artificial intelligence, language models, machine learning, or similar technologies to create content or assist with writing or editing of manuscripts in the Acknowledgment section or the Methods section if this is part of formal research design or methods. This should include a description of the content that was created or edited and the name of the language model or tool, version and extension numbers, and manufacturer. (Note: this does not include basic tools for checking grammar, spelling, references, etc.)" - Section 5.2.1.1
Formatting Citations in AMA Style
The AMA Manual of Style includes guidance on citing AI tools in Chapter 14 - Nomenclature , under Section 14.5.2 - Software . In research articles, provide the brand name in parentheses along with the version or extension number, manufacturer or owner, and date(s) used.
On June 12, 2023, the original full text of the question was put into a fresh chatbot session (ChatGPT, model GPT-4, OpenAI) and the generated responses were saved. Each question was posed to the chatbot interface 3 times and the generated responses were recorded.
JIF indicates journal impact factor; miRNA , microRNA.
Journals marked zero on the x-axis had no JIF or were not indexed Science Citation Index or Science Citation Index Expanded journals.
The x-axis represents different time windows between retraction and citation retrieval (September 2021). The left y-axis shows the number of articles in each time window excluding those with zero citations between retraction and citation retrieval. Overall citations comprise citations before and after retraction. Expected postretraction citations were estimated from postretraction citations within 6 months of retraction.
eMethods. Detailed Methods for This Systematic Review
eReferences.
eTable 1. Most Retraction Publishers and Journals
eTable 2. Comparison of Citations Between Retracted Studies and Their Nonretracted Control Papers
eTable 3. Odds Ratio of Citations Between Retracted Studies and Their Nonretracted Control Studies
eTable 4. Analysis of Paper Mills
eFigure 1. No. of Studies by Published Year or Retraction Year
eFigure 2. Retraction Reasons
Data Sharing Statement
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Zhu H , Jia Y , Leung S. Citations of microRNA Biomarker Articles That Were Retracted : A Systematic Review . JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(3):e243173. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.3173
© 2024
Question Are retractions of articles reporting microRNA biomarkers associated with reductions in further citations?
Findings This systematic review of 887 retracted articles reporting microRNA biomarkers and 9574 control articles found that retraction was not associated with reductions in further citations and that compared with controls, publications citing retracted articles were more often retracted.
Meaning These findings suggest that better identification of postretraction citations should be implemented.
Importance Retraction is a tool that journals can use to deter research misconduct and alert their audience to erroneous content published in the journals. However, retracted articles may continue to damage science if they are still cited as legitimate articles.
Objective To characterize patterns of postretraction citations, particularly in microRNA biomarker research, a field with one of the highest rates of retraction.
Evidence Review Retracted scientific articles on microRNAs were retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, and Retraction Watch between database inception and July 17, 2021, according to preestablished search strategies. Control articles with characteristics in common with retracted articles (ie, published in the same journals in the same years and months and with the same number of authors) were matched and retrieved from PubMed. Citation metrics of retractions and control articles were collected from Web of Science. PubPeer was referenced to examine the public response or comments on included retractions. Data were analyzed from September 2021 through March 2023.
Findings A total of 10 461 articles were analyzed, with 887 retractions and 9574 articles as controls. Among retracted articles, which were published from 1999 to 2021, there were 756 articles (85.23%) written by researchers affiliated with Chinese institutions. Retracted articles were cited 6327 times after retraction. Of 792 retracted articles that were cited, 621 articles (78.41%) were cited at least once after retraction and 238 articles (30.05%) were cited more often after retraction than before retraction. Overall citations (comprising citations before and after retraction) and postretraction citations accumulated over time (eg, the median [IQR] number of postretraction citations was 1 [1-2] and 23 [9-44] citations at the first 6 and 66 months, respectively, between retraction and citation retrieval). A random sample of 87 retracted articles (9.81%) recorded 478 citations after retraction, with 208 citations (43.51%) in articles published 12 months or longer after retraction. Of these citing articles, 19 articles (3.97%) mentioned the retractions. Compared with the control group of 1620 nonretracted articles, no significant differences were found in overall number of citations or citations after retraction. Among 478 articles citing retracted articles, 414 articles were found on PubMed and had matched control articles; these articles had higher odds of being subsequently retracted than 7954 matched control articles (odds ratio, 6.57; 95% CI, 3.39-12.72).
Conclusions and Relevance In this study, retraction was not associated with a reduction in citations of retracted articles, but articles that cited retracted publications had higher odds of later retraction. These findings suggest that journals may need to implement mechanisms for detection of postretraction citations.
Retraction is a means that academic publishers can use to deter research misconduct and alert audience of erroneous content published in the journals. 1 Retraction Watch recorded that the number of retracted articles increased from 41 articles in 2000 to more than 6000 articles in 2022. 2 Nature reported that the number of retractions increased each year and passed 10 000 articles in 2023. 3 The increasing prevalence of documented retractions outpaced the growth rate of publications. 3 The situation may be more severe given that that some researchers believe that documented retractions are just the tip of the iceberg. 4 Common reasons given for retractions included honest scientific mistakes (eg, inadvertent errors), 1 research misconduct (eg, plagiarism, fabrication, or falsification), 5 and various administrative errors. 6 However, involvement of so-called paper mills, organizations selling fake work and authorships to researchers, was a major factor associated with the rapid increase of retractions in recent years. 7 - 11
The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) recommends PubMed as the verified bibliographic source for references to minimize citation errors and an authoritative source of information about retractions for articles indexed in MEDLINE. 12 A PubMed search found that more than 6000 articles were retracted between 2020 and 2022 and that cancer, RNA, and microRNA were the most frequently appearing words in retractions after excluding words like retraction (or retracted), note, cell, pathway, human, patient, inhibits, targeting, and promotes. In the Retraction Watch database, 232 of 484 retractions (47.93%) were about microRNAs in genetics in 2020, and this proportion increased to 699 of 1026 retractions (68.13%) in 2022. 2 These outcomes suggest that microRNA research may be problematic as a source of retractions.
Articles in 2020 13 and 2021 14 found that retracted articles were often cited as if they had never been retracted, although the ICMJE recommended that authors are responsible for checking that none of their references cite retracted articles except in the context of referring to the retraction. 12 Not many journals check references in manuscripts for postretraction citations. Only recently, Wiley implemented a reference checking system to access the Retraction Watch database. 15
To our knowledge, few articles have covered postretraction citations to evaluate the effectiveness of retractions in reductions of further citations of retracted articles. This study aimed to fill this research gap by conducting a systematic review to identify characteristics of retractions in microRNA biomarker research as a common source of recent retractions. Specifically, we examined trends of postretraction citations by comparing retracted microRNA biomarker articles with a control group of nonretracted articles and investigated whether retraction was associated with reductions in postretraction citations.
This systematic review was registered in the Open Science Framework ( ME89S ) in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses ( PRISMA ) reporting guideline. The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu determined that this study was exempt from ethics approval and consent to participate because personal information was not involved.
Web of Science, PubMed, and Retraction Watch Database were searched from their inception to July 17, 2021, to identify retracted publications on microRNA. Retraction, microRNA, withdrawal, and their synonyms were used as search terms. Detailed search strategies for each database are shown in the eMethods in Supplement 1 . Additionally, PubPeer was referenced to examine the public response or comments on included retractions.
Studies meeting the following criteria were included: they were about microRNA research; they were retracted articles regardless of reasons; and they were journal articles not conference abstracts. No restriction was imposed on language, participants, intervention, or comparison. Eligible articles were screened and selected by 2 investigators (H.Z. and Y.J.) according to these inclusion criteria independently. Disagreements between investigators were discussed with the third investigator (S-W.L.) until an agreement was reached and recorded with rationales.
The following characteristics of eligible articles were extracted: title, journal, publisher, specific microRNA, disease, affiliations, reasons for retraction, number of authors, dates of publication and retraction, nature of retraction notice, and country of authors. Retraction reasons were defined and categorized according to Retraction Watch Database User Guide Appendix B: Reasons. 16 Additionally, Web of Science was used to retrieve data on citations of retracted articles, along with the journal impact factor (JIF) of the retracting journal for the calendar year before publication and for 2020 and its 2020 five-year JIF. To investigate the association of the retraction with further citations, a random selection of 10% of retracted articles (group A) based on an arbitrary seed number (set to 5 in this study) was performed (articles were ranked according to their publication date), and an analysis of their detailed citations was conducted. A set of nonretracted control articles (group B) from the same journals in the same year and month of publication and with the same number of authors was identified in PubMed. Studies citing retracted articles in group A were labeled as group C. The same method used to identify group B articles was used to find another set of control articles (group D) for group C (articles citing retractions); however, group D included articles regardless of whether they were retracted. The study design is shown in Figure 1 .
Statistical analysis was performed with R statistical software version 4.2.2 (R Project for Statistical Computing). 17 Continuous data following a normal distribution were presented as means with 95% CIs and compared using the Student t test. Continuous data that do not follow a normal distribution are expressed as median (IQR) and compared using the Mann-Whitney U test. Categorical data were reported as counts and percentages and compared using a χ 2 test. All statistical tests were 2-sided, and values of P < .05 were considered statistically significant. Quality assessment was not conducted on retracted articles owing to the varieties of misconduct and removal of the full text by journals. Data were analyzed from September 2021 through March 2023.
A total of 4427 records were identified from PubMed, Web of Science, and Retraction Watch Database. After removal of duplicates, 1303 records were available for screening of abstracts. The screening excluded 20 records that were not about microRNA and 274 records that were not retracted or withdrawn articles. Finally, 887 records met eligible criteria after we excluded 10 records of conference abstracts and 112 records of notices for correction or expression of concern ( Figure 1 ). Of included records, 766 articles (86.36%) and 740 articles (83.43%) were labeled as retractions by Retraction Watch and PubPeer, respectively. There were 435 articles that received comments or attention in PubPeer (49.04%). Retracted articles were published between 1999 and 2021, with 36 articles not providing a retraction year. The first retraction of microRNA articles was in 2003 and initiated by Nature . 18 As shown in eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 , the number of retracted articles increased by year and articles published in 2019 had the most retractions. In accordance with preestablished criteria (eMethods in Supplement 1 ), 9574 control articles were identified, for a total of 10 461 articles.
The Table shows characteristics of retracted articles on microRNAs. Among all retracted articles, 842 articles (94.93%) had authors who were from a single country, 9 articles (1.01%) did not report author countries, and 36 articles (4.06%) had authors from multiple countries. China, the US, and Iran were the 3 most frequently reported countries among articles with authors from a single country, with 756 articles (89.79%; 85.23% of all articles), 39 articles (4.63%), and 20 articles (2.38%), respectively. Additionally, among 757 articles from hospitals, 731 articles (96.57%) came from China. Most retracted articles (782 articles [88.16%]) focused on a single microRNA, with miR-21, miR-124, and miR-155 the 3 most frequently reported microRNAs. Cancer research contributed more than two-thirds of retracted miRNA articles (617 articles [69.56%]); 799 retracted articles reported diseases, and 162 articles reported long noncoding RNA (lncRNA).
Among retracted articles, the exact date of retraction was unknown for 98 articles (11.05%). For 789 articles with reported retraction dates, the median (IQR) time from publication to retraction was 22.03 (10.30-39.00) months. There were 847 articles retracted directly, while in 40 articles (4.51%), the journal published a correction or expression of concern before retraction. The time from notice of correction or concern to retraction varied, with a median (IQR) time of 8.9 (3.975-10.95) months. The shortest time from correction or expression of concern to retraction was less than 1 month, while the longest time was more than 6 years. Analysis of retraction reasons found that 870 articles (98.08%) were retracted because of 1 to 6 reasons, with a small proportion of articles retracted for more than 6 reasons. Data problems (including data in the form of images) and publication by paper mills were the main reasons that articles were retracted ( Table ; eTable 4 and eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ).
Retractions of microRNA articles were made by 62 publishers and 204 journals. As shown in eTable 1 in Supplement 1 , 16 publishers (25.81%) contributed 777 retractions (87.60%). One reason for this proportion was that the 16 publishers had more journals involved than the other 46 publishers. More importantly, the top 17 journals with the most retractions were published by these 16 publishers. As shown in eTable 1 in Supplement 1 , the European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences alone contributed 122 retractions, which was more than the 110 retractions by 46 publishers with 69 journals; Journal of Cellular Biochemistry was second, with 91 retractions. We investigated the number of retractions and JIF and found that retractions tended to occur in journals with a low or no impact factor ( Figure 2 ).
Contrary to the expectation that retractions would be associated with reduced citations, retracted articles included in this systematic review were cited 6327 times after retraction ( Table ). Among 792 retracted articles with citations, 621 articles (78.41%) were cited at least once after retraction. Approximately 30% of retracted articles with citations (238 articles [30.05%]) were cited more after retraction than before retraction, including in top journals as ranked by Journal Citation Reports (eg, Nature ), 19 general Science Citation Index (SCI) and SCI-Expanded (SCIE) journals (eg, Neuroscience Letters ), and journals that were not indexed by SCI or SCIE (eg, Genetics and Molecular Research ). As shown in the Table , approximately 70% of retracted articles with citations had at least 1 citation after retraction (621 articles [70.01%]) and 6 articles had more than 100 citations after retraction. We examined the mean and median citations in different time windows after retraction and found that overall citations (comprising citations before and after retraction) and postretraction citations accumulated over time (eg, the median [IQR] number of postretraction citations was 1 [1-2] and 23 [9-44] citations at the first 6 and 66 months, respectively, between retraction and citation retrieval) ( Figure 3 ), suggesting that retraction was not associated with reductions in citations of retracted articles.
Citations after retraction were further analyzed in a random selection of retracted articles (89 articles [10.03%]) to investigate whether citing authors noted the status of publications (ie, the retracted state). There were 478 citations after the retraction of 87 articles (9.81%; excluding 2 articles without a date of retraction); 208 citations (43.51%) happened 12 months after retraction, and 19 citing articles (3.97%) noted retractions ( Figure 4 ). Among all citations, 332 citations (69.46%) were in research articles, 141 citations (29.50%) were in reviews, and 2 citations (0.42%) were in proceedings of meetings; there was 1 citation (0.21%) each in a letter, editorial, and retraction notice. Among reviews, most citations were in the main text (136 citations [96.45%]), and among research articles, most citations were in the introduction (153 citations [46.08%]) and discussion (192 citations [57.83%]). However, 14 research articles (2.93%) cited the retraction in the methods section on data analysis or to establish models; 1 of these articles also incorporated the data in a new analysis. To investigate the association of retraction with citations, a total of 1620 nonretracted articles (group B) were identified in PubMed as controls for the 87 retracted articles (group A). No significant difference was found between retracted articles and their nonretracted control articles in overall citations or citations after retraction (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ), but there were significant differences in citation difference (citations after retraction minus citations before retraction; mean rank, 689.26 vs 862.85; P = .001) (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ) and odds of being cited more after retraction than before retraction (odds ratio, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.40-0.96) (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ).
To test if articles citing retractions were more likely to be themselves retracted later, a set of 7954 articles (group D) that did not cite the 87 retracted articles were compared with 414 articles (group C) among 478 citing articles (7 citing articles were not found in PubMed, and no control articles were identified for 57 of 478 articles citing retractions). Of 414 articles citing retractions, 12 articles were retracted later compared with 36 of 7954 control articles retracted (odds ratio, 6.57; 95% CI, 3.39-12.72). After carefully checking, we found that 14 of 36 retracted articles in control articles cited other retracted articles but not the previously mentioned 87 retractions. These findings suggested that articles citing retractions were more likely to be retracted later.
This systematic review characterized citations of retracted articles and investigated the association of retractions with subsequent citations. A total of 887 microRNA articles retracted between 2003 and 2021 met inclusion criteria. More than 85% of retracted articles (756 articles [85.23%]) originated from China. Chinese authors of 731 retracted articles were affiliated with hospitals, consistent with previous reports 11 , 20 that medical doctors were driven by substantial incentives, such as job promotion and cash rewards. Given that Chinese authorities stopped paying researchers cash rewards in 2020 21 and stopped promoting or recruiting staff solely on the quantity of their publications, it seemed that Chinese authorities had been aware of the integrity issues of medical research in hospitals. In addition, the National Health Commission of China (in charge of hospitals) set up a special committee on June 3, 2021, to strengthen the integrity of medical research in hospitals. 22 However, their new measures did not address the issue of postretraction citations.
Although some publishers have retracted a large number of articles from paper mills within a short time after publication, approximately 70% of included retracted microRNA articles were still cited by new articles after their retraction. Furthermore, approximately 30% of retracted articles (238 articles [30.05%]) were cited more frequently after retraction than before retraction. Unexpectedly, 43.51% of citations happened 12 months after retraction and 19 of 478 citing articles (3.97%) noted the retraction. The high rate of citation of articles after retraction was also found in a previous report 23 and similar articles in other fields, 13 , 14 which suggest that postretraction citation may be common and that not enough attention has been paid by some authors to retracted articles when citing articles. Overall citations (comprising citations before and after retraction) and postretraction citations accumulated over time. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between the sample of retracted articles and the control sample of nonretracted articles, regardless of overall citations and citations after retraction. In other words, retraction was not associated with changes in further citations, which echoes results of the study by Peng etal 24 that retraction was not associated with a reduction in negative outcomes in science associated with problematic articles. The reason why retraction was not effective may be partly explained by the study by Xu et al, 25 which compared official information channels (ie, releases of information through authorities, such as government agencies or organizations that have power in a particular area) with unofficial information channels (ie, contents posted are not released by the authorities) in disseminating retraction information from January 2005 to December 2014, finding that official channels were ineffective. Xu et al 25 found that unofficial information channels provided additional retraction-related information (ie, retraction reasons and details of the retraction investigation processes) compared with official channels, which would be associated with reduced postretraction citations. 25 The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) published the COPE Retraction Guidelines in November 2019, suggesting that official notices of retraction should state reasons for retraction. 1 However, the inadequacy of official notices for retraction (eg, a lack of retraction reasons) was also found in biomedical literature retracted after 2019 (ie, in 2020 and 2021) in our study. Additionally, the Chinese Special Committee on Integrity of Medical Research government agency published the first batch of investigation and processing results involving 7 articles on June 8, 2021, 26 and 3 articles had been retracted by journals at or before that time; 1 study was retracted 1 year later. However, any official notices (ie, expressions of concern or retraction) from journals about the other 3 articles were unavailable, while authors of these 3 articles had been accused falsification or fabrication of data, use of paper mills, and falsification or fabrication of data and images, respectively, and required retraction by the Chinese Special Committee on Integrity of Medical Research in 2021.
Retraction Watch and PubPeer are the main organizations for identifying questionable research. PubPeer is open to the public to leave comments about any articles. However, we found that only 435 of 887 articles (49.04%) received comments or attention, and these came from few individuals who were the most outspoken researchers. These findings suggest from another aspect that little attention was paid by the public or most researchers to journal retraction, which may have been associated with increased postretraction citations. Researchers are encouraged to check all references against Retraction Watch and PubPeer before submitting their manuscripts to journals. However, we found that approximately 85% of articles (766 articles [86.36%] in Retraction Watch and 740 articles [83.43%] in PubPeer) were labeled as retracted by these organizations. These findings suggest that verification against Retraction Watch and PubPeer may not be sufficient.
To keep retracted research out of scientific knowledge, we should pay attention not only to postretraction citations in individual articles, but also to the accuracy of existing knowledgebases, databases, and datasets. In this study, we found that some microRNA databases included data from retracted research on microRNAs. There are microRNA databases, including microRNA annotation, disease, target, cancer, and lncRNA databases, which are mainly curated by manual collection or by machine learning methods. Even if the curation was accurate, these databases did not have proper procedures to remove retracted microRNA information. Among 887 retracted microRNA articles, 799 articles reported diseases, 617 articles reported cancers, and 162 articles were about lncRNA, among other topics. We do not know if each previously mentioned database contained or failed to eliminate information from retracted articles, but we note that these databases contained information from retracted articles that were treated equally as data from unretracted articles (eg, 116 of 86 60 and 251 of 19 281 articles were retractions in miRTarBase 27 and Human MicroRNA Disease Database, 28 respectively, until early October 2021); thus thousands of articles may include retracted data (eg, TargetScan 29 was cited 2085 times, miRTarBase 27 was cited 309 times, miRDB 30 was cited 420 times, and miRbase 31 was cited 624 times according to a PubMed searching on September 22, 2021). We suggest that database maintainers and users should clean data periodically.
This study has several limitations. MicroRNA articles have recently been subject to numerous retractions and were used as an example to characterize postretraction citations; thus, the conclusion could vary over time as the list of retractions grows. Some detailed information, such as the date or reason of retraction, was unavailable despite attempts to contact journal offices, which may bias results. Additionally, key elements of official notice for retraction (elements should be stated according to COPE retraction guidelines) and their associated outcomes, as well as the degree of compliance with COPE retraction guidelines, remain unclear. An updated, comprehensive, and large-scale investigation study is warranted.
This systematic review found that retraction was not associated with a reduction in citations of retracted articles. However, publications citing retracted articles as legitimate articles had a high risk of being retracted later. These findings suggest that researchers should verify the status from original sources before citing any references. Additionally, journals and publishers should implement stringent, preferably automated procedures to detect postretraction citations.
Accepted for Publication: January 26, 2024.
Published: March 21, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.3173
Correction: This article was corrected on July 18, 2024, to fix a missing article (“the”) in the affiliation The Third People’s Hospital of Chengdu.
Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Zhu H et al. JAMA Network Open .
Corresponding Author: Siu-wai Leung, PhD, Edinburgh Bayes Centre for AI Research in Shenzhen, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Old College, South Bridge, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, United Kingdom ( [email protected] ).
Author Contributions: Dr Zhu had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Zhu, Leung.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Zhu, Leung.
Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
Statistical analysis: All authors.
Obtained funding: All authors.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Zhu, Jia.
Supervision: Leung.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.
Funding/Support: This work was supported by the Chengdu High-level Key Clinical Specialty Construction Project Fund through the Chengdu Health Care Committee. Part of the work of Dr Jia was funded by grants 509/32213632 and 509/32212456 from Zhengzhou University and 2023BP0104 from the Henan Institute of Medical and Pharmacological Sciences.
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .
Additional Contributions: The authors give thanks to Yi Zhao, BS (The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu), and Senlin Wang, BS (Southwest Jiaotong University), for their help in checking parts of the control data. These individuals were not compensated for this work.
Zoe Y Lu, Suyeon Jung, Joann Peck, It Looks Like “Theirs”: When and Why Human Presence in the Photo Lowers Viewers’ Liking and Preference for an Experience Venue, Journal of Consumer Research , Volume 51, Issue 2, August 2024, Pages 321–341, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucad059
Consumers and marketers often post photos of experiential consumption online. While prior research has studied how human presence in social media images impacts viewers’ responses, the findings are mixed. The present research advances the current understanding by incorporating viewers’ need for self-identity into their response model. Six studies, including an analysis of field data (14,725 Instagram photos by a top travel influencer) and five controlled experiments, find that the presence (vs. absence) of another human in the photo of an identity-relevant experience (e.g., a vacation, a wedding) can lower viewers' liking and preference for the venue (i.e., the vacation destination, the wedding venue) in the photo. This effect is mediated by viewers' feelings of others' ownership of the venue and moderated by the relevance of the experience to the viewer’s self-identity as well as the distinctiveness of the human in the photo. This research is the first to investigate the impact of human presence in shared photos through the lens of psychological ownership and the identity-signaling function of ownership. The findings offer practical insights into when marketers should avoid human presence in advertisements and how to mitigate the negative impact of human presence in online photos.
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The difference between reference and bibliography in research is that an individual source in the list of references can be linked to an in-text citation, while an individual source in the bibliography may not necessarily be linked to an in-text citation. It's understandable how these terms may often be used interchangeably as they are serve ...
The Commonalities. All three of these concepts - reference list, bibliography and works cited - relate to and describe the resources that you drew on for any given piece of writing, be it a lengthy dissertation or a comparatively short research paper.. In practical terms, these components usually feature toward the end of the document and provide a consistently formatted list of the ...
Example References entry: Middlekauff, R. (2007). The glorious cause: The American Revolution. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Bibliography. Bibliographies, on the other hand, differ greatly from Works Cited and References lists. In Works Cited and References, you only list items you have actually referred to and cited in your paper.
Reference lists and bibliographies. A reference list (aka "Bibliography" or "Works Cited," depending on the style) is where you provide full information on each of the sources you've cited in the text. ... At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays, research papers, and other academic texts (except exams and ...
References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text. Check each reference carefully against the original publication to ensure information is accurate and complete. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher and writer. Consistency in reference ...
A reference list contains works that specifically support the ideas, claims, and concepts in a paper; in contrast, a bibliography provides works for background or further reading and may include descriptive notes (e.g., an annotated bibliography). The Publication Manual (see Section 9.51) provides formatting guidance and examples for annotated ...
APA Style is widely used by students, researchers, and professionals in the social and behavioral sciences. Scribbr's APA Citation Generator automatically generates accurate references and in-text citations for free.. This citation guide outlines the most important citation guidelines from the 7th edition APA Publication Manual (2020). Scribbr also offers free guides for the older APA 6th ...
The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It's widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines. Bluebook footnote citation. 1 David E. Pozen, Freedom of Information Beyond the Freedom of Information Act, 165, U. P🇦 . L.
Formatting a Harvard style bibliography. Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading 'Reference list' or 'Bibliography' appears at the top. Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used: Harvard bibliography example.
When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors' names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ' et al. ': Number of authors. In-text citation example. 1 author. (Davis, 2019) 2 authors. (Davis and Barrett, 2019) 3 authors.
Journal Articles. References to journal articles usually include the author's name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date. Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32 (4), 87-94.
A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include: the authors' names. the titles of the works. the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources. the dates your copies were published.
In this situation the original author and date should be stated first followed by 'as cited in' followed by the author and date of the secondary source. For example: Lorde (1980) as cited in Mitchell (2017) Or (Lorde, 1980, as cited in Mitchell, 2017) Back to top. 3. How to Cite Different Source Types.
There are two main ways to list your sources, with a reference list or a bibliography. References include sources that have been directly cited in your paper. For each source, you will have at least one in-text citation in the body of your paper. The citation styles that use reference lists include APA citations, AMA citations, and MLA citations.
A reference list is a list of sources that you have directly referred to in your assignment while a bibliography is a list of sources that indirectly influenced your work, but you didn't cite them. Like a reference list, a bibliography can also found at the end of your assignment, which is why many people use the two terms interchangeably.
Difference Between Bibliography and References Definition. A bibliography is a list of references you have cited in a scholarly work and background readings or other material that you have read but not actually cited. A reference list, on the other hand, is a list of references you have cited in your work. Nature. A reference list only contains ...
If their number is less than 10, CSE style specifies to list all the authors at the end. However, if the number of authors of an article is more than 10, list only the first 10 in the list of references followed by et al. For in-text citation, use the surname of the first author only followed by et al.
Different subject disciplines call for citation information to be written in very specific order, capitalization, and punctuation. There are therefore many different style formats. Three popular citation formats are MLA Style (for humanities articles) and APA or Chicago (for social sciences articles). MLA style (print journal article):
Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning: A reference list only includes sources cited in the text - every entry corresponds to an in-text citation. A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.
APA uses a reference list , an alphabetized list of sources following the end of the book or paper, for its complete list of sources referenced. This list should be titled "References" in bold and alphabetized by the first item in the citation, which, in most cases, is the author's last name. Each reference from this list must be cited in your ...
The Citation Chart provides a detailed overview of MLA Style, APA Style, and Chicago Manual of Style source documentation by category. Conducting Research These OWL resources will help you conduct research using primary source methods, such as interviews and observations, and secondary source methods, such as books, journals, and the Internet.
Learn how to format your reference list of sources cited in your study in APA style. These instructional pages offer examples of reference list entries for different types of sources as well as guidance on the variations for citing online materials using doi numbers and URLs. ... Found in a Common Academic Research Database or in Print. Casler ...
Bibliography Entry for a Book. A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author's name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author's name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in ...
The word "References" should be bolded and centered at the top of the page in Title Case. Place all references in alphabetical order by the last name (surname) of the first author of the work. Both an annotated bibliography and a reference list can be included in one document. Double space entries in a reference list. Annotated Bibliography
A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate L. Turabian; Wayne C. Booth (Revised by); Gregory G. Colomb ... Part II provides an overview of citation practices with detailed information on the two main scholarly citation styles (notes-bibliography and author-date), an array of source types with contemporary ...
Journal Citation Reports (JCR) provides ranking for journals in the areas of science, technology, and social sciences. They also calculate journal Impact Factor, the average number of times articles from the journal published in the past two years have been cited in the JCR year.This measure is a frequently used indicator as to the significance and influence of the journal in its field.
References can include citation information (author, title, publisher, etc.) as well as annotations, graphics, and even copies of the documents themselves. The software works with Microsoft Word and other word processors to automatically add references to your paper and format your bibliography in the proper style (MLA, APA, Chicago Style, etc.).
MLA now provides preliminary official guidance for citing information produced by generative AI. According to MLA, writers should not credit the AI as an author. Additionally, the description of the content of the generated product should be treated as the title of the source, as if it were an article or chapter title.
Importance Retraction is a tool that journals can use to deter research misconduct and alert their audience to erroneous content published in the journals. However, retracted articles may continue to damage science if they are still cited as legitimate articles. Objective To characterize patterns of postretraction citations, particularly in microRNA biomarker research, a field with one of the ...
Consumers and marketers often post photos of experiential consumption online. While prior research has studied how human presence in social media images impacts viewers' responses, the findings are mixed. The present research advances the current understanding by incorporating viewers' need for self-identity into their response model.