presentation on the nucleus

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• Biology LibreTexts - The Nucleus
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• Khan Academy - Biology - Nucleus and Ribosomes
• Oregon State University Pressbooks - The Nucleus and DNA Replication
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nucleus , in biology , a specialized structure occurring in most cells (except bacteria and blue-green algae ) and separated from the rest of the cell by a double layer, the nuclear membrane . This membrane seems to be continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (a membranous network) of the cell and has pores, which probably permit the entrance of large molecules. The nucleus controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism ) and carries the genes , structures that contain the hereditary information. Nucleoli are small bodies often seen within the nucleus. The gel-like matrix in which the nuclear components are suspended is the nucleoplasm .

Because the nucleus houses an organism’s genetic code , which determines the amino acid sequence of proteins critical for day-to-day function, it primarily serves as the information centre of the cell. Information in DNA is transcribed, or copied, into a range of messenger ribonucleic acid ( mRNA ) molecules, each of which encodes the information for one protein (in some instances more than one protein, such as in bacteria). The mRNA molecules are then transported through the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm, where they are translated, serving as templates for the synthesis of specific proteins. For more information on these processes, see transcription ; translation .

A cell normally contains only one nucleus. Under some conditions, however, the nucleus divides but the cytoplasm does not. This produces a multinucleate cell ( syncytium ) such as occurs in skeletal muscle fibres. Some cells—e.g., the human red blood cell —lose their nuclei upon maturation. See also cell .

The Cell Nucleus

Definition, Structure, and Function

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The cell nucleus​ is a membrane-bound structure that contains a cell's hereditary information and controls its growth and reproduction. It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and is usually the most notable cell organelle in both size and function.

The key function of the nucleus is to control cell growth and multiplication. This involves regulating gene expression, initiating cellular reproduction, and storing genetic material necessary for all of these tasks. In order for a nucleus to carry out important reproductive roles and other cell activities, it needs proteins and ribosomes.

Protein and Ribosome Synthesis

The nucleus regulates the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm through the use of messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA is a transcribed DNA segment that serves as a template for protein production. It is produced in the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores of the nuclear envelope, which you'll read about below. Once in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and another RNA molecule called transfer RNA work together to translate mRNA in order to produce proteins.

Physical Characteristics

The shape of a nucleus varies from cell to cell but is often depicted as spherical. To understand more about the role of the nucleus, read about the structure and function of each of its parts.

Nuclear Envelope and Nuclear Pores

The cell nucleus is bound by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope . This membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm , the gel-like substance containing all other organelles. The nuclear envelope consists of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer much like that of the cell membrane. This lipid bilayer has nuclear pores that allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus, or transfer from the cytoplasm to the nucleoplasm.

The nuclear envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus. It is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in such a way that the internal chamber of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the lumen, or inside, of the ER. This also allows the transfer of materials as well.

The nucleus houses chromosomes containing DNA. DNA holds heredity information and instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction. When a cell is "resting", or not dividing, its chromosomes are organized into long entangled structures called chromatin .

Nucleoplasm

Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope. Also called karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is similar to cytoplasm in that it is composed mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes, and organic molecules suspended within. The nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm, which cushions and protects nuclear contents.

Like the nuclear envelope, the nucleoplasm supports the nucleus to hold its shape. It also provides a medium by which materials, such as enzymes and nucleotides  (DNA and RNA subunits), can be transported throughout the nucleus to its various parts.

Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure composed of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus . The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, the parts of chromosomes carrying the genes for ribosome synthesis. The nucleolus helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits. These subunits join together to form ribosomes during protein synthesis.

• All About Animal Cells
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• Ribosomes - The Protein Builders of a Cell
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• What Are Prokaryotic Cells?
• White Blood Cells—Granulocytes and Agranulocytes
• Proteins in the Cell
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• Learn About Nucleic Acids and Their Function

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Original Author(s): Aarushi Khanna Last updated: 29th October 2023 Revisions: 20

• 1.1 Nuclear envelope
• 1.2 Nuclear lamina
• 1.3 Chromatin
• 1.4 Nucleolus

The nucleus is a membrane bound organelle found in the majority of eukaryotic cells. It is the largest organelle of the eukaryotic cell, accounting for around 10% of its volume. It houses the genome, and through gene expression , it co-ordinates the activities of the cell.

In this article, we will consider the structure and function of the nucleus.

The nucleus is a relatively large and spherical membrane-bound organelle . The nucleus itself is comprised of distinct components, and understanding their structure allows a deeper understanding of their function.

Fig 1 – The nucleus

Nuclear envelope

The nucleus is completely surrounded by the nuclear envelope.  This consists of both an  inner  and  outer membrane which run parallel to each other. The envelope is perforated by small gaps known as the nuclear pores.  These pores are around 100nm wide in true diameter, however due to the presence of central regulatory proteins the true size of the gap is around 9nm .

This small size controls the passage of molecules into and out of the nucleus. Larger molecules such as larger proteins and nucleic acid are unable to pass through these pores, and so the function of the nuclear envelope is to selectively separate the contents of the nucleus from that of the cytoplasm.

Nuclear lamina

Mechanical support for the nucleus is provided by the nuclear  lamina. This is a protein mesh, which is more organised on the internal surface on the nucleus than on the cytoplasmic surface.

Chromatin describes DNA that is complexed with proteins. The primary protein components of chromatin are histones,  which are highly basic proteins that associate readily with DNA. Histones combined with DNA form nucleosomes , which are the subunit of chromatin. Specifically, a nucleosome describes a segment of DNA associated with 8 histone proteins. By associating with histones, DNA is more compact and able to fit into the nucleus.

Chromatin can exist as either euchromatin or heterochromatin. Euchromatin is the form of chromatin present during gene expression, and has a characteristic ‘ beads on a string’  appearance. It is activated by  acetylation.  In contrast, heterochromatin  is the ‘inactive’ form, and is densely packed. On electron microscopy, euchromatin stains lighter than heterochromatin which reflects their relative densities.

Fig 2 – Schematic diagram of euchromatin and heterochromatin

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome and ribosomal RNA production. On microscopy, it appears as a large dense spot within the nucleus. After a cell divides, a nucleolus is formed when chromosomes are brought together into nucleolar organising regions. During cell division, the nucleolus disappears.

The information above can be simplified into three key functions:

• Cell compartmentalisation: The presence of a selectively permeable nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from that of the cytoplasm.
• Gene expression:  Gene expression first requires transcription , which is the process by which DNA is transcribed into mRNA. As the nucleus is the site of transcription, proteins within the nucleus play a key role in regulating the process.
• Processing of pre-mRNA:  Newly synthesised mRNA molecules are known as pre-mRNA. Before they exit the nucleus, they undergo a process known as  post-transcriptional  modification where molecules are added or removed from the structure.

Fig 3 – Nucleus with the cisternae of a continuous endoplasmic reticulum highlighting its main features.

Chromatin can exist as either euchromatin or heterochromatin. Euchromatin is the form of chromatin present during gene expression, and has a characteristic ' beads on a string'  appearance. It is activated by  acetylation.  In contrast, heterochromatin  is the 'inactive' form, and is densely packed. On electron microscopy, euchromatin stains lighter than heterochromatin which reflects their relative densities.

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Microbe Notes

Nucleus: Definition, Structure, Parts, Functions, Diagram

The cell nucleus​ is a membrane-bound structure that contains the cell’s hereditary information and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.

It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and is commonly the most prominent organelle in a cell accounting for about 10 percent of the cell’s volume.

In general, a eukaryotic cell has only one nucleus. However, some eukaryotic cells are enucleated cells (without a nucleus), for example, red blood cells (RBCs); whereas, some are multinucleate (consists of two or more nuclei), for example, slime molds .

The nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell or the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.

As the nucleus regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression, it is also referred to as the control center of a cell.

Table of Contents

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Nucleus Structure

The structure of a nucleus encompasses the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and nucleolus.

Nuclear Membrane

• The nuclear membrane is a double-layered structure that encloses the contents of the nucleus. The outer layer of the membrane is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Like the cell membrane, the nuclear envelope consists of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer.
• The envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating the flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores. The nucleus communicates with the remaining of the cell or the cytoplasm through several openings called nuclear pores.
• Such nuclear pores are the sites for the exchange of large molecules (proteins and RNA) between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
• A fluid-filled space or perinuclear space is present between the two layers of a nuclear membrane.

Nucleoplasm

• Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope.
• Also called karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is similar to the cytoplasm and is composed mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes, and organic molecules suspended within.
• The nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm, which functions to cushion and protect the contents of the nucleus.
• Nucleoplasm also supports the nucleus by helping to maintain its shape. Additionally, nucleoplasm provides a medium by which materials, such as enzymes and  nucleotides  (DNA and RNA subunits), can be transported throughout the nucleus. Substances are exchanged between the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm through nuclear pores.
• Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure composed of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus.
• Some of the eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus that contains up to four nucleoli.
• The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, which are parts of chromosomes with the genes for ribosome synthesis on them. The nucleolus helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits. These subunits join together to form a ribosome during protein synthesis.
• The nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after the completion of cell division.

Chromosomes

• The nucleus is the organelle that houses chromosomes.
• Chromosomes consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
• Chromosomes are present in the form of strings of DNA and histones (protein molecules) called chromatin. 
• When a cell is “resting” i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are organized into long entangled structures called chromatin.
• The chromatin is further classified into heterochromatin and euchromatin based on the functions. The former type is a highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive form, mostly present adjacent to the nuclear membrane. On the other hand, euchromatin is a delicate, less condensed organization of chromatin, which is found abundantly in a transcribing cell.

Besides the nucleolus, the nucleus contains a number of other non-membrane-delineated bodies. These include Cajal bodies, Gemini of coiled bodies, polymorphic interphase karyosome association (PIKA), promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies, paraspeckles, and splicing speckles.

Nucleus Functions

The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes. The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.

• It controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism.
• The organelle is also responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth, and differentiation.
• Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatin.
• Storage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus.
• The nucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are produced for protein synthesis.
• During the cell division, chromatins are arranged into chromosomes in the nucleus.
• Production of ribosomes (protein factories) in the nucleolus.
• Selective transportation of regulatory factors and energy molecules through nuclear pores.

Nucleus Structure Free Worksheet

Nucleus FAQs

Where is the nucleus found.

Nucleus is found in the center of the cell.

Where is the Nucleolus found?

The nucleolus is found within the nucleus.

• Cooper GM. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Chapter 8, The Nucleus. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9845/
• Lammerding J. Mechanics of the nucleus.  Compr Physiol . 2011;1(2):783-807. doi:10.1002/cphy.c100038.
• Pederson T. The nucleus introduced.  Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol . 2011;3(5):a000521. Published 2011 May 1. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a000521.
• Guo T, Fang Y. Functional organization and dynamics of the cell nucleus.  Front Plant Sci . 2014;5:378. Published 2014 Aug 12. doi:10.3389/fpls.2014.00378.
• Zwerger M, Ho CY, Lammerding J. Nuclear mechanics in disease.  Annu Rev Biomed Eng . 2011;13:397-428. doi:10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071910-124736.
• Gerbi SA. The Nucleus.  Nucleus . 2011;2(2):84-86. doi:10.4161/nucl.2.2.15006.
• Verma, P. S., & Agrawal, V. K. (2006). Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution & Ecology (1 ed.). S .Chand and company Ltd.
• Smith, C. M., Marks, A. D., Lieberman, M. A., Marks, D. B., & Marks, D. B. (2005). Marks’ basic medical biochemistry: A clinical approach. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Alberts, B. (2004). Essential cell biology. New York, NY: Garland Science Pub.

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Cell nucleus

Author: Rachel Baxter, MSc • Reviewer: Uruj Zehra, MBBS, MPhil, PhD Last reviewed: September 19, 2023 Reading time: 11 minutes

The cell nucleus is the most noticeable organelle within the  eukaryotic cell , and perhaps the most important and defining feature of the eukaryotic cells. Most of the genetic material (DNA) is contained in the nucleus, while a small amount of it is found in mitochondria. The majority of human cells have a single nucleus, although there are several cell types that have multiple nuclei (e.g. osteoclasts ) or don't have a nucleus at all ( erythrocytes ).

Since the structure of the nucleus is an important milestone for understanding citology and histology , this article will discuss the structure and function of the cell nucleus in an easy to read mode. 

Shape and appearance

Nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina, chromosomes, nucleoplasm, laminopathies, nucleus abnormalities, nucleolus abnormalities.

The nucleus is normally around 5-10 μm in diameter in many multicellular organisms, and the largest organelle in the cell. The smallest nuclei are approximately 1 μm in diameter and are found in yeast cells.

Mostly the shape of the nucleus is spherical or oblong . Usually cells have one nucleus but many at times there are multinucleated cells. Multinucleation in cells may be due to karyokinesis (when cell undergoes nuclear division) or when cells fuse to form syncytium, like in mature muscle cells .

The nucleus has very important roles to play. As it contains genetic material , it coordinates cell activities like protein synthesis and cell division . Anatomically the nucleus is made up of several components: nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina, nucleolus , chromosomes, nucleoplasm are some of these components. 

All of these components work together in order for the nucleus to accomplish all of its functions. Namely, these functions are: 

• control of the genetical information of the cell and thus the heredity characteristics of an organism,
• control of the protein and enzyme synthesis
• control of cell division and cell growth
• storage of DNA, RNA and ribosome
• regulation of the transcription of the mRNA to protein
• production of ribosomes

When a cell is histologically stained , the nucleus normally appears as a large, dark organelle, mostly at or near the centre of a cell . 

Test your knowledge on the structure and components of the eukaryotic cell with our quiz:

Structure of the nucleus

As its name suggests, the nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, separating it from the cell's cytoplasm. It is a double membrane . Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer associated with proteins, and the two membranes are divided by 20 to 40 nm of space. The two membranes of the nuclear envelope are often referred to as the inner and outer nuclear membranes. The outer membrane is continuous with the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum, and therefore the space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes links to the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. Like the endoplasmic reticulum, the outer nuclear membrane has ribosomes attached to it. Contrastingly, the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope is attached to proteins that are specific to the nucleus, and therefore found nowhere else.

Studying histology will be a lot easier once you master the examining of the histology slides. Check out our histology guide on how to learn this important skill and make your student life a lot easier!

The nuclear envelope is perforated with tiny nuclear pores with diameters of around 100 nm. The inner and outer membranes of the envelope are continuous around the pores. Each pore is lined with a structure of 50 to 100 different proteins known as the nuclear pore complex . These pore complexes regulate the movements of macromolecules, RNAs and proteins into and out of the nucleus. This movement of molecules is known as nuclear transport . Small molecules can move passively through the pores, but larger molecules, including RNAs and many proteins, are too large for this and must move actively . During this active process, they are selectively recognised and transported in one specific direction. The traffic of RNAs and proteins through the nuclear pore complex is particularly important, as they play a role in gene expression.  

The inner nuclear membrane is internally lined by protein filaments meshwork organised in a net-like fashion, called nuclear lamina. The proteins that make up the nuclear lamina are known as lamins , which are intermediate filament proteins. These support the nuclear envelope, ensuring that the overall shape and structure of the nucleus is maintained.

In addition to lamins there is another set of membrane proteins called lamina associated proteins , which help to mediate the interaction between the lamina and inner nuclear membrane. The nuclear lamina, along with protein fibers called the nuclear matrix , is also thought to aid in the organisation of genetic material, allowing it to function more efficiently.

The DNA of a cell is found within the nucleus. It is organised into units known as chromosomes, each containing a long DNA molecule which is associated with various proteins. The DNA coils around protein complexes called nucleosomes , formed of proteins called histones , making it easier for the chromosome to fit inside the nucleus.

The mass of DNA and proteins inside a chromosome is referred to as chromatin . When a cell is not dividing, it is difficult to see the chromosomes within a cell, even when it is stained. However, when DNA prepares and begins to divide, the chromosomes can be visualised more clearly. During the metaphase of mitosis, the chromosomes become visible as they prepare to divide by aligning with one another. The chromosomes are copied, forming sister chromosomes known a chromatids . Human cell nuclei contain 46 chromosomes, although gamete nuclei contain 23. The whole of the nucleus is not filled by chromatin material, in fact, there are  chromatin free regions called interchromosomal domains containing poly RNAs.

When a nucleus is not dividing, a structure called a nucleolus becomes visible. In fact, it is the most prominent structure within the nucleus. Usually there is only a single nucleolus present, but some nuclei have multiple nucleoli. It is a mass of granules and fibers attached to chromatin.

The nucleolus is important because it is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) production . Inside the nucleolus, rRNA molecules are combined with proteins to form ribosomes . The nucleolus is involved in rRNA transcription, pre-rRNA processing and ribosome subunit assembly. The nucleolus is not surrounded by a membrane, but it has a unique density , separating it from the surrounding nucleoplasm, and allowing it to be visualised under a microscope. As well as being involved in ribosomal biogenesis, the nucleolus is thought to have other roles, as it contains a number of proteins unrelated to rRNA and ribosome synthesis. It is thought be play a role in activities such as DNA damage repair, cell cycle regulation and RNA editing.

Nucleoplasm is similar to the cytoplasm of a cell, in that it is semi-liquid, and fills the empty space in the nucleus. It is a form of protoplasm and surrounds the chromosomes and nucleoli inside the nucleus. It also has various proteins and enzymes dissolved within it.

Nuclear bodies can be found in the nucleoplasm, and these include structures such as Cajal bodies, Gemini bodies, and Polycomb bodies. Cajal bodies are between 0.3-1.0 µm in diameter, and can be found in proliferating cells such as embryonic and cancerous cells, as well as in cells which have a high metabolic rate, such as neurons . Sometimes referred to as coiled bodies , Cajal bodies are bound to nucleoli by specialised proteins called coilin proteins . Having these proteins concentrated within Cajal bodies improves the efficiency of nuclear processes such as the modification and assembly of UsnRNPs, which can become spliceosomes .

Adjacent to Cajal bodies, Gemini bodies or “Gems” can be found. These comprise Gemin 2 protein and motor neuron s gene product (SMN), which are involved in the assembly and maturation of snRNPs.

Solidify your knowledge about the nucleus and structure of the eukaryotic cell with our study unit.

Clinical notes

Mutations in the genes that code for lamins in the nucleus can lead to a number of rare genetic disorders, normally due to a change in the abundance of lamins in the nuclei. Collectively these diseases are known as laminopathies. These diseases include autosomal dominant Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, Dunnigan-type familial partial lipodystrophy, as well as developmental and aging disorders.

Additionally, certain blood disorders can lead to abnormalities in the nuclei, meaning that analysis of the shape and structure of nuclei in blood cells can lead to diagnoses. For example, Wilson’s disease leads to an increase in glycogen in the nuclei, whilst acute myeloid leukaemia causes nuclei to become cup-shaped.

Moreover, abnormalities in the nucleoli can lead to some forms of rare hereditary disease , as well as degenerative diseases such as Huntington’s and Alzheimer’s. Several diseases can also result from changes in the nuclear envelope. These include cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy.

References:

• G. M. Cooper: The Cell: A Molecular Approach, 2nd edition, Sinauer Associates (2000)
• G. Morris: The cajal body. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Molecular Cell Research (2008), volume 1783, issue 11, pp.2108-2115.
• H. Worman and G. Bonne: “Laminopathies”: a wide spectrum of human diseases. Experimental cell research (2007), volume 313, issue 10, pp.2121-2133.
• J. B. Reece, L. A Urry, M. L. Cain et al.: Campbell Biology, International Edition, Pearson (2011), p. 148
• Y. Mao, B. Zhang, and D. Spector: Biogenesis and function of nuclear bodies. Trends in Genetics (2011), volume 27, issue 8, pp. 295-306.
• Y. W. Lam, L. Trinkle-Mulcahy, A. I. Lamond: The nucleolus. Journal of Cell Science (2005), volume 118, p. 1335-1337

Illustrator:

• Mitosis - Photo credit  kat m research via Visual Hunt / CC BY-SA

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• Biology Article
• The Nucleus

Nucleus - Structure and Function

Table of Contents

• Important Questions

What is a Nucleus?

The most integral component of the cell is the nucleus (plural: nuclei). It is derived from a Latin word which means “ kernel of a nut ”.

Nucleus Definition:

A nucleus is defined as a double-membraned eukaryotic cell organelle that contains the genetic material.

A nucleus diagram highlighting the various components. Moreover, only eukaryotes have the nucleus, prokaryotes have the nucleoid

As stated above, the nucleus is found only in eukaryotes and is the defining characteristic feature of eukaryotic cells . However, some cells, such as RBCs do not possess a nucleus, though they originate from a eukaryotic organisms.

More to Explore:   Difference Between Nucleus and Nucleoid

Structure Of Nucleus

• Typically, it is the most evident organelle in the cell.
• The nucleus is completely bound by membranes.
• It is engirdled by a structure referred to as the nuclear envelope.
• The membrane distinguishes the cytoplasm from the contents of the nucleus
• The cell’s chromosomes are also confined within it.
• DNA is present in the Chromosomes, and they provide the genetic information required for the creation of different cell components in addition to the reproduction of life.

Also Read:  Nucleolus

Nucleus Function

Following are the important nucleus function:

• It contains the cell’s hereditary information and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.
• The nucleus has been clearly explained as a membrane-bound structure that comprises the genetic material of a cell.
• It is not just a storage compartment for DNA, but also happens to be the home of some important cellular processes.
• First and foremost, it is possible to duplicate one’s DNA in the nucleus. This process has been named DNA Replication and produces an identical copy of the DNA.
• Producing two identical copies of the body or host is the first step in cell division, where every new cell will get its own set of instructions.
• Secondly, the nucleus is the site of transcription. Transcription creates different types of RNA from DNA. Transcription would be a lot like creating copies of individual pages of the human body’s instructions which may be moved out and read by the rest of the cell.
• The central rule of biology states that DNA is copied into RNA, and then proteins.

Also Read: Nuclear membrane

Discover more about the Nucleus, its features and functions, or any other related topics by registering at BYJU’S Biology.

Further Reading:

• Animal Cell
• Eukaryotic Cells
• Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the nucleus.

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle that contains the genetic material and other instructions required for cellular processes. It is exclusively found in eukaryotic cells and is also one of the largest organelles.

Outline the structure of the Nucleus.

• A double-membraned organelle known as the nuclear membrane/envelope engirdles the nucleus.
• The nucleolus is found within the nucleus, occupying 25% per cent of the volume.
• Thread-like, dense structures known as chromatins are found within the nucleus containing proteins and DNA.
• The mechanical strength for the nucleus is provided by the nuclear matrix, a network of fibres and filaments which performs functions similar to the cytoskeleton.

Highlight the functions of the nucleus.

The nucleus has 2 primary functions:

• It is responsible for storing the cell’s hereditary material or the DNA.
• It is responsible for coordinating many of the important cellular activities such as protein synthesis, cell division, growth and a host of other important functions.

Put your understanding of this concept to test by answering a few MCQs. Click ‘Start Quiz’ to begin!

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The Atomic Nucleus https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJgc28csgV0.

Published by Christal Hampton Modified over 6 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "The Atomic Nucleus https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJgc28csgV0."— Presentation transcript:

Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity The nucleus is composed of particles called nucleons, which are protons and neutrons. The number of nucleons is called.

The Atomic Nucleus. Review…the nucleus The nucleus is composed of particles called nucleons..__ & __ Neutrons and protons have the same mass, with ___.

Nuclear radiation. What do we mean by Radioactivity? Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation.

Nuclear Chemistry. Chemical ReactionsNuclear Reactions - Occur when bonds are broken or formed -Occur when the nucleus emits particles or rays -Atoms.

Nuclear Decay. Radioactivity The emission of high-energy radiation or particles from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

Chapter 14 Section 14.1.

What is radiation  A form of energy that can move through empty space.  Transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.

A radioactive isotope is an atom that has a nucleus that is not stable (will change to form a nucleus of a different element). The process by which the.

NUCLEAR CHANGE.

Atomic Theory and Radioactive Decay

Nuclear Chemistry Chapter 28.

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Chemistry Nuclear Chemistry.

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The Nucleus: Structure, nuclear transport - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

The Nucleus: Structure, nuclear transport

Topic karp 3rd edition karp 4th edition. the nucleus, structure ... disassembly. step 4. 20. mechanism of import of nls protein (continued) a. b. rangtp. step 5 ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• 22.228 Cell Biology
• Dr. Bill Diehl-Jones
• Structure of the nucleus
• Transport of materials into and out of the nucleus
• Nuclear pores
• The nuclear locating signal (NLS)
• Importin, and exportin
• Associated Reading in Chapter 12.
• Topic Karp 3rd Edition Karp 4th Edition
• The Nucleus, structure pp 494 492
• Membranes and pores pp 494 501 492 498
• DNA packaging pp 501 507 498 507
• Nuclear matrix pp 515 516 514 -516
• Gene structure pp 521 539 520 -537
• We will be discussing the eukaryotic nucleus
• how does the eukaryotic nucleus differ from the prokaryote in terms of structure and function?
• About 10 of the cell volume
• Contains DNA, condensed and organized with proteins as chromatin
• Surrounded by nuclear envelope on the exterior
• a double membrane, two leaflets 10-50 nm apart
• This forms an interior space
• The space is continuous with the interior of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Contains 3000 nuclear pores, regulated by a protein structure, the nuclear pore complex
• Small molecules (ltmw 20,000) can pass right through, larger molecules are strongly regulated.
• Interior of envelope supported by nuclear lamina
• A network of 10nm-diameter protein fiber lamin
• Two functions, structure of the nucleus, and an attachment site for chromatin
• Interior of the nucleus
• nucleoplasm, analogous to cytoplasm
• Includes the soluble protein nucleoplasmin
• the nuclear matrix, a network of protein fibers which support and organize the chromatin and other structures.
• Active chromatin (euchromatin) appear lighter,
• Inactive chromatin (heterochromatin) is darker and located near periphery of nucleus
• a granular region
• site of ribosome assembly
• At the pore, the inner and outer membranes come together forming an opening.
• It is lined with protein
• at least 100 nucleoporin proteins
• Including cytoplasmic filaments, extending to the cytoplasm
• Nuclear Pores regulate traffic into and out of the nucleus by means of the Nuclear Location Signal (NLS)
• Proteins are brought into the nucleus from the cytoplasm
• and can be sent out too
• RNAs (messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA and transfer RNAs) are all transported out of the nucleus
• but only when they are completed
• Nuclear Location Signal (NLS)
• a specific amino acid sequence marks protein for nuclear entry (Laskey, 1982)
• a series of positively charged amino acids in specific sequence
• - pro lys lys lys arg lys val
• Experiment 1
• modify the amino acid sequence (by site-directed-mutagenesis)
• SV40 virus t-antigen a protein molecule, M.W. 90,000
• normally enters the nucleus if injected into cytoplasm.
• normally accumulates in the nucleus (one-way)
• experimentally visualize the location of the protein
• using a fluorescent tag which glows under UV light
• Set up a microscope with ultraviolet light source
• An experimental alteration of the sequence (pro-lys-thr-lys-arg-lys-val-) completely prevents accumulation in the nucleus.
• Kalderson, Roberts, Richardson, Smith, 1984, Cell 39p499.
• What happens when we use recombinant DNA techniques to add the NLS to a dummy protein?
• Normal or modified Bovine Serum Albumin (NLS added) and injected to the cytoplasm
• This provided evidence of nuclear transport receptors
• family of proteins associated with the nuclear pore complex
• Importins recognize the NLS and bring proteins in
• Another set of proteins, the exportins, work in the opposite direction
• These recognize other signals
• (1) Protein binds to a two-protein complex (importin a and importin b)
• - Importin a is a receptor for the NLS portion of the protein
• i.e. it recognizes and sticks to this region.
• (2) Complex and protein stick to cytoplasmic filament
• - mediated by importin b
• (3) Complex moves into nucleoplasm
• - Not an energy consuming step, it can go back at this point unless captured by the RanGTP in next step
• (4) Complex binds to another protein
• - This is the Ran-GTP after binding, complex dissociates
• - importin b stays on the Ran-GTP
• (5) Ran-GTP - importin b complex moves back to the cytoplasm, down a concentration gradient
• (6) Two things happen now
• First, the Ran-GTP is converted to Ran-GDP plus phosphate by the enzyme RANGAP. This causes it it to loosen from importin b
• Second, an exportin molecule binds to importin a, setting it up for transport out of the nucleus
• (7) Ran-GDP diffuses back to the nucleus (1)
• (down its concentration gradient, I.e. from high to low concentration)
• Exportin carries importin a out of the nucleus (2)
• (8) Restoration to initial state
• The importin a and importin b complex re-forms.
• Enzyme RCC1 re-forms Ran-GDP to Ran-GTP
• GDP to GTP conversion is an energy source and controls the process
• Molecules always diffuse from high to low concentration, so if the gradient is maintained, it can be used to bring importin b back to the cytoplasm
• RCC1 occurs only in the nucleoplasm, RANGAP in cytoplasm
• By breaking down Ran-GTP and thereby removing it, RANGAP maintains the conc. Gradient. It can take the other molecule out with it.
• By changing Ran-GDP back to Ran-GTP, RCC1 maintains the gradient helping Ran-GDP to diffuse back into the nucleus.

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This antimatter version of an atomic nucleus is the heaviest yet

Smashing gold nuclei together at high speeds billions of times has resulted in 16 particles of antihyperhydrogen-4, a very exotic and heavy form of antimatter

By Karmela Padavic-Callaghan

21 August 2024

Composite image of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider in New York and the particle tracks it detects

Joe Rubino and Jen Abramowitz/Brookhaven National Laboratory

Our collection of antimatter has just gotten heavier, as researchers have logged the heaviest antimatter version of an atomic nucleus yet, called antihyperhydrogen-4.

“We didn’t think that it was 100 per cent certain we would find it, we just knew we had a chance,” says  Hao Qiu at the Institute of Modern Physics in China. He and his colleagues, an international team called the STAR Collaboration, briefly formed the new type of antimatter in…

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The Cell Nucleus

Sep 27, 2014

1.6k likes | 3.41k Views

The Cell Nucleus. The evolutional significance. The formation of nucleus was an essential event in evolution. Containing nucleus or not is an important difference between eucaryotic cells and procaryotic cells.

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• nuclear lamina
• replication origins
• pore complex
• influence chromatin structure
• dna molecule forms chromosome

Presentation Transcript

The evolutional significance • The formation of nucleus was an essential event in evolution. Containing nucleus or not is an important difference between eucaryotic cells and procaryotic cells. • Nucleus prevent DNA from being damaged by enzymes in cytosol and make the performance of gene transcription and translation in different times and spaces.

Topics • Chromatin and chromosome • Structure of nucleus • The Transport of Molecules into and out of the Nucleus • Nucleolus and the assemblage of ribosome

What you should know when finish • The form of genetic information in cell and what they are looking like before transcription and replication. • The precise scheme of nuclear • Features of nuclear pores • Location signal • Ribosome-producing machine and production of ribosome.

Chromatin and chromosome • Stainable material of interphase nucleus consisting of nucleic acid and associated basic protein called chromatin, which is dispersed through much of the nucleus. Further folding and compaction of chromatin during mitosis produces the visible metaphase chromosomes.

Epithelial cell and Hela cell epithelial cell Hela cell

Kinds of chromatin • Euchromatin and heterochromatin • Euchromatin is loosely packed and accessible to RNA polymerases, whereas heterochromatin is highly condensed and probably transcriptionally inactive.

Chemical components of chromatin DNA • Each DNA molecule forms chromosome must contain three functional elements in order to replicate and segregate correctly: replication origins(several), the centromere(one), telomeres(two).

replication origins at which DNA polymerases and other proteins initiate synthesis of DNA. centromere attachs any chromosome that contains it to mitotic spindle during M phase and guarantees the proper separation of chromosomes. telomeres permit a linear chromosome to be completely replicated.

three functional elements

Replication fork

Histone • The most abundant proteins associated with eukaryotic DNA. • Five major types of histone proteins termed H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 • Rich in positively charged basic amino acids • Conserved proteins except for H1 • Nucleosomal histones and H1 histone

Modification of histone influence chromatin structure participate in the regulation of transcription (1)acetylation and deacetylation Lys ε-NH2 the greater the acetylation, the less chromatin condensation

(2)methylation Lys ε-NH2, Arg a process that pevents acetylation (3) phosphorylation Ser and Thr hydroxy introducing a negative charge

Nonhiston • Rich in acid amino acids • Provide a structural scaffold for long chromatin loop • Others: Transcription and replication factor HMG (high-mobility group) protein

Packing of chromosome

Primery Structure of Chromosome — nucleosome

Structure • protein core＋DNA with diameter of 10nm • The core is an octamer containing two copies each of histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. • 147bp DNA protein core 60bp linker DNA • beads-on-a-string form.

The DNA component of nucleosomes is much less than is the linker DNA susceptible to nuclease digestion between them.

Histone tail

Secondary Structure of Chromosome — Solenoid of nucleosomes • approximately six nucleosomes per turn with a diameter of 30nm.

Solenoid model

The chromatin in chromosomal regions that are not being transcribed exists predominantly in the condensed, 30-nm fiber form. The regions of chromatin actively being transcribed are thought to assume the extended beads-on-a-string form.

Tertiary Structure — Folded solenoid • 30-nm chromatin fiber attach to chromatin scaffold

Quaternary Structure — Chromatid

Process of packing

Structure of nucleus

nuclear envelope • outer membrane is continuous with ER and studded with ribosomes engaged in protein synthesis. • inner membrane contains specific proteins that act as binding sites for the nuclear lamina • inner and outer nuclear membranes are continuous, but maintain distinct protein compositions.

perinuclear space

nuclear lamina • a meshwork composed by nuclear lamins A,B,C (a class of intermediate filaments) • give shape and stability to the nuclear envelope • provide anchor sites of chromatin • phosphorylation of the nuclear lamins cause the nuclear lamina depolymerize

nuclear pore complex • pore complex contains one or more open aqueous channels (9nm in diameter and 15 nm long) through which water-soluble molecules that are smaller than a certain size can passively diffuse. Large molecules, such as DNA and RNA polymerases, ribosomal subunits, are actively transported.

Diagram of NPC

Peering through the NPC

nucleolus • three partially segregated regions can be distinguished : (1) a pale-staining fibrillar center, which contains DNA that is not being actively transcribed;

(2) a dense fibrillar component, which contains RNA molecules in the process of being synthesized (3) a granular component, which contains maturing ribosomal precursor particles.

Nucleolus are formed by the fusion of RNA,rDNA and ribonucleoprotein coming from nucleolar organizing region. • nucleolar organizing regions (NORs) are chromosomal fragments, located in certain chromosome(13,14,15,21,22), containing the gene of major RNA (18S,28S,5.8S).

The size of the nucleolus reflects its transcriptional activity. Its size therefore varies greatly in different cells and can change in a single cell.

nuclear matrix • matrix might help organize chromosomes, localize genes, and regulate DNA transcription and replication within the nucleus.

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