sample questionnaire for a research paper

Vrnda LeValley , customer training manager at HubSpot, recommends starting with an alignment question like, "Does this class meet your expectations?" because it gives more context to any positive or negative scores that follow. She continues, "If it didn't meet expectations, then there will potentially be negative responses across the board (as well as the reverse)."

3. Keep it brief, when possible.

Most questionnaires don't need to be longer than a page. For routine customer satisfaction surveys, it's unnecessary to ask 50 slightly varied questions about a customer's experience when those questions could be combined into 10 solid questions.

The shorter your questionnaire is, the more likely a customer will complete it. Plus a shorter questionnaire means less data for your team to collect and analyze. Based on the feedback, it will be a lot easier for you to get the information you need to make the necessary changes in your organization and products.

4. Choose a simple visual design.

There's no need to make your questionnaire a stunning work of art. As long as it's clear and concise, it will be attractive to customers. When asking questions that are important to furthering your company, it's best to keep things simple. Select a font that’s common and easy to read, like Helvetica or Arial. Use a text size that customers of all abilities can navigate.

A questionnaire is most effective when all the questions are visible on a single screen. The layout is important. If a questionnaire is even remotely difficult to navigate, your response rate could suffer. Make sure that buttons and checkboxes are easy to click and that questions are visible on both computer and mobile screens.

5. Use a clear research process.

Before planning questions for your questionnaire, you'll need to have a definite direction for it. A questionnaire is only effective if the results answer an overarching research question. After all, the research process is an important part of the survey, and a questionnaire is a tool that's used within the process.

In your research process, you should first come up with a research question. What are you trying to find out? What's the point of this questionnaire? Keep this in mind throughout the process.

After coming up with a research question, it's a good idea to have a hypothesis. What do you predict the results will be for your questionnaire? This can be structured in a simple "If … then …" format. A structured experiment — yes, your questionnaire is a type of experiment — will confirm that you're only collecting and analyzing data necessary to answer your research question. Then, you can move forward with your survey .

6. Create questions with straightforward, unbiased language.

When crafting your questions, it's important to structure them to get the point across. You don't want any confusion for your customers because this may influence their answers. Instead, use clear language. Don't use unnecessary jargon, and use simple terms in favor of longer-winded ones.

You may risk the reliability of your data if you try to combine two questions. Rather than asking, "How was your experience shopping with us, and would you recommend us to others?" separate it into two separate questions. Customers will be clear on your question and choose a response most appropriate for each one.

You should always keep the language in your questions unbiased. You never want to sway customers one way or another because this will cause your data to be skewed. Instead of asking, "Some might say that we create the best software products in the world. Would you agree or disagree?" it may be better to ask, "How would you rate our software products on a scale of 1 to 10?" This removes any bias and confirms that all the responses are valid.

7. Ask only the most important questions.

When creating your questionnaire, keep in mind that time is one of the most valuable commodities for customers. Most aren't going to sit through a 50-question survey, especially when they're being asked about products or services they didn't use. Even if they do complete it, most of these will be half-hearted responses from fatigued customers who simply want to be finished with it.

If your questionnaire has five or 55 questions, make sure each has a specific purpose. Individually, they should be aimed at collecting certain pieces of information that reveal new insights into different aspects of your business. If your questions are irrelevant or seem out of place, your customers will be easily derailed by the survey. And, once the customer has lost interest, it'll be difficult to regain their focus.

8. Ask one question at a time.

Since every question has a purpose, ask them one at a time. This lets the customer focus and encourages them to share a thoughtful response. This is particularly important for open-ended questions where customers need to describe an experience or opinion.

By grouping questions together, you risk overwhelming busy customers who don't have time for a long survey. They may think you're asking them too much, or they might see your questionnaire as a daunting task. You want your survey to appear as painless as possible. Keeping your questions separated will make it more user-friendly.

9. Order your questions logically.

A good questionnaire is like a good book. The beginning questions should lay the framework, the middle ones should cut to the core issues, and the final questions should tie up all loose ends. This flow keeps customers engaged throughout the entire survey.

When creating your questionnaire, start with the most basic questions about demographics. You can use this information to segment your customer base and create different buyer personas.

Next, add in your product and services questions. These are the ones that offer insights into common customer roadblocks and where you can improve your business's offerings. Questions like these guide your product development and marketing teams looking for new ways to enhance the customer experience.

Finally, you should conclude your questionnaire with open-ended questions to understand the customer journey. These questions let customers voice their opinions and point out specific experiences they've had with your brand.

10. Consider your target audience.

Whenever you collect customer feedback, you need to keep in mind the goals and needs of your target audience. After all, the participants in this questionnaire are your active customers. Your questions should be geared toward the interests and experiences they've already had with your company.

You can even create multiple surveys that target different buyer personas. For example, if you have a subscription-based pricing model, you can personalize your questionnaire for each type of subscription your company offers.

11. Test your questionnaire.

Once your questionnaire is complete, it's important to test it. If you don't, you may end up asking the wrong questions and collecting irrelevant or inaccurate information. Start by giving your employees the questionnaire to test, then send it to small groups of customers and analyze the results. If you're gathering the data you're looking for, then you should release the questionnaire to all of your customers.

How Questionnaires Can Benefit Your Customer Service Strategy

Whether you have one customer or 1000 customers, their opinions matter when it comes to the success of your business. Their satisfaction with your offerings can reveal how well or how poorly your customer service strategy and business are meeting their needs. A questionnaire is one of the most powerful, cost-effective tools to uncover what your customers think about your business. When analyzed properly, it can inform your product and service launches.

Use the free questionnaire templates, examples, and best practices in this guide to conduct your next customer feedback survey.

Now that you know the slight difference between a survey and a questionnaire, it’s time to put it into practice with your products or services. Remember, a good survey and questionnaire always start with a purpose. But, a great survey and questionnaire give data that you can use to help companies increase the way customers respond to their products or services because of the questions.

Net Promoter, Net Promoter System, Net Promoter Score, NPS, and the NPS-related emoticons are registered trademarks of Bain & Company, Inc., Fred Reichheld, and Satmetrix Systems, Inc.

Editor's note: This post was originally published in July 2018 and has been updated for comprehensiveness.

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Assessing Research-Doctorate Programs: A Methodology Study (2003)

Chapter: appendix d: sample questionnaires.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

Appendix D Sample Questionnaires {These questionnaires are subject to further review and revision.) 1. Institutional Questionnaire 2. Program Questionnaire 3. Faculty Questionnaire 4. Student Questionnaires a. Questionnaire for Acimittecl-to-Cancliclacy Doctoral Students b. Questionnaire for Program Gracluates 105

106 Institutional Questionnaire To the institutional coordinator: This questionnaire is intended to collect data about university-provided resources that are available to all doctoral programs. Typically, the ideal respondent will be in the university's office of institutional research. Most of the questions apply to all programs. One, on laboratory space, applies only to the sciences (including some social sciences). In listing programs, please refer to the attached taxonomy and answer for those programs that are present at your institution. I. For the libraries at your institution: (Please enter the average over the past three years) a. What is the average size of your professional library staff in total FTEs? b. What is the average annual library budget? c. What is the average annual budget for acquisition of books? d. A, ~ What is the average annual budget for acquisition of: print journals electronic journals ? What is the average annual budget for microprint and electronic databases? 2. Is health care insurance available to graduate students uncler an institutional plan? Yes No a. If available, health care insurance is made available to: ~ Students only ~ Students end faculty b. If available, what is the level of institutional support? (Check all that apply) Institution covers premium costs for: Teaching assistants ~ Research assistants ~ All other full-time graduate students ~ Al] graduate students Institution covers partial premium costs for: Teaching assistants ~ Research assistants ~ All other full-time graduate students ~ All graduate students No institutional contribution for: ~ Teaching assistants ~ Research assistants ~ Other graduate students 3. Does the university provide childcare facilities that are available to graduate students? O Yes ~1 No a. If yes, is the cost subsidized by the institution? ~ Yes :] No b. If not, does the institution provide a listing of childcare providers to graduate students? O Yes ~ No 4. Is university-subsidized student housing available to doctoral students? :] Yes ~ No APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D If so, what is the percentage of the doctoral students who live in university-provided housing? 5. Are graduate students are unionized on your campus? ~ Yes ~ No If yes, ~ Some students ~ All students If yes, are teaching assistants unionized? ~ Yes ~ No If yes, ~ Some teaching assistants ~ All teaching assistants If yes, are research assistants unionized? ~ Yes ~ No If yes, ~ Some research assistants ~ All research assistants? 6. Which of the following apply to the doctoral program at the institutional level? a. The institution confers awards to honor graduate students for teaching and/or research. ~ Yes ~ No b. Awards are given to faculty for mentoring or other activities that promote scholarship of doctoral students. Yes ~ No c. The institution provides some form of travel support for doctoral students to attend professional meetings. ~ Yes ~ No d. There is an organized program at the institutional level to help doctoral students improve their teaching skills. ~ Yes ~ No e. The institution provides an office that assists doctoral students in learning about employment opportunities. ~ Yes ~ No 7. For the information displayed in the following table, please provide in a file sent by small to rdpilof~as~ed~ For the each doctoral program in science (including the social sciences) and engineering at your institution, what is the net assignable square feet (NASF) of research space dedicated to the program (exclude space that is used only for undergraduates)? Please use the same definitions for NASF and research space that are used in the NSF Survey of Scientific and Engineering Research Facilities. See "Taxonomy] for a list of the program iEelds in the study, and provide the information in the Emai! i ile for only those doctoral programs that are offered at your institution. 107

APPENDIX D Program #3 108 Program Research space NASF Shared space with other programs (Y/N) Program #1 Pro cram #2

APPENDIX D Background Information Program Questionnaire This information will enable the National Research Council to contact you if there are any questions about the data. It will also permit us to contact faculty for the purpose of administering a questionnaire to elicit reputational ratings and background! data ant! to contact students to obtain information about their perceptions of the practices and offerings ~ ~ ~ 1 of the doctoral program. Please note that in addition to the web questionnaire, we would like lists of faculty and previous employers to be sent to us via e-mail. Please indicate the doctoral program to which the following information applies 1. Please provide the name and e-mai! address of the program respondent who will serve as the primary contact with the graduate oro cram. Name: Title: E-mail address: Mailing Address: State Zip Cocle- If this is an interdisciplinary program, please list the departments affiliated with the program. For each individual identified in questions 2 and 3, please provide in a file sent by emai! to rdpilot~)nas.~du the information displayed in the table for the question. Program Faculty: For each faculty member or senior research fellow or associate who participates in your doctoral program by directing theses, serving on doctoral committees, or teaching graduate courses, please provide the following information. Name Rank Highest Gender Race/ US Citizen or Tenure E-mail l | Degree | (M or F) | Ethn city | Permanent | Status | Addres (Y/N) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = Faculty Employment History: For each faculty member listed in Question 2 who joined your program within the past five years, please provide the institution, company, or organization where he or she was employed immediately before joining your institution. pros

110 Name Prior employer Position at that employer 4. For the doctoral students in your program, please provide the number of students that fall into each of the following categories. a. Total number of students: b. Status: Full-time Part-time Unknown c. Gentler: Male Female Unknown d. Citizenship: U.S. Permanent Resilient Temporary Visa Unknown cI. Race/Ethnicity (if U.S. citizen or Permanent Residents) American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific Islander Black White Hispanic Mexican American Puerto Rican Other Multiracial Unknown e. Percentage of doctoral students with master's degree Program Information 5. Does your program have a mission statement? If so, what is the mission statement? (50 words or less) ~ Yes :] No If there are particular areas of research emphasis in your doctoral program, please choose from the subfields in ETaxonomy]: APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D 6. How many Ph.D.s have been awarded in the program in each of the past five years? (Note: Years span from July ~ to June 30) 2001-02 2000-01 1999-00 1998-99 1997-98- 7. For each of the academic years listed in the following table, enter the number of students who entered the program in the year and the number who completed their degrees in 4, 6, or 8, years or are still in the program. (Note: Years span from July 1 to June 30) Entering Number Student of Academic Entering Year Cohort Doctoral Students 1992 1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 Number of Students admitted to candidacy by the end of the 4th year of enrollment Of those admitted to candidacy, number who complete within 4 years Of those admitted to candidacy, number who complete within 6 years Of those admitted to candidacy, number who complete within 8 years Of those admitted to candidacy, how many are still enrolled after 8 years? . I_ 7a. Averaged over the past three years, what percent of entering students withdrew from the program before completing two years of study? % 7b. Averaged over the past three years, what has been the median time to degree for those who completed the program? (Note: the median time is the number of years it takes half of the number of students from the same entering year who are admitted to candidacy to complete their degree.) 8. Is a master's degree required of students prior to admission to your program? ~ Yes ~ No 9. What proportion of your full-time first-year doctoral students receive full support throughout their first year (tuition and an adequate living allowance provided as stipend or salary in program related work (TA or RA)?

112 10. How many years of full financial support could students entering your doctoral program expect to receive from your institution or an external source? 1. Over the past five years approximately what fraction of the first-year students in your program received financial support either from your institution or from extramural grants or fellowships? Tuition only Tuition and stipend- Stipend only- 12. What proportion of currently enrolled doctoral students in your program (included in multiple categories if appropriate) are currently supported by: Externally funded fellowships: Externally funded traineeships: Externally funded research assistantships: University funded teaching assistantships: University funded research assistantships: University funded tuition waivers, fellowships, or stipends: 13. Averaged over the past three years, what are the average and minimum GRE scores for students accepted into the program? Average Verbal GRE: Minimum Verbal GRE: Average Quantitative GRE: Minimum Quantitative GRE: Do you require GRE subject scores for all students entering the program? ~ Yes ~ No 14. In each of the last three academic years, how many students did you accept into your doctoral program, and how many enrolled? 2000-2001 2001 -2002 2002-2003 Accepted Enrolled 15. What percentage of the doctoral students in your program have individually assigned workspaces for their exclusive use? TAs RAs All students 16. On average, how many courses per term is each graduate teaching assistant in the program expected to teach or assist a faculty member in teaching? With sole responsibility As an Assistant to a faculty member 17. Which of the following apply to your doctoral program? APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D a. The program confers awards to honor graduate students for teaching and/or research. ~ Yes ~1 No b. Awards are given to faculty for mentoring or other activities that promote scholarship of doctoral students. ~ Yes :] No The program provides some form of travel support for doctoral students to attend professional meetings. ~ Yes ~ No d. There is an organized program to help doctoral students improve their teaching skills. ~ Yes n No e. The program provides organized assistance to help doctoral students explore employment opportunities. Yes ~1 No 8. List up to 5 institutions with which your program normally competes for graduate students: Institution # 1 Institution #2- Institution #3 Institution #4 Institution #5 1 9. Does your program collect data about employment outcomes for your graduates? ~ Yes ~ No If yes, do you provide potential applicants with this information? ~ Yes ~ No 20. Please list those interdisciplinary centers in which doctoral students from your program participate (conduct research or teach). ~3

114 Faculty Questionnaire This questionnaire is part of the National Research Council's Pilot Test of the Assessment of Research Doctoral Programs. Your university has volunteered to participate in this pilot test to assist the National Research Council's study of the methodology used to assess doctoral programs. Further information about the methodology study may be found at www7.nationalacademies.org/resdoc/index.html You have been selected to receive this questionnaire because you are a member of the faculty who participates in the education of doctoral students at your university. This means that you either teach courses to doctoral students or supervise their dissertations. If this is not the case, please indicate that in question 1. The assessment of research doctoral programs is conducted approximately every ten years and consists of a reputational survey of doctoral programs and the collection of data about doctoral faculty and students in f~fty-seven areas of study. This questionnaire provides information that will assist the study in a number of ways: licit will help us construct a pool from which to select raters for the reputational survey; 2)it will provide us enough information about you that we can collect data on grants, citations, and publications from other sources; and Hit will permit a statistical description of the faculty in the graduate program or programs with which you are affiliated. Your answers will be treated as completely confidential by the National Research Council and will only be released as part of a statistical analysis. I. Program Identification a. Do you supervise dissertations, serve on doctoral committees, or teach graduate courses in a doctoral program? ~ Yes ~ No If your answer was "No", you do not need to complete the rest of the questionnaire. b. From the pulldown list, please choose the program of your primary affiliation/appointment tPull Down List of Res-Doc Programs] If you have difficulty locating your program on the list, please refer to the "Taxonomy] list with fields and subfields Please list all programs in which you supervise dissertations, serve on dissertation committees, or teach graduate courses and the average percentage of your time during the past year that you spent in all activities for each program with which you are associated. (Do not list programs where you are an outside reader.) Program Supervise dissertations Teach courses Serve on Percent of time spent in all (YIN) (YIN) dissertation activities for this program committees (YIN) ~ (total= IJ0%) ~ d. For the articles and books that you have published in the past five years, please list what fields you have published in Table 1. If you have a single publication that spans multiple fields, please indicate them and their fields in Table 2. APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D Table 1: Books and articles in a single field published in the past 3 years Field(see Taxonomy) ~ Articles ~ Books 1 1 ~ ' 1 1 1 Table 2: Books and articles in multiple fields published in the past 3 years Field (Enter all that apply) Articles Books II. Current Employment a. Department affiliation: b. Rank: ~ Instructor ~ Assistant Professor ~ Associate Professor ~ FullProfessor ~ Other c. Tenure status: ~ Tenure-track, not tenured Tenured ~ Non-tenure-track d. Year first employed at current institution: tIf employment was not continuous, please list year of most recent appointment at this institution.] Have you received an extramural grant or contract support in the past year? Yes ~ No f. Subfields of current research interest (refer to "Taxonomy] with subfields): Subfield # 1: Subfield #2: Subfield #3: g. Do you consider part of your research to be interdisciplinary? ~ Yes ~ No If so, what is the area of that research? h. Under what names or variants of your name have you published books or articles? III. Prior Experience What was your status prior to your current position? ~ Student ~ Postdoc ~ Faculty. ~ Other: Previous employer: Address: 115

116 IV. Educational Background City Title: Employment Sector: Industry (for profit) National laboratory State or local government Federal government agency International agency 4-year college or university 2-year college K- 12 school Hospital or clinic Foundation or nonprofit Military Other (specify: State/Country Zip Code- a. Highest degree earned: ~ Bachelor's ~ Master's ~ Ph.D. ~ Professional (M.D., J.D., D.V.M., for example) b. Institution that conferred highest degree: c. Field of highest degree: Other: d. Year of highest degree: tPulldown List] To what extent does the field of your current research, teaching, or professional activities differ from the field of your highest degree? ~ Very similar ~ Somewhat similar ~ Very different V. Demographic Information a. Date of birth: b. Gender: c. Citizenship Male Female U.S. Permanent Resident Temporary Visa (mmlddlyy) d. Race/Ethnicity (if U.S. citizen or permanent resident) American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific Islander Black White APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D Hispanic (I Mexican American, ~ Puerto Rican, ~ Other) ~ Multiracial VI. Please provide your preferred e-mai! address (where you can be reached if there are questions.) Thank you for your time. ~7

118 Questionnaire for Admitted-to-Candidacy Doctoral Students This questionnaire is part of the National Research Council's Pilot Test of the Assessment of Research Doctoral Programs. Your university has volunteered to participate in this pilot test to assist the National Research Council's study of the methodology used to assess doctoral programs. One innovation we are considering is adding student responses about the educational processes of the program. We believe that students' input is important to improving the quality of the educational experience. Further information about the methodology study may be found at www7.nationalacademies.org/resdoc/index.htm! You have been selected to receive this questionnaire because you are a student who has completed over half of your doctoral program. If this is not the case, please indicate that in question 1. The assessment of research doctoral programs is conducted approximately every ten years and consists of a reputational survey of doctoral programs and the collection of data about doctoral faculty and students in fifty-four areas of study. This questionnaire will provide information that will assist the study in a number of ways: 1) it will provide a statistical description of students in your program; 2) it will provide information about practices in your program; and 3) it will help future students in the selection of graduate programs. Your answers will be treated as completely confidential by the National Research Council and will only be released as part of a statistical analysis. Individual answers will not be shared with faculty or administrators of your doctoral program except in aggregated form. Institution: Doctoral Program: Educational Program A. Year of enrollment in this doctoral program: B. Year you expect to receive your doctorate: C. Did you (or will you) receive a master's degree before this doctorate? ~ Yes ~ No D. Did you (or will you) receive a master's degree in your doctoral field as part of your training? ~ Yes ~ No Ifyes,didyouwritea master's thesis? ~ Yes ~ No E. During the course of your study for the Ph.D. will you also receive any of the following as part of a joint, concurrent, or combined degree program: Professional doctorate (e.g., MD, DDS, OD, JD)? ~ Yes Professional master's (e.g., MBA, MPA, MPH)? ~ Yes No ~ No F. During the course of your study for the Ph.D. will you also receive a certificate in another field? ~ Yes ~ No APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D G. What were your career goals at the time you entered graduate school? Check all that apply] U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University ~ 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: Non-U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: ~ Unknown H. What are your current career plans? tcheck all that apply] U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University ~ 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: Non-U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: ~ Unknown I. Of the following sources of support, which have been your primary sources during your doctoral studies? (Check the three largest) I. ~ Personal/family funds 2. ~ Research Assistant (RA) 3. ~ Teaching Assistant (TA) 4. ~ Training grant 5. ~ Fellowship 6. ~ Loans 7. ~ Concurrent employment related to your degree 8. ~ Concurrent employment unrelated to your degree 2. Program Characteristics A. Professional Development I. During your doctoral program have you received (or will you receive) instruction, practice or professional development training in: a. Oral communication and presentation skills: ~ Yes ~ No b. Writing proposals for funding: ~ Yes ~ No c. Preparing articles for publication: ~ Yes ~ No d. Working in collaborative groups: ~ Yes ~ No Conducting independent research/scholarship:~ Yes ~ No f. Project management ~ Yes ~ No g. Research / professional ethics ~ Yes ~ No h. Speaking to nonacademic audiences ~ Yes n No 119 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

120 2. In your doctoral program did you have an opportunity to obtain teaching experience? Check the typets) of teaching experience you have had: a. mentoring a high school student b. mentoring an undergraduate student c. grading papers for undergraduate or graduate courses d. leading discussion sections of undergraduate or graduate courses e. leading laboratory sections of undergraduate or graduate courses f. lecturing in undergraduate or graduate courses g. tutoring undergraduates If you have had teaching experience, please answer the following, h. ~ received formal instruction in leaching. ~ Yes ~ No i. {received formal supervision end evaluation. ~ Yes ~ No j. ~ had opportunities to teach in a variety of academic environments. ~ Yes ~ No B. Program Environment 1. Does your program provide an annual or more frequent assessment of your progress? 2. Do you receive timely feedback on your research! 1 - - - - - _ Yes ~ No ~ Yes ~ No 3. Do you have access to career advice covering a variety of employment sectors? Yes ~ No ~ Yes ~ No a. If yes, are you encouraged to use it? 4. Do you have one or more faculty members at your institution that you consider mentors (i.e., individuals from whom you seek advice about your education, career development, and other matters of concern to you as a graduate student)? ~ Yes ~ No 5. How would you rate the quality of teaching by faculty in your program? ~ Excellent ~ Good ~ Fair ~ Poor 6. How would you rate the quality of your research experience? Excellent ~ Good ~ Fair ~ Poor 7. How would YOU rate the curriculum of your Ph.D. program? ~ Excellent ~ Good S. How would you rate the overall quality of your program _ ~ O ~ Fair ~ Poor ~ , , ~ ~ Excellent ~ Good ' ' ~ ~ ~ Lair ~ Poor 9. How would YOU rate the intellectual liveliness of your pro cram? ~ Excellent ~ Good 10. Considering the overall intellectual environment of your university, how much do you fee! you have benei ited from it? ~ A lot ~ Some APPENDIX D , — - - ~ o n Fair n Poor ~ A little ~ Not at all

APPENDIX D C. Infrastructure I. Does your program give you access to: a. Your own personal work space b. Computer facilities Yes ~ No ~ Yes ~ No c. Other research facilities; if so, describe: 2. Does your program provide adequate space for interaction among students? C] Yes O No 3. Are the library resources available to you adequate to support your research and education? ~ Yes C] No D. Research productivity I. How many research presentations (including poster presentations) have you made at research conferences a. on your campus? b. at national or regional meetings? 2. How many research publications have you authored or co-authored during your cloctoral studies (include pieces accepted for publication but not yet published)? a. Refereed articles b. Book chapters c. Reviews d. Books or edited volumes 3. Background information A. Date of birth: (mm/~/yy) B. Gender: ~ Male n Female C. Citizenship U.S. Permanent Resident Temporary Visa D. Race/Ethnicity (if U.S. citizen) American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific Islander Black White Hispanic Mexican American, ~ Puerto Rican, ~ Other) ~ Multiracial E. Dependent care responsibilities: 1. Number of children living with you: Age 6 or under Over age 6 3. Parents or other dependents ~ Yes ~ No 121

122 APPENDIX D G. Marital Status: Do you have a spouse or partner who lives with you? ~ Yes ~ No F. Level of Parents' Education: Mother Father High school diploma or less Some college/Bachelor's degree Advanced degree

APPENDIX D Five-Seven Years Post-Ph.D Questionnaire This questionnaire is part of the National Research Council's Pilot Test of the Assessment of Research Doctoral Programs. Your university has volunteered to participate in this pilot test to assist the National Research Council's study of the methodology used to assess doctoral programs. One innovation that we are considering is to add student responses to questions about the educational process of the program. Further information about the methodology study may be found at www7.nationalacademies. org/resdoc/index.html You have been selected to receive this questionnaire because you are a student who has received a Ph.D. from this program five to seven years ago. If this is not the case, please indicate that in question 1. ~ 4, , I, The assessment of research doctoral programs is conducted approximately every ten years and consists of a reputational survey of doctoral programs and the collection of data about doctoral faculty and students in fifty-four areas of study. This questionnaire provides information that will assist the study in a number of ways: 1) it will help us learn whether a high enough percentage of students respond so that we can add student observations to the larger study; 2) it will provide us enough information about practices in your program that we can compare the practices of graduate programs in your field at different universities; and 3) it will permit a statistical description of the f~rst-year students in the graduate program. Your answers will be treated as completely confidential by the National Research Council and will only be released as part of a statistical analysis. Individual answers will not be shared with faculty or administrators of your former doctoral program except in aggregated form. Educational Program a. Name of the program where you received your Ph.D. degree: b. Year of enrollment in the above Ph.D. program: c. Year you received your Ph.D.: d. Did you receive a master's degree at this institution before this Ph.D.? ~ Yes ~ No e. Were you enrolled as a full-time student throughout your Ph.D. program? ~ Yes ~ No f. Did you attend graduate school prior to enrollment in the above Ph.D. program? ~ Yes ~ No If so, what degrees or certificates, if any, do you hold? ~ Certificate ~ Master's ~ Doctoral ~ Professional g. What was your career goal when you completed your Ph.D.? U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: 123

124 Non-U.S. Employment: Industry ~ Government ~ Nonprofit ~ University 2-yr. college ~ 4-yr. college Other: ~ Unknown h. Have your career goals changed since you received your Ph.D.? ~ Yes ~ No i. During your Ph.D. program, were you supported by funds from outside the institution? ~ Yes ~ No (Check all that apply) Type: ~ Fellowship ~ Training Grant ~ Research Grant ~ Your employer ~ Other(Specify: ! J. Did you receive institutional support? ~ Yes ~ No (Check all that apply) Type: ~ Teaching Assistantship ~ Research Assistantship ~ Fellowship ~ Tuition scholarship or waiver only ~ Loan ~ None ~ Other(Specify: ! 2. Employment and Career Status a. First employer or place of postdoctoral study after Ph.D. completion: Name: Address: City State/Country Zip Code- Title: b. Employment Sector: Industry (for profit) National laboratory State or local government Federal government agency International agency University 4-year college 2-year college K-12 school Hospital or clinic Foundation or nonprofit Military Other (specify) APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D c. If you hold or have held a postdoctoral position or positions, how many , and at what institutions, companies or government agencies were they located? List chronologically starting with the most recent. Position # 1: Position#2: Position # 3: Position#4: Dates: Dates: Dates: Dates: d. Current employer: Name: Address: City State/Country Zip Code- Title: e. Current Employment Sector: Industry (for profit) National laboratory State or local government Federal government agency International agency University 4-year college 2-year college K-12 school Hospital or clinic Foundation or nonprofit Military ~ Other (specify) 3. Ph.D. Program Characteristics a. During your Ph.D. education, in which of the following areas was training PROVIDED, which skills or experiences have you USED since graduation, and which area do you wish you had learned MORE about? (check all that apply) 1) Teaching experiemce 2) Oral communication; presentation skills 3) Writing proposals for funding 4) Manuscript preparation Provided Provided Provided Provided Experience working in collaborative groups ~ Provided 6) Critical analysis 7) Locating and applying information 125 Used ~ More Used ~ More Used ~ More Used ~ More Provided Provided Used ~ More Used ~ More Used ~ More

26 8) Experience working with people of varied educational levels ~ Provided ~ Used ~ More 9) Experience working with people from diverse backgrounds ~ Provided ~ Used ~ More 10) Experience working in teams b. Research Productivity Provided ~ Used ~ More How many books or edited books have you published or are currently accepted for publication? 2) How many articles or book chapters have you published or are currently accepted for publication? 3) How many books or articles have you reviewed for publication? 4) How many reviews, enumerated in 3), have been or will be published? 5) How many refereed papers have you or a coauthor presented at professional conferences? How many awards have you received? (Respond to all categories.) a) For teaching: b) For research: From professional societies: From your institution or employer: 7) How many patents or licenses have you received? 8) How many grants have you received from your employer or institution? 9) How many grants have you received from extramural funding agencies? 4. Background Information a. Date of birth: b. Gender: c. Citizenship APPENDIX D Male Female U.S. Permanent Resident Temporary Visa (mmlddlyy)

APPENDIX D 127 d. Race/Ethnicity (ifU.S. citizen) American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian Pacific Islander Black White Hispanic (~ Mexican American, ~ Multiracial e. Martial Status ~ Married ~ Single f. Number of Children: Age 6 and under Over age 6 g. Level of Parents' Education: Less than high school High school diploma Some college Bachelor's degree Master's degree Professional degree Doctoral degree h. Is English your first language? Mother Yes ~ No Puerto Rican, ~ Other) Father

How should we assess and present information about the quality of research-doctorate programs? In recommending that the 1995 NRC rankings in Assessing the Quality of Research-Doctorate Programs: Continuity and Change be updated as soon as possible, this study presents an improved approach to doctoral program assessment which will be useful to administrators, faculty, and others with an interest in improving the education of Ph.D.s in the United States. It reviews the methodology of the 1995 NRC rankings and recommends changes, including the collection of new data about Ph.D. students, additional data about faculty, and new techniques to present data on the qualitative assessment of doctoral program reputation. It also recommends revision of the taxonomy of fields from that used in the 1995 rankings.

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• Indian Dermatol Online J
• v.12(2); Mar-Apr 2021

Practical Guidelines to Develop and Evaluate a Questionnaire

Kamal kishore.

Department of Biostatistics, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India

Vidushi Jaswal

1 Department of Psychology, MCM DAV College for Women, Chandigarh, India

Vinay Kulkarni

2 Department of Dermatology, PRAYAS Health Group, Amrita Clinic, Karve Road, Pune, Maharashtra, India

Dipankar De

3 Department of Dermatology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India

Life expectancy is gradually increasing due to continuously improving medical and nonmedical interventions. The increasing life expectancy is desirable but brings in issues such as impairment of quality of life, disease perception, cognitive health, and mental health. Thus, questionnaire building and data collection through the questionnaires have become an active area of research. However, questionnaire development can be challenging and suboptimal in the absence of careful planning and user-friendly literature guide. Keeping in mind the intricacies of constructing a questionnaire, researchers need to carefully plan, document, and follow systematic steps to build a reliable and valid questionnaire. Additionally, questionnaire development is technical, jargon-filled, and is not a part of most of the graduate and postgraduate training. Therefore, this article is an attempt to initiate an understanding of the complexities of the questionnaire fundamentals, technical challenges, and sequential flow of steps to build a reliable and valid questionnaire.

Introduction

There is an increase in the usage of the questionnaires to understand and measure patients' perception of medical and nonmedical care. Recently, with increased interest in quality of life associated with chronic diseases, there is a surge in the usage and types of questionnaires. The questionnaires are also known as scales and instruments. Their significant advantage is that they capture information about unobservable characteristics such as attitude, belief, intention, or behavior. The multiple items measuring specific domains of interest are required to obtain hidden (latent) information from participants. However, the importance of questions or items needs to be validated and evaluated individually and holistically.

The item formulation is an integral part of the scale construction. The literature consists of many approaches, such as Thurstone, Rasch, Gutmann, or Likert methods for framing an item. The Thurstone scale is labor intensive, time-consuming, and is practically not better than the Likert scale.[ 1 ] In the Guttman method, cumulative attributes of the respondents are measured with a group of items framed from the “easiest” to the “most difficult.” For example, for a stem, a participant may have to choose from options (a) stand, (b) walk, (c) jog, and (d) run. It requires a strict ordering of items. The Rasch method adds the stochastic component to the Guttman method which lay the foundation of modern and powerful technique item response theory for scale construction. All the approaches have their fair share of advantages and disadvantages. However, Likert scales based on classical testing theory are widely established and preferred by researchers to capture intrinsic characteristics. Therefore, in this article, we will discuss only psychometric properties required to build a Likert scale.

A hallmark of scientific research is that it needs to meet rigorous scientific standards. A questionnaire evaluates characteristics whose value can significantly change with time, place, and person. The error variance, along with systematic variation, plays a significant part in ascertaining unobservable characteristics. Therefore, it is critical to evaluate the instruments testing human traits rigorously. Such evaluations are known as psychometric evaluations in context to questionnaire development and validation. The scientific standards are available to select items, subscales, and entire scales. The researchers can broadly segment scientific criteria for a questionnaire into reliability and validity.

Despite increasing usage, many academicians grossly misunderstand the scales. The other complication is that many authors in the past did not adhere to the rigorous standards. Thus, the questionnaire-based research was criticized by many in the past for being a soft science.[ 2 ] The scale construction is also not a part of most of the graduate and postgraduate training. Given the previous discussion, the primary objective of this article is to sensitize researchers about the various intricacies and importance of each step for scale construction. The emphasis is also to make researcher aware and motivate to use multiple metrics to assess psychometric properties. Table 1 describes a glossary of essential terminologies used in context to questionnaire.

Glossary of important terms used in context to psychometric scale

The process of building a questionnaire starts with item generation, followed by questionnaire development, and concludes with rigorous scientific evaluation. Figure 1 summarizes the systematic steps and respective tasks at each stage to build a good questionnaire. There are specific essential requirements which are not directly a part of scale development and evaluation; however, these improve the utility of the instrument. The indirect but necessary conditions are documented and discussed under the miscellaneous category. We broadly segment and discuss the questionnaire development process under three domains, known as questionnaire development, questionnaire evaluation, and miscellaneous properties.

Flowchart demonstrating the various steps involved in the development of a questionnaire

Questionnaire Development

The development of the list of items is an essential and mandatory prerequisite for developing a good questionnaire. The researcher at this stage decides to utilize formats such as Guttman, Rasch, or Likert to frame items.[ 2 ] Further, the researcher carefully identifies the appropriate member of the expert panel group for face and content validity. Broadly, there are six steps in the scale development.

It is crucial to select appropriate questions (items) to capture the latent trait. An exhaustive list of items is the most critical and primary requisite to lay the foundation of a good questionnaire. It needs considerable work in terms of literature search, qualitative study, discussion with colleagues, other experts, general and targeted responders, and other questionnaires in and around the area of interest. General and targeted participants can also advise on items, wording, and smoothness of questionnaire as they will be the potential responders.

It is crucial to arrange and reword the pool of questions for eliminating ambiguity, technical jargon, and loading. Further, one should avoid using double-barreled, long, and negatively worded questions. Arrange all items systematically to form a preliminary draft of the questionnaire. After generating an initial draft, review the instrument for the flow of items, face validity and content validity before sending it to experts. The researcher needs to assess whether the items in the score are comprehensive (content validity) and appear to measure what it is supposed to measure (face validity). For example, does the scale measuring stress is measuring stress or is it measuring depression instead? There is no uniformity on the selection of a panel of experts. However, a general agreement is to use anywhere from a minimum of 5–15 experts in a group.[ 3 ] These experts will ascertain the face and content validity of the questionnaire. These are subjective and objective measures of validity, respectively.

It is advisable to prepare an appealing, jargon-free, and nontechnical cover letter explaining the purpose and description of the instrument. Further, it is better to include the reason/s for selecting the expert, scoring format, and explanations of response categories for the scale. It is advantageous to speak with experts telephonically, face to face, or electronically, requesting their participation before mailing the questionnaire. It is good to explain to them right in the beginning that this process unfolds over phases. The time allowed to respond can vary from hours to weeks. It is recommended to give at least 7 days to respond. However, a nonresponse needs to be followed up by a reminder email or call. Usually, this stage takes two to three rounds. Therefore, it is essential to engage with experts regularly; else there is a risk of nonresponse from the study. Table 2 gives general advice to researchers for making a cover letter. The researcher can modify the cover letter appropriately for their studies. The authors can consult Rubio and coauthors for more details regarding the drafting of a cover letter.[ 4 ]

General overview and the instructions for rating in the cover letter to be accompanied by the questionnaire

The responses from each round will help in rewording, rephrasing, and reordering of the items in the scale. Few questions may need deletion in the different rounds of previous steps. Therefore, it is better to evaluate content validity ratio (CVR), content validity index (CVI), and interrater agreement before deleting any question in the instrument. Readers can consult formulae in Table 2 for calculating CVR and CVI for the instrument. CVR is calculated and reported for the overall scale, whereas CVI is computed for each item. Researchers need to consult Lawshe table to determine the cutoff value for CVR as the same depends on the number of experts in the panel.[ 5 ] CVI >0.80 is recommended. Researchers interested in detail regarding CVR and CVI can read excellent articles written by Zamanzadeh et al . and Rubio et al .[ 4 , 6 ] It is crucial to compute CVR, CVI, and kappa agreement for each item from the rating of importance, representativeness, and clarity by experts. The CVR and CVI do not account for a chance factor. Since interrater agreement (IRA) incorporates chance factor; it is better to report CVR, CVI, and IRA measures.

The scholars require to address subtle issues before administering a questionnaire to responders for pilot testing. The introduction and format of the scale play a crucial role in mitigating doubts and maximizing response. The front page of the questionnaire provides an overview of the research without using technical words. Further, it includes roles and responsibilities of the participants, contact details of researchers, list of research ethics (such as voluntary participation, confidentiality and withdrawal, risks and benefits), and informed consent for participation in the study. It is also better to incorporate anchors (levels of Likert item) in each page at the top or bottom or both for ease and maximizing response. Readers can refer to Table 3 for detail.

A random set of questions with anchors at the top and bottom row

Pilot testing of an instrument in the target population is an important and essential requirement before testing on a large sample of individuals. It helps in the elimination or revision of poorly worded items. At this stage, it is better to use floor and ceiling effects to eliminate poorly discriminating items. Further, random interviews of 5–10 participants can help to mitigate the problems such as difficulty, relevance, confusion, and order of the questions before testing it on the study population. The general recommendations are to recruit a sample size between 30 and 100 for pilot testing.[ 4 ] Inter-question (item) correlation (IQC) and Cronbach's α can be assessed at this stage. The values less than 0.3 and 0.7, respectively, for IQC and reliability, are suspicious and candidate for elimination from the questionnaire. Cronbach's α, a measure of internal consistency and IQC of a scale, indicates researcher about the quality of items in measuring latent attribute at the initial stage. This process is important to refine and finalize the questionnaire before starting the testing of a questionnaire in study participants.

Questionnaire Evaluation

The preliminary items and the questionnaire until this stage have addressed issues of reliability, validity, and overall appeal in the target population. However, researchers need to rigorously evaluate the psychometric properties of the primary instrument before finally adopting. The first step in this process is to calculate the appropriate sample size for administering a preliminary questionnaire in the target group. The evaluations of various measures do not follow a sequential order like the previous stage. Nevertheless, these measures are critical to evaluate the reliability and validity of the questionnaire.

Correct data entry is the first requirement to evaluate the characteristics of a manually administered questionnaire. The primary need is to enter the data into an appropriate spreadsheet. Subsequently, clean the data for cosmetic and logical errors. Finally, prepare a master sheet, and data dictionary for analysis and reference to coding, respectively. Authors interested in more detail can read “Biostatistics Series.”[ 7 , 8 ] The data entry process of the questionnaire is like other cross-sectional study designs. The rows and columns represent participants and variables, respectively. It is better to enter the set of items with item numbers. First, it is tedious and time-consuming to find suitable variable names for many questions. Second, item numbers help in quick identification of significantly contributing and non-contributing items of the scale during the assessment of psychometric properties. Readers can see Table 4 for more detail.

A sample of data entry format

Descriptive statistics

Spreadsheets are easy and flexible for routine data entry and cleaning. However, the same lack the features of advanced statistical analysis. Therefore, the master sheet needs to be exported to appropriate software for advanced statistical analysis. Descriptive analysis is the usual first step which helps in understanding the fundamental characteristics of the data. Thus, report appropriate descriptive measures such as mean and standard deviation, and median and interquartile/interdecile range for continuous symmetric and asymmetric data, respectively.[ 9 ] Utilize exploratory tabular and graphical display to inspect the distribution of various items in the questionnaire. A stacked bar chart is a handy tool to investigate the distribution of data graphically. Further, ascertain linearity and lack of extreme multicollinearity at this stage. Any value of IQC >0.7 warrants further inspection for deletion or modification. Help from a good biostatistician is of great assistance for data analysis and reporting.

Missing data analysis

Missing data is the rule, not the exception. Majority of the researchers face difficulties of finding missing values in the data. There are usually three approaches to analyze incomplete data. The first approach is to “take all” which use all the available data for analysis. In the second method, the analyst deletes the participants and variables with gross missingness or both from the analysis process. The third scenario consists of estimating the percentage and type of missingness. The typically recommended threshold for the missingness is 5%.[ 10 ] There are broadly three types of missingness, such as missing completely at random, missing at random, and not missing at random. After identification of a missing mechanism, impute the data with single or multiple imputation approaches. Readers can refer to an excellent article written by Graham for more details about missing data.[ 11 ]

Sample size

The optimum sample size is a vital requisite to build a good questionnaire. There are many guidelines in the literature regarding recruiting an appropriate sample size. Literature broadly segments sample size approaches into three domains known as subject to variables ratio (SVR), minimum sample size, and factor loadings (FL). The factor analysis (FA) is a crucial component of questionnaire designing. Therefore, recent recommendations are to use FLs to determine sample size. Readers can consult Table 5 for sample size recommendations under various domains. Interested readers can refer to Beavers and colleagues for more detail.[ 12 ] The stability of the factors is essential to determine sample size. Therefore, data analysis from questionnaires validates the sample size after data collection. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) criterion testing the adequacy of sample size is available in the majority of the statistical software packages. A higher value of KMO is an indicator of sufficient sample size for stable factor solution.

Sample size recommendations in the literature

SVR→Subject to variable ratio, FL→Factor loading

Correlation measures

The strength of relationships between the items is an imperative requisite for a stable factor solution. Therefore, the correlation matrix is calculated and ascertained for same. There are various recommendations of correlation coefficient; however, a value greater than 0.3 is a must.[ 13 ] A lower value of the correlation coefficient will fail to form a stable factor due to lack of commonality. The determinant and Bartlett's test of sphericity can be used to ascertain the stability of the factors. The determinant is a single value which ranges from zero to one. A nonzero determinant indicates that factors are possible. However, it is small in most of the studies and not easy to interpret. Therefore, Bartlett's test of sphericity is routinely used to infer that determinant is significantly different than zero.

Physical quantities such as height and weight are observable and measurable with instruments. However, many tools need regular calibration to be precise and accurate. The standardization in context to the questionnaire development is known as reliability and validity. The validity is the property which indicates that an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to measure. Validation is a continuous process which begins with the identification of domains and goes on till generalization. There are various measures to establish the validity of the instrument. Authors can consult Table 6 for different types of validity and their metrics.

Scientific standards to evaluate and report for constructing a good scale

MCAR: Missing completely at random; MAR: Missing at random; NMAR: Not missing at random; KMO: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin; SD: Standard deviation; IQR: Interquartile range

Exploratory FA

FA assumes that there are underlying constructs (factors) which cannot be measured directly. Therefore, the investigator collects the exhaustive list of observed variables or responses representing underlying constructs. Researchers expect that variables or questions in the questionnaire correlate among themselves and load on the corresponding but a small number of factors. FA can be broadly segmented in exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis. The EFA is applied on the master sheet after assessing descriptive statistics such as tabular and graphical display, missing mechanism, sample size adequacy, IQC, and Bartlett's test in step 7 [ Figure 1 ]. The value of EFA is used at the initial stages to extract factors while constructing a questionnaire. It is especially important to identify an adequate number of factors for building a decent scale. The factors represent latent variables that explain variance in the observed data. First and the last factor explain maximum and minimum variance, respectively. There are multiple factor selection criteria, each with its advantages and disadvantages. It is better to utilize more than one approach for retaining factors during the initial extraction phase. Readers can consult Sindhuja et al . for the practical application of more than one-factor selection criteria.[ 14 ]

Kaiser's criterion

Kaiser's criterion is one of the most popular factor retention criteria. The basis of the Kaiser criterion is to explain the variance through the eigenvalue approach. A factor with more than one eigenvalue is the candidate for retention.[ 15 ] An eigenvalue bigger than one simply means that a single factor is explaining variance for more than one observed variable. However, there is a dearth of scientifically rigorous studies to declare a cutoff value for Kaiser's criterion. Many authors highlighted that the Kaiser criterion over-extract and under-extract factors.[ 16 , 17 ] Therefore, investigators need to calculate and consider other measures for extraction of factors.

Cattell's scree plot

Cattell's scree plot is another widespread eigenvalue-based factor selection criterion used by researchers. It is popularly known as scree plot. The scree plot assigns the eigenvalues on the y -axis against the number of factors in the x -axis. The factors with highest to lowest eigenvalues are plotted from left to right on the x -axis. Usually, the scree plots form an elbow which indicates the cutoff point for factor extraction. The location or the bend at which the curve first begins to straighten out indicates the maximum number of factors to retain. A significant disadvantage of the scree plot is the subjectivity of the researcher's perception of the “elbow” in the plot. Researchers can see Figure 2 for detail.

A hypothetical example showing the researcher's dilemma of selecting 6, 10, or 15 factors through scree plot

Percentage of variance

The variance extraction criterion is another criterion to retain the number of factors. The literature recommendation varies from more than a minimum of 50–70% onward.[ 12 ] However, both the number of items and factors will increase dramatically if there are a large number of manifest (observed) variables. Practically, the percentage of variance explained mechanism should be used judiciously along with FL. The FLs with greater than 0.4 value are preferred; however, there are recommendations to use a value higher than 0.30.[ 3 , 15 , 18 ]

Very simple structure

Very simple structure (VSS) approach is a symbiosis of theory, psychometrics, and statistical analysis. The VSS criterion compares the fit of the simplified model to the original correlations. It plots the goodness-of-fit value as a function of several factors rather than statistical significance. The number of factors that maximizes the VSS criterion suggests the optimal number of factors to extract. VSS criterion facilitates comparison of a different number of factors for varying complexity. VSS will be highest at the optimum number of factors.[ 19 ] However, it is not efficient for factorially complex data.

Parallel analysis

Parallel analysis (PA) is a statistical theory-based robust technique to identify the appropriate number of factors. It is the only technique which accounts for the probability that a factor is due to chance. PA simulates data to generate 95 th percentile cutoff line on a scree plot restricted upon the number of items and sample size in original data. The factors above the cutoff line are not due to chance. PA is the most robust empirical technique to retain the appropriate number of factors.[ 16 , 20 ] However, it should be used cautiously for the eigenvalue near the 95 th percentile cutoff line. PA is also robust to distributional assumptions of the data. Since different techniques have their fair share of advantages and disadvantages, researchers need to assess information on the basis of multiple criteria.

Reliability

Reliability, an essential requisite of a scale, is also known as reproducibility, repeatability, and consistency. It identifies that the instrument is consistently measuring the attribute under identical conditions. Reliability is a necessary characteristic of a tool. The trustworthiness of a scale can be increased by increasing and decreasing the systematic and random component, respectively. The reliability of an instrument can be further segmented and measured with various indices. Reliability is important but it is secondary to validity. Therefore, it is ideal to calculate and report reliability after validity. However, there are no hard and fast rules except that both are necessary and important measures. Readers may consult Table 6 for multiple types of indices for reliability.

Internal consistency

Cronbach's alpha (α), also known as α-coefficient, is one of the most used statistics to report internal consistency reliability. The internal consistency using the interitem correlations suggests the cohesiveness of items in a questionnaire. However, the α-coefficient is sample-specific; thus, the literature recommends the same to calculate and report for all the studies. Ideally, a value of α >0.70 is preferred; however, the value of α >0.60 is also accepted for construction of new scale.[ 21 , 22 ] Researchers can increase the α-coefficient by adding items in the scale. However, a value can either reduce with the addition of non-correlated items or deletion of correlated items. Corrected interitem correlation is another popular measure to report for internal consistency. A value of α <0.3 indicates the presence of nonrelated items. The studies claim that coefficient beta (β) and omega (Ω) are better indices than coefficient-α, but there is a scarcity of literature reporting these indices.[ 23 ]

Test–retest

Test–retest reliability measures the stability of an instrument over time. In other words, it measures the consistency of scores over time. However, the appropriate time between repeated measures is a debatable issue. Pearson's product-moment and intraclass correlation coefficient measure and report test–retest reliability. A high value of correlation >0.70 represents high reliability.[ 21 ] The change in study condition (recovery of patients after intervention) over time can decrease test–retest reliability. Therefore, it is important to report the time between repeated measures while reporting test–retest reliability.

Parallel forms and split-half reliability

Parallel form reliability is also known as an alternate form of consistency. There are two types of option to report parallel form reliability. In the first method, different but similar items make alternative forms of the test. The assumptions of both the assessment are that they measure the same phenomenon or underlying construct. It addresses the twin issues of time and knowledge acquisition of test in test–retest reliability. In the second approach, the researcher randomly divides the total items of an instrument into two halves. The calculation of parallel form from two halves is known as split-half reliability. However, randomly divided half may not be similar. The parallel from and split-half reliability are reported with the correlation coefficient. The recommendations are to use a value higher than 0.80 to assess the alternate form of consistency.[ 24 ] It is challenging to generate two types of tests in clinical studies. Therefore, researchers rarely report reliability from two analogous but separate tests.

General Questionnaire Properties

The major issues regarding the reliability and validity of scale development have already been discussed. However, there are many other subtle issues for developing a good questionnaire. These delicate issues may vary from a choice of Likert items, length of the instrument, cover letter, web or internet mode of data collection, and weighting of scale. The immediately preceding issues demand careful deliberation and attention from the researcher. Therefore, the researcher should carefully think through all these issues to build a good questionnaire.

Likert items

The Likert items are the fixed choice ordinal items which capture attitude, belief, and various other latent domains. The subsequent step is to rank the questions of the Likert scale for further analysis. The numerals for ranking can either start from 0 or 1. It does not make a difference. The Likert scale is primarily bipolar as opposite ends endorse the contrary idea.[ 2 ] These are the type of items which express opinions on a measure from strong disagreement to strong agreement. The adjectival scales are unipolar scale that tends to measure variables like pain intensity (no pain/mild pain/moderate pain/severe pain) in one direction. However, the Likert scale (most likely–least likely) can measure almost any attribute. The Likert scale can either have odd or even categories; however, odd categories are more popular. The number of classifications in the Likert scale can vary from anywhere between 3 and 11,[ 2 ] although the scale with 5 and 7 classes have displayed better statistical properties for discriminating between responses.[ 2 , 24 ]

Length of questionnaire

A good questionnaire needs to include many items to capture the construct of interest. Therefore, investigators need to collect as many questions as possible. However, the lengthier scale increases both time and cost. The response rate also decreases with an increase in the length of the questionnaire.[ 25 ] Although what is lengthy is debatable and varies from more than 4 pages to 12 pages in various studies,[ 26 ] the longer scales increase the false positivity rate.[ 27 ]

Translating a questionnaire

Many a time, there are already existing reliable and valid questionnaires for use. However, the expert needs to assess two immediate and important criteria of cultural sensitivity and language of the scale. Many sensitive questions on sexual preferences, political orientations, societal structure, and religion may be open for discussion in certain societies, religions, and cultures, whereas the same may be taboo or receive misreporting in others. The sensitive questions need to be reframed considering regional sentiments and culture in mind. Further, a questionnaire in different language needs to be translated by a minimum of two independent bilingual translators. Similarly, the translated questionnaire needs to be translated back into the original language by a minimum of two independent and different bilingual experts who converted the original questionnaire. The process of converting the original questionnaire to the targeted language and then back to the original language is known as forward and backward translation. The subsequent steps such as expert panel group, pilot testing, reliability, and validity for translating a questionnaire remain the same as in constructing a new scale.

Web-based or paper-based

Broadly, paper and electronic format are the two modes of administering a questionnaire to the participants. Both techniques have advantages and disadvantages. The response rate is a significant issue in self-administered scales. The significant benefits of electronic format are the reduction in cost, time, and data cleaning requirements. In contrast, paper-based administration of questionnaire increases external generalization, paper feel, and no need of internet. As per Greenlaw and Welty, the response rate improves with the availability of both the options to participants. However, cost and time increase in comparison to the usage of electronic format alone.[ 27 ]

Item order and weights

There are multiple ways to order an item in a questionnaire. The order of questions becomes more critical for a lengthy questionnaire. There are different opinions about either grouping or mixing the issues in an instrument.[ 24 ] Grouping inflates intra-scale correlation, whereas mixing inflates inter-scale correlation.[ 28 ] Both the approaches have empirically shown to give similar results for at least 20 or more items. The questions related to a particular domain can be assigned either equal or unequal weights. There are two mechanisms to assign unequal weights in a questionnaire. In the first situation, researchers affix different importance to items. In the second method, the investigators frame more or fewer questions as per the importance of subscales in the scale.

The fundamental triad of science is accuracy, precision, and objectivity. The increasing usage of questionnaires in medical sciences requires rigorous scientific evaluations before finally adopting it for routine use. There are no standard guidelines for questionnaire development, evaluation, and reporting in contrast to guidelines such as CONSORT, PRISMA, and STROBE for treatment development, evaluation, and reporting. In this article, we emphasize on the systematic and structured approach for building a good questionnaire. Failure to meet the questionnaire development standards may lead to biased, unreliable, and inaccurate study finding. Therefore, the general guidelines given in this article can be used to develop and validate an instrument before routine use.

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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How to Write a Survey Paper: Brief Overview

Every student wishes there was a shortcut to learning about a subject. Writing a survey paper can be an effective tool for synthesizing and consolidating information on a particular topic to gain mastery over it.

There are several techniques and best practices for writing a successful survey paper. Our team is ready to guide you through the writing process and teach you how to write a paper that will benefit your academic and professional career.

What is a Survey Paper

A survey paper is a type of academic writing that aims to give readers a comprehensive understanding of the current state of research on a particular topic. By synthesizing and analyzing already existing research, a survey paper provides good shortcuts highlighting meaningful achievements and recent advances in the field and shows the gaps where further research might be needed.

The survey paper format includes an introduction that defines the scope of the research domain, followed by a thorough literature review section that summarizes and critiques existing research while showcasing areas for further research. A good survey paper must also provide an overview of commonly used methodologies, approaches, key terms, and recent trends in the field and a clear summary that synthesizes the main findings presented.

Our essay writing service team not only provides the best survey paper example but can also write a custom academic paper based on your specific requirements and needs.

How to Write a Survey Paper: Important Steps

If you have your head in your hands, wondering how to write a survey paper, you must be new here. Luckily, our team of experts got you! Below you will find the steps that will guide you to the best approach to writing a successful survey paper. No more worries about how to research a topic . Let's dive in!

Obviously, the first step is to choose a topic that is both interesting to you and relevant to a large audience. If you are struggling with topic selection, go for only the ones that have the most literature to compose a comprehensive research paper.

Once you have selected your topic, define the scope of your survey paper and the specific research questions that will guide your literature review. This will help you establish boundaries and ensure that your paper is focused and well-structured.

Next, start collecting existing research on your topic through various academic databases and literature reviews. Make sure you are up to date with recent discoveries and advances. Before selecting any work for the survey, make sure the database is credible. Determine what sources are considered trustworthy and reputable within the specific domain.

Continue survey paper writing by selecting the most relevant and significant research pieces to include in your literature overview. Make sure to methodically analyze each source and critically evaluate its relevance, rigor, validity, and contribution to the field.

At this point, you have already undertaken half of the job. Maybe even more since collecting and analyzing the literature is often the most challenging part of writing a survey paper. Now it's time to organize and structure your paper. Follow the well-established outline, give a thorough review, and compose compelling body paragraphs. Don't forget to include detailed methodology and highlight key findings and revolutionary ideas.

Finish off your writing with a powerful conclusion that not only summarizes the key arguments but also indicates future research directions.

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Survey Paper Outline

The following is a general outline of a survey paper.

• Introduction - with background information on the topic and research questions
• Literature Overview - including relevant research studies and their analysis
• Methodologies and Approaches - detailing the methods used to collect and analyze data in the literature overview
• Findings and Trends - summarizing the key findings and trends from the literature review
• Challenges and Gaps - highlighting the limitations of studies reviewed
• Future Research Direction - exploring future research opportunities and recommendations
• Conclusion - a summary of the research conducted and its significance, along with suggestions for further work in this area.
• References - a list of all the sources cited in the paper, including academic articles and reports.

You can always customize this outline to fit your paper's specific requirements, but none of the components can be eliminated. Our custom essay writer

Further, we can explore survey paper example formats to get a better understanding of what a well-written survey paper looks like. Our custom essay writer can assist in crafting a plagiarism-free essay tailored to meet your unique needs.

Survey Paper Format

Having a basic understanding of an outline for a survey paper is just the beginning. To excel in survey paper writing, it's important to become proficient in academic essay formatting techniques. Have the following as a rule of thumb: make sure each section relates to the others and that the flow of your paper is logical and readable.

Title - You need to come up with a clear and concise title that reflects the main objective of your research question.

Survey paper example title: 'The analysis of recommender systems in E-commerce.'

Abstract - Here, you should state the purpose of your research and summarize key findings in a brief paragraph. The abstract is a shortcut to the paper, so make sure it's informative.

Introduction - This section is a crucial element of an academic essay and should be intriguing and provide background information on the topic, feeding the readers' curiosity.

Literature with benefits and limitations - This section dives into the existing literature on the research question, including relevant studies and their analyses. When reviewing the literature, it is important to highlight both benefits and limitations of existing studies to identify gaps for future research.

Result analysis - In this section, you should present and analyze the results of your survey paper. Make sure to include statistical data, graphs, and charts to support your conclusions.

Conclusion - Just like in any other thesis writing, here you need to sum up the key findings of your survey paper. How it helped advance the research topic, what limitations need to be addressed, and important implications for future research.

Future Research Direction - You can either give this a separate section or include it in a conclusion, but you can never overlook the importance of a future research direction. Distinctly point out areas of limitations and suggest possible avenues for future research.

References - Finally, be sure to include a list of all the sources/references you've used in your research. Without a list of references, your work will lose all its credibility and can no longer be beneficial to other researchers.

Writing a Good Survey Paper: Helpful Tips

After mastering the basics of how to write a good survey paper, there are a few tips to keep in mind. They will help you advance your writing and ensure your survey paper stands out among others.

Select Only Relevant Literature

When conducting research, one can easily get carried away and start hoarding all available literature, which may not necessarily be relevant to your research question. Make sure to stay within the scope of your topic. Clearly articulate your research question, and then select only literature that directly addresses the research question. A few initial readings might not reveal the relevance, so you need a systematic review and filter of the literature that is directly related to the research question.

Use Various Sources and Be Up-to-Date

Our team suggests only using up-to-date material that was published within the last 5 years. Additional sources may be used if they contribute significantly to the research question, but it is important to prioritize current literature.

Use more than 10 research papers. Though narrowing your pool of references to only relevant literature is important, it's also crucial that you have a sufficient number of sources.

Rely on Reputable Sources

Writing a survey paper is a challenge. Don't forget that it is quality over quantity. Be sure to choose reputable sources that have been peer-reviewed and are recognized within your field of research. Having a large number of various research papers does not mean that your survey paper is of high quality.

Construct a Concise Research Question

Having a short and to-the-point research question not only helps the audience understand the direction of your paper but also helps you stay focused on a clear goal. With a clear research question, you will have an easier time selecting the relevant literature, avoiding unnecessary information, and maintaining the structure of your paper.

Use an Appropriate Format

The scholarly world appreciates when researchers follow a standard format when presenting their survey papers. Therefore, it is important to use a suitable and consistent format that adheres to the guidelines provided by your academic institution or field.

Our paper survey template offers a clear structure that can aid in organizing your thoughts and sources, as well as ensuring that you cover all the necessary components of a survey paper.

Don't forget to use appropriate heading, font, spacing, margins, and referencing style. If there is a strict word limit, be sure to adhere to it and use concise wording.

Use Logical Sequence

A survey paper is different from a regular research paper. Every element of the essay needs to relate to the research question and tie into the overall objective of the paper.

Writing research papers takes a lot of effort and attention to detail. You will have to revise, edit and proofread your work several times. If you are struggling with any aspect of the writing process, just say, ' Write my research paper for me ,' and our team of tireless writers will be happy to assist you.

Starting Point: Survey Paper Example Topics

Learning how to write a survey paper is important, but it is only one aspect of the process.

Now you need a powerful research question. To help get you started, we have compiled a list of survey paper example topics that may inspire you.

• Survey of Evolution and Challenges of Electronic Search Engines
• A Comprehensive Survey Paper on Machine Learning Algorithms
• Survey of Leaf Image Analysis for Plant Species Recognition
• Advances in Natural Language Processing for Sentiment Analysis
• Emerging Trends in Cybersecurity Threat Detection
• A Comprehensive Survey of Techniques in Big Data Analytics in Healthcare
• A Survey of Advances in Digital Art and Virtual Reality
• A Systematic Review of the Impact of Social Media Marketing Strategies on Consumer Behavior
• A Survey of AI Systems in Artistic Expression
• Exploring New Research Methods and Ethical Considerations in Anthropology
• Exploring Data-driven Approaches for Performance Analysis and Decision Making in Sports
• A Survey of Benefits of Optimizing Performance through Diet and Supplementation
• A Critical Review of Existing Research on The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
• Investigating the Future of Blockchain Technology for Secure Data Sharing
• A Critical Review of the Literature on Mental Health and Innovation in the Workplace

Final Thoughts

Next time you are asked to write a survey paper, remember it is not just following an iterative process of gathering and summarizing existing research; it requires a deep understanding of the subject matter as well as critical analysis skills. Creative thinking and innovative approaches also play a key role in producing high-quality survey papers.

Our expert writers can help you navigate the complex process of writing a survey paper, from topic selection to data analysis and interpretation.

Finding It Difficult to Write a Survey Paper?

Our essay writing service offers plagiarism-free papers tailored to your specific needs.

Are you looking for advice on how to create an engaging and informative survey paper? This frequently asked questions (FAQ) section offers valuable responses to common inquiries that researchers frequently come across when writing a survey paper. Let's delve into it!

What is Survey Paper in Ph.D.?

What is the difference between survey paper and literature review paper, related articles.