structured interview meaning research

• Structured Interviews: Definition, Types + [Question Examples]

In carrying out a systematic investigation into specific subjects and contexts, researchers often make use of structured and semi-structured interviews. These are methods of data gathering that help you to collect first-hand information with regards to the research subject, using different methods and tools. 

Structured and semi-structured interviews are appropriate for different contexts and observations. As a researcher, it is important for you to understand the right contexts for these types of interviews and how to go about collecting information using structured or semi-structured interviewing methods. 

What is a Structured Interview?

A structured interview is a type of quantitative interview that makes use of a standardized sequence of questioning in order to gather relevant information about a research subject. This type of research is mostly used in statistical investigations and follows a premeditated sequence. 

In a structured interview, the researcher creates a set of interview questions in advance and these questions are asked in the same order so that responses can easily be placed in similar categories. A structured interview is also known as a patterned interview, planned interview or a standardized interview. 

What is a Semi-Structured Interview?

A semi-structured interview is a type of qualitative interview that has a set of premeditated questions yet, allows the interviewer to explore new developments in the cause of the interview. In some way, it represents the midpoint between structured and unstructured interviews. 

In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer is at liberty to deviate from the set interview questions and sequence as long as he or she remains with the overall scope of the interview. In addition, a semi-structured interview makes use of an interview guide which is an informal grouping of topics and questions that the interviewer can ask in different ways. 

Examples & Advantages of Semi-structured Interviews

An example of a semi-structured interview could go like this;

• Did you visit the doctor yesterday?
• Why did you have the visit?
• What was the outcome of the visit?

Each question is a prompt aimed at getting the respondent to give away more information

Advantages of a Semi-structured Interview

• They offer a more personalized approach that allows respondents to be a lot more open during the interview
• This interview-style combines both unstructured and structured interview styles so it merges the advantages of both.
• Allows two-way communication between candidates and interviewers

Types of Structured Interview

Structured interview examples can be classified into three, namely; the face-to-face interview, telephone interviews, and survey/questionnaires interviews

Face-to-Face Structured Interview

A face-to-face structured interview is a type of interview where the researcher and the interviewee exchange information physically. It is a method of data collection that requires the interviewer to collect information through direct communication with the respondent in line with the research context and already prepared questions. 

Face-to-face structured interviews allow the interviewer to collect factual information regarding the experiences and preferences of the research respondent. It helps the researcher minimize survey dropout rates and improve the quality of data collected, which results in more objective research outcomes. 

Learn: How to Conduct an Exit Survey

Advantages of Face-to-face Structured Interview

• It allows for more in-depth and detailed data collection.
• Body language and facial expressions observed during a face-to-face structured interview can inform data analysis.
• Visual materials can be used to support face-to-face structured interviews.
• A face-to-face structured interview allows you to gather more accurate information from the research subjects. 

Disadvantages of Face-to-face Structured Interview

• A face-to-face structured interview is expensive to conduct because it requires a lot of staff and personnel. Different costs are incurred during a face-to-face structured interview including logistics and remuneration. 
• This type of interview is limited to a small data sample size.
• A face-to-face structured interview is also time-consuming.
• It can be affected by bias and subjectivity . 

Tele-Interviews

A tele-interview is a type of structured interview that is conducted through a video or audio call. In this type of interview, the researcher gathers relevant information by communicating with the respondent via a video call or telephone conversation. 

Tele-interviews are usually conducted in accordance with the standardized interview sequence as is the norm with structured interviews. It makes use of close-ended questions in order to gather the most relevant information from the interviewee, and it is a method of quantitative observation. 

Advantages of Tele-interviews

• Tele-interviews are more convenient and result in higher survey response rates.
• It is not time-consuming as interviews can be completed relatively fast.
• It has a large data sample size as it can be used to gather information over a large geographical area.
• It is cost-effective.
• It helps the interviewee to target specific data samples.

Disadvantages of a Tele-interview

• It does not allow for qualitative observation of the research sample.
• It can lead to survey response bias.
• It is subject to network availability and other technical parameters.
• It is difficult for the interviewer to build rapport with an interviewee via this means; especially if they are meeting for the first time. 
• It may be difficult to read the interviewee’s body language, even with a video call. Body language usually serves as a means of gathering additional information about the research subjects. 

Use this: Interview Schedule Form

Surveys/Questionnaires  

A structured questionnaire is a common tool used in quantitative observation. It is made up of a set of standardized questions, usually close-ended arranged in a standardized interview sequence, and administered to a fixed data sample, in order to collect relevant information. 

In other words, a questionnaire is a method of data gathering that involves gathering information from target groups via a set of premeditated questions. You can administer a questionnaire physically or you can create and administer it online using data-gathering platforms like Formplus. 

Advantages of Survey/Questionnaire

• It is time-efficient and allows you to gather information from large data samples.
• Information collected via a questionnaire can easily be processed and placed in data categories.
• A questionnaire is a flexible and convenient method of data collection.
• It is also cost-efficient; especially when administered online.
• Surveys and questionnaires are useful in describing the numerical characteristics of large sets of data. 

Disadvantages of Surveys/Questionnaires  

• A high rate of survey response bias due to survey fatigue.
• High survey drop-out rate. 
• Surveys and questionnaires are susceptible to researcher error; especially when the researcher makes wrong assumptions about the data sample.
• Surveys and questionnaires are rigid in nature.
• In some cases, survey respondents are not entirely honest with their responses and this affects the accuracy of research outcomes. 

Tools used in Structured Interview 

• Audio Recorders

An audio recorder is a data-gathering tool that is used to collect information during an interview by recording the conversation between the interviewer and the interviewee. This data collection tool is typically used during face-to-face interviews in order to accurately capture questions and responses. 

The recorded information is then extracted and transcribed for data categorization and data analysis. There are different types of audio recording equipment including analog and digital audio recorders, however, digital audio recorders are the best tools for capturing interactions in structured interviews. 

• Digital Camera

A digital camera is another common tool used for structured tele-interviews. It is a type of camera that captures interactions in digital memory, which are pictures. 

In many cases, digital cameras are combined with other tools in a structured interview in order to accurately gather information about the research sample. It is an effective method of gathering visual information. 

Just as its name implies, a camcorder is the hybridization of a camera and a recorder. It is a portable dual-purpose tool used in structured interviews to collect static and live-motion visual data for later playback and analysis. 

A telephone is a communication device that is used to facilitate interaction between the researcher and interviewee; especially when both parties in different geographical spaces.

• Formplus Survey/Questionnaire

Formplus is a data-gathering platform that you can use to create and administer questionnaires for online survey s. In the form builder, you can add different fields to your form in order to collect a variety of information from respondents. 

Apart from allowing you to add different form fields to your questionnaires and surveys, Formplus also enables you to create smart forms with conditional logic and form lookup features. It also allows you to personalize your survey using different customization options in the form builder. 

Best Types of Questions For Structured Interview

Open-ended questions.

An open-ended question is a type of question that does not limit the respondent to a set of answers. In other words, open-ended questions are free-form questions that give the interviewee the freedom to express his or her knowledge, experiences and thoughts. 

Open-ended questions are typically used for qualitative observation where attention is paid to an in-depth description of the research subjects. These types of questions are designed to elicit full and detailed responses from the research subjects, unlike close-ended questions that require brief responses. 

Examples of Open-Ended Questions

• What do you think about the new packaging?
• How can we improve our services?
• Why did you choose this outfit?
• How can we serve you better? 

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions

• Open-ended questions are useful for qualitative observation.
• Open-ended questions help you gain unexpected insights and in-depth information. 
• It exposes the researcher to an infinite range of responses.
• It helps the researcher arrive at more objective research outcomes. 

Disadvantages of Open-ended Questions 

• Data collection using open-ended questions is time-consuming.
• It cannot be used for quantitative research.
• There is a great possibility of capturing large volumes of irrelevant data. 

Using Open-ended Questions for Interviews 

In interviews, open-ended questions are used to gain insight into the thoughts and experiences of the respondents. To do this, the interviewer generates a set of open-ended questions that can be asked in any sequence, and other open-ended questions may arise in follow-up inquiries.

Use this: Interview Feedback Form 

Close-Ended Questions

A close-ended question is a type of question that restricts the respondent to a range of probable responses as options. It is often used in quantitative research to gather statistical data from interviewees, and there are different types of close-ended questions including multiple choice and Likert scale questions . 

A close-ended question is primarily defined by the need to have a set of predefined responses which the interviewee chooses from. These types of questions help the researcher to categorize data in terms of numerical value and to restrict interview responses to the most valid data. 

Examples of Close-ended Questions

1. Do you enjoy using our product?

• I don’t Know

2. Have you ever visited London?

3. Did you enjoy the relationship seminar?

• No, I did not
• I can’t say

4. On a scale of 1-5, rate our service delivery. (1-Poor; 5-Excellent). 

5. How often do you visit home? 

• Somewhat often
• I don’t visit home. 

Advantages of Close-ended Questions 

• It is useful for statistical inquiries.
• Close-ended questions are straight-forward and easy to respond to.
• Data gathered through close-ended questions are easy to analyze.
• It reduces the chances of gathering irrelevant responses.

Disadvantages of Close-Ended Questions 

• Close-ended questions are highly subjective in nature and have a high probability of survey response bias .
• Close-ended questions do not allow you to collect in-depth information about the experiences of the research subjects.
• Close-ended questions cannot be used for qualitative observation. 

Using Close-ended Questions for Unstructured Interviews

Close-ended questions are used in interviews for statistical inquiries. In many cases, interviews begin with a set of close-ended questions which lead to further inquiries depending on the type, that is, structured, unstructured, or semi-structured interviews. 

Also Read: Structured vs Unstructured Interviews

Multiple Choice Question

A multiple-choice question is a type of close-ended question that provides respondents with a list of possible answers. The interviewee is required to choose one or more options in response to the question; depending on the question type and stipulated instructions. 

Typically, a multiple-choice question is one of the most common types of questions used in a survey or questionnaire. It is also a valid means of quantitative inquiry because it pays attention to the numerical value of data categories. A multiple-choice question is made up of 3 parts which are the stem, the correct answer(s) and the distractors.  

Examples of Multiple Choice Questions

• How many times do you visit home?

2. What types of shirts do you wear? (Choose as many that apply)

• Long-sleeved Shirt
• Short-sleeved Shirt 

3. Which of the following gadgets do you use?

4. What is your highest level of education?

Advantages of Multiple Choice Question

• A multiple-choice question is an effective method of assessment; especially n qualitative research. 
• It is time-efficient. 
• It reduces the chances of interviewer bias because of its objective approach. 

Disadvantages of Multiple Choice Questions

• Multiple Choice questions are limited to certain types of knowledge. 
• It cannot be used for problem-solving and high-order reasoning assessments. 
• It can lead to ambiguity and misinterpretation which causes survey response bias. 
• Survey fatigue leads to high survey drop-out rates. 

Dichotomous Questions

A dichotomous question is a type of close-ended question that can only have two possible answers. It is a method of quantitative observation and it is typically used for educational research and assessments, and other research processes that involve statistical evaluation. 

It is important for researchers to limit the use of dichotomous questions to situations where there are only 2 possible answers. These types of questions are restricted to yes/no, true/false or agree/disagree options and they are used to gather information related to the experiences of the research subjects. 

Examples of Dichotomous Questions

1. Do you enjoy using this product?

2. I have always used this product for my hair.

3. Are you lactose-intolerant?

4. Have you ever witnessed an explosion?

5. Have you ever visited our farm?

Advantages of Dichotomous Questions

• It is an effective method of quantitative research. 
• Surveys containing dichotomous questions are easy to administer.
• It is non-ambivalent in nature.
• It allows for ease of data-gathering and analysis.
• Dichotomous questions are brief, easy and simplified in nature. 

Disadvantages of Dichotomous Questions

• A dichotomous question is limited in nature.
• It cannot be used to gather qualitative information in research. 
• It is not suitable for in-depth data gathering. 

Learn: Types of Screening Interview 

How to Prepare a Structured Interview

• Choose the right setting

It’s important to provide a comfortable setting for your respondent. If you don’t, they’ll be subject to participant bias which can then skew the results of your interview.

• Tell them the purpose of your interview

You need to give your participants a heads up on why you’re conducting this. This is also the stage where you talk about any confidentiality clauses and get informed consent from your researchers. Explain how these answers will be used and who will have access to it. 

• Prepare your questions

Start by asking the basics to warm up your respondents. Then depending on your structured interview style, you can then choose tailored questions. E.g multiple-choice, dichotomous, open-ended, or close-ended questions. Ensure your questions are as neutral as possible and give room for your respondents to add any extra impressions or comments.

• Verify that your tools are working

Check that your audio recorder is working fine and that your camera is properly placed before you kick off the interview. For phone interviews, confirm that you have enough call credits or that your internet connection is stable. If you’re using Formplus, you don’t have to bother about getting cut off thanks to the offline form feature. This means you can still record responses even when your respondents have poor or zero internet connection

• Make notes and record observations

Ensure that your notes are legible and clear enough for you to revert. Write down your observations. Were your respondents nervous or surprised at any particular question?

Also Read: Unstructured Interviews

How to Use Formplus For Structured Interview

Sign into formplus.

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create a questionnaire for your structured interview by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin. 

Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Structured Interview Questionnaire”.

• Click on the edit button to edit the form.
• Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for survey forms in the Formplus builder including table fields and you can create a smarter questionnaire by using the conditional logic feature. 
• Edit fields: You can modify your form fields to be hidden, required or read-only depending on your data sample and the purpose of the interview. 
• Click on “Save”
• Preview form. 

Customise Form

Formplus allows you to add unique features to your structured questionnaire. You can personalize your questionnaire using various customization options in the builder. Here, you can add background images, your organization’s logo, and other features. You can also change the display theme of your form. 

Share your Form Link with Respondents

Formplus allows you to share your questionnaire with interviewees using multiple form-sharing options. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages. 

You can also embed your questionnaire into your website so that form respondents can easily fill it out when they visit your webpage. Formplus enables you to send out email invitations to interviewees and to also share your questionnaire as a QR code.

Conclusion  

It is important for every researcher to understand how to conduct structured and unstructured interviews. While a structured interview strictly follows an interview sequence comprising standardized questions, a semi-structured interview allows the researcher to digress from the sequence of inquiry, based on the information provided by the respondent. 

You can conduct a structured interview using an audio recorder, telephone or surveys. Formplus allows you to create and administer online surveys easily, and you can add different form fields to allow you to collect a variety of information using the form builder. 

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The Interview Method In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Interviews involve a conversation with a purpose, but have some distinct features compared to ordinary conversation, such as being scheduled in advance, having an asymmetry in outcome goals between interviewer and interviewee, and often following a question-answer format.

Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaire methods, researchers need training in interviewing (which costs money).

How Do Interviews Work?

Researchers can ask different types of questions, generating different types of data . For example, closed questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words.

The researcher will often record interviews, and the data will be written up as a transcript (a written account of interview questions and answers) which can be analyzed later.

It should be noted that interviews may not be the best method for researching sensitive topics (e.g., truancy in schools, discrimination, etc.) as people may feel more comfortable completing a questionnaire in private.

There are different types of interviews, with a key distinction being the extent of structure. Semi-structured is most common in psychology research. Unstructured interviews have a free-flowing style, while structured interviews involve preset questions asked in a particular order.

Structured Interview

A structured interview is a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she reads out exactly as worded.

Interviews schedules have a standardized format, meaning the same questions are asked to each interviewee in the same order (see Fig. 1).

   Figure 1. An example of an interview schedule

The interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule (except to clarify the meaning of the question) or probe beyond the answers received.  Replies are recorded on a questionnaire, and the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers, is preset by the researcher.

A structured interview is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

• Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for reliability .
• Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

• Structured interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e., during the interview), as an interview schedule must be followed.
• The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked, which generates quantitative data . This means a researcher won’t know why a person behaves a certain way.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the interview flow like a natural conversation. The interviewer modifies his or her questions to suit the candidate’s specific experiences.

Unstructured interviews are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ and are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strictly structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values. Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective points of view.

Interviewer Self-Disclosure

Interviewer self-disclosure involves the interviewer revealing personal information or opinions during the research interview. This may increase rapport but risks changing dynamics away from a focus on facilitating the interviewee’s account.

In unstructured interviews, the informal conversational style may deliberately include elements of interviewer self-disclosure, mirroring ordinary conversation dynamics.

Interviewer self-disclosure risks changing the dynamics away from facilitation of interviewee accounts. It should not be ruled out entirely but requires skillful handling informed by reflection.

• An informal interviewing style with some interviewer self-disclosure may increase rapport and participant openness. However, it also increases the chance of the participant converging opinions with the interviewer.
• Complete interviewer neutrality is unlikely. However, excessive informality and self-disclosure risk the interview becoming more of an ordinary conversation and producing consensus accounts.
• Overly personal disclosures could also be seen as irrelevant and intrusive by participants. They may invite increased intimacy on uncomfortable topics.
• The safest approach seems to be to avoid interviewer self-disclosures in most cases. Where an informal style is used, disclosures require careful judgment and substantial interviewing experience.
• If asked for personal opinions during an interview, the interviewer could highlight the defined roles and defer that discussion until after the interview.
• Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule.
• Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
• They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview, etc. Interviewers have the chance to clarify any questions of participants during the interview.
• It can be time-consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis).
• Employing and training interviewers is expensive and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires . For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport and knowing when to probe.
• Interviews inevitably co-construct data through researchers’ agenda-setting and question-framing. Techniques like open questions provide only limited remedies.

Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview is a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues.

This type of interview is often referred to as a focus group because the job of the interviewer ( or moderator ) is to bring the group to focus on the issue at hand. Initially, the goal was to reach a consensus among the group, but with the development of techniques for analyzing group qualitative data, there is less emphasis on consensus building.

The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population.

The role of the interview moderator is to make sure the group interacts with each other and do not drift off-topic. Ideally, the moderator will be similar to the participants in terms of appearance, have adequate knowledge of the topic being discussed, and exercise mild unobtrusive control over dominant talkers and shy participants.

A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a focus group interview. For example, the moderator may need certain skills, including the ability to establish rapport and know when to probe.

• Group interviews generate qualitative narrative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondents to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation. Qualitative data also includes observational data, such as body language and facial expressions.
• Group responses are helpful when you want to elicit perspectives on a collective experience, encourage diversity of thought, reduce researcher bias, and gather a wider range of contextualized views.
• They also have increased validity because some participants may feel more comfortable being with others as they are used to talking in groups in real life (i.e., it’s more natural).
• When participants have common experiences, focus groups allow them to build on each other’s comments to provide richer contextual data representing a wider range of views than individual interviews.
• Focus groups are a type of group interview method used in market research and consumer psychology that are cost – effective for gathering the views of consumers .
• The researcher must ensure that they keep all the interviewees” details confidential and respect their privacy. This is difficult when using a group interview. For example, the researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in the group will keep information private.
• Group interviews are less reliable as they use open questions and may deviate from the interview schedule, making them difficult to repeat.
• It is important to note that there are some potential pitfalls of focus groups, such as conformity, social desirability, and oppositional behavior, that can reduce the usefulness of the data collected.

For example, group interviews may sometimes lack validity as participants may lie to impress the other group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.

To avoid these pitfalls, the interviewer needs to have a good understanding of how people function in groups as well as how to lead the group in a productive discussion.

Semi-Structured Interview

Semi-structured interviews lie between structured and unstructured interviews. The interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. Additional questions might be asked during the interview to clarify or expand certain issues.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer has more freedom to digress and probe beyond the answers. The interview guide contains a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.

Semi-structured interviews are most useful to address the ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ research questions. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses can be performed on data collected during semi-structured interviews.

• Semi-structured interviews allow respondents to answer more on their terms in an informal setting yet provide uniform information making them ideal for qualitative analysis.
• The flexible nature of semi-structured interviews allows ideas to be introduced and explored during the interview based on the respondents’ answers.
• Semi-structured interviews can provide reliable and comparable qualitative data. Allows the interviewer to probe answers, where the interviewee is asked to clarify or expand on the answers provided.
• The data generated remain fundamentally shaped by the interview context itself. Analysis rarely acknowledges this endemic co-construction.
• They are more time-consuming (to conduct, transcribe, and analyze) than structured interviews.
• The quality of findings is more dependent on the individual skills of the interviewer than in structured interviews. Skill is required to probe effectively while avoiding biasing responses.

The Interviewer Effect

Face-to-face interviews raise methodological problems. These stem from the fact that interviewers are themselves role players, and their perceived status may influence the replies of the respondents.

Because an interview is a social interaction, the interviewer’s appearance or behavior may influence the respondent’s answers. This is a problem as it can bias the results of the study and make them invalid.

For example, the gender, ethnicity, body language, age, and social status of the interview can all create an interviewer effect. If there is a perceived status disparity between the interviewer and the interviewee, the results of interviews have to be interpreted with care. This is pertinent for sensitive topics such as health.

For example, if a researcher was investigating sexism amongst males, would a female interview be preferable to a male? It is possible that if a female interviewer was used, male participants might lie (i.e., pretend they are not sexist) to impress the interviewer, thus creating an interviewer effect.

Flooding interviews with researcher’s agenda

The interactional nature of interviews means the researcher fundamentally shapes the discourse, rather than just neutrally collecting it. This shapes what is talked about and how participants can respond.

• The interviewer’s assumptions, interests, and categories don’t just shape the specific interview questions asked. They also shape the framing, task instructions, recruitment, and ongoing responses/prompts.
• This flooding of the interview interaction with the researcher’s agenda makes it very difficult to separate out what comes from the participant vs. what is aligned with the interviewer’s concerns.
• So the participant’s talk ends up being fundamentally shaped by the interviewer rather than being a more natural reflection of the participant’s own orientations or practices.
• This effect is hard to avoid because interviews inherently involve the researcher setting an agenda. But it does mean the talk extracted may say more about the interview process than the reality it is supposed to reflect.

Interview Design

First, you must choose whether to use a structured or non-structured interview.

Characteristics of Interviewers

Next, you must consider who will be the interviewer, and this will depend on what type of person is being interviewed. There are several variables to consider:

• Gender and age : This can greatly affect respondents’ answers, particularly on personal issues.
• Personal characteristics : Some people are easier to get on with than others. Also, the interviewer’s accent and appearance (e.g., clothing) can affect the rapport between the interviewer and interviewee.
• Language : The interviewer’s language should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. For example, the researcher must change the questions’ language to match the respondents’ social background” age / educational level / social class/ethnicity, etc.
• Ethnicity : People may have difficulty interviewing people from different ethnic groups.
• Interviewer expertise should match research sensitivity – inexperienced students should avoid interviewing highly vulnerable groups.

Interview Location

The location of a research interview can influence the way in which the interviewer and interviewee relate and may exaggerate a power dynamic in one direction or another. It is usual to offer interviewees a choice of location as part of facilitating their comfort and encouraging participation.

However, the safety of the interviewer is an overriding consideration and, as mentioned, a minimal requirement should be that a responsible person knows where the interviewer has gone and when they are due back.

Remote Interviews

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated remote interviewing for research continuity. However online interview platforms provide increased flexibility even under normal conditions.

They enable access to participant groups across geographical distances without travel costs or arrangements. Online interviews can be efficiently scheduled to align with researcher and interviewee availability.

There are practical considerations in setting up remote interviews. Interviewees require access to internet and an online platform such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams or Skype through which to connect.

Certain modifications help build initial rapport in the remote format. Allowing time at the start of the interview for casual conversation while testing audio/video quality helps participants settle in. Minor delays can disrupt turn-taking flow, so alerting participants to speak slightly slower than usual minimizes accidental interruptions.

Keeping remote interviews under an hour avoids fatigue for stare at a screen. Seeking advanced ethical clearance for verbal consent at the interview start saves participant time. Adapting to the remote context shows care for interviewees and aids rich discussion.

However, it remains important to critically reflect on how removing in-person dynamics may shape the co-created data. Perhaps some nuances of trust and disclosure differ over video.

Vulnerable Groups

The interviewer must ensure that they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as children. For example, children have a limited attention span, so lengthy interviews should be avoided.

Developing an Interview Schedule

An interview schedule is a list of pre-planned, structured questions that have been prepared, to serve as a guide for interviewers, researchers and investigators in collecting information or data about a specific topic or issue.

• List the key themes or topics that must be covered to address your research questions. This will form the basic content.
• Organize the content logically, such as chronologically following the interviewee’s experiences. Place more sensitive topics later in the interview.
• Develop the list of content into actual questions and prompts. Carefully word each question – keep them open-ended, non-leading, and focused on examples.
• Add prompts to remind you to cover areas of interest.
• Pilot test the interview schedule to check it generates useful data and revise as needed.
• Be prepared to refine the schedule throughout data collection as you learn which questions work better.
• Practice skills like asking follow-up questions to get depth and detail. Stay flexible to depart from the schedule when needed.
• Keep questions brief and clear. Avoid multi-part questions that risk confusing interviewees.
• Listen actively during interviews to determine which pre-planned questions can be skipped based on information the participant has already provided.

The key is balancing preparation with the flexibility to adapt questions based on each interview interaction. With practice, you’ll gain skills to conduct productive interviews that obtain rich qualitative data.

The Power of Silence

Strategic use of silence is a key technique to generate interviewee-led data, but it requires judgment about appropriate timing and duration to maintain mutual understanding.

• Unlike ordinary conversation, the interviewer aims to facilitate the interviewee’s contribution without interrupting. This often means resisting the urge to speak at the end of the interviewee’s turn construction units (TCUs).
• Leaving a silence after a TCU encourages the interviewee to provide more material without being led by the interviewer. However, this simple technique requires confidence, as silence can feel socially awkward.
• Allowing longer silences (e.g. 24 seconds) later in interviews can work well, but early on even short silences may disrupt rapport if they cause misalignment between speakers.
• Silence also allows interviewees time to think before answering. Rushing to re-ask or amend questions can limit responses.
• Blunt backchannels like “mm hm” also avoid interrupting flow. Interruptions, especially to finish an interviewee’s turn, are problematic as they make the ownership of perspectives unclear.
• If interviewers incorrectly complete turns, an upside is it can produce extended interviewee narratives correcting the record. However, silence would have been better to let interviewees shape their own accounts.

Recording & Transcription

Design choices.

Design choices around recording and engaging closely with transcripts influence analytic insights, as well as practical feasibility. Weighing up relevant tradeoffs is key.

• Audio recording is standard, but video better captures contextual details, which is useful for some topics/analysis approaches. Participants may find video invasive for sensitive research.
• Digital formats enable the sharing of anonymized clips. Additional microphones reduce audio issues.
• Doing all transcription is time-consuming. Outsourcing can save researcher effort but needs confidentiality assurances. Always carefully check outsourced transcripts.
• Online platform auto-captioning can facilitate rapid analysis, but accuracy limitations mean full transcripts remain ideal. Software cleans up caption file formatting.
• Verbatim transcripts best capture nuanced meaning, but the level of detail needed depends on the analysis approach. Referring back to recordings is still advisable during analysis.
• Transcripts versus recordings highlight different interaction elements. Transcripts make overt disagreements clearer through the wording itself. Recordings better convey tone affiliativeness.

Transcribing Interviews & Focus Groups

Here are the steps for transcribing interviews:

• Play back audio/video files to develop an overall understanding of the interview
• Format the transcription document:
• Add line numbers
• Separate interviewer questions and interviewee responses
• Use formatting like bold, italics, etc. to highlight key passages
• Provide sentence-level clarity in the interviewee’s responses while preserving their authentic voice and word choices
• Break longer passages into smaller paragraphs to help with coding
• If translating the interview to another language, use qualified translators and back-translate where possible
• Select a notation system to indicate pauses, emphasis, laughter, interruptions, etc., and adapt it as needed for your data
• Insert screenshots, photos, or documents discussed in the interview at the relevant point in the transcript
• Read through multiple times, revising formatting and notations
• Double-check the accuracy of transcription against audio/videos
• De-identify transcript by removing identifying participant details

The goal is to produce a formatted written record of the verbal interview exchange that captures the meaning and highlights important passages ready for the coding process. Careful transcription is the vital first step in analysis.

Coding Transcripts

The goal of transcription and coding is to systematically transform interview responses into a set of codes and themes that capture key concepts, experiences and beliefs expressed by participants. Taking care with transcription and coding procedures enhances the validity of qualitative analysis .

• Read through the transcript multiple times to become immersed in the details
• Identify manifest/obvious codes and latent/underlying meaning codes
• Highlight insightful participant quotes that capture key concepts (in vivo codes)
• Create a codebook to organize and define codes with examples
• Use an iterative cycle of inductive (data-driven) coding and deductive (theory-driven) coding
• Refine codebook with clear definitions and examples as you code more transcripts
• Collaborate with other coders to establish the reliability of codes

Ethical Issues

Informed consent.

The participant information sheet must give potential interviewees a good idea of what is involved if taking part in the research.

This will include the general topics covered in the interview, where the interview might take place, how long it is expected to last, how it will be recorded, the ways in which participants’ anonymity will be managed, and incentives offered.

It might be considered good practice to consider true informed consent in interview research to require two distinguishable stages:

• Consent to undertake and record the interview and
• Consent to use the material in research after the interview has been conducted and the content known, or even after the interviewee has seen a copy of the transcript and has had a chance to remove sections, if desired.

Power and Vulnerability

• Early feminist views that sensitivity could equalize power differences are likely naive. The interviewer and interviewee inhabit different knowledge spheres and social categories, indicating structural disparities.
• Power fluctuates within interviews. Researchers rely on participation, yet interviewees control openness and can undermine data collection. Assumptions should be avoided.
• Interviews on sensitive topics may feel like quasi-counseling. Interviewers must refrain from dual roles, instead supplying support service details to all participants.
• Interviewees recruited for trauma experiences may reveal more than anticipated. While generating analytic insights, this risks leaving them feeling exposed.
• Ultimately, power balances resist reconciliation. But reflexively analyzing operations of power serves to qualify rather than nullify situtated qualitative accounts.

Some groups, like those with mental health issues, extreme views, or criminal backgrounds, risk being discredited – treated skeptically by researchers.

This creates tensions with qualitative approaches, often having an empathetic ethos seeking to center subjective perspectives. Analysis should balance openness to offered accounts with critically examining stakes and motivations behind them.

Potter, J., & Hepburn, A. (2005). Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities.  Qualitative research in Psychology ,  2 (4), 281-307.

Houtkoop-Steenstra, H. (2000). Interaction and the standardized survey interview: The living questionnaire . Cambridge University Press

Madill, A. (2011). Interaction in the semi-structured interview: A comparative analysis of the use of and response to indirect complaints. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 8 (4), 333–353.

Maryudi, A., & Fisher, M. (2020). The power in the interview: A practical guide for identifying the critical role of actor interests in environment research. Forest and Society, 4 (1), 142–150

O’Key, V., Hugh-Jones, S., & Madill, A. (2009). Recruiting and engaging with people in deprived locales: Interviewing families about their eating patterns. Social Psychological Review, 11 (20), 30–35.

Puchta, C., & Potter, J. (2004). Focus group practice . Sage.

Schaeffer, N. C. (1991). Conversation with a purpose— Or conversation? Interaction in the standardized interview. In P. P. Biemer, R. M. Groves, L. E. Lyberg, & N. A. Mathiowetz (Eds.), Measurement errors in surveys (pp. 367–391). Wiley.

Silverman, D. (1973). Interview talk: Bringing off a research instrument. Sociology, 7 (1), 31–48.

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Structured Interviews: Guide to Standardized Questions

Introduction

Types of interviews in qualitative research, what are structured interviews good for, structured interview process.

Qualitative researchers are used to dealing with unstructured data in social settings that are often dynamic and unpredictable. That said, there are research methods that can provide some more control over this unpredictable data while collecting insightful data .

The structured interview is one such method. Researchers can conduct a structured interview when they want to standardize the research process to give all respondents the same questions and analyze differences between answers.

In this article, we'll look at structured interviews, when they are ideal for your research, and how to conduct them.

Interviews are intentionally crafted sources of data in social science research. There are three types of interviews in research that balance research rigor and rich data collection .

To better understand structured interviews, it's important to contrast them with the other types of interviews that also serve useful purposes in research. As always, the best tool for data collection depends on your research inquiry.

Structured interviews

The structured interview format is the most rigid of the three types of interviews conceptualized in qualitative research. Imagine policy makers want to understand the perceptions of dozens or even hundreds of individuals. In this case, it may make it easier to streamline the interview process by simply asking the same questions of all respondents.

The same structured interview questions are posed to each and every respondent, akin to how hiring managers ask the same questions to all applicants during the hiring process. The intention behind this approach is to ensure that the interview is the same no matter who the respondent is, leaving only the differences in responses to be analyzed .

Moreover, the standardized interview format typically involves respondents being asked the same set of questions in the same order. A uniform sequence of questions ensures for an easy analysis when you can line up answers across respondents.

Unstructured interviews

An unstructured interview is the exact opposite of a structured interview, as unstructured interviews have no predetermined set of questions. Instead of a standardized interview, a researcher may opt for a study that remains open to exploring any issues or topics that a participant brings up in their interview. While this can generate unexpected insights, it can also be time-consuming and may not always yield answers that are directly related to the original research question guiding the study.

However, this doesn't make a study that employs unstructured interviews less rigorous . In fact, unstructured interviews are a great tool for inductive inquiry . One typical use for unstructured interviews is to probe not only for answers but for the salient points of a topic to begin with.

When a researcher uses an unstructured interview, they usually have a topic in mind but not a predetermined set of data points to analyze at the outset. This format allows respondents to speak at length on their perspectives and offer the researcher insights that can later form a theoretical framework for future research that could benefit from a structured interview format.

Moreover, this format provides the researcher with the greatest degree of freedom in determining questions depending on how they interact with their respondents. A respondent's body language, for example, may signal discomfort with a particularly controversial question. The interviewer can thus decide to adjust or reword their questions to create a more comfortable environment for the respondent.

Semi-structured interviews

A semi-structured interview lies in the middle ground between the structured and unstructured interview. This type of interview still relies on predetermined questions as a structured interview does. However, unlike structured interviews, a semi-structured interview also allows for follow-up questions to respondents when their answers warrant further probing. The predetermined questions thus serve as a guide for the interviewer, but the wording and ordering of questions can be adjusted, and additional questions can be asked during the course of the interview.

A researcher may conduct semi-structured interviews when they need flexibility in asking questions but can still benefit from advance preparation of key questions. In this case, much of the advice in this article about structured interviews still applies in terms of ensuring some degree of standardization when conducting research.

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Consider that more free-flowing interview formats in qualitative research allow for the interviewer to more freely probe a respondent for deeper, more insightful answers on the topic of inquiry. This approach to research is useful when the researcher needs to develop theoretical coherence surrounding a new topic or research context in which it would be difficult to predict beforehand which questions are worth asking.

In this sense, structured interviews make more sense for research inquiries with a well-defined theoretical framework that guides the data collection and data analysis process . With such a framework in mind, researchers can devise questions that are grounded in existing research so that new insights further develop that scholarship.

Advantages of structured interviews

Formal, structured interviews are ideal for keeping interviewers and interview respondents focused on the topic at hand. A conversation might take unanticipated turns without a set goal or predetermined objective in mind; a structured interview helps keep the dialogue from going down any irrelevant tangents and minimize potentially unnecessary, extended monologues.

Another key advantage of structured interviews is that it makes comparisons across participants easier. Since each person was asked the same questions, the data is produced in a consistent format. Researchers can then focus on analyzing answers to a particular question, and there is minimal data organization work that needs to be done to facilitate the analysis.

There are also benefits in terms of the logistics of conducting structured interviews. Interviewers concerned with time constraints will find this format beneficial to their data collection .

Moreover, ensuring that respondents are asked the same questions in the same order limits the need for training interviewers to conduct interviews in a consistent manner. Unstructured and semi-structured interviews rely on the ability to ask follow-up questions in moments when the responses provide opportunities for deeper elaboration.

Those who conduct a structured interview, on the other hand, need only read from an interview guide with a list of questions to pose to respondents. This allows the researcher more freedom to rely on assistants to conduct interviews with minimal training and resources.

Disadvantages of structured interviews

In structured interviews, there is little room for asking probing questions of respondents, particularly if the researcher believes that follow-up questions might adversely influence how the respondent answers subsequent core questions. Restricting the interview to a predetermined set of questions may mitigate this effect, but it may also prevent a sufficiently clear understanding of respondents' perspectives established from the use of follow-up questions.

Forcing the interviewer to ask the same order of questions in an interview can also have a consequential effect on the data collection . Because every respondent is different, the interview questions may resonate with each person in different ways. A skillful interviewer conducting unstructured or semi-structured interviews has the freedom to make choices about what questions to ask in order to gather the most insightful data.

Ultimately, the biggest disadvantage of structured interviews comes from their biggest advantage: using predetermined questions can be a double-edged sword, providing consistency and systematic organization but also limiting the research to the questions that were decided before conducting the interviews. This makes it crucial that researchers have a clear understanding of which questions they want to ask and why. It can also be helpful to conduct pilot tests of the interview, to test out the structured questions with a handful of people and assess if any changes to the questions need to be made.

Why not just do surveys?

You might think that a structured interview is no different from a survey with open-ended questions. After all, the questions are determined ahead of time and won't change over the course of data collection . In many ways, there are many similarities in both methods.

There are, of course, benefits to either approach. Surveys permit data collection from much larger numbers of respondents than may be feasible for an interview study. Structured interviews, however, allow the interviewer some degree of flexibility, particularly when the respondent has trouble understanding the question or needs further prompting to provide a sufficient response.

Moreover, the interpersonal interaction between the interviewer and respondent offers potential for richer data collection because of the degree of rapport established through face-to-face communication. Where written questions may seem static and impersonal, an in-person interview (or at least one conducted in real time) might make the respondent more comfortable in answering questions.

Individual interviews are also more likely to generate detailed responses to questions in comparison to surveys. Interviews are also well suited for research topics that bear some personal significance for participants, providing ample space for them to express themselves.

When you conduct a structured interview, you are designing a study that is as standardized as possible to mitigate context effects and ensure the ease of data collection and analysis . As with all interviews conducted in qualitative research , there is an intentional process to planning for structured interviews with considerations that researchers should keep in mind.

Research design

As mentioned above, research inquiries with clearly defined theoretical frameworks tend to benefit from structured interviews. Researchers can create a list of questions from such frameworks so that answers speak directly to, affirm, or challenge the existing scholarship surrounding the topic of interest.

A researcher should conduct a literature review to determine the extent of theoretical coherence in the topic they are researching. Are there aspects of a topic or phenomenon that scholars have identified that can serve as key data points around which questions can be crafted? Conversely, is it a topic or phenomenon that lacks sufficient conceptualization?

If your literature review does not allow you to create or use a robust theoretical framework for data collection, consider other types of interviews that allow you to inductively generate that framework in data analysis .

You should also make decisions about the conditions under which you conduct interviews. Some studies go as far as making sure that the interview environment is a uniform context across respondents. Are interviews in a quiet, comfortable environment? What time of day are interviews conducted?

The degree to which you ensure uniform conditions across interviews is up to you. Whatever you decide, however, creating an environment where respondents feel free to volunteer answers will facilitate rich data collection that will make data analysis more meaningful.

Structured interview questions

An interview guide is an essential tool for structured interviews. This guide is little more than a list of required questions to ask, but this list ensures consistency across the interviews in your study.

When you write questions for a structured interview, rely on your literature review to identify salient points around which you can design questions. This approach ensures that you are grounding your data collection in the established research.

When crafting your guide, think about the time constraints and the likely length of answers that your respondents may give. Structured interviews can involve five or 25 questions, but if you are limited to 30-45 minutes per respondent, you will need to consider whether you can ask the required questions and collect sufficient responses within your timeframe.

As a result, it's important to pilot your questions with preliminary respondents or other researchers. A pilot interview allows you to test your interview protocol and make tweaks to your question guide before conducting your study in earnest.

Collecting data from structured interviews

Data collection refers to conducting the interviews , recording what you and your respondents say, and transcribing those recordings for data analysis . While this is a simple enough task, it is important to consider the equipment you use to collect data.

If the verbal utterances of your respondents are your sole concern, then an audio recorder should be sufficient for capturing your respondents' answers. Your choice of equipment can be as simple as a smartphone audio recorder application. Alternatively, you can consider professional equipment to make sure you collect as much audio detail as possible from your interviews.

Communication studies, for example, may be more concerned about the interviewer effect (e.g., studies that ask controversial questions to evoke particular responses) or the context effects (i.e., the effect of the surrounding environment on respondents) in interviews . In such cases, interviewers may capture data with video recordings to analyze body language or facial expressions to certain interview questions. Responses caught on video can be analyzed for any patterns across respondents.

Analyzing structured interviews

Once you have transcribed your interviews, you can analyze your data. One of the more common means for analyzing qualitative data is thematic analysis , which relies on the identification of commonly recurring themes throughout your research. What codes occur the most often? Are there commonalities across responses that are worth pointing out to your research audience?

It's a good idea to code each response by the question they address. The set order of questions in a structured interview study makes it easy to identify the answers given by each respondent. By coding each answer by the question they respond to and the themes apparent in the response, you will be able to analyze what themes and patterns occur in each set of answers.

You can also analyze differences between respondents. In ATLAS.ti, you can place interview transcripts into document groups to organize and divide your data along salient categories such as gender, age group, socioeconomic status, and other identifiers you may find useful. In doing so, you will be able to restrict your data analysis to a specific group of interview respondents to see how their answers differ from other groups.

Presenting interview findings

Disseminating qualitative research is often a matter of summarizing the salient points of your data analysis so that it is easy to understand, insightful, and useful to your research audience. For research collecting data from interviews , two of the more common approaches to presenting findings include visualizations and excerpts.

Visualizations are ideal for representing the salient ideas arising from large sets of otherwise unstructured data . Meaningful illustrations such as frequency charts, word clouds, and Sankey diagrams can prove more persuasive than an extended narrative in a research paper or presentation.

Consider the word cloud in the screenshot of ATLAS.ti below. This word cloud was generated from the transcripts of a set of interviews to illustrate what concepts appear the most often in the selected data. Concepts mentioned more often appear closer to the center of the cloud, showing which keywords appear most frequently in the data. Such a visualization can provide a quick illustration to show to your research audience what topics emerged in the data analysis.

You can also effectively represent each of your themes with an example or two from the responses in your data . Data exemplars are representations that the researcher deems are typical of or significant about the portion of the data under discussion. Often in research that employs interviews or observations , an author will present an exemplar to explain a theme that is significant to theory development or challenges an existing theory.

ATLAS.ti provides tools to restrict your view of the data to codes you find significant to your findings. The Code Manager view makes it easy to look not at the entire data set but the specific segments of text that have been coded with a particular code. In similar fashion, ATLAS.ti's Query Tool is ideal for defining a set of criteria based on the codes in the data to see which data segments are most relevant to your research inquiry.

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Social Science Research Methods

• Research Fundamentals
• Qualitative Data Analysis

Structured Interviews

Structured interviews ask the same questions of all participants. This means that the interviewer sticks to the same wording and sequence for each individual they interview, even asking predetermined follow-up questions. The questions in a structured interview should still be open-ended, even if they are predetermined. This allows participants to still freely articulate their answers based on personal experiences and beliefs. Structured interviews make use of an “interview guide” in which all the questions are written out in advance. You can learn how to do so in the “ Creating an Interview Guide ” section.

The primary advantage of structured interviews is that they allow the interview analysis process to move a lot faster. Having predetermined questions means you can gather data that is easily comparable across different participants. It is also useful for reducing bias when several interviewers are involved since each researcher is asking the exact same questions worded in the same way. 

However, because of their rigid nature, structured interviews might not give you the entire picture. Pre-determined questions can prevent the interviewer from fully exploring a new topic as it comes up. Keep in mind that although all the questions are the same, all participants are not the same. This may cause different participants to interpret each question differently, which could therefore produce inconsistent data. 

For Example …

Elite universities are launching points for a wide variety of meaningful careers. Yet, year after year at the most selective universities, nearly half of graduating seniors head to a surprisingly narrow band of professional options. To understand why graduates “funnel” into the same consulting, finance, and tech fields, Amy Binder and colleagues interviewed more than 50 students and recent alumni from Harvard and Stanford Universities. Choosing structured interviews made sense to make sure the researchers asked each participant the same questions about their family background, choosing a college, academic major, careers, and help from their university in thinking about careers. This spectrum of questions gave Professor Binder coverage of students at all points in the job search process and helped identify how students developed their career aspirations ( Binder et al., 2015 )

The pros and cons of structured interviews are laid out in the chart below:

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What Is a Structured Interview? Definition and Examples.

A structured interview is when an interviewer uses the same predetermined list of questions with all job candidates. Having questions already laid out in advance can help hiring managers and HR professionals feel prepared as they head into an interview , and it can make the interview process more straightforward, mitigating bias both in the interview room and while evaluating applicants’ answers after the interview.

Different from unstructured interviews, which are more like free-flowing conversations that take different directions based on the candidate and their responses, the structured interview approach can be customized to suit the hiring strategy for a variety of positions. 

And when given an overview of what the structure will look like, applicants may feel more relaxed and better prepared for the interview, which allows them to comfortably demonstrate and explain the qualities that make them a good fit for the job. That makes it easier for recruiters and hiring managers to identify and connect with some of the highest quality candidates in their talent pool .

What Is a Structured Interview?

A structured interview is one where the interviewer uses a standard set of questions that they ask each job candidate who’s vying for the position. Meaning, they don’t really improvise or go “off script” based on how the conversation is going.

James Durago, director of people operations at database platform company Molecula, told Built In in 2022 that he swears by the structured interview process. A tight labor market can make finding the right candidates for open positions particularly difficult. That’s why it’s even more important now to have well-thought-out plans for the interview process, Durago explained. By planning, hiring managers can tailor interviews to the roles they are hiring for and find the best candidates for them.

Structured interviews can be easier on interviewers, Durago said. It’s common for companies to have several different internal employees involved in the hiring process, and not all of them will have the same level of interviewing experience and preparation. Setting a well-defined interview structure helps make the experience better for candidates and ensures the costly hiring process is worthwhile for the company.

“You don’t just want to just throw it into the wind and hope and pray that it sticks. That’s not a good use of your money or your time.”

“Maybe you go through 10 candidates — that’s 10 hours of just your own personal time, and then you’ve got to ask other people to interview that person,” Durago said. “You don’t just want to just throw it into the wind and hope and pray that it sticks. That’s not a good use of your money or your time.”

Access ready-to-use resources to successfully plan, conduct and evaluate candidate interviews remotely.

Structured Vs. Unstructured Interviews 

Both structured and unstructured interviews have their advantages and disadvantages during the hiring process . For example, a structured interview provides the person asking the questions with a written checklist so they can get their bearings at the start of each interview and be sure they don’t miss anything important. Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, can help interviewers evaluate a candidate’s approach to problem-solving and understand how they make decisions. 

Deciding on the right interview format to fill your vacant roles can depend on the type of position you’re hiring for and what skills you need to evaluate.

Structured Interviews Vs. Unstructured Interviews

• Structured interviews are characterized by a predetermined list of questions that interviewers ask all candidates. Giving an overarching structure to the interview provides a consistent experience for all candidates. Structured interviews also help interviewers avoid asking redundant questions.
• Unstructured interviews are more like free-flowing conversations. Unstructured portions of interviews allow interviewers to understand candidates on a deeper level. Unstructured interviews help in assessing behavioral portions of the interview process.

Structured Interview Advantages

Having a predetermined interview structure can give each interviewer a better understanding of their role and the purpose of the interview, which in turn can help them evaluate candidates. It gives them the ability to piece together a clearer picture of each applicant’s strengths and weaknesses.

Job interviews are already stressful for candidates, and having completely unstructured interviews can make the experience even more nerve-wracking. Giving candidates an outline of what to expect, like who they will speak to and what skills they will be tested for can take away much of the anxiety caused by uncertainty.

“For example, if I know this interview is going to be focusing on interpersonal skills or teamwork, then I can at least put myself in that frame of thought and put my best foot forward,” Durago said.

MORE ON HIRING The Ideal Interview Template for Software Engineers

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW DISADVANTAGES

The structured interview process also has its downsides. For example, the seemingly formal nature of ticking off questions has the potential to make an interviewer — and by association, their organization — come off as disconnected, cold or even intimidating. This can make it difficult to build a rapport or relationship with applicants, as well as get an accurate read on their temperament and communication skills .

And because a structured interview is supposed to stick mostly to a fixed set of questions, interviewers aren’t able to ask follow-ups that take more of a deep dive. They’re certainly able to prompt candidates to provide clarity or expand on something they said, but the structured interview process doesn’t necessarily allow them to stray into a more complex discussion.

Unstructured Interview Advantages

For Ani Khachatoorian, VP of people at e-commerce natural food company Thrive Market , unstructured interviews come in handy when hiring for higher leadership positions. She’ll ask them standard questions about how many people they’ve managed and their department’s org chart, but also open-ended questions about their experiences and career journey.

“It’s not just the results — how you break down a complicated project is equally important,” she said. “Because we also want diversity of thought and diversity of experiences. And if we don’t ask for your experiences, and we just ask for that end result, we’re not going to have a team that could approach really big, hard problems in a multifaceted way.”

Even interviews for technical positions shouldn’t stick to a strictly structured format. Interviews for senior technical positions, especially, move away from curated coding questions and focus more on conversations about process and software design, said Sonali Moholkar, engineering manager at blockchain analysis company Chainalysis.

“When you have system design and behavioral rounds , they naturally tend to be a little more semi-structured,” Moholkar said. “Because there is no one way to design a system. Depending on the [candidate’s] experience, the conversations can go in completely different directions.”

Unstructured Interview Disadvantages

With a totally unstructured interview, there’s always the danger that an interviewer might try to fill up 60 minutes of time with random questions, or that different interviewers might ask  one candidate the same questions. 

As a candidate, Durago has been on the receiving side of poorly conducted unstructured interviews and has seen firsthand how disorganized they can be.

A sloppy interview process is not only a waste of the candidate’s time, but can also be harmful for the company in the long run. Job candidates are also consumers and can share their bad interview experiences with other consumers, which can have a negative effect on a company’s reputation.

“Those candidates, whether we hire them or not, have a platform, and that platform is powerful,” Durago said. “If you don’t have an [established] brand that can carry weight, then you’re making your job of growing your business exponentially harder.”

How to Conduct a Structured Interview 

All interviewers should be trained on basic interviewing skills , such as understanding what’s appropriate and relevant to ask during the interview process. If the hiring process consists of several interviews with different people, make sure they are not interviewing the candidates for redundant skills.

Agree on Questions Before Starting Interviews

For structured interviews, Durago recommends writing down a list of interview questions and reviewing them with all interviewers before any candidates are involved.

Questions should be based on the company’s hiring philosophy and values, he said. Interviewers can reflect whatever is most important to the company by compiling questions that map back to those core values . Questions can then be tweaked for different positions in ways that still address those same values.

Tailor Questions to Find the Right Employee for the Job

Hiring managers should also think about what types of employees thrive at the company, Durago said. All companies are different, with different corporate environments, so hiring managers should tailor interview questions to the types of candidates that would do well in their particular environment. If employees are expected to work on tight-knit teams, for example, the interview should include questions about their teamwork experience and communication skills . If employees are expected to be self-directed, interviewers should ask about their time-management strategies and methods for prioritizing tasks.

“If it’s a teamwork question, I can ask a software engineer, ‘Tell me about a time when you had a disagreement with one of your peers — how did you work it out?’” Durago said. “In sales, you can say something along the lines of, ‘Tell me about a time when you had a particularly challenging relationship with one of your existing clients — how were you able to salvage that relationship and turn it into a fruitful one?’”

Give Candidates Insight About the Interview Structure

It may also be helpful to let candidates know the overall structure of the interview process ahead of time. Companies shouldn’t share exact questions, but telling candidates how many sets of interviews there are, who they will talk to and the general types of questions to expect can help candidates prepare.

“Just letting them know that, for example, we use graphs a lot via the company so just be aware of traversing a graph,” Moholkar said. “It’s a huge domain to be aware of, because you don’t necessarily write algorithms on a day-to-day basis at work. So having the interviewers prep the candidates a little bit just helps.”

Decide on Criteria to Objectively Evaluate Candidates

As hiring teams decide on the questions and overall structure that will dictate the interview process, they should arrange a system for evaluating candidates’ responses as well. Those criteria should be adapted to the specific position and necessary qualifications, such as focusing on interpersonal skills for someone who will have to work within a team. With the structured interview format, being prepared to ask a predetermined list of questions in a fixed order can make it easier for interviewers to follow criteria for grading applicants. 

Creating a scoring system sets a more even playing field for assessing applicants’ skills, work style and overall suitability for the role and job environment. It also ensures that if multiple interviewers need to be involved in conducting interviews for a single position, they all have a clear and unified strategy for comparing applicants and determining who should move onto the next stage.

MORE ON HIRING How to Source Diverse Talent

Examples of Structured Interview Questions

These 10 examples of structured interview questions can be tailored to cover assessing a candidate’s interpersonal and technical skills, whether they’d be a good fit for the team, how they approach solving internal and external challenges and their career trajectory.

• What are your biggest strengths and weaknesses?
• Describe how you give feedback to others and the most effective way for you to receive feedback.
• Think about a really effective manager you worked under. What made them so successful in that position and did they demonstrate any skills or attributes you try to emulate?
• What do you find most challenging about this kind of job? What skills, experience or knowledge do you bring that would help you overcome those challenges?
• Tell me about a successful project you worked on. Why was it memorable to you and what was your role or contribution?
• Tell me about a time when a project you worked on didn’t go as planned. What did you learn from that experience?
• Tell me about a time when you disagreed with a colleague or manager. How did you communicate your difference of opinion and resolve the disagreement?
• Tell me about a challenging relationship or interaction you had with a client. How did you work through that situation and turn the relationship or interaction into a fruitful one?
• If you’re faced with (pose a common problem or task they’re likely to encounter in the job), briefly walk me through the steps you’d take to tackle that situation.
• What are your career goals for the next five years and what experience or professional development opportunities do you think this company can provide to help you get there?

We analyzed more than half a million applications to uncover what the candidate journey in the tech industry looks like.

Great Companies Need Great People. That's Where We Come In.

Research Interviews: An effective and insightful way of data collection

Research interviews play a pivotal role in collecting data for various academic, scientific, and professional endeavors. They provide researchers with an opportunity to delve deep into the thoughts, experiences, and perspectives of an individual, thus enabling a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena. It is important for researchers to design an effective and insightful method of data collection on a particular topic. A research interview is typically a two-person meeting conducted to collect information on a certain topic. It is a qualitative data collection method to gain primary information.

The three key features of a research interview are as follows:

Table of Contents

The Significance of Research Interviews in Gathering Primary Data

The role of research interviews in gathering first-hand information is invaluable. Additionally, they allow researchers to interact directly with participants, enabling them to collect unfiltered primary data.

1. Subjective Experience

Research interviews facilitate in-depth exploration of a research topic. Thus, by engaging in one-to-one conversation with participants, researchers can delve into the nuances and complexities of their experiences, perspectives, and opinions. This allows comprehensive understanding of the research subject that may not be possible through other methods. Also, research interviews offer the unique advantage of capturing subjective experiences through personal narratives. Moreover, participants can express their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which add depth to the findings.

2. Personal Insights

Research interviews offer an opportunity for participants to share their views and opinions on the objective they are being interviewed for. Furthermore, participants can express their thoughts and experiences, providing rich qualitative data . Consequently, these personal narratives add a human element to the research, thus enhancing the understanding of the topic from the participants’ perspectives. Research interviews offer the opportunity to uncover unanticipated insights or emerging themes. Additionally, open-ended questions and active listening can help the researchers to identify new perspectives, ideas, or patterns that may not have been initially considered. As a result, these factors can lead to new avenues for exploration.

3. Clarification and Validation

Researchers can clarify participants’ responses and validate their understanding during an interview. This ensures accurate data collection and interpretation. Additionally, researchers can probe deeper into participants’ statements and seek clarification on any ambiguity in the information.

4. Contextual Information

Research interviews allow researchers to gather contextual information that offers a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Additionally, participants can provide insights into the social, cultural, or environmental factors that shape their experiences, behaviors, and beliefs. This contextual information helps researchers place the data in a broader context and facilitates a more nuanced analysis.

5. Non-verbal Cues

In addition to verbal responses, research interviews allow researchers to observe non-verbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. Additionally, non-verbal cues can convey information, such as emotions, attitudes, or levels of comfort. Furthermore, integrating non-verbal cues with verbal responses provides a more holistic understanding of participants’ experiences and enriches the data collection process.

Research interviews offer several advantages, making them a reliable tool for collecting information. However, choosing the right type of research interview is essential for collecting useful data.

Types of Research Interviews

There are several types of research interviews that researchers can use based on their research goals , the nature of their study, and the data they aim to collect. Here are some common types of research interviews:

1. Structured Interviews

• Structured interviews are standardized and follow a fixed format.
• Therefore, these interviews have a pre-determined set of questions.
• All the participants are asked the same set of questions in the same order.
• Therefore, this type of interview facilitates standardization and allows easy comparison and quantitative analysis of responses.
• As a result, structured interviews are used in surveys or studies which aims for a high level of standardization and comparability.

2. Semi-structured Interviews

• Semi-structured interviews offer a flexible framework by combining pre-determined questions.
• So, this gives an opportunity for follow-up questions and open-ended discussions.
• Researchers have a list of core questions but can adapt the interview depending on the participant’s responses.
• Consequently, this allows for in-depth exploration while maintaining some level of consistency across interviews.
• As a result, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research, where content-rich data is desired.

3. Unstructured Interviews

• Unstructured interviews provide the greatest flexibility and freedom in the interview process.
• This type do not have a pre-determined set of questions.
• Thus, the conversation flows naturally based on the participant’s responses and the researcher’s interests.
• Moreover, this type of interview allows for open-ended exploration and encourages participants to share their experiences, thoughts, and perspectives freely.
• Unstructured interviews useful to explore new or complex research topics, with limited preconceived questions.

4. Group Interviews (Focus Groups)

• Group interviews involve multiple participants who engage in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic.
• This format allows the interaction and exchange of ideas among participants, generating a group dynamic.
• Therefore, group interviews are beneficial for capturing diverse perspectives, and generating collective insights.
• They are often used in market research, social sciences, or studies demanding shared experiences.

5. Narrative Interviews

• Narrative interviews focus on eliciting participants’ personal stories, views, experiences, and narratives. Researchers aim to look into the individual’s life journey.
• As a result, this type of interview allows participants to construct and share their own narratives, providing rich qualitative data.
• Qualitative research, oral history, or studies focusing on individual experiences and identities uses narrative interviews.

6. Ethnographic Interviews

• Ethnographic interviews are conducted within the context of ethnographic research, where researchers immerse themselves in a specific social or cultural setting.
• These interviews aim to understand participants’ experiences, beliefs, and practices within their cultural context, thereby understanding diversity in different ethnic groups.
• Furthermore, ethnographic interviews involve building rapport, observing the participants’ daily lives, and engaging in conversations that capture the nuances of the culture under study.

It must be noted that these interview types are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, researchers often employ a combination of approaches to gather the most comprehensive data for their research. The choice of interview type depends on the research objectives and the nature of the research topic.

Steps of Conducting a Research Interview

Research interviews offer several benefits, and thus careful planning and execution of the entire process are important to gather in-depth information from the participants. While conducting an interview, it is essential to know the necessary steps to follow for ensuring success. The steps to conduct a research interview are as follows:

• Identify the objectives and understand the goals
• Select an appropriate interview format
• Organize the necessary materials for the interview
• Understand the questions to be addressed
• Analyze the demographics of interviewees
• Select the interviewees
• Design the interview questions to gather sufficient information
• Schedule the interview
• Explain the purpose of the interview
• Analyze the interviewee based on his/her responses

Considerations for Research Interviews

Since the flexible nature of research interviews makes them an invaluable tool for data collection, researchers must consider certain factors to make the process effective. They should avoid bias and preconceived notion against the participants. Furthermore, researchers must comply with ethical considerations and respect the cultural differences between them and the participants. Also, they should ensure careful tailoring of the questions to avoid making them offensive or derogatory. The interviewers must respect the privacy of the participants and ensure the confidentiality of their details.

By ensuring due diligence of these considerations associated with research interviews, researchers can maximize the validity and reliability of the collected data, leading to robust and meaningful research outcomes.

Have you ever conducted a research interview? What was your experience? What factors did you consider when conducting a research interview? Share it with researchers worldwide by submitting your thought piece on Enago Academy’s Open Blogging Platform .

Frequently Asked Questions

• Identify the objectives of the interview • State and explain the purpose of the interview • Select an appropriate interview format • Organize the necessary materials for the Interview • Check the demographics of the participants • Select the Interviewees or the participants • Prepare the list of questions to gather maximum useful data from the participants • Schedule the Interview • Analyze the participant based on his/ her Responses

Interviews are important in research as it helps to gather elaborative first-hand information. It helps to draw conclusions from the non-verbal views and personal experiences. It reduces the ambiguity of data through detailed discussions.

The advantages of research interviews are: • It offers first-hand information • Offers detailed assessment which can result in elaborate conclusions • It is easy to conduct • Provides non-verbal cues The disadvantages of research interviews are: • There is a risk of personal bias • It can be time consuming • The outcomes might be unpredictable

The difference between structured and unstructured interview are: • Structured interviews have well-structured questions in a pre-determined order; while unstructured interviews are flexible and do not have a pre-planned set of questions. • Structured interview is more detailed; while unstructured interviews are exploratory in nature. • Structured interview is easier to replicate as compared to unstructured interview.

Focus groups is a group of multiple participants engaging in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic. This format allows for interaction and exchange of ideas among participants.

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Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves “conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program or situation.” [1]

There are three different formats of interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured.

Structured interviews consist of a series of pre-determined questions that all interviewees answer in the same order. Data analysis usually tends to be more straightforward because researcher can compare and contrast different answers given to the same questions.

Unstructured interviews are usually the least reliable from research viewpoint, because no questions are prepared prior to the interview and data collection is conducted in an informal manner. Unstructured interviews can be associated with a high level of bias and comparison of answers given by different respondents tends to be difficult due to the differences in formulation of questions.

Semi-structured interviews contain the components of both, structured and unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews, interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. At the same time, additional questions might be asked during interviews to clarify and/or further expand certain issues.

Advantages of interviews include possibilities of collecting detailed information about research questions.  Moreover, in in this type of primary data collection researcher has direct control over the flow of process and she has a chance to clarify certain issues during the process if needed. Disadvantages, on the other hand, include longer time requirements and difficulties associated with arranging an appropriate time with perspective sample group members to conduct interviews.

When conducting interviews you should have an open mind and refrain from displaying disagreements in any forms when viewpoints expressed by interviewees contradict your own ideas. Moreover, timing and environment for interviews need to be scheduled effectively. Specifically, interviews need to be conducted in a relaxed environment, free of any forms of pressure for interviewees whatsoever.

Respected scholars warn that “in conducting an interview the interviewer should attempt to create a friendly, non-threatening atmosphere. Much as one does with a cover letter, the interviewer should give a brief, casual introduction to the study; stress the importance of the person’s participation; and assure anonymity, or at least confidentiality, when possible.” [2]

There is a risk of interviewee bias during the primary data collection process and this would seriously compromise the validity of the project findings. Some interviewer bias can be avoided by ensuring that the interviewer does not overreact to responses of the interviewee. Other steps that can be taken to help avoid or reduce interviewer bias include having the interviewer dress inconspicuously and appropriately for the environment and holding the interview in a private setting.  [3]

My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline.John Dudovskiy

[1] Boyce, C. & Neale, P. (2006) “Conducting in-depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews”, Pathfinder International Tool Series

[2] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

[3] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

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What Are Structured Interviews (and Why Use Them)?

Interviews are a necessary part of your hiring process. And yet, determining whether a candidate is right for a role can be challenging. Can a one-hour interview truly tell you everything you need to know before hiring a new team member?

Which questions hiring team members ask and how they assess whether a candidate is the right fit ultimately informs who gets passed on and who gets an offer. But the structure of this process matters just as much as the Qs asked and post-interview evaluation.

Ensuring everyone involved in the hiring process is aligned is critical to running successful interview processes and, at the end of the day, employing the right individuals and providing a stellar experience to each candidate engaged.

This is where structured interviews can help.

What is a structured interview?

A structured interview is a method of assessment that measures how competent a candidate is for a role by asking each prospect one interviews the same set of questions and comparing them against the same criteria.

• This approach require a hiring team to develop a clearly defined purpose for each interview, along with a specific set of structured interview questions for each interviewer to ask.

Moreover, it includes a rubric or scorecard of some kind that helps interview panelists assess answers to each question. This means all candidates are asked the same predetermined questions (and in the same order) and their responses are evaluated using the same scale.

Why are structured interviews better?

Conducting job interviews can seem pretty straightforward:

• Candidates come into your talent pipeline.
• You choose the ones you’d like to interview.
• You ask them a series of relevant questions.
• Based on their responses and your hiring team’s collective feedback, you move forward with the candidate you think is the best fit for the role.

Upon second glance, however, you’ll find that a brief interview and a “gut feeling” aren’t enough to make the most effective hiring decisions — especially when other stakeholders or influencers are involved.

Rather, you need an organized approach to speaking with prospective hires. Fail yo implement such a process, and you could very well end up employing the wrong person.

Hiring the wrong candidate can be costly. Studies have shown that, on average, a bad hire can cost a company upwards of $15,000 . Meanwhile, 74% of managers say they’ve hired the wrong person for a position at one time or another.

This makes having a structured interview process crucial.

The advantages of using structured interviews

Many recruiters consider structured interviews to be more effective, as they’re based on a clearly defined role and its core objectives: a hiring team uses a rubric and deliberate set of questions that foster data-driven hiring decisions.

Let’s dive deeper into the specific, key advantages of structured interviews :

• Better predict job performance : As we mentioned above, studies have shown that structured interviews can help you better predict a candidate’s job performance.
• Eliminate confirmation bias : All candidates are asked the same open-ended questions and assessed with the same rubric. This ensures your hiring is equitable and fair.
• Data-driven vs. emotional hiring : As candidates are assessed based on standardized criteria rather than ‘feeling’, hiring teams can make more data-driven hiring decisions.
• Optimize interview time : Having a structured interview framework in place can help managers and stakeholders optimize the time they have with each candidate.
• Understanding of interpersonal skills : A bonus benefit is recruiters, hiring managers, and prospective peers of a candidate can gauge their personality and behavior.

Benefits of leveraging structured interviews for both candidates and employers

The intention of structured interviews is to help hiring teams make objective, intelligent hiring decisions, which ultimately benefits both the candidate who gets hired and the org.

In other words? It ensures they don’t have semi -structured interview processes (or, worse, unstructured interview processes) that prevent panelists from comparing candidates and discerning the strongest-fit individuals.

The structured interview is ultimately a type of interview approach that ensures :

• Candidates are assessed based on skills and qualities as they relate to the core objectives of the role (versus personal preference)
• All candidates are asked the same questions and assessed using the same criteria, making the hiring process more intentional and fair
• Interviews are more deliberate and outcome-oriented , which maximizes the time a candidate has with a hiring manager

There aren’t just pros for prospects, though. Structured interviews help employers :

• Reduce unconscious bias and/or confirmation bias in interviews
• Create a more deliberate, intentional, and standardized process for interviews that helps hiring teams choose the right candidates
• Leverage their time with candidates more productively by asking the right questions

Why you should use a structured interview framework

If structured interviews are more effective, why don’t all hiring teams use them when recruiting and nurturing candidates? Well, it could have a lot to do with comfort.

• Research has shown that, in general, interviewers tend to think they’re great at interviewing , so few will update their skills or practice new ways of conducting interviews.

But interviewing can quickly become an informal, almost casual process if you’re tasked with interviewing candidates often or at scale. This can lead to ineffective interviews that hinder hiring teams from properly assessing candidates — and can lead to the ‘interview effect.’

In short, the “interview effect” occurs when an interviewer unintentionally influences the interviewee . For example, an interviewer’s body language and responses can influence how a candidate answers questions.

• Given interviews — structured and unstructured — are social interactions, a casual or unstructured approach can bias people’s responses or behaviors in an interview.

In this sense, having a structured interview framework enables your hiring team to conduct more productive, unbiased interviews — and help employers like yours extend offers to and hire top talent more efficiently and effectively.

Download our Structured Hiring 101 guide to learn how your talent acquisition team can implement a highly structured interview process that leads to smarter hiring.

Further reading

How to modernize your full-cycle recruiting approach, creating a highly effective employee referral program, improving the candidate journey with an ats: a guide.

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• What Is a Structured...

What Is a Structured Interview? Definition & Examples

13 min read · Updated on May 17, 2023

Before you walk into your next structured interview setting, make sure that you know what to expect and prepare accordingly

For job candidates, the interview process can be either an opportunity to shine or a hidden trap waiting to dash any hopes of landing that desired job. Part of the problem for job seekers is that there is no way of knowing what  type of interview they may encounter. Will it be an unstructured conversation or a structured interview with a set series of questions that all candidates will need to answer? Does the idea of a structured interview give you pause, knowing that your answers will be compared to every other candidate's responses?

In this post, we'll explore the structured interview and why so many companies rely on it for their hiring processes. We will also offer some simple tips that you can use to be better prepared for this type of interview and provide examples of the type of questions you might encounter.

What is a structured interview?

While there are many different ways to conduct interviews, the structured interview is recognized as one of the most efficient and effective ways to identify the best candidates for a job. This interview format relies on a predetermined set of questions, that are posed to each candidate that the company interviews for a given open position. Typically, these questions are asked in the same order every time, to ensure that all candidates receive the same interview experience. There's often a scoring system that interviewers can use to rate each job seeker's response to those questions.

In most instances, the main questions are focused on assessing the candidate's core competencies to determine if they are qualified for the position. Like other interview styles, the questions may be situational or behavioral in nature and are designed to encourage the candidate to share examples of their prior job roles, experiences, and achievements. As the candidate answers each question, the interviewer grades the response in accordance with a predetermined grading scale.

Structured vs unstructured interview or semi-structured interview

Obviously, the structured interview is quite different from the unstructured interview. The latter is conducted more like a free-flowing conversation and can often lead to productive personal exchanges between the interviewer and interviewee. Moreover, the unstructured interview can result in unforeseen diversions in the conversation, that may give the interviewer unexpected insight into the candidate's qualifications or suitability for the position.

The semi-structured interview lies somewhere between those two extremes. That style of interview also relies on a set series of questions, but the interviewer may not use them all or ask them in any specific order. Instead, the questions are used as prompts for the interviewer to keep the conversation moving along in a productive way. Often, the questions are posed in a more open-ended way, to encourage the candidate to open up and share details about their experiences and achievements.

What is the primary advantage of the structured interview?

The primary advantage for companies that use a structured interview format is its reliability and consistency. Because every job candidate is asked the same questions in the same order, each interview has a consistent flow that makes it easier for interviewers to grade responses. Because questions are designed to assess core competencies needed for the open position, this process can enable companies to efficiently identify the most qualified candidates.

Structured interviews can also help companies to ensure that their hiring processes are free from any hint of discrimination. By focusing questions entirely on job qualifications, companies can ensure that they do a better job of avoiding illegal bias. That advantage extends to promoting greater diversity and inclusion in the hiring process too.

Finally, the structured interview option can streamline the hiring process and enable companies to save time in their efforts to locate the right candidates for their team. By relying on a consistent, well-defined interview format that grades each interviewee's performance, hiring managers can have more confidence that the process is accurately identifying the best candidates for any open position.

Tips to help you prepare for a structured interview

Of course, it is one thing to understand how a structured interview works. It is another thing entirely to  prepare for that type of meeting. The good news is that there are things you can do to ensure that you're ready to shine in any structured interview setting. Even better, the tips we're about to share with you can help you to properly prepare for any other type of interview too!

1.      Spend time studying the job posting

Every job description should contain vital information about the types of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) the employer wants job candidates to bring to the table. Go through the description with a fine tooth comb and identify every qualification that the company cited in its post. Remember, structured interviews are designed to focus on assessing those qualifications, so you need to know what they are if you want to ensure that you're ready to answer well.

2.      Research the company

It is also wise to spend some time learning about the company. Check out the company website to see exactly what they do and how they do it. That may give you insight into important skills or abilities that the job posting might not mention. While you're at it, you can also research more about the job role, to see if you have any transferable skills that might make you even more qualified for the position.

3.      Think about how your own skills and achievements relate to the job

Once you know which KSAs the company wants to see, you should match those requirements to your own knowledge, skills, and abilities. Which talents have you used in prior roles, projects, or activities? Create a list of your experiences and achievements that relied on those KSAs and write down examples of how those talents were used to provide value to your employers. If you've identified the right job description qualifications and prepared responses that match your existing skills to those needed, you should be prepared to answer almost any question.

4.      Role-play some practice questions

There's no substitute for practice, so don't be afraid to role play with a friend or family member. Use some of the example structured interview questions we include at the end of this post or create your own and have a loved one play the role of interviewer. This practice will help you to get used to providing articulate responses to these types of questions. It can also give you an opportunity to address any problems with your body language and overall presentation.

5.      Get familiar with the STAR method for answering interview questions

One of the best ways to create prepared responses to interview questions is to use the same approach for every answer. The STAR method is one of the best options, because it provides a structured formula that you can rely on in any interview setting.

Situation : Begin every answer by referring to a specific situation you encountered, describing the event or challenge that you were dealing with at that moment

Task:  Then detail your responsibility in that situation, or the goal that you intended to achieve

Action: After that, describe the specific steps you took to resolve the situation - make sure that you focus on your actions, using words like “I,” “my,” and “me”

Results: Finally, close the story by outlining the results you achieved - make sure that you provide details about the impact of your actions, anything you learned from the process, and any measurable value your solution provided.

If you can follow this simple, four-step method and have a few relevant stories to tell, you should have no problem answering almost any question thrown at you. Of course, the STAR approach to creating responses is also useful for unstructured interviews, so don't hesitate to use it in those settings too.

Structured interview example questions

Below are some examples of structured interview questions and sample answers that you can modify to fit your own skills and experiences. As you review them, keep in mind that any questions will likely be adapted to fit the specific skills and qualifications a company is looking for in its job candidates. Adjust your responses accordingly.

Tell me about a problematic client relationship you encountered, and how you worked through that challenge.

Answer : When I was promoted to Project Manager at ABC Corp., one of our long-standing clients was upset that his prior contact had moved on. He was resistant to the change and started to dodge contact attempts as a way to express that discontent. My job was to meet his company's needs and provide him with a satisfactory experience - so I focused intently on delivering superior results at a much faster pace, while going the extra mile to reach out with even more client service. After a few short weeks of this, his attitude changed and the relationship returned to normal.

Describe a memorable project you contributed to and how it benefited your employer.

Answer : A few years ago, I was assigned to a tech solution implementation project, responsible for managing resource allocation. Two days after the project started, the Project Lead fell ill and I was tasked with replacing her with no preparation for the role. It took me several weeks of long hours to coordinate everything, but we ultimately completed the implementation. That project ended up improving the company's internal processes so much that it led to a 20% increase in customer retention and satisfaction.

What do you think would be the most challenging part of this job, and which skills would help you to overcome that challenge?

Answer : Having reviewed the position, it looks as though some level of delegation is required. In a previous job, I encountered that same need to delegate and it was a bit of a challenge for me since I'm such a hands-on person. However, I quickly realized then that I needed to let others contribute their own skills and talents. I'm confident that those lessons will help me to use those delegation skills to achieve more in this role as well.

What strengths would help you to succeed in this role? Which weaknesses might hold you back?

Answer : Well, in my previous role as Accounts Manager I had similar job responsibilities, so this is a great question. In that role, my organization and communication skills were vital for success and enabled me to manage our client accounts in a way that reduced client complaints by 38%. I did struggle with delegating responsibilities, however, and often took on too much work. I recognize that  weakness and have focused more on relying on my team to achieve our goals.

How would you handle a situation where you weren't sure which of two competing policies you needed to follow to resolve a dissatisfied client's issue?

Answer : This actually happened to me in a previous role. I had a client who insisted on receiving special treatment for her shipping schedules and my job was to find a solution for her that wouldn't disrupt our standard processes. She was claiming privilege based on one of our policies, but there was a separate policy that could have barred her request. After consulting with the company's legal team and my superiors, we pushed through a compromise that satisfied both policies and the customer.

Describe your biggest mistake at work and how you were able to move past that failure.

Answer : When I was working at Acme, I was assigned to lead a new sales campaign for a longtime client. I received the instructions and project outline and immediately started creating the project strategy we needed to launch the campaign. After a week of preparation, I delivered the plan to my superiors - only to discover that I had been handed the wrong instructions. I hadn't bothered to double-check the information I received so  I took responsibility for the wasted time.

I then spent the next two nights working overtime to put together the right strategy. Ultimately, we ended up launching a day late - the only time I've ever been late with a project, mind you. The client understood and laughed off the confusion, but I walked away with a valuable lesson: even if you think you know what your clients and superiors want, ask questions to verify your understanding.

Tell me about a time when you struggled to get along with a coworker or manager. How did you deal with that situation?

Answer : A few years back, I had a coworker who apparently decided that we were in competition with one another, despite being on the same team. She was icy in the office, despite my attempts at friendliness, and spread negative information about me to others on our team. I knew that I had to fix the problem, since it was starting to interfere with team cohesion, so I called for a one-on-one meeting with her and we worked through her fears. We actually ended up being close friends and still get together to this day.

How do your core values align with our values and mission?

Answer : Your company's values are one of the main reasons why I was motivated to seek this position. Throughout my career, I've worked to choose roles and companies that share my commitment to creating a better world. I was raised to value service to others, which seems to lie at the heart of your company's core values. In addition, your commitment to sustainability and responsible corporate action  aligns perfectly with my own dedication to those ideals.

Tell me about a time when you received negative feedback and describe your response.

Answer : Last year, my supervisor pulled me aside to discuss my work performance in the aftermath of a family tragedy. To be fair, I had been depressed and ended up procrastinating on a couple of projects that I needed to complete. I wasn't late, but I was clearly not moving as quickly as I should have been. I was actually thankful for the criticism, as I'm always thankful for constructive feedback, and immediately started making the changes needed to turn things around. If hired, I would welcome any feedback, whether positive or negative. My experience has taught me that feedback from supervisors and coworkers is vital for ensuring that I reach the high standards I set for myself and meet others' expectations.

Obviously, you can never be sure of what to expect when you walk into a structured interview. However, if you understand what those interviews are designed to achieve and take the right steps to prepare, you should be able to find success and improve your chances of receiving that coveted job offer.

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Recommended reading:

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• J Basic Clin Pharm
• v.5(4); September 2014-November 2014

Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation

Shazia jamshed.

Department of Pharmacy Practice, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan Campus, Pahang, Malaysia

Buckley and Chiang define research methodology as “a strategy or architectural design by which the researcher maps out an approach to problem-finding or problem-solving.”[ 1 ] According to Crotty, research methodology is a comprehensive strategy ‘that silhouettes our choice and use of specific methods relating them to the anticipated outcomes,[ 2 ] but the choice of research methodology is based upon the type and features of the research problem.[ 3 ] According to Johnson et al . mixed method research is “a class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, theories and or language into a single study.[ 4 ] In order to have diverse opinions and views, qualitative findings need to be supplemented with quantitative results.[ 5 ] Therefore, these research methodologies are considered to be complementary to each other rather than incompatible to each other.[ 6 ]

Qualitative research methodology is considered to be suitable when the researcher or the investigator either investigates new field of study or intends to ascertain and theorize prominent issues.[ 6 , 7 ] There are many qualitative methods which are developed to have an in depth and extensive understanding of the issues by means of their textual interpretation and the most common types are interviewing and observation.[ 7 ]

Interviewing

This is the most common format of data collection in qualitative research. According to Oakley, qualitative interview is a type of framework in which the practices and standards be not only recorded, but also achieved, challenged and as well as reinforced.[ 8 ] As no research interview lacks structure[ 9 ] most of the qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured, lightly structured or in-depth.[ 9 ] Unstructured interviews are generally suggested in conducting long-term field work and allow respondents to let them express in their own ways and pace, with minimal hold on respondents’ responses.[ 10 ]

Pioneers of ethnography developed the use of unstructured interviews with local key informants that is., by collecting the data through observation and record field notes as well as to involve themselves with study participants. To be precise, unstructured interview resembles a conversation more than an interview and is always thought to be a “controlled conversation,” which is skewed towards the interests of the interviewer.[ 11 ] Non-directive interviews, form of unstructured interviews are aimed to gather in-depth information and usually do not have pre-planned set of questions.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is the focused interview in which the interviewer is well aware of the respondent and in times of deviating away from the main issue the interviewer generally refocuses the respondent towards key subject.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is an informal, conversational interview, based on unplanned set of questions that are generated instantaneously during the interview.[ 11 ]

In contrast, semi-structured interviews are those in-depth interviews where the respondents have to answer preset open-ended questions and thus are widely employed by different healthcare professionals in their research. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are utilized extensively as interviewing format possibly with an individual or sometimes even with a group.[ 6 ] These types of interviews are conducted once only, with an individual or with a group and generally cover the duration of 30 min to more than an hour.[ 12 ] Semi-structured interviews are based on semi-structured interview guide, which is a schematic presentation of questions or topics and need to be explored by the interviewer.[ 12 ] To achieve optimum use of interview time, interview guides serve the useful purpose of exploring many respondents more systematically and comprehensively as well as to keep the interview focused on the desired line of action.[ 12 ] The questions in the interview guide comprise of the core question and many associated questions related to the central question, which in turn, improve further through pilot testing of the interview guide.[ 7 ] In order to have the interview data captured more effectively, recording of the interviews is considered an appropriate choice but sometimes a matter of controversy among the researcher and the respondent. Hand written notes during the interview are relatively unreliable, and the researcher might miss some key points. The recording of the interview makes it easier for the researcher to focus on the interview content and the verbal prompts and thus enables the transcriptionist to generate “verbatim transcript” of the interview.

Similarly, in focus groups, invited groups of people are interviewed in a discussion setting in the presence of the session moderator and generally these discussions last for 90 min.[ 7 ] Like every research technique having its own merits and demerits, group discussions have some intrinsic worth of expressing the opinions openly by the participants. On the contrary in these types of discussion settings, limited issues can be focused, and this may lead to the generation of fewer initiatives and suggestions about research topic.

Observation

Observation is a type of qualitative research method which not only included participant's observation, but also covered ethnography and research work in the field. In the observational research design, multiple study sites are involved. Observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research.[ 11 ]

Research can be visualized and perceived as painstaking methodical efforts to examine, investigate as well as restructure the realities, theories and applications. Research methods reflect the approach to tackling the research problem. Depending upon the need, research method could be either an amalgam of both qualitative and quantitative or qualitative or quantitative independently. By adopting qualitative methodology, a prospective researcher is going to fine-tune the pre-conceived notions as well as extrapolate the thought process, analyzing and estimating the issues from an in-depth perspective. This could be carried out by one-to-one interviews or as issue-directed discussions. Observational methods are, sometimes, supplemental means for corroborating research findings.

• What is a semi-structured interview?

Last updated

5 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

When designed correctly, user interviews go much deeper than surface-level survey responses. They can provide new information about how people interact with your products and services, and shed light on the underlying reasons behind these habits.

Semi-structured user interviews are widely considered one of the most effective tools for doing this kind of qualitative research , depending on your specific goals. As the name suggests, the semi-structured format allows for a more natural, conversational flow, while still being organized enough to collect plenty of actionable data .

Analyze semi-structured interviews

Bring all your semi-structured interviews into one place to analyze and understand

A semi-structured interview is a qualitative research method used to gain an in-depth understanding of the respondent's feelings and beliefs on specific topics. As the interviewer prepares the questions ahead of time, they can adjust the order, skip any that are redundant, or create new ones. Additionally, the interviewer should be prepared to ask follow-up questions and probe for more detail.

Semi-structured interviews typically last between 30 and 60 minutes and are usually conducted either in person or via a video call. Ideally, the interviewer can observe the participant's verbal and non-verbal cues in real-time, allowing them to adjust their approach accordingly. The interviewer aims for a conversational flow that helps the participant talk openly while still focusing on the primary topics being researched.

Once the interview is over, the researcher analyzes the data in detail to draw meaningful results. This involves sorting the data into categories and looking for patterns and trends. This semi-structured interview approach provides an ideal framework for obtaining open-ended data and insights.

• When to use a semi-structured interview?

Semi-structured interviews are considered the "best of both worlds" as they tap into the strengths of structured and unstructured methods. Researchers can gather reliable data while also getting unexpected insights from in-depth user feedback.

Semi-structured interviews can be useful during any stage of the UX product-development process, including exploratory research to better understand a new market or service. Further down the line, this approach is ideal for refining existing designs and discovering areas for improvement. Semi-structured interviews can even be the first step when planning future research projects using another method of data collection.

• Advantages of semi-structured interviews

Flexibility

This style of interview is meant to be adapted according to the answers and reactions of the respondent, which gives a lot of flexibility. Semi-structured interviews encourage two-way communication, allowing themes and ideas to emerge organically.

Respondent comfort

The semi-structured format feels more natural and casual for participants than a formal interview. This can help to build rapport and more meaningful dialogue.

Semi-structured interviews are excellent for user experience research because they provide rich, qualitative data about how people really experience your products and services.

Open-ended questions allow the respondent to provide nuanced answers, with the potential for more valuable insights than other forms of data collection, like structured interviews , surveys , or questionnaires.

• Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews

Can be unpredictable

Less structure brings less control, especially if the respondent goes off tangent or doesn't provide useful information. If the conversation derails, it can take a lot of effort to bring the focus back to the relevant topics.

Lack of standardization

Every semi-structured interview is unique, including potentially different questions, so the responses collected are very subjective. This can make it difficult to draw meaningful conclusions from the data unless your team invests the time in a comprehensive analysis.

Compared to other research methods, unstructured interviews are not as consistent or "ready to use."

• Best practices when preparing for a semi-structured interview

While semi-structured interviews provide a lot of flexibility, they still require thoughtful planning. Maximizing the potential of this research method will depend on having clear goals that help you narrow the focus of the interviews and keep each session on track.

After taking the time to specify these parameters, create an interview guide to serve as a framework for each conversation. This involves crafting a range of questions that can explore the necessary themes and steer the conversation in the right direction. Everything in your interview guide is optional (that's the beauty of being "semi" structured), but it's still an essential tool to help the conversation flow and collect useful data.

Best practices to consider while designing your interview questions include:

Prioritize open-ended questions

Promote a more interactive, meaningful dialogue by avoiding questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no, otherwise known as close-ended questions.

Stick with "what," "when," "who," "where," "why," and "how" questions, which allow the participant to go beyond the superficial to express their ideas and opinions. This approach also helps avoid jargon and needless complexity in your questions.

Open-ended questions help the interviewer uncover richer, qualitative details, which they can build on to get even more valuable insights.

Plan some follow-up questions

When preparing questions for the interview guide, consider the responses you're likely to get and pair them up with some effective, relevant follow-up questions. Factual questions should be followed by ones that ask an opinion.

Planning potential follow-up questions will help you to get the most out of a semi-structured interview. They allow you to delve deeper into the participant's responses or hone in on the most important themes of your research focus.

Follow-up questions are also invaluable when the interviewer feels stuck and needs a meaningful prompt to continue the conversation.

Avoid leading questions

Leading questions are framed toward a predetermined answer. This makes them likely to result in data that is biased, inaccurate, or otherwise unreliable.

For example, asking "Why do you think our services are a good solution?" or "How satisfied have you been with our services?" will leave the interviewee feeling pressured to agree with some baseline assumptions.

Interviewers must take the time to evaluate their questions and make a conscious effort to remove any potential bias that could get in the way of authentic feedback.

Asking neutral questions is key to encouraging honest responses in a semi-structured interview. For example, "What do you consider to be the advantages of using our services?" or simply "What has been your experience with using our services?"

Neutral questions are effective in capturing a broader range of opinions than closed questions, which is ultimately one of the biggest benefits of using semi-structured interviews for research.

Use the critical incident method

The critical incident method is an approach to interviewing that focuses on the past behavior of respondents, as opposed to hypothetical scenarios. One of the challenges of all interview research methods is that people are not great at accurately recalling past experiences, or answering future-facing, abstract questions.

The critical incident method helps avoid these limitations by asking participants to recall extreme situations or 'critical incidents' which stand out in their memory as either particularly positive or negative. Extreme situations are more vivid so they can be recalled more accurately, potentially providing more meaningful insights into the interviewee’s experience with your products or services.

• Best practices while conducting semi-structured interviews

Encouraging interaction is the key to collecting more specific data than is typically possible during a formal interview. Facilitating an effective semi-structured interview is a balancing act between asking prepared questions and creating the space for organic conversation. Here are some guidelines for striking the right tone.

Beginning the interview

Make participants feel comfortable by introducing yourself and your role at the organization and displaying appropriate body language.

Outline the purpose of the interview to give them an idea of what to expect. For example, explain that you want to learn more about how people use your product or service.

It's also important to thank them for their time in advance and emphasize there are no right or wrong answers.

Practice active listening

Build trust and rapport throughout the interview with active listening techniques, focusing on being present and demonstrating that you're paying attention by responding thoughtfully. Engage with the participant by making eye contact, nodding, and giving verbal cues like "Okay, I see," "I understand," and "M-hm."

Avoid the temptation to rush to fill any silences while they're in the middle of responding, even if it feels awkward. Give them time to finish their train of thought before interrupting with feedback or another prompt. Embracing these silences is essential for active listening because it's a sign of a productive interview with meaningful, candid responses.

Practicing these techniques will ensure the respondent feels heard and respected, which is critical for gathering high-quality information.

Ask clarifying questions in real time

In a semi-structured interview, the researcher should always be on the lookout for opportunities to probe into the participant's thoughts and opinions.

Along with preparing follow-up questions, get in the habit of asking clarifying questions whenever possible. Clarifying questions are especially important for user interviews because people often provide vague responses when discussing how they interact with products and services.

Being asked to go deeper will encourage them to give more detail and show them you’re taking their opinions seriously and are genuinely interested in understanding their experiences.

Some clarifying questions that can be asked in real-time include:

"That's interesting. Could you give me some examples of X?"

"What do you mean when you say "X"?"

"Why is that?"

"It sounds like you're saying [rephrase their response], is that correct?"

Minimize note-taking

In a wide-ranging conversation, it's easy to miss out on potentially valuable insights by not staying focused on the user. This is why semi-structured interviews are generally recorded (audio or video), and it's common to have a second researcher present to take notes.

The person conducting the interview should avoid taking notes because it's a distraction from:

Keeping track of the conversation

Engaging with the user

Asking thought-provoking questions

Watching you take notes can also have the unintended effect of making the participant feel pressured to give shallower, shorter responses—the opposite of what you want.

Concluding the interview

Semi-structured interviews don't come with a set number of questions, so it can be tricky to bring them to an end. Give the participant a sense of closure by asking whether they have anything to add before wrapping up, or if they want to ask you any questions, and then give sincere thanks for providing honest feedback.

Don't stop abruptly once all the relevant topics have been discussed or you're nearing the end of the time that was set aside. Make them feel appreciated!

• Analyzing the data from semi-structured interviews

In some ways, the real work of semi-structured interviews begins after all the conversations are over, and it's time to analyze the data you've collected. This process will focus on sorting and coding each interview to identify patterns, often using a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods.

Some of the strategies for making sense of semi-structured interviews include:

Thematic analysis : focuses on the content of the interviews and identifying common themes

Discourse analysis : looks at how people express feelings about themes such as those involving politics, culture, and power

Qualitative data mapping: a visual way to map out the correlations between different elements of the data

Narrative analysis : uses stories and language to unlock perspectives on an issue

Grounded theory : can be applied when there is no existing theory that could explain a new phenomenon

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• Research Note
• Open access
• Published: 15 May 2024

Concepts of lines of therapy in cancer treatment: findings from an expert interview-based study

• Lisa Falchetto 1   na1 ,
• Bernd Bender 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Ian Erhard 1 , 2 ,
• Kim N. Zeiner 3 ,
• Jan A. Stratmann 11 ,
• Florestan J. Koll 4 ,
• Sebastian Wagner 11 ,
• Marcel Reiser 5 ,
• Khayal Gasimli 6 ,
• Angelika Stehle 7 ,
• Martin Voss 8 ,
• Olivier Ballo 11 ,
• Jörg Janne Vehreschild 1 , 9 , 10 &
• Daniel Maier 1 , 2  

BMC Research Notes volume  17 , Article number:  137 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

77 Accesses

Metrics details

The concept of lines of therapy (LOT) in cancer treatment is often considered for decision making in tumor boards and clinical management, but lacks a common definition across medical specialties. The complexity and heterogeneity of malignancies and treatment modalities contribute to an inconsistent understanding of LOT among physicians. This study assesses the heterogeneity of understandings of the LOT concept, its major dimensions, and criteria from the perspective of physicians of different specialties with an oncological focus in Germany. Semi-structured expert interviews with nine physicians were conducted and evaluated using qualitative content analysis.

Most interviewees agreed that there is no single definition for LOT and found it difficult to explicate their understanding. A majority of experts stated that they had already encountered misunderstandings with colleagues regarding LOT and that they had problems with deciphering LOT from the medical records of their patients. Disagreement emerged about the roles of the following within the LOT concept: maintenance therapy, treatment intention, different therapy modalities, changing pharmaceutical agents, and therapy breaks. Respondents predominantly considered the same criteria as decisive for the definition of LOT as for a change in LOT (e.g., the occurrence of a progression event or tumor recurrence).

Peer Review reports

Introduction

While clinical oncology considers line of therapy (LOT) essential information for therapy planning, the field lacks a homogeneous understanding of the concept, as well as clear and consistent criteria for its classification [ 1 ]. Especially in real-world data-based research, it is often unclear whether a certain therapy is still part of an LOT; and often, conflicting interpretations lead to misunderstandings in information exchange about therapy progression [ 1 ]. Existing approaches, for standardizing the classification of LOT either focus on patterns proposed by guidelines (e.g., drug administration period, first-line termination) or on drug administration sequences [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. However, other issues related to the LOT concept remain largely unclear. For example, the roles of maintenance therapies and local therapy modalities have not yet been discussed [ 1 ].

This expert-interview study aims to provide a better conceptual understanding of the defining criteria of LOT for solid and non-solid cancers. Therefore, it may contribute to identifying unclear aspects of the LOT concept and avoiding misunderstandings in communication about LOTs, especially between physicians of different medical disciplines. Concerning the rapidly developing field of real-world cancer research, data augmentation strategies and feature engineering require empirically validated concepts to obtain reliable evidence from observational data. More specifically, investigating the conceptual understanding of LOTs will help us build a rule-based framework for LOT classification within the Clinical Communication Platform of the German Cancer Consortium (DKTK).

The study’s target group was physicians from various specialties with an oncological focus, working in either university hospitals or private practice. Physicians from the University Hospital Frankfurt and private practices were contacted by e-mail. In total, nine were interviewed. Their varied specialties included neuro-oncology, pulmonology, hematology and medical oncology, urology, dermatology, and gynecological oncology, as well as one resident specialist in internal medicine with a focus on hematology and oncology. The interviewees’ professional experience ranged from 3.5 to 29 years and most had experience in treating both solid and non-solid malignancies.

Qualitative expert interviews [ 7 , 8 ] were conducted by posing open questions within a semi-structured framework [ 9 ]. An interview manual delineated this framework and was developed based on existing literature about oncological LOTs and associated concepts (see Additional File 1 ). Before the interviews, the interview manual was pre-tested with an experienced oncologist and adjusted accordingly. Each participant declared their consent before the interview. Confidentiality and anonymity of participants’ responses and information were assured. The first part of the interview manual asked about the interviewee’s underlying understanding of LOTs and the relevant criteria for their definition. Subsequently, questions concerning misunderstandings in interactions with colleagues were posed to determine whether there are frequent uncertainties in the use of the LOT concept and, if so, what reasons may underlie this situation. Next, the interviewer asked about how specific criteria, picked out of the literature, related to the definition of LOT. These included the influence of treatment intention, the role of maintenance therapy, and local therapies. Another focus of the interviews was how the interviewees judged the relationship of both changes in drug regimen and therapy breaks to the definition of LOT.

Data collection/conduct of interviews

The expert interviews were conducted between June 1 and July 17, 2022 via video conference and in German. They lasted between 10 and 25 minutes with an average duration of approximately 18 minutes. The interviews were recorded and transcribed using the ExpressScribe Pro software (Version 10.17).

Data analysis

The interviews were analyzed using methods of qualitative content analysis as described in Mayring [ 10 ] and the software MaxQDA Analytics Pro 2022 (release 22.2.0). A system for coding the interview material was developed based on literature research conducted before the interviews.

Since the interviews were conducted in German, we provide an English translation of selected quotes. Table  1 contains the main topics and sub-topics of the interview, as well as exemplary quotes from the interviewees.

LOT definition and misunderstandings

Most interviewees confirmed that there was no common understanding of LOT and that they had difficulties explicating their own understanding of the concept. Furthermore, four of the interviewees reported misunderstandings with colleagues regarding LOTs and seven reported that they experienced uncertainties in their clinical practice when defining an LOT. For instance, if care for a patient was delivered by multiple centers, misunderstandings concerning LOT progression frequently occurred, because involved persons lacked a common understanding:

“[…] when it comes to categorizing it somehow so that it is standardized and applicable across multiple centers, yes there existed discrepancies in the particular considerations.” (Expert interview (E)05).

Treatment intention

Six interviewees said that treatment intention (curative vs. palliative) is important in the choice of therapy. Consequently, treatment intention is also relevant to LOT planning. Three experts expressed that LOT is especially relevant and established in the palliative setting:

“With a curative therapy option, […] you shouldn’t have any progression under therapy, after all. So that’s why the definition [of the line of therapy] does differ somewhat – palliative versus curative.” (E03).

Maintenance therapy

Starting a maintenance therapy to control a tumor after chemotherapy was predominantly not considered an indicator for a change in LOT, since usually only part of the medication regimen is discontinued for maintenance, while the rest remains the same. However, interviewees also said that maintenance therapy can include an entirely new pharmaceutical agent, which would, in turn, complicate the delineation between LOT:

“Yes, that’s difficult, too. I would probably count maintenance therapy as part of that – if it’s sort of quasi-logically linked to the therapy that was administered before it. But if it’s a completely different type of substance now, then it becomes more difficult again.” (E03).

Local therapies vs. systemic therapies

Six of the physicians interviewed opined that a LOT can contain both local and systemic therapies. However, some participants stated that beginning a new local therapy would not lead to a change of LOT, in contrast to beginning a new systemic therapy. Meanwhile, in contrast to the other six, three physicians emphasized that only systemic therapies can constitute a LOT:

“In my opinion, the therapy line is primarily defined by the systemic therapies. The local therapies are rather something supplementary that is carried out additionally, or – as the case may be – primarily in addition to symptom relief. Local therapies can also be used to achieve a response, but are not usually mentioned as a line of therapy.” (E06).

Change of LOT

All interviewees said that the LOT must be changed if tumor progression or disease relapse occurs or if therapy response fails. Six interviewees considered the occurrence of adverse effects (e.g., severe toxicity) a significant criterion for the decision to change an LOT. Only three interviewees saw the addition of a new pharmaceutical agent as resulting in a change of LOT:

“Dropping an active substance, I would always see as being due to toxicity or at the patient’s request – so actually owed to toxicity. That is, I would never call that a new line of therapy, whereas the addition of a new agent – strictly speaking, it would have to be considered a new line of therapy, although it is also difficult in terms of definition.” (E09).

The other seven interviewees only considered the introduction of new pharmaceutical agents a change in LOT if the treatment intention changed as well, or if a recurrence or progression occurred. Only the replacement of one drug with another of the same class (e.g., cisplatin with carboplatin) was not considered a change of LOT by anyone.

Therapy breaks

There were also ambiguous opinions regarding the role of breaks in therapy for the classification of LOT. On the one hand, the length of the break was considered decisive, whereas on the other hand, it was said that the therapy following the break was more important. Additionally, some viewed breaks in therapy as important for the classification of LOT in the event of a relapse or progression:

“[…] In principle, if no recurrence has occurred and it is perhaps even the same substance […] then I would consider it one line of therapy, regardless of how long the break was.” (E01).

If the break was unplanned, it was considered a significantly more important criterion for a change in LOT than if it was part of the therapy concept.

The expert interviews in this study largely confirmed that there is no common understanding of the LOT concept or its defining criteria. The interview material suggests that individual backgrounds in differing medical disciplines may influence views on and understandings of LOT. This potential context dependency of the LOT concept also appears consistent with heterogeneous working definitions of LOT in different real-world studies of distinct cancer entities [ 1 , 11 , 12 ].

However, it appeared that a LOT was considered a therapeutic concept with start- and endpoints that is focused on systemic therapies, although it may also contain additional treatment modalities. If included in the LOT, such non-systemic modalities would be selected based on individual patient and disease characteristics, and terminated if certain events (e.g., tumor progression) occurred.

There was evident uncertainty about the role of adjuvant and maintenance therapy and whether they should be regarded as an LOT together with the preceding (systemic) therapy. Also, no prevailing opinion could be identified on the questions of whether treatment intention (curative vs. palliative) and therapy breaks were integral to defining LOTs. Furthermore, experts held differing opinions on which changes in the administered drug regimen would initiate a change in LOT.

In the literature, however, individual approaches for standardizing the criteria for a change in LOT exist in the following cases: the termination of a LOT is indicated in the event of treatment discontinuation, addition of a new, non-equivalent agent, interruption of treatment, clinical progression of the disease, or death of the patient [ 2 , 3 ]. The interviewees were also nearly unanimous on these criteria: all considered tumor progression and recurrence decisive for a change in LOT; six experts highlighted the occurrence of side effects or relevant toxicity; three mentioned the scheduled end of therapy; and one cited patients’ wishes. Only some of the interviewees considered a change in pharmaceutical regimen a factor in identifying a change in LOT, while replacement of one drug with another from the same class was not viewed as altering the LOT.

The interviews both identified tumor recurrence and progression as LOT-relevant events and raised questions about the nature of their role. Recurrence and progression during therapy breaks, as well as the length of the break and the treatment thereafter, were considered relevant factors for a change in LOT. In two interviews, although the participants initially identified recurrence and progression as indicators for a change in LOT, their further comments appeared to contradict this standpoint. This apparent inconsistency should be investigated in future research.

Seven interviewees considered treatment intention relevant to LOT. Predominantly, interviewees considered the adoption of maintenance therapy as a continuation of an ongoing LOT. However, it remains unclear whether changes in the dosage or interval of drug administration during maintenance therapy imply a change in LOT. Six interviewees said that both local and systemic therapy modalities should be included in characterizations of LOT, although previous research excluded local modalities [ 1 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

While similar approaches to standardizing the duration of a LOT [ 2 ] and first-line therapy [ 2 , 3 ] exist, it is not clear whether the definition of LOT can be standardized across disciplines as well as tumor entities. Nevertheless, a cross-disciplinary standard definition of the LOT concept should be targeted.

Limitations

This study exhibits the following limitations:

Qualitative expert interviews were only feasible for a small sample ( n  = 9) of oncological experts, most of whom were located at a single center (eight out of nine). While the study delivers highly granular insights, this approach precludes generalization of the findings. Therefore, subsequent research must evaluate the qualitative insights leaned from this study in larger and more representative samples.

The interviewees had varying degrees of professional experience and different specialties, making direct comparisons of experience and assessments regarding oncological LOT difficult. However, this was intentional to obtain the widest possible range of assessments regarding the broad topic under investigation.

No triangulation in the form of using multiple and diverse data sources, perspectives, locations, or theories took place in conducting the study. Such methods can help to mitigate subjective bias resulting from the explicit focus on one’s own data [ 16 ].

Data availability

Details on the data and materials related to the study may be available upon reasonable request from Bernd Bender ([email protected]).

Abbreviations

German Cancer Consortium

• Expert interview

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the expert physicians who participated in the interviews for their time and willingness to share their experiences and perspectives. Furthermore, we would like to thank the German Cancer Consortium’s Clinical Data Science Group for the support in realizing the study.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This research is partly funded by the German Cancer Consortium (DKTK).

Author information

Lisa Falchetto and Bernd Bender contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute for Digital Medicine and Clinical Data Science, Goethe University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany

Lisa Falchetto, Bernd Bender, Ian Erhard, Jörg Janne Vehreschild & Daniel Maier

German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), partner site Frankfurt/Mainz and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany

Bernd Bender, Ian Erhard & Daniel Maier

Department for Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Kim N. Zeiner

Department of Urology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Florestan J. Koll

PIOH Praxis Internistischer Onkologie und Hämatologie, Cologne, Germany

Marcel Reiser

Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Khayal Gasimli

Department for Internal Medicine 1, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Angelika Stehle

Department Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Martin Voss

Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

Jörg Janne Vehreschild

German Center for Infection Research (DZIF) partner site Bonn Cologne, Cologne, Germany

Medical Department 2 (Hematology/Oncology), Center for Internal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany

Jan A. Stratmann, Sebastian Wagner & Olivier Ballo

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Contributions

BB, LF, and DM contributed to the writing of this article. LF and DM created the interview manual. LF conducted the interviews with the oncological experts and analyzed the interview material collected. DM and JJV were substantially involved in the conception of the study and in the acquisition of the interviewed experts. JJV also supported the piloting of the interview manual. IE edited the manuscript. KNZ, JAS, FJK, SW, MR, KG, AS, MV and OB participated in the study and provided the substantive statements and findings.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bernd Bender .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

All subjects provided written informed consent to participate and this study was conducted according to all relevant ethical and regulatory guidelines. The project was approved by the ethics committee of the department of medicine of the Goethe University Frankfurt (ethical code number: 274/18).

Consent for publication

All interviewees permitted the use of the interview material and consented to publication.

Competing interests

Kim N. Zeiner (KNZ) received an honorarium for presentation from Bristol-Myers Squibb. Jan A. Stratmann (JAS) has personal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca, Roche, BMS, Amgen, LEO pharma, Novartis and Takeda. Florestan J. Koll (FJK) received grants from the German Cancer Aid and the German Cancer Consortium (DKTK). Marcel Reiser (MR) received consulting fees from Amgen, Abbvie, Stemline, Novartis and honoria from Roche. Jörg Janne Vehreschild (JJV) has personal fees from Merck / MSD, Gilead, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Basilea, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital Freiburg/ Congress and Communication, Academy for Infectious Medicine, University Manchester, German Society for Infectious Diseases (DGI), Ärztekammer Nordrhein, University Hospital Aachen, Back Bay Strategies, German Society for Internal Medicine (DGIM), Shionogi, Molecular Health, Netzwerk Universitätsmedizin, Janssen, NordForsk, Biontech, APOGEPHA and grants from Merck / MSD, Gilead, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Basilea, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), University of Bristol, Rigshospitalet Copenhagen. Daniel Maier (DM) received speaker honoraria from Free University Berlin and travel compensation from IQVIA. Lisa Falchetto (LF), Bernd Bender (BB), Ian Erhard (IE), Sebastian Wagner (SW), Khayal Gasimli (KG), Angelika Stehle (AS), Martin Voss (MV) and Olivier Ballo (OB) have no competing interests.

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Additional file 1.

Interview manual with all instructions and questions.

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Falchetto, L., Bender, B., Erhard, I. et al. Concepts of lines of therapy in cancer treatment: findings from an expert interview-based study. BMC Res Notes 17 , 137 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-06789-6

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Received : 28 July 2023

Accepted : 25 April 2024

Published : 15 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-06789-6

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