writing an essay is like presenting a case

• If you are writing in a new discipline, you should always make sure to ask about conventions and expectations for introductions, just as you would for any other aspect of the essay. For example, while it may be acceptable to write a two-paragraph (or longer) introduction for your papers in some courses, instructors in other disciplines, such as those in some Government courses, may expect a shorter introduction that includes a preview of the argument that will follow.  
• In some disciplines (Government, Economics, and others), it’s common to offer an overview in the introduction of what points you will make in your essay. In other disciplines, you will not be expected to provide this overview in your introduction.  
• Avoid writing a very general opening sentence. While it may be true that “Since the dawn of time, people have been telling love stories,” it won’t help you explain what’s interesting about your topic.  
• Avoid writing a “funnel” introduction in which you begin with a very broad statement about a topic and move to a narrow statement about that topic. Broad generalizations about a topic will not add to your readers’ understanding of your specific essay topic.  
• Avoid beginning with a dictionary definition of a term or concept you will be writing about. If the concept is complicated or unfamiliar to your readers, you will need to define it in detail later in your essay. If it’s not complicated, you can assume your readers already know the definition.  
• Avoid offering too much detail in your introduction that a reader could better understand later in the paper.
• picture_as_pdf Introductions

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How to Write a Case-Based Essay

By: William Ellet

Writing about a case is very different from talking about it. This chapter describes how to organize and write a logical, economical, and convincing case essay.

• Length: 15 page(s)
• Publication Date: Apr 17, 2007
• Discipline: Teaching & the Case Method
• Product #: 2451BC-PDF-ENG

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To outline the structure of a persuasive case essay.

Apr 17, 2007

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Bringing Stories to Your Essay: Introducing a Case Study the Right Way!

Table of contents

Ever found yourself immersed in a story, hanging onto every detail, eager to know what happens next? That, my friend, is the magic of a case study when sprinkled into an essay.

Just as a dash of spice can elevate a dish, a well-placed case study can take your essay from 'meh' to 'marvelous'. It's not just about showcasing real-world examples; it's about making your arguments relatable, tangible, and above all, memorable.

But hold on, before you dive headfirst into weaving in that intriguing case study you found, let’s chat about the art of introducing it. You see, dropping it in without context is like telling a joke without a punchline.

In this post, we'll guide you through the craft of smoothly and effectively introducing a case study into your essay, ensuring it's not just a detour but a meaningful journey for your readers. So, are you ready to give your essay that extra oomph?

Why Use Case Studies in Essays

You know those moments when you're explaining a theory or a concept, and you see those blank stares? Yup, we’ve all been there. That’s where real-world examples come into play. By weaving a case study into your essay, you're essentially turning on a light in a dim room. Suddenly, that complex theory has color, depth, and context. It's no longer just words on paper; it's a story, a lesson, a real-world incident that breathes life into your arguments.

And let's talk about the brownie points. When you toss a well-researched case study into the mix, it's like handing your readers proof that you've rolled up your sleeves and delved deep into your subject. It's a signal: you're not just skimming the surface; you're diving into the depths, bringing out treasures of knowledge.

Lastly, an apt case study is like the secret sauce to winning trust. Readers lean in, believing in your words, connecting with your narrative. It’s not just about flashing your research chops; it’s about creating a bond, engaging them, making them think, "Hey, this writer really knows their stuff!"

In a nutshell? Case studies? They're your essay's best friend.

Choosing the Right Case Study

Before you jump onto the Internet's vast ocean and fish out the first case study that sorta-kinda fits, let’s have a quick heart-to-heart. Not all case studies are created equal. And while it might be tempting to pick that dramatic, headline-grabbing one, it's essential to remember a few golden rules.

Firstly, it's all about alignment. Think of your essay as a puzzle. Every piece, every argument, every citation should fit just right. Your chosen case study? It's that central piece, setting the tone, connecting dots. So, make sure it's directly related to your topic. No square pegs in round holes, okay?

Next, reputation is everything. Dive into journals, accredited institutions, and renowned publications. Trustworthy sources not only boost your essay's credibility but save you from those cringe-worthy moments when someone points out a glaring error or bias in your chosen study.

Quick tip from the pros : Some case studies are like that popular song on the radio - overplayed and heard by everyone. Unless you’re bringing a fresh, unheard angle or a unique perspective to the table, steer clear of the overly popular ones. It's always more impressive to introduce your readers to a gem they haven't encountered before.

Introducing a Case Study: The Art of the Hook

Picture this : You're at a party, and someone starts a story with, "You won't believe what happened to me yesterday!" Chances are, you're all ears. That's the power of a good essay hook . Now, let's bring that energy to your essay!

Starting with a compelling fact or statement is your ticket to gripping your readers. Imagine leading with, "In a village where electricity was once a dream, solar panels changed everything." Instantly, your readers are curious. They want to know more about this village, the change, the story behind it all.

Once you've got their attention, lay down the problem. Paint a picture of the challenges, the obstacles, the scenario before the solution came into play. This sets the stage for your case study. By presenting the problem, you're essentially saying, "Hey, here's a situation. Stick around to see how it unraveled."

Quick Checklist: Crafting That Perfect Hook

• Relevance : Ensure it ties back to your main essay topic.
• Emotion : Strike a chord, whether it's curiosity, empathy, or even surprise.
• Simplicity : Keep it straightforward. No need for jargon or over-the-top language.
• Authenticity : Stay true to the essence of your case study. No embellishing facts!

Remember, the aim is to draw readers in, making them eager to delve into the heart of your case study. With a killer hook, you're not just starting an essay; you're beginning a journey they'll want to join.

MLA Citation: Giving Credit Where It's Due

Alright, let's chat about something we often overlook in our writing excitement: citation. I get it; it may not be the most thrilling part of essay writing, but think of it as the unsung hero, quietly ensuring your work stands tall with authenticity and respect.

First off, why the fuss about proper citation ? Well, citing your sources isn't just about avoiding the scary plagiarism monster. It's about acknowledging the hard work of others. It's a nod to fellow researchers, saying, "Hey, I see your efforts, and they've helped shape mine."

How to cite a case study in MLA format

Author's Last Name, First Name . "Title of the Case Study." Title of the Journal or Publication , vol. number, no. issue number, Year of Publication, page range.

For example: Smith, John. "Solar Power in Remote Villages." Energy Research Journal , vol. 5, no. 2, 2020, pp. 45-59.

If found online: Add the website name, the URL, and the access date at the end.

Smith, John. "Solar Power in Remote Villages." Energy Research Journal , vol. 5, no. 2, 2020, pp. 45-59. ERJ Online, www.erjonline123.com , Accessed 5 June 2022.

Avoid these mistakes

• Forgetting the access date: Especially for online sources, this one's crucial!
• Overlooking the punctuation: Note the periods, commas, and italics. They're all essential in MLA.

Quick Tip : If this feels a tad overwhelming, online citation tools are here to rescue! Platforms like EasyBib or Citation Machine can churn out MLA citations in a snap. Just feed in your source details, and voila!

In the end, think of citations as your essay's backstage crew, working behind the scenes to ensure your masterpiece gets a standing ovation.

Weaving the Case Study into Your Essay Narrative

Alright, so you've got this shiny case study and you’re all set to embed it into your essay. But here's the catch – it's not about just dropping it in; it's about stitching it seamlessly into your narrative fabric.

Make It Relevant : Think of your essay and case study as dance partners. They need to move in harmony. Ensure that your case study doesn't just stand alone; it should back up your arguments, add depth to them, or even offer a contrasting perspective. It’s about making the dance memorable.

Build a Logical Flow : Your readers are on a journey with you. Introduce your case study at a point where it feels natural, leading them from one idea to the next. It’s like following breadcrumbs; one leading to another, ensuring they never get lost in the woods.

Pacing is Key : Imagine watching a movie where the climax is revealed in the first ten minutes. Boring, right? Similarly, don’t spill all the beans about your case study right away. Tease a little, build intrigue, let it unfold gradually, keeping your readers hooked.

In essence, introducing a case study is an art. It’s not about making it fit, but about ensuring it belongs, enriching your essay's narrative and making it truly unforgettable.

Concluding Your Case Study Introduction

As you wrap up the intro to your case study, think of it as putting a bow on a gift. First, make a promise to your readers: assure them that venturing deeper into this case study will shed light, offer insights, or challenge perspectives. Maybe it's a promise of a lesson learned or an innovative solution unveiled. Then, seamlessly pave the way for what's next: your main arguments. Like a skilled guide, hint at the journey ahead, ensuring your readers are not only invested but also eager to embark on the exploration with you.

Final Thoughts & Wrap-up

Introducing a case study in an essay is much like mastering a dance step; at first, it might feel a tad awkward, maybe even a little forced. But with practice? Ah, that’s when the magic happens. Just as dancers become one with the music, with time, you'll find that blending case studies into your essays becomes second nature. The beauty lies in the richness they add, turning plain text into tapestries of real-life stories, insights, and revelations.

But what if you're pressed for time or feeling a tad overwhelmed? Here's a lifesaver: Writers Per Hour offers impeccable custom case study writing services tailored to your needs. They're the backstage crew ensuring your essay shines under the spotlight.

Now, with or without help, here's a challenge for you, dear readers: In your next essay, venture out, find that perfect case study, and weave it in. Experience the transformation it brings. And when you do, remember that every story you tell, every example you cite, adds depth and dimension to your narrative. Ready to give it a whirl?

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All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Difference Between Essay Writing and Presenting a Case

• March 1, 2020

Students have to cope with many academic papers. They differ in formatting, structure, and methods required for their performance. Essays belong to the most popular types of academic assignments.

Nevertheless, tutors and college professors also ask students to present other types of writings like thesis papers and case studies.

A thesis paper is a solid assignment that demands exact formatting. Colleges usually demand them when a person wants to obtain some degree or as final testing of student’s knowledge in a concrete subject and manifestation of abilities to research.

A case study differs from two previous academic writings. Essays and thesis papers belong to individual types of works. Case studies may be both individual and group projects.

So, how do essays and case studies differ?

Essays: What Are They and How Many Types Are There?

Essays are usually short and consist of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The main purpose is to tell a story, develop the idea, argue it or just inform the target audience about something. There are four major types of essays.

• Descriptive . Students have to portray an event or a person as vividly as possible. That is why a writer involves 5 senses trying to make the reader imagine the object of the description. Such essays contain many figures of speech. “People with dementia feel like infants left in a closed and cold room in an unknown house. Just like newborns, they see people but can hardly differentiate between loving relatives and strangers.”
• Argumentative . Controversy serves the cause of truth. Argumentative essays present two viewpoints of one problem and writers have to be a follower of one of them. Students are to advocate their position through facts and statistics. “The studies proved that 33 out of 250 infants who were born at home died because of the unqualified procedure.”(it expresses one’s disapproval) 
• Expository . Students present only objective data about the topic because its purpose is to inform the target audience about someone or something. “Ernest Hemingway is an American writer and journalist.”
• Narrative . It is a story about a real or imagined situation. Students are usually asked to write it in the first person singular and make the reader become a part of the story. “I still remember the smell of vanilla and fresh-made chocolate that my mom prepared specially for me.”

Case Study: Definition, Purpose, and Difficulties

A case study is also a type of research but its purpose is to collect and analyze information about a concrete person, organization, or situation to find a better solution for the existing problem.

It usually unites individual and group analysis because it must be informative and effective for the solution of a social problem.

There are 4 methods to investigate a case.

• A researcher observes the case without the need to learn the theoretical part first
• An investigator studies a case to fill in the knowledge gaps
• A student looks for anomalies and tries to explain them
• Students have to construct the reality

The choice of the method depends on the type.

There are 4 types of case studies :

• Illustration (description of events),
• explanation (research),
• cumulation (comparison of collective data),
• critical (cause-and-reason examination of a case).

There are difficulties one might face when preparing a case study. They usually concern financial matters and the ability to communicate with the object and related organizations or personalities.

For example, students have to learn more about a patient with cancer. They need to contact doctors, the patient, and, of course, deal with laboratory testing trying to find a more effective treatment, possible mistakes, or reasons for the inefficacy of the applied medication.

Difference between Case Studies and Essays

The difference between these two papers is vivid. A case study aims at investigating some situations and is popular among social and life sciences.

It is formal and each constituent needs proof to provide approaches and solutions. Essay topics can concern everything but one paper is usually narrowed down to one idea and there is no need to deal with many other spheres. 

Who Can Help to Cope with Case Studies and Essays?

Students often try to find someone who can ‘write my essay for me from scratch. Professional writing agencies deal with case studies and essays daily and provide their clients with excellent papers customized online. If one has a friend or a tutor who can explain and show good samples, it will be great to practice and discuss some difficult points. 

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Academic Essay Writing Made Simple: 4 types and tips

The pen is mightier than the sword, they say, and nowhere is this more evident than in academia. From the quick scribbles of eager students to the inquisitive thoughts of renowned scholars, academic essays depict the power of the written word. These well-crafted writings propel ideas forward and expand the existing boundaries of human intellect.

What is an Academic Essay

An academic essay is a nonfictional piece of writing that analyzes and evaluates an argument around a specific topic or research question. It serves as a medium to share the author’s views and is also used by institutions to assess the critical thinking, research skills, and writing abilities of a students and researchers.  

Importance of Academic Essays

4 main types of academic essays.

While academic essays may vary in length, style, and purpose, they generally fall into four main categories. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal: to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

1. Expository Essay

2. Descriptive Essay

3. Narrative Essay

4. Argumentative Essay

Expository and persuasive essays mainly deal with facts to explain ideas clearly. Narrative and descriptive essays are informal and have a creative edge. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal ― to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

Expository Essays: Illuminating ideas

An expository essay is a type of academic writing that explains, illustrates, or clarifies a particular subject or idea. Its primary purpose is to inform the reader by presenting a comprehensive and objective analysis of a topic.

By breaking down complex topics into digestible pieces and providing relevant examples and explanations, expository essays allow writers to share their knowledge.

What are the Key Features of an Expository Essay

Provides factual information without bias

Presents multiple viewpoints while maintaining objectivity

Uses direct and concise language to ensure clarity for the reader

Composed of a logical structure with an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion

When is an expository essay written.

1. For academic assignments to evaluate the understanding of research skills.

2. As instructional content to provide step-by-step guidance for tasks or problem-solving.

3. In journalism for objective reporting in news or investigative pieces.

4. As a form of communication in the professional field to convey factual information in business or healthcare.

How to Write an Expository Essay

Expository essays are typically structured in a logical and organized manner.

1. Topic Selection and Research

• Choose a topic that can be explored objectively
• Gather relevant facts and information from credible sources
• Develop a clear thesis statement

2. Outline and Structure

• Create an outline with an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion
• Introduce the topic and state the thesis in the introduction
• Dedicate each body paragraph to a specific point supporting the thesis
• Use transitions to maintain a logical flow

3. Objective and Informative Writing

• Maintain an impartial and informative tone
• Avoid personal opinions or biases
• Support points with factual evidence, examples, and explanations

4. Conclusion

• Summarize the key points
• Reinforce the significance of the thesis

Descriptive Essays: Painting with words

Descriptive essays transport readers into vivid scenes, allowing them to experience the world through the writer ‘s lens. These essays use rich sensory details, metaphors, and figurative language to create a vivid and immersive experience . Its primary purpose is to engage readers’ senses and imagination.

It allows writers to demonstrate their ability to observe and describe subjects with precision and creativity.

What are the Key Features of Descriptive Essay

Employs figurative language and imagery to paint a vivid picture for the reader

Demonstrates creativity and expressiveness in narration

Includes close attention to detail, engaging the reader’s senses

Engages the reader’s imagination and emotions through immersive storytelling using analogies, metaphors, similes, etc.

When is a descriptive essay written.

1. Personal narratives or memoirs that describe significant events, people, or places.

2. Travel writing to capture the essence of a destination or experience.

3. Character sketches in fiction writing to introduce and describe characters.

4. Poetry or literary analyses to explore the use of descriptive language and imagery.

How to Write a Descriptive Essay

The descriptive essay lacks a defined structural requirement but typically includes: an introduction introducing the subject, a thorough description, and a concluding summary with insightful reflection.

1. Subject Selection and Observation

• Choose a subject (person, place, object, or experience) to describe
• Gather sensory details and observations

2. Engaging Introduction

• Set the scene and provide the context
• Use of descriptive language and figurative techniques

3. Descriptive Body Paragraphs

• Focus on specific aspects or details of the subject
• Engage the reader ’s senses with vivid imagery and descriptions
• Maintain a consistent tone and viewpoint

4. Impactful Conclusion

• Provide a final impression or insight
• Leave a lasting impact on the reader

Narrative Essays: Storytelling in Action

Narrative essays are personal accounts that tell a story, often drawing from the writer’s own experiences or observations. These essays rely on a well-structured plot, character development, and vivid descriptions to engage readers and convey a deeper meaning or lesson.

What are the Key features of Narrative Essays

Written from a first-person perspective and hence subjective

Based on real personal experiences

Uses an informal and expressive tone

Presents events and characters in sequential order

When is a narrative essay written.

It is commonly assigned in high school and college writing courses to assess a student’s ability to convey a meaningful message or lesson through a personal narrative. They are written in situations where a personal experience or story needs to be recounted, such as:

1. Reflective essays on significant life events or personal growth.

2. Autobiographical writing to share one’s life story or experiences.

3. Creative writing exercises to practice narrative techniques and character development.

4. College application essays to showcase personal qualities and experiences.

How to Write a Narrative Essay

Narrative essays typically follow a chronological structure, with an introduction that sets the scene, a body that develops the plot and characters, and a conclusion that provides a sense of resolution or lesson learned.

1. Experience Selection and Reflection

• Choose a significant personal experience or event
• Reflect on the impact and deeper meaning

2. Immersive Introduction

• Introduce characters and establish the tone and point of view

3. Plotline and Character Development

• Advance   the  plot and character development through body paragraphs
• Incorporate dialog , conflict, and resolution
• Maintain a logical and chronological flow

4. Insightful Conclusion

• Reflect on lessons learned or insights gained
• Leave the reader with a lasting impression

Argumentative Essays: Persuasion and Critical Thinking

Argumentative essays are the quintessential form of academic writing in which writers present a clear thesis and support it with well-researched evidence and logical reasoning. These essays require a deep understanding of the topic, critical analysis of multiple perspectives, and the ability to construct a compelling argument.

What are the Key Features of an Argumentative Essay?

Logical and well-structured arguments

Credible and relevant evidence from reputable sources

Consideration and refutation of counterarguments

Critical analysis and evaluation of the issue 

When is an argumentative essay written.

Argumentative essays are written to present a clear argument or stance on a particular issue or topic. In academic settings they are used to develop critical thinking, research, and persuasive writing skills. However, argumentative essays can also be written in various other contexts, such as:

1. Opinion pieces or editorials in newspapers, magazines, or online publications.

2. Policy proposals or position papers in government, nonprofit, or advocacy settings.

3. Persuasive speeches or debates in academic, professional, or competitive environments.

4. Marketing or advertising materials to promote a product, service, or idea.

How to write an Argumentative Essay

Argumentative essays begin with an introduction that states the thesis and provides context. The body paragraphs develop the argument with evidence, address counterarguments, and use logical reasoning. The conclusion restates the main argument and makes a final persuasive appeal.

• Choose a debatable and controversial issue
• Conduct thorough research and gather evidence and counterarguments

2. Thesis and Introduction

• Craft a clear and concise thesis statement
• Provide background information and establish importance

3. Structured Body Paragraphs

• Focus each paragraph on a specific aspect of the argument
• Support with logical reasoning, factual evidence, and refutation

4. Persuasive Techniques

• Adopt a formal and objective tone
• Use persuasive techniques (rhetorical questions, analogies, appeals)

5. Impactful Conclusion

• Summarize the main points
• Leave the reader with a strong final impression and call to action

To learn more about argumentative essay, check out this article .

5 Quick Tips for Researchers to Improve Academic Essay Writing Skills

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Home > Blog > What is Case Conceptualization & How to Write it (With Examples)

What is Case Conceptualization & How to Write it (With Examples)

Courtney Gardner, MSW

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The Ultimate Guide to Case Conceptualization: Our Top Tips, Outlines, and Real-life Examples

As a mental health counselor, case conceptualization is one of the most essential skills you can develop to understand your clients and find the most effective treatment. But for new counselors, the process can be overwhelming. How do you synthesize all the information from your intake and assessment into a cohesive case conceptualization? Which theoretical orientation fits best? What should you include in your conceptualization? Let's dive in and discover the secrets to developing killer case conceptualization skills!

What Is Case Conceptualization?

Case conceptualization is the process of understanding and interpreting a client's presenting problems within the context of their individual history, personality, and current circumstances. It involves gathering and organizing information about the client, identifying patterns and themes, and formulating a comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to their difficulties. This understanding serves as the foundation for developing a treatment plan and guiding the therapeutic process.

Why Is Case Conceptualization Important to Mental Health Professionals?

Constructing a case conceptualization is crucial for mental health professionals as it helps them better understand their clients' perspectives and needs. Professionals can develop effective therapy outcomes by analyzing clients' experiences, thoughts, behaviors, environment, and biology. This enables them to identify suitable treatment options and establish  tailored treatment goals and interventions. A comprehensive approach is vital for providing evidence-based, client-centered therapy, which can lead to profound results, including improved insight, self-esteem, and motivation to make positive changes in their lives.

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How to Write a Case Conceptualization

To provide personalized treatment plans to your clients, it is essential to have a well-developed case conceptualization that helps you understand their mental health needs. You should include the following components early in creating your case conceptualization.

Client Information

Gather essential client information, including age, gender, relationship status, occupation, presenting problem, and relevant family and medical history.

Theoretical Orientation

Determine which theoretical approach fits their needs. This approach will guide the therapist to understand the client's symptoms and experiences through a particular lens. For example, a psychodynamic approach may focus on uncovering unconscious drives or past traumas, while a cognitive-behavioral approach looks at maladaptive thought patterns and behaviors.

If applicable, use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-V (DSM-5) to identify appropriate diagnoses and diagnostic codes based on your client's symptoms. Explain your conclusions.

The Eight P’s of Case Conceptualization Framework

If you aim to create a comprehensive case conceptualization, you can employ the 8 Ps framework. The Eight Ps framework helps you organize and structure your thoughts and ideas concisely and quickly. Utilizing this framework allows you to analyze and evaluate a case from multiple perspectives and develop a fully formed and well-rounded understanding of the issues at hand.

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Presentation.

What symptoms or life difficulties brought the client in? How do they view these problems?

• Describe the client's symptoms, concerns, and goals.  Identify the main issues to address, such as depression, anxiety, trauma, or relationship difficulties. Consider the duration and severity of problems.

Predisposing Factors

What makes the client vulnerable to these problems? Genetics? Trauma?

• Consider the historical or biological factors involved in the current issue. This may include discussing the individual's developmental experiences, family history, or medical conditions. It is also essential to examine the client's natural tendencies, traits, and vulnerabilities that may make specific problems more likely.

Precipitating Factors

What recent events triggered the current problems? Loss of a job? End of a relationship?

• Investigate recent events that may have caused or intensified the client's presenting problem. Identify any losses, changes, or stressors in the client's life. These could include health issues, the end of a relationship, or the loss of a loved one. It is also crucial to examine how the client responded to these events.

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Do they live an active or sedentary lifestyle? Is their personality naturally more dependent or independent?

• Identifying predictable patterns in a person's thinking, feeling, acting, and coping reflects their baseline tendencies in stressful and non-stressful situations.

Perpetuating Factors

What factors in their lives maintain their problems? Avoidance? Unhelpful thoughts?

• Pinpoint and explore the habits, beliefs, or dynamics that maintain the problem. This means looking into their unhealthy coping strategies, cognitive distortions, relationship patterns, lack of social support, unstable living situations, and any other factors that may be contributing to the issue.

Protective Factors and Strengths

What strengths does the client have? A robust support system? Coping skills?

• Note their strengths, resources, and supports that can aid in their healing process. This may include skills, talents, social connections, access to healthcare, spirituality, and other positive factors supporting their treatment and recovery.

How will you address the problems and build on your client's strengths? Treatment modalities? Strategies?

• Establish goals and strategies considering the factors that may have caused or contributed to their condition. Identifying any protective factors the client may already have and developing interventions that build on them is also essential.
• Discuss specific interventions, referrals, and approaches. The plan should be comprehensive, regularly reviewed, and modified to ensure that it effectively reduces the client's distress, helps them change unhealthy patterns, builds new skills, and improves overall functioning. You should also consider your clinical decision-making during the initial planning stages.

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What's the likelihood of improvement with treatment?

• Forecast the outcome of treatment for a client based on a combination of risk factors, protective factors, the client's strengths, and their readiness for change. It would help if you discussed your initial impressions regarding the severity of the problem, the client's motivation for change, their responsiveness to intervention, and other relevant factors. You should also estimate the number of sessions required for treatment.

Tips for Mastering Effective Case Conceptualizations

Creating an effective case conceptualization requires a comprehensive, adaptable, and multidimensional approach. It involves analyzing the client's situation, embracing various perspectives, focusing on their strengths, and evolving throughout therapy. Stay curious, keep an open mind, and be willing to learn. Your clients can benefit significantly from these qualities.

Remember the following essential tips to hone your skills and make a lasting impact on your clients:

Focus on the client's strengths.

When assessing problems and symptoms, it is essential to identify your client's strengths, resources, and abilities and build on what's working to motivate change.

Look for themes and patterns.

As you gather information from your client, look for connections between their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, experiences, and relationships. Themes will emerge that shape your conceptualization.

Consider multiple perspectives.

Various theoretical orientations can be applied to comprehend a client's situation better. Exploring different perspectives can offer alternative insights into a case.

Be flexible.

It is essential to regularly revisit and update your case conceptualization as new information arises and as your client progresses.

Paint the whole picture.

An effective case conceptualization should consider cultural context, family and social relationships, medical history, life experiences, environment, and more, not merely focus on the client's symptoms or problems.

Discuss your conceptualization with colleagues.

Bouncing ideas off  other therapists  or discussing cases during supervision can provide valuable feedback and input, strengthening your case conceptualization from different perspectives.

Continuously evaluate your conceptualization.

During therapy, regularly review how well your understanding of the situation accounts for any new issues or lack of progress and adjust your approach accordingly. A successful interpretation should always remain an evolving theory.

Review research and theory.

It's necessary to base your case conceptualization on established theory and research to give credibility to your formulations and interventions. Keep yourself updated with the latest developments in psychotherapy and counseling.

Case Conceptualization Template

An efficient case conceptualization template helps you structure the essential components of a client's situation and establish the foundation for a focused treatment plan. By following this framework, you can guarantee that you have considered all the relevant factors and gained a comprehensive comprehension of the client and their requirements.

• Presenting problem : Briefly summarize the client's presenting issues and symptoms.
• History : Summarize relevant information about the client's family, developmental, medical, and mental health history.
• Functional analysis : Analyze the environmental, cognitive, and interpersonal factors contributing to or maintaining the client's problems. This includes triggers, consequences, and coping strategies.
• Conceptualization : Explain your theoretical model and how it helps you understand the client's difficulties. Identify key themes, patterns, and underlying processes.
• Goals : Outline the client's objectives for therapy and your treatment goals based on your conceptualization.
• Plan : Propose a treatment plan with specific interventions and strategies that address your conceptualization and the client's goals. Monitor and revise the plan as needed.

Sample Case Conceptualization #1: John

John is a 45-year-old accountant who has struggled with social anxiety and depression for most of his life. He finds it difficult to connect with others and lives a relatively isolated existence. John's anxiety causes distress in work and social situations where interaction with others is required. His anxiety and depressive symptoms have been exacerbated by several major life stressors over the past year, including a breakup with his long-term girlfriend and downsizing at his company, where he was laid off.

John sought counseling to help improve his social skills, increase confidence in social and work settings, and learn strategies to manage anxiety and depression better. Initial treatment focused on cognitive techniques to identify and reframe negative thought patterns related to social situations. Role-playing and exposure techniques were also used to help build comfort in engaging with others. John showed gradual improvement over 12 sessions. He reported feeling less anxious in work meetings and social encounters. John also started dating again and joined a local recreational sports league to increase social interaction.

John felt he had made good progress at termination but would benefit from occasional "booster" sessions to help maintain gains. Recommendations were made for John to continue practicing cognitive and exposure techniques, engage in regular exercise and social activity, and follow up with medication management as needed. John left treatment with improved coping strategies, a more balanced perspective, increased confidence in social abilities, and an overall brighter outlook.

Example of John's Case Conceptualization

I.  Presenting Problem

• John sought counseling to address social anxiety, depression, and low self-confidence that had been impacting his work and social life.
• His symptoms had worsened due to recent life stressors, including a breakup and job loss.

II.  Background Information

• John has struggled with social anxiety and depression for most of his life.
• He has difficulty connecting with others and lives an isolated existence.
• His anxiety causes distress in social and work situations involving interaction with others.

III.  Psychosocial History

• John has a history of social anxiety dating back to childhood.
• He has few close relationships and limited social support.
• Recent life stressors have exacerbated his symptoms.

IV.  Diagnostic Considerations

• Social Anxiety Disorder
• Persistent Depressive Disorder

V.  Treatment Plan

• Cognitive techniques to identify and challenge negative thoughts
• Exposure exercises to build social skills and confidence
• Medication management as needed
• Recommend regular exercise, social activity, and booster sessions
• Help John develop coping strategies and a more balanced perspective

Sample Case Conceptualization #2: Jane

Jane is a 32-year-old married woman who presented with anxiety, depression, and relationship issues. She reports a lifelong struggle with feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. Jane's anxiety and negative self-image have contributed to difficulty asserting herself in her marriage and feeling disconnected from her husband.

Jane's symptoms worsened after the birth of her first child two years ago. She experienced postpartum depression and anxiety, which left her feeling overwhelmed as a new mother. Her husband, John, works long hours and takes on few childcare responsibilities. This has caused conflict and resentment in their relationship.

Jane sought therapy to address her depression, anxiety, and relationship problems. She wants to improve communication with her husband and negotiate a more balanced division of labor. Treatment initially focused on helping Jane identify and challenge negative automatic thoughts. Psychoeducation about assertiveness and conflict resolution strategies was provided. Role plays were used to practice effective communication and negotiation skills with her husband.

With therapy, Jane showed improvement in her mood and confidence. She was able to initiate difficult conversations with her husband about household responsibilities and childcare. Through gradual progress, Jane and her husband have found some compromise. Jane plans to continue working on assertiveness and negotiating skills to improve their relationship further. Medication may be considered in the future if symptoms do not continue to improve with therapy alone.

Example of Jane's Case Conceptualization

I.  Presenting Complaints

• Relationship issues with husband

II.  History of Presenting Issues

• Lifelong struggle with low self-esteem and negative self-image
• Symptoms worsened after the birth of the first child two years ago
• Experienced postpartum depression and anxiety
• Felt overwhelmed as a new mother
• Husband takes on few childcare responsibilities, causing conflict
• Married for five years, one child, age two
• Husband works long hours
• Limited social support

IV.  Conceptualization

• Negative automatic thoughts contribute to anxiety and depression
• Difficulty asserting needs and communicating effectively with her husband stems from low self-esteem
• Unequal division of labor at home breeds resentment and relationship issues
• Cognitive techniques to challenge negative thoughts
• Role plays and assertiveness training to improve communication skills with husband
• Negotiation strategies for dividing household responsibilities more equitably
• Consider medication if symptoms do not improve sufficiently with therapy

Sample Case Conceptualization #3: Sally

Sally is a 45-year-old woman who presented with symptoms of anxiety, depression, and substance abuse issues. She reports a history of trauma from an abusive relationship in her 20s, which left her with trust issues and anxiety in intimate relationships.

Sally currently lives alone and works as an accountant. She struggles with loneliness and social isolation. She copes by drinking alcohol, up to a bottle of wine per night. Sally's alcohol use has negatively impacted her work and personal relationships.

Sally sought therapy to address her depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and difficulty forming close relationships. Treatment focused on building coping skills to reduce alcohol cravings and manage anxiety. Psychoeducation about trauma and its impact on trust was provided. Sally participated in exposure therapy to help her overcome social anxiety and develop healthier social connections. With treatment, Sally was able to reduce her alcohol intake to a safer level. She made progress in confronting trauma-related thoughts and feelings that had previously prevented her from forming close relationships. Sally plans to continue working on coping skills, exposure exercises, and managing trauma symptoms to fully recover from substance abuse and build a more fulfilling social life.

Example of Sally's Case Conceptualization

• Sally presents with symptoms of anxiety, depression, and substance abuse issues stemming from a history of trauma from an abusive relationship.

II.  History of the Presenting Problem

• Sally has struggled with loneliness and social isolation for years since the trauma, coping with excessive alcohol use. Her drinking has negatively impacted her work and relationships.

III.  Relevant Background Information

• Sally lives alone and works as an accountant
• She has difficulty forming close relationships due to trust issues from her past trauma
• Sally drinks up to a bottle of wine per night to cope with anxiety and depression
• Sally's anxiety, depression, and substance abuse are all interconnected and rooted in her unresolved trauma from the abusive relationship. Her social isolation and lack of coping skills have led to unhealthy drinking patterns.
• Reduce alcohol cravings through coping skill-building
• Provide psychoeducation about trauma and its impact
• Exposure therapy to overcome social anxiety and form healthier relationships
• Continue working on managing trauma symptoms to recover from substance abuse fully

FAQs: Your Top Case Conceptualization Questions Answered

Case conceptualization is a critical first step but can also feel overwhelming. Here are answers to some of the most frequently asked questions to help put your mind at ease.

How do I get started?

Begin by collecting information from intake forms, interviews, observations, and assessments. Look for patterns and connections to the underlying factors influencing your client's symptoms and behaviors. Identify strengths, weaknesses, thought processes, core beliefs, relationships, environment, medical issues, and life events.

What should I include?

A good case conceptualization includes a description of symptoms, diagnosis (if applicable), developmental history, family and relationship dynamics, traumas, coping skills, motivation for change, and goals. It helps determine the factors perpetuating the issues and maintaining the status quo.

How often should I update it?

A case conceptualization is a living document. As you learn more about your client through sessions, revisit and revise your conceptualization. Note any changes in symptoms or life events and adjust treatment plans accordingly. Regular updates, even minor ones, help ensure you accurately understand your client and provide the best care.

Does software help?

Case conceptualization software and apps can help organize and identify patterns in information. They can also assist you in collaborating with colleagues. However, remember that technology should supplement your clinical judgment, not replace it. Software is not capable of determining causation or proposing an effective treatment plan.

You now have what it takes to craft an effective case conceptualization. Armed with the necessary tools and examples, you can begin by considering the eight Ps - problems, precipitating events, predisposing factors, perpetuating factors, protective factors, prognosis, plan, and progress. Infuse each section with rich details about your client, including quotes and observations that bring the case to life. Examine examples from others while ensuring your conceptualization reflects your unique client and therapeutic approach. With regular practice, case conceptualizations will come naturally and aid you in selecting the best interventions and outcomes. Now, get out there and start conceptualizing.

Remember to keep learning and enhancing your practice with Mentalyc. Stay updated on the latest techniques, strategies, and tools by subscribing to our email newsletter. You'll receive emails with actionable therapy advice delivered directly to your inbox. Take  advantage of our app's free trial,  automatically creating progress notes based on your therapy sessions. With  AI-drafted notes , you can quickly review and finalize, saving time and effort. Join our growing community of therapists and mental health professionals dedicated to practical, compassionate client care.

Biopsychosocial Model and Case Formulation . (2022, January 2). PsychDB.  https://www.psychdb.com/teaching/biopsychosocial-case-formulation

Jagpat, E. (n.d.).  Anatomy of a Clinical Case Conceptualization . Psychology Oral Exam Preparation, Study Materials, Consultation & more.  https://psychologyoralexam.com/anatomy-of-a-clinical-case-conceptualization-psychology-oral-exam/

Sperry, L., & Sperry, J. (2016).   Case Conceptualization: Mastering this Competency with Ease and Confidence . APA PsycNet.  https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-34298-000

Zaheer, G. J., & Farmer, R. L. (2020, July 30).   Science-Based Case Conceptualization . National Association of School Psychologists (NASP).  https://www.nasponline.org/professional-development/a-closer-look-blog/science-based-case-conceptualization

All examples of mental health documentation are fictional and for informational purposes only.

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Defense attacks Cohen, prosecution attacks Trump in hush money trial closing

Defense lawyer tries to shred the credibility of a key witness, as prosecutor says Donald Trump’s hush money payment helped him win the White House.

NEW YORK — A prosecutor urged jurors in marathon closing arguments Tuesday to convict Donald Trump in a hush money scheme “that could very well be what got President Trump elected” in 2016 — suggesting that the stifled tale of sex with a porn star changed the course of American history.

By offering that the alleged crimes may have decided the winner of the 2016 presidential race, Assistant District Attorney Joshua Steinglass implicitly highlighted the potential stakes of the seven-week trial — that the jury’s verdict here could alter the 2024 presidential contest, in which Trump is the presumptive Republican nominee.

Steinglass said the evidence is overwhelming that Trump knew of and directed efforts to falsify business records related to the reimbursement of a $130,000 payment to adult-film actress Stormy Daniels.

It was a “conspiracy and a coverup” that stretched from the campaign trail to the White House, Steinglass told the jury, pushing back forcefully against defense arguments that the payments were routine and Trump did nothing wrong.

"Everything Mr. Trump and his cohorts did in this case was cloaked in lies,” the prosecutor said near the end of a summation that stretched well over four hours. “The name of the game was concealment, and all roads lead inescapably to the man who benefited most: the defendant, former president Donald Trump.”

Defense attorney Todd Blanche offered his closing first on Tuesday, telling jurors that the prosecution’s evidence was so weak, they should return “a very quick and easy not-guilty verdict.”

The defense attorney insisted that Trump was not aware of the payment to Daniels by Michael Cohen, his onetime lawyer and fixer, and that Trump’s subsequent payments to Cohen were legitimate compensation for legal work.

Blanche argued that the prosecution’s entire case is built around the word of Cohen, a convicted liar and admitted thief, adding that a popular acronym in sports, the GOAT, or “greatest of all time,” could be applied to Cohen — with one change in the wording.

Cohen is “literally the greatest liar of all time,” or GLOAT, Blanche said. “He’s the human embodiment of reasonable doubt.”

Steinglass urged the panel to focus not on Cohen but on his former boss.

“This case is not about Michael Cohen. This case is about Donald Trump and whether he should be held accountable,” the prosecutor said, comparing Cohen to a “tour guide” who can explain the paper trail of the payments.

Trump guilty verdict

“You don’t need Michael Cohen to connect these dots, but as the ultimate insider he can help you to do just that,” Steinglass said. “Like all fixers, Cohen knew where the bodies were buried.”

Trump, on trial for 34 counts of falsifying business records, watched closely as the lawyers argued over his fate, turning in his chair to watch both Blanche and Steinglass as they delivered summations after weeks of presenting evidence.

At times during his closing, Blanche raised his voice and bellowed, such as when he accused Cohen of perjury. Other times, the lawyer seemed to be racing in trying to describe all the problems he saw with the prosecution’s case. Speaking fast then slow, quiet then loud, Blanche’s theme was nevertheless constant: A case centered on Cohen was built on quicksand.

Steinglass, by contrast, was more measured in his delivery, though at times he took sarcastic jabs at the defense lawyers. By late afternoon, some of the jurors seemed restless as he recounted chapter and verse of the evidence.

In stark terms, he described a conspiracy by wealthy and well-connected people to sabotage democracy — that to some extent succeeded.

The prosecutor said a 2015 meeting — between Trump, Cohen and the chief executive of the company that ran the National Enquirer supermarket tabloid — featured “three powerful men high up in Trump Tower trying to control the flow of information that might reach the voters.”

The three allegedly agreed that the tabloid would keep an eye out for scandalous stories about Trump, part of a “catch and kill” scheme to try to protect the candidate from any skeletons in his closet.

“It was a subversion of democracy,” Steinglass said.

At one point, he walked away from the lectern and toward the defense table, stretching his arm wide and pointing at Trump as he cited something the then-president’s team had said about Daniels in 2018. “The statement that this defendant put out … was a lie,” the prosecutor said.

Blanche focused on trying to cut every thread of possible trustworthiness that Cohen may have created with the jury, telling the panel that Cohen lied to them repeatedly during the trial, on key issues and small ones, and that doing so was simply his nature.

“He is biased and motivated to tell you a story that is not true,” Blanche said, because Cohen is “obsessed” with Trump and out for revenge. “He came in here and raised his right hand, and he lied to each of you.”

Blanche emphasized other points also built around the idea that Cohen is inherently unreliable. The defense lawyer said the reality of the Daniels payoff was that she and her lawyer set out to shake down Trump for money once he became a presidential candidate .

The evidence, Blanche argued, was far more convincing that Cohen had acted alone in arranging the hush money payment.

But Steinglass said Cohen’s account of his interactions with Trump was believable and supported by phone records, witness testimony and common sense.

He reminded the panel that Cohen testified he never would have paid $130,000 in hush money to Daniels on his own, because he never would have done anything that significant without Trump’s sign-off. As Steinglass made that point, a male juror in the front row nodded.

Steinglass also tried to attack what was arguably the defense’s strongest moment in the trial — when Blanche confronted Cohen with evidence indicating that an October 2016 phone call, which Cohen said was a discussion between him and Trump about hush money, was instead a conversation with Trump’s security man about a different issue.

Using something like prosecutorial artistic license, Steinglass offered an imaginary conversation in which Cohen talked to the security man and then spoke to Trump about the hush money, all in well under the time the actual phone call took, according to records submitted at trial.

Blanche told jurors that prosecutors called Daniels to testify not because she had any evidence to offer but because her account of a sexual encounter with Trump would make the former president look bad in the jury’s eyes.

“Why did they call her as a witness in this trial?” Blanche asked rhetorically, noting that Daniels has no firsthand knowledge of allegedly false records about payment and reimbursements. “They did it to try to inflame your emotions, they did it to try to embarrass President Trump.”

Outside the courthouse, the significance of the closing arguments was not lost on President Biden’s reelection campaign .

For the first time, the campaign sent surrogates — including actor Robert De Niro and two police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6 , 2021 — to speak out against Trump, who has repeatedly attacked the prosecution as politically motivated and blamed it on Biden, even though it is a state case and the White House has steered clear of involvement in any of Trump’s criminal cases.

Biden campaign officials insisted they came not to address the trial but to take advantage of the huge gathering of TV cameras outside the courthouse — a chance to inject the current president’s messaging into the trial coverage, which is the focus of live network broadcasts.

The Trump campaign redoubled its efforts to portray the case as politicized.

“The fact they’re holding a rally across the street from this very witch hunt tells us what we all knew: that this is a political persecution,” Donald Trump Jr. told reporters during the lunch break.

Inside the courtroom, the afternoon session stretched into the evening, as Steinglass took jurors laboriously through the witness testimony and documents submitted as evidence throughout the trial.

After showing the panel the first of a number of Cohen reimbursement checks at issue, he made a joke at his own expense: “I know what you’re thinking. Is this guy going to go through every single month’s worth of checks?”

A few jurors smirked at the dry humor.

Four minutes before the 8 p.m. deadline set by New York Supreme Court Justice Juan Merchan , Steinglass finished his summation.

Court was adjourned until 10 a.m. Wednesday.

The judge said that after he instructs the jury, they will deliberate until 4:30 p.m., then resume Thursday if they have not reached a verdict.

As he exited the courtroom, Trump forcefully flipped the lapels of his suit jacket and grimaced.

Trump New York hush money case

Donald Trump is the first former president convicted of a crime . Follow live updates .

Can Trump still run for president? Yes. He is eligible to campaign and serve as president if elected. Here’s everything to know about next steps , what this means for his candidacy and the other outstanding trials he faces.

What happens next? Trump’s sentencing is scheduled for July 11. He faces up to four years in prison, but legal experts say incarceration appears unlikely. Trump has 30 days to file notice of an appeal of the verdict and six months to file the full appeal.

Reaction to the verdict: Trump continued to maintain his innocence , railing against what he called a “rigged, disgraceful trial” and emphasizing voters would deliver the real verdict on Election Day.

The charges: Trump was found guilty on 34 felony counts of falsifying business records . Falsifying business records is a felony in New York when there is an “intent to defraud” that includes an intent to “commit another crime or to aid or conceal” another crime.