- Pre-registration nursing students
- No definition of master’s degree in nursing described in the publication
After the search, we collated and uploaded all the identified records into EndNote v.X8 (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and removed any duplicates. Two independent reviewers (MCS and SA) screened the titles and abstracts for assessment in line with the inclusion criteria. They retrieved and assessed the full texts of the selected studies while applying the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements about the eligibility of studies were resolved by discussion or, if no consensus could be reached, by involving experienced researchers (MZ-S and RP).
The first reviewer (MCS) extracted data from the selected publications. For this purpose, an extraction tool developed by the authors was used. This tool comprised the following criteria: author(s), year of publication, country, research question, design, case definition, data sources, and methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. First, we extracted and summarized information about the case study design. Second, we narratively summarized the way in which the data and methodological triangulation were described. Finally, we summarized the information on within-case or cross-case analysis. This process was performed using Microsoft Excel. One reviewer (MCS) extracted data, whereas another reviewer (SA) cross-checked the data extraction, making suggestions for additions or edits. Any disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion.
A total of 149 records were identified in 2 databases. We removed 20 duplicates and screened 129 reports by title and abstract. A total of 46 reports were assessed for eligibility. Through hand searches, we identified 117 additional records. Of these, we excluded 98 reports after title and abstract screening. A total of 17 reports were assessed for eligibility. From the 2 databases and the hand search, 63 reports were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, we included 8 articles for data extraction. No further articles were included after the reference list screening of the included studies. A PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection and inclusion process is presented in Figure 1 . As shown in Tables 2 and and3, 3 , the articles included in this scoping review were published between 2010 and 2022 in Canada (n = 3), the United States (n = 2), Australia (n = 2), and Scotland (n = 1).
PRISMA flow diagram.
Characteristics of Articles Included.
Author | Contandriopoulos et al | Flinter | Hogan et al | Hungerford et al | O’Rourke | Roots and MacDonald | Schadewaldt et al | Strachan et al |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Canada | The United States | The United States | Australia | Canada | Canada | Australia | Scotland |
How or why research question | No information on the research question | Several how or why research questions | What and how research question | No information on the research question | Several how or why research questions | No information on the research question | What research question | What and why research questions |
Design and referenced author of methodological guidance | Six qualitative case studies Robert K. Yin | Multiple-case studies design Robert K. Yin | Multiple-case studies design Robert E. Stake | Case study design Robert K. Yin | Qualitative single-case study Robert K. Yin Robert E. Stake Sharan Merriam | Single-case study design Robert K. Yin Sharan Merriam | Multiple-case studies design Robert K. Yin Robert E. Stake | Multiple-case studies design |
Case definition | Team of health professionals (Small group) | Nurse practitioners (Individuals) | Primary care practices (Organization) | Community-based NP model of practice (Organization) | NP-led practice (Organization) | Primary care practices (Organization) | No information on case definition | Health board (Organization) |
Overview of Within-Method, Between/Across-Method, and Data-Analysis Triangulation.
Author | Contandriopoulos et al | Flinter | Hogan et al | Hungerford et al | O’Rourke | Roots and MacDonald | Schadewaldt et al | Strachan et al |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within-method triangulation (using within-method triangulation use at least 2 data-collection procedures from the same design approach) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Interviews | X | x | x | x | x | |||
Observations | x | x | ||||||
Public documents | x | x | x | |||||
Electronic health records | x | |||||||
Between/across-method (using both qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures in the same study) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Interviews | x | x | x | |||||
Observations | x | x | ||||||
Public documents | x | x | ||||||
Electronic health records | x | |||||||
: | ||||||||
Self-assessment | x | |||||||
Service records | x | |||||||
Questionnaires | x | |||||||
Data-analysis triangulation (combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Deductive | x | x | x | |||||
Inductive | x | x | ||||||
Thematic | x | x | ||||||
Content | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Descriptive analysis | x | x | x | |||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Deductive | x | x | x | x | ||||
Inductive | x | x | ||||||
Thematic | x | |||||||
Content | x |
The following sections describe the research question, case definition, and case study design. Case studies are most appropriate when asking “how” or “why” questions. 1 According to Yin, 1 how and why questions are explanatory and lead to the use of case studies, histories, and experiments as the preferred research methods. In 1 study from Canada, eg, the following research question was presented: “How and why did stakeholders participate in the system change process that led to the introduction of the first nurse practitioner-led Clinic in Ontario?” (p7) 19 Once the research question has been formulated, the case should be defined and, subsequently, the case study design chosen. 1 In typical case studies with mixed methods, the 2 types of data are gathered concurrently in a convergent design and the results merged to examine a case and/or compare multiple cases. 10
“How” or “why” questions were found in 4 studies. 16 , 17 , 19 , 22 Two studies additionally asked “what” questions. Three studies described an exploratory approach, and 1 study presented an explanatory approach. Of these 4 studies, 3 studies chose a qualitative approach 17 , 19 , 22 and 1 opted for mixed methods with a convergent design. 16
In the remaining studies, either the research questions were not clearly stated or no “how” or “why” questions were formulated. For example, “what” questions were found in 1 study. 21 No information was provided on exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory approaches. Schadewaldt et al 21 chose mixed methods with a convergent design.
A total of 5 studies defined the case as an organizational unit. 17 , 18 - 20 , 22 Of the 8 articles, 4 reported multiple-case studies. 16 , 17 , 22 , 23 Another 2 publications involved single-case studies. 19 , 20 Moreover, 2 publications did not state the case study design explicitly.
This section describes within-method triangulation, which involves employing at least 2 data-collection procedures within the same design approach. 6 , 7 This can also be called data source triangulation. 8 Next, we present the single data-collection procedures in detail. In 5 studies, information on within-method triangulation was found. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Studies describing a quantitative approach and the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review.
Five studies used qualitative data-collection procedures. Two studies combined face-to-face interviews and documents. 15 , 19 One study mixed in-depth interviews with observations, 18 and 1 study combined face-to-face interviews and documentation. 22 One study contained face-to-face interviews, observations, and documentation. 17 The combination of different qualitative data-collection procedures was used to present the case context in an authentic and complex way, to elicit the perspectives of the participants, and to obtain a holistic description and explanation of the cases under study.
All 5 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Face-to-face, in-depth, and semi-structured interviews were conducted. The topics covered in the interviews included processes in the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers and facilitators to collaborative work in general practices. Two studies did not specify the type of interviews conducted and did not report sample questions. 15 , 18
In 2 studies, qualitative observations were carried out. 17 , 18 During the observations, the physical design of the clinical patients’ rooms and office spaces was examined. 17 Hungerford et al 18 did not explain what information was collected during the observations. In both studies, the type of observation was not specified. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.
In 3 studies, various qualitative public documents were studied. 15 , 19 , 22 These documents included role description, education curriculum, governance frameworks, websites, and newspapers with information about the implementation of the role and general practice. Only 1 study failed to specify the type of document and the collected data. 15
In 1 study, qualitative documentation was investigated. 17 This included a review of dashboards (eg, provider productivity reports or provider quality dashboards in the electronic health record) and quality performance reports (eg, practice-wide or co-management team-wide performance reports).
This section describes the between/across methods, which involve employing both qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures in the same study. 6 , 7 This procedure can also be denoted “methodologic triangulation.” 8 Subsequently, we present the individual data-collection procedures. In 3 studies, information on between/across triangulation was found. 16 , 20 , 21
Three studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures. One study combined face-to-face interviews, documentation, and self-assessments. 16 One study employed semi-structured interviews, direct observation, documents, and service records, 20 and another study combined face-to-face interviews, non-participant observation, documents, and questionnaires. 23
All 3 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 16 , 20 , 23 Face-to-face and semi-structured interviews were conducted. In the interviews, data were collected on the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers to and facilitators of collaborative work in general practices.
In 2 studies, direct and non-participant qualitative observations were conducted. 20 , 23 During the observations, the interaction between health professionals or the organization and the clinical context was observed. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.
In 2 studies, various qualitative public documents were examined. 20 , 23 These documents included role description, newspapers, websites, and practice documents (eg, flyers). In the documents, information on the role implementation and role description of NPs was collected.
In 1 study, qualitative individual journals were studied. 16 These included reflective journals from NPs, who performed the role in primary health care.
Only 1 study involved quantitative service records. 20 These service records were obtained from the primary care practices and the respective health authorities. They were collected before and after the implementation of an NP role to identify changes in patients’ access to health care, the volume of patients served, and patients’ use of acute care services.
In 2 studies, quantitative questionnaires were used to gather information about the teams’ satisfaction with collaboration. 16 , 21 In 1 study, 3 validated scales were used. The scales measured experience, satisfaction, and belief in the benefits of collaboration. 21 Psychometric performance indicators of these scales were provided. However, the time points of data collection were not specified; similarly, whether the questionnaires were completed online or by hand was not mentioned. A competency self-assessment tool was used in another study. 16 The assessment comprised 70 items and included topics such as health promotion, protection, disease prevention and treatment, the NP-patient relationship, the teaching-coaching function, the professional role, managing and negotiating health care delivery systems, monitoring and ensuring the quality of health care practice, and cultural competence. Psychometric performance indicators were provided. The assessment was completed online with 2 measurement time points (pre self-assessment and post self-assessment).
This section describes data-analysis triangulation, which involves the combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data. 6 Subsequently, we present within-case analysis and cross-case analysis.
Three studies combined qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. 16 , 20 , 21 Two studies involved deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, and qualitative data were analyzed thematically. 20 , 21 One used deductive qualitative analysis. 16 The method of analysis was not specified in the studies. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics in 3 studies. 16 , 20 , 23 The descriptive statistics comprised the calculation of the mean, median, and frequencies.
Two studies combined deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, 19 , 22 and 2 studies only used deductive qualitative analysis. 15 , 18 Qualitative data were analyzed thematically in 1 study, 22 and data were treated with content analysis in the other. 19 The method of analysis was not specified in the 2 studies.
In 7 studies, a within-case analysis was performed. 15 - 20 , 22 Six studies used qualitative data for the within-case analysis, and 1 study employed qualitative and quantitative data. Data were analyzed separately, consecutively, or in parallel. The themes generated from qualitative data were compared and then summarized. The individual cases were presented mostly as a narrative description. Quantitative data were integrated into the qualitative description with tables and graphs. Qualitative and quantitative data were also presented as a narrative description.
Of the multiple-case studies, 5 carried out cross-case analyses. 15 - 17 , 20 , 22 Three studies described the cross-case analysis using qualitative data. Two studies reported a combination of qualitative and quantitative data for the cross-case analysis. In each multiple-case study, the individual cases were contrasted to identify the differences and similarities between the cases. One study did not specify whether a within-case or a cross-case analysis was conducted. 23
This section describes confirmation or contradiction through qualitative and quantitative data. 1 , 4 Qualitative and quantitative data were reported separately, with little connection between them. As a result, the conclusions on neither the comparisons nor the contradictions could be clearly determined.
In 3 studies, the consistency of the results of different types of qualitative data was highlighted. 16 , 19 , 21 In particular, documentation and interviews or interviews and observations were contrasted:
Both types of data showed that NPs and general practitioners wanted to have more time in common to discuss patient cases and engage in personal exchanges. 21 In addition, the qualitative and quantitative data confirmed the individual progression of NPs from less competent to more competent. 16 One study pointed out that qualitative and quantitative data obtained similar results for the cases. 20 For example, integrating NPs improved patient access by increasing appointment availability.
Although questionnaire results indicated that NPs and general practitioners experienced high levels of collaboration and satisfaction with the collaborative relationship, the qualitative results drew a more ambivalent picture of NPs’ and general practitioners’ experiences with collaboration. 21
The studies included in this scoping review evidenced various research questions. The recommended formats (ie, how or why questions) were not applied consistently. Therefore, no case study design should be applied because the research question is the major guide for determining the research design. 2 Furthermore, case definitions and designs were applied variably. The lack of standardization is reflected in differences in the reporting of these case studies. Generally, case study research is viewed as allowing much more freedom and flexibility. 5 , 24 However, this flexibility and the lack of uniform specifications lead to confusion.
Methodologic triangulation, as described in the literature, can be somewhat confusing as it can refer to either data-collection methods or research designs. 6 , 8 For example, methodologic triangulation can allude to qualitative and quantitative methods, indicating a paradigmatic connection. Methodologic triangulation can also point to qualitative and quantitative data-collection methods, analysis, and interpretation without specific philosophical stances. 6 , 8 Regarding “data-collection methods with no philosophical stances,” we would recommend using the wording “data source triangulation” instead. Thus, the demarcation between the method and the data-collection procedures will be clearer.
Yin 1 advocated the use of multiple sources of evidence so that a case or cases can be investigated more comprehensively and accurately. Most studies included multiple data-collection procedures. Five studies employed a variety of qualitative data-collection procedures, and 3 studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures (mixed methods). In contrast, no study contained 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures. In particular, quantitative data-collection procedures—such as validated, reliable questionnaires, scales, or assessments—were not used exhaustively. The prerequisites for using multiple data-collection procedures are availability, the knowledge and skill of the researcher, and sufficient financial funds. 1 To meet these prerequisites, research teams consisting of members with different levels of training and experience are necessary. Multidisciplinary research teams need to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of different data sources and collection procedures. 1
When using multiple data sources and analysis methods, it is necessary to present the results in a coherent manner. Although the importance of multiple data sources and analysis has been emphasized, 1 , 5 the description of triangulation has tended to be brief. Thus, traceability of the research process is not always ensured. The sparse description of the data-analysis triangulation procedure may be due to the limited number of words in publications or the complexity involved in merging the different data sources.
Only a few concrete recommendations regarding the operationalization of the data-analysis triangulation with the qualitative data process were found. 25 A total of 3 approaches have been proposed 25 : (1) the intuitive approach, in which researchers intuitively connect information from different data sources; (2) the procedural approach, in which each comparative or contrasting step in triangulation is documented to ensure transparency and replicability; and (3) the intersubjective approach, which necessitates a group of researchers agreeing on the steps in the triangulation process. For each case study, one of these 3 approaches needs to be selected, carefully carried out, and documented. Thus, in-depth examination of the data can take place. Farmer et al 25 concluded that most researchers take the intuitive approach; therefore, triangulation is not clearly articulated. This trend is also evident in our scoping review.
Few studies in this scoping review used a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis. However, creating a comprehensive stand-alone picture of a case from both qualitative and quantitative methods is challenging. Findings derived from different data types may not automatically coalesce into a coherent whole. 4 O’Cathain et al 26 described 3 techniques for combining the results of qualitative and quantitative methods: (1) developing a triangulation protocol; (2) following a thread by selecting a theme from 1 component and following it across the other components; and (3) developing a mixed-methods matrix.
The most detailed description of the conducting of triangulation is the triangulation protocol. The triangulation protocol takes place at the interpretation stage of the research process. 26 This protocol was developed for multiple qualitative data but can also be applied to a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. 25 , 26 It is possible to determine agreement, partial agreement, “silence,” or dissonance between the results of qualitative and quantitative data. The protocol is intended to bring together the various themes from the qualitative and quantitative results and identify overarching meta-themes. 25 , 26
The “following a thread” technique is used in the analysis stage of the research process. To begin, each data source is analyzed to identify the most important themes that need further investigation. Subsequently, the research team selects 1 theme from 1 data source and follows it up in the other data source, thereby creating a thread. The individual steps of this technique are not specified. 26 , 27
A mixed-methods matrix is used at the end of the analysis. 26 All the data collected on a defined case are examined together in 1 large matrix, paying attention to cases rather than variables or themes. In a mixed-methods matrix (eg, a table), the rows represent the cases for which both qualitative and quantitative data exist. The columns show the findings for each case. This technique allows the research team to look for congruency, surprises, and paradoxes among the findings as well as patterns across multiple cases. In our review, we identified only one of these 3 approaches in the study by Roots and MacDonald. 20 These authors mentioned that a causal network analysis was performed using a matrix. However, no further details were given, and reference was made to a later publication. We could not find this publication.
Because it focused on the implementation of NPs in primary health care, the setting of this scoping review was narrow. However, triangulation is essential for research in this area. This type of research was found to provide a good basis for understanding methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. Despite the lack of traceability in the description of the data and methodological triangulation, we believe that case studies are an appropriate design for exploring new nursing roles in existing health care systems. This is evidenced by the fact that case study research is widely used in many social science disciplines as well as in professional practice. 1 To strengthen this research method and increase the traceability in the research process, we recommend using the reporting guideline and reporting checklist by Rodgers et al. 9 This reporting checklist needs to be complemented with methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. A procedural approach needs to be followed in which each comparative step of the triangulation is documented. 25 A triangulation protocol or a mixed-methods matrix can be used for this purpose. 26 If there is a word limit in a publication, the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix needs to be identified. A schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies can be found in Figure 2 .
Schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies (own work).
This study suffered from several limitations that must be acknowledged. Given the nature of scoping reviews, we did not analyze the evidence reported in the studies. However, 2 reviewers independently reviewed all the full-text reports with respect to the inclusion criteria. The focus on the primary care setting with NPs (master’s degree) was very narrow, and only a few studies qualified. Thus, possible important methodological aspects that would have contributed to answering the questions were omitted. Studies describing the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review due to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Given the various processes described for methodologic and data-analysis triangulation, we can conclude that triangulation in case studies is poorly standardized. Consequently, the traceability of the research process is not always given. Triangulation is complicated by the confusion of terminology. To advance case study research in nursing, we encourage authors to reflect critically on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation and use existing tools, such as the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix and the reporting guideline checklist by Rodgers et al, 9 to ensure more transparent reporting.
Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.
Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.
A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .
When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.
A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.
Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.
You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.
Research question | Case study |
---|---|
What are the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction? | Case study of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park in the US |
How do populist politicians use narratives about history to gain support? | Case studies of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán and US president Donald Trump |
How can teachers implement active learning strategies in mixed-level classrooms? | Case study of a local school that promotes active learning |
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of wind farms for rural communities? | Case studies of three rural wind farm development projects in different parts of the country |
How are viral marketing strategies changing the relationship between companies and consumers? | Case study of the iPhone X marketing campaign |
How do experiences of work in the gig economy differ by gender, race, and age? | Case studies of Deliveroo and Uber drivers in London |
Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:
Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.
If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible.
However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.
While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:
To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.
There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .
The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.
In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.
How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .
Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).
In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.
McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 30 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/
Other students also liked, correlational research | guide, design & examples, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, descriptive research design | definition, methods & examples.
Case studies are a popular research method in business area. Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization.
According to its design, case studies in business research can be divided into three categories: explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.
Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ’why’ questions with little control on behalf of researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case studies focus on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations. Example: “An investigation into the reasons of the global financial and economic crisis of 2008 – 2010.”
Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed. Studies in business research belonging to this category usually describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena. Example: “Impact of increasing levels of multiculturalism on marketing practices: A case study of McDonald’s Indonesia.”
Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s) such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc. Example: “A study into differences of leadership practices between private and public sector organizations in Atlanta, USA.”
Advantages of case study method include data collection and analysis within the context of phenomenon, integration of qualitative and quantitative data in data analysis, and the ability to capture complexities of real-life situations so that the phenomenon can be studied in greater levels of depth. Case studies do have certain disadvantages that may include lack of rigor, challenges associated with data analysis and very little basis for generalizations of findings and conclusions.
John Dudovskiy
What is a case study and how do you write one? We explain everything there is to know about case studies and provide you with a checklist that will make you succeed on your first try.
First things first:
A case study is a research method that is typically used in qualitative research and is often applied in academic papers such as bachelor’s or master’s theses. Having originated from the social sciences , the case study is now used in many other fields such as economics, political science and media studies.
The case study examines a specific example of an event or phenomenon in the real world. All relevant details of the case are thoroughly analyzed, always taking into account the surrounding context and existing theoretical frameworks. If several cases are compared with each other, this is referred to as a comparative case study or a multiple case study .
The main objective of a case study is to gain comprehensive insights into a specific phenomenon and to develop new solutions or perspectives. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are useful for collecting and analyzing relevant data for the case study. Organizations, people, places or events that offer important insights are examined.
Case studies allow you to analyze complex problems in detail , making them an indispensable tool in scientific research.
Depending on your research question, there are different types of case studies you can consider. Each type of case study has its own special features, and the transitions are sometimes fluid. The following paragraphs introduce four common types of case studies to give you an idea of the different approaches:
By choosing the right type of case study, you can ensure that your research is both thorough and focused. Each of these approaches offers different perspectives and methods to arrive at valuable insights that can be explored in detail in the case studies.
Companies are often looking for a case study that offers a solution to a complex problem. You don’t have to reinvent the wheel. You should simply collect and structure all the relevant information for your case study. At GRIN, you will find numerous case studies that give you a good insight into the structure of this type of text. These practical examples, which are often based on data from real companies, will help you understand how to successfully complete a case study.
The 5 steps of conducting a case study
Start your case study by first defining a clear research objective and formulating a precise research question. Decide whether your aim is exploratory (discovering), descriptive (describing) or explanatory (explaining/justifying), or a combination of these , to determine your research direction. Since case studies are qualitative research, how or why questions are particularly suitable.
For your case study, you should of course choose an example that is relevant to your research objective . If you are writing about a specific company, you already have the case automatically, but events, people, places or phenomena are also suitable. To choose a suitable example, you can use the following criteria as a guide:
Once you have defined your research objective and case for your case study, the next step is to link it to existing literature and the current state of research . Conduct a comprehensive literature review to compare your findings with relevant thematic texts.
To create a solid theoretical framework, draw on an appropriate theory that allows you to understand and explain the case in depth. When analyzing your results, you can then discuss how they behave in the context of this theory and what they say about the topic.
Once you have finished researching existing theories and literature, start describing your case in detail. If it is an event, a timeline can be helpful, showing all the important events along with their causes and effects. The aim is to clearly differentiate your case study from other studies and research questions.
An important part of the case study is the description of the initial situation , the framework conditions and the problems to be solved . It is essential that your (possibly fictitious) customer recognizes themselves in the description. Be authentic and use the technical vocabulary of the respective industry . This increases the relevance of your case study.
The final step in your case study is to comprehensively analyze the collected data. Evaluating and explaining this information will allow you to answer your research question . You can embed your findings in a broader theoretical context by drawing connections to existing literature and theories that you identified during your literature review.
In this section of your case study, you also explain how you analyzed the situation, what kind of strategy you developed and how you implemented it operationally. It is also important to mention any problems and obstacles you encountered.
When working on business case studies in particular, there are a number of models, so-called frameworks , that can be of great help. Which framework is suitable for which problem depends on the type of case study. These can basically be divided into three categories:
External problem
This example focuses on external factors: e.g. the market environment of the company under investigation. The five forces model and the PESTEL analysis are suitable for identifying and analyzing such research areas.
Internal problem definition
Internal company issues are considered here, e.g. low employee satisfaction. The value chain analysis or the BCG matrix are suitable for such internal analyses.
Internal and external problems
Most case studies examine external and internal problems in equal measure, as mixed cases are often considered, e.g. a decline in a company’s sales. These cases can be analyzed using the profit equation , the four-C concept , the SWOT analysis , or the Ansoff matrix.
Case studies for companies always follow the same structure. You can therefore use this checklist as a guide:
A case study is a research method that allows you to analyze specific cases such as organizations, people, or events from different perspectives and relate them to existing theories. This method is particularly valuable for bachelor’s and master’s theses, as it provides in-depth insights into the research topic.
The goal of a case study is to understand and explain a specific case by analyzing it in detail and linking it to existing theories identified during the literature review. This method helps to answer open questions and develop solutions to existing problems.
You will conduct a case study in five steps: you define your research goal, select a case, find suitable literature and theory, describe the case, and analyze it by examining it comprehensively and linking it to existing theories.
Choosing a case study has a few advantages: You can investigate a real case that interests you, which makes your study more relevant. Case studies also require less organizational effort than interviews or surveys, and can uncover previously unknown problems or questions that are of interest for further research. And another advantage: Case studies are used in many companies in the application process to test applicants. If you have already gained experience with it during your studies, this can be an advantage for you later on.
A good case study must definitely be relevant to your study. In addition, it should provide new insights into a known problem, critically question existing assumptions and open up new approaches for future research.
Examples for case studies in the GRIN shop:
Corporate Social Responsibility and its Impact on Consumer Buying Behaviour. A Case Study on H&M
Supply Chain Management. Case Study on Amazon
A Microsoft Case Study. Managing a Culturally Diverse Workforce
The Facebook acquisition of Instagram. A Case Study
Do you like our magazine? Then sign up for our GRIN newsletter now!
Helpful Links
Navigate OHIO
Connect With Us
Ohio University Libraries has purchased Sage Research Methods, a platform that includes textbooks, foundation research guidelines, data sets, code books, peer-reviewed case studies and more with updates through 2029.
If members of the OHIO community are looking to explore a new research methodology, hoping to reduce textbook costs or needing a case study for a course, Sage Research Methods can help.
The platform boasts more than 500 downloadable datasets, with code books and instructional materials that provide step by step walk-throughs of the data analysis. The platform also includes quantitative data sets that come with software guides that can assist in understanding tools like SPSS, R, Stata, and Python.
Ohio University now has access to more than 1,000 book titles (including the quantitative social sciences "little green books") that support a variety of research methodologies and approaches from beginner to expert. The OHIO package also includes peer-reviewed case studies with accompanying discussion questions and multiple-choice quiz questions and can be embedded into Canvas courses. Further, the collection includes a Diversifying and Decolonizing Research subcollection that highlights the importance of inclusive research, perspectives from marginalized populations and cultures, and minimizing bias in data analysis.
Highlighted features within Sage Research Methods include:
Learn more about Sage Research Methods.
University Libraries strives to support the OHIO community in and out of the classroom by supporting varying pedagogic approaches and finding ways to make learning more affordable for our students. Further, the Libraries aims to provide access and discoverability to research materials to support Ohio University’s innovative research enterprise. Purchasing Sage Research Methods supports both initiatives as this resource can be used by all students, faculty and staff at Ohio University for research support and instructors for course materials.
Students, faculty and staff Interested in learning more about any of the resources mentioned above are encouraged to reach out to Head of Learning Services and Education Librarian Dr. Chris Guder , Head of Research Services and Health Sciences Librarian Hanna Schmillen or a subject librarian.
Be sure to explore Sage Research Methods on your own; the platform can be accessed through Ohio University Libraries . In addition, there are training sessions and videos from Sage on its training website.
Scanning the digital: using survey data to support digital scholarship initiatives at the university of mississippi, what contributes to a qualified digital humanities librarian and ideal digital humanities pedagogy an exploratory qualitative study, exploring the digital humanities research agenda: a text mining approach, digital humanities degrees and supplemental credentials in information schools (ischools), the wrong side of the spreadsheets: a life in the digital humanities, from collection curation to knowledge creation: exploring new roles of academic librarians in digital humanities research, teaching gis in a digital humanities environment, digital humanities research: interdisciplinary collaborations, themes and implications to library and information science, 17 librarians and one big undertaking: creating a digital project from start to finish, facilitating collaborative metadata creation for faculty-initiated digital projects, related papers.
Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers
You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.
All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .
Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.
Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.
Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.
Original Submission Date Received: .
Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.
Please let us know what you think of our products and services.
Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.
Methodology for selection of sustainable public transit routes: case study of amman city, jordan.
2. research aims and contributions, 3. the literature review, 4. methodology, 4.1. problem fomulation, 4.1.1. objective functions, 4.1.2. constraints, 4.2. multi-objective optimization process.
4.3.1. case study, 4.3.2. road network, 4.3.3. travel demand and modal split, 4.3.4. travel times, 4.3.5. emission rates, 4.3.6. traffic safety measures, 4.4. assessment process, 4.4.1. total emissions measures, 4.4.2. safety measures, 6. discussions, 7. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
Sustainability Indicators | Objective Functions | Measures | The Fitness Function |
---|---|---|---|
Economic indicator | Minimizing passenger cost | Minimizing the reduction in passenger travel time for passenger per link | Minimizing public transit travel time |
Minimizing operator cost. | Maximizing the travel demand of the BRT system per link | ||
Environmental indicator | Minimizing environment impact | Maximizing the reduction in the total amount of emissions per route | Maximizing BRT share |
Social indicator | Maximizing safety | Maximizing the reduction in frequency of predicted crashes per route |
Parameter | Public Transport | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | t-Statistics | Coefficient | t-Statistics | Coefficient | t-Statistics | |
BRT | Bus | Taxi Service | ||||
Constant | 1.912 | 10.562 | 0.814 | 11.221 | 1.821 | 9.581 |
IVT | 0.0096 | 1.88 | 0.0175 | 7.81 | 0.0438 | 10.11 |
WTM | 0.0143 | 2.67 | 0.0263 | 3.28 | 0.0657 | 12.88 |
WAT | 0.0157 | 8.32 | 0.0288 | 3.6 | 0.0721 | 7.21 |
TTM | 0.0191 | 2.79 | 0.0350 | 7.12 | 0.0876 | 7.96 |
NTR | 0.0478 | 9.56 | 0.0875 | 9.72 | 0.2190 | 1.588 |
FAR | 0.0063 | 1.575 | 0.0542 | 10.84 | 0.0073 | 1.825 |
Private | ||||||
Taxi | OP | Auto | ||||
Constant | 1.102 | 8.395 | 0.409 | 6.667 | The reference categories | |
IVT | 0.0701 | 7.47 | 0.0677 | 7.522 | ||
Fuel | 0.0723 | 8.03 | 0.0689 | 6.89 | ||
OC | 0.0404 | 8.08 | 0.0385 | 4.813 |
Operational Condition | Design Value |
---|---|
Average speed (vb) | 40 kph |
Vehicle type | Articulated bus |
Bus capacity (Vsize) | 150 passengers |
Load factor (lf) | 0.85 |
Frequency (fr) | (max dij /(lf * Vsize) |
Headway (H) | Tc /(fr) |
Parameter | (B) Coefficient | Std. Error | Sig. | t-Ratio | Exp (B) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | −3.266 | 1.4557 | 0.025 | 2.244 | 0.0382 |
lnV | 0.37 | 0.1574 | 0.019 | 2.351 | 1.447 |
lnL | 1.292 | 0.1421 | <0.001 | 9.092 | 3.639 |
N | −0.1 | 0.044 | 0.035 | 2.273 | 0.905 |
S | 0.017 | 0.0083 | 0.038 | 2.048 | 1.018 |
Goodness of Fit | Value | Degree of Freedom df | Value/df | CHI | Fit Well? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deviance | 299.695 | 358 | 0.837 | 403.1206 | |
Scaled Deviance | 320.007 | 358 | yes | ||
Pearson Chi-Square | 335.276 | 358 | 0.937 | yes | |
Scaled Pearson Chi-Square | 358 | 358 | |||
Log Likelihood | −696.958 | ||||
Adjusted Log Likelihood | −744.197 |
Link No. | Length (km) | Emission Reduction | Reduction in Predicted Crash Frequency | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Emissions Case 1 | Total Emissions Case 2 | Reduction | Ni Case 1 | Ni Case 2 | Reduction | ||
1 | 0.285 | 2736.728 | 2333.724 | 0.147 | 2.178 | 1.737 | 0.202 |
2 | 0.285 | 2486.154 | 2105.860 | 0.153 | 0.502 | 0.463 | 0.077 |
3 | 0.576 | 4574.540 | 4150.025 | 0.093 | 1.638 | 1.286 | 0.215 |
4 | 0.576 | 4494.325 | 3997.517 | 0.111 | 0.356 | 0.262 | 0.263 |
5 | 0.871 | 2838.244 | 2491.755 | 0.122 | 0.691 | 0.611 | 0.116 |
6 | 0.111 | 3468.574 | 2961.931 | 0.146 | 1.111 | 0.791 | 0.288 |
7 | 0.072 | 3625.290 | 3271.787 | 0.098 | 0.348 | 0.264 | 0.241 |
8 | 0.198 | 4804.985 | 4353.551 | 0.094 | 0.383 | 0.286 | 0.252 |
9 | 0.894 | 5655.711 | 4978.881 | 0.120 | 0.739 | 0.571 | 0.227 |
10 | 0.285 | 1933.424 | 1604.412 | 0.170 | 0.042 | 0.030 | 0.294 |
11 | 0.871 | 4510.330 | 3917.119 | 0.132 | 0.227 | 0.193 | 0.153 |
12 | 0.285 | 4039.289 | 3554.952 | 0.120 | 1.741 | 1.304 | 0.251 |
13 | 0.576 | 2526.075 | 2257.931 | 0.106 | 1.041 | 0.817 | 0.215 |
14 | 0.176 | 3159.309 | 2662.901 | 0.157 | 0.374 | 0.308 | 0.178 |
15 | 0.665 | 49,680.761 | 42,836.849 | 0.138 | 0.077 | 0.057 | 0.267 |
16 | 1.085 | 3468.574 | 3284.622 | 0.053 | 0.097 | 0.069 | 0.291 |
17 | 0.339 | 3625.290 | 3082.719 | 0.150 | 0.068 | 0.054 | 0.202 |
18 | 0.316 | 4804.985 | 4039.427 | 0.159 | 0.166 | 0.132 | 0.203 |
19 | 0.316 | 5655.711 | 4754.610 | 0.159 | 0.231 | 0.179 | 0.228 |
20 | 0.894 | 1933.424 | 1774.839 | 0.082 | 0.481 | 0.378 | 0.215 |
21 | 1.858 | 2486.154 | 2090.045 | 0.159 | 1.105 | 0.896 | 0.190 |
: : | : : | : : | : : | : : | : : | : : | : : |
5184 | 0.105 | 2838.244 | 2257.931 | 0.204 | 0.264 | 0.210 | 0.203 |
|
Route No. | Scale | Route 1 | Route 2 | Route 3 | Route 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Route length km | Route | 14.58 | 14.91 | 14.2 | 15.73 |
Reduction in travel time along the route | 6.71% | 6.89% | 8.88% | 14.02% | |
BRT share probability | Network | 4.22% | 5.04% | 5.26% | 6.48% |
Reduction in total emissions | 12.60% | 13.30% | 15.70% | 17.44% | |
Reduction in predicted crash frequency | 11.10% | 12.10% | 13.76% | 14.06% |
Criteria | New Network | New Network | Existing Network |
---|---|---|---|
Total Demand (pax/hr) | 24,329 | 21,202 | 30,267 |
Travel Time Reduction % | 6.890% | 6.890% | 5.300% |
Total Emission Reduction % | 13.30% | 13.02% | 11.15% |
Reduction in Predicted Crash Frequency % | 12.10% | 11.85% | 10.14% |
Total Network Length (km) | 29.49 | 27.58 | 26 |
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
Al Tamseh, A.; Osama, A.; Hussain, M.; Alsobky, A. Methodology for Selection of Sustainable Public Transit Routes: Case Study of Amman City, Jordan. Infrastructures 2024 , 9 , 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090147
Al Tamseh A, Osama A, Hussain M, Alsobky A. Methodology for Selection of Sustainable Public Transit Routes: Case Study of Amman City, Jordan. Infrastructures . 2024; 9(9):147. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090147
Al Tamseh, Amani, Ahmed Osama, Mona Hussain, and Alsayed Alsobky. 2024. "Methodology for Selection of Sustainable Public Transit Routes: Case Study of Amman City, Jordan" Infrastructures 9, no. 9: 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090147
Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.
Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals
COMMENTS
A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation. It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically ...
Revised on November 20, 2023. A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are ...
The purpose of case study research is twofold: (1) to provide descriptive information and (2) to suggest theoretical relevance. Rich description enables an in-depth or sharpened understanding of the case. It is unique given one characteristic: case studies draw from more than one data source. Case studies are inherently multimodal or mixed ...
A case study is one of the most commonly used methodologies of social research. This article attempts to look into the various dimensions of a case study research strategy, the different epistemological strands which determine the particular case study type and approach adopted in the field, discusses the factors which can enhance the effectiveness of a case study research, and the debate ...
Case study method is the most widely used method in academia for researchers interested in qualitative research (Baskarada, 2014).Research students select the case study as a method without understanding array of factors that can affect the outcome of their research.
A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the ...
Definition, Methods, and Examples. Case study methodology offers researchers an exciting opportunity to explore intricate phenomena within specific contexts using a wide range of data sources and collection methods. It is highly pertinent in health and social sciences, environmental studies, social work, education, and business studies.
The purpose of case study research is twofold: (1) to provide descriptive information and (2) to suggest theoretical relevance. Rich description enables an in-depth or sharpened understanding of the case. Robert Yin, methodologist most associated with case study research, differentiates between descriptive, exploratory and explanatory case studies:
Case study research is typically extensive; it draws on multiple methods of data collection and involves multiple data sources. The researcher begins by identifying a specific case or set of cases to be studied. Each case is an entity that is described within certain parameters, such as a specific time frame, place, event, and process.
A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the ...
Abstract. This chapter explores case study as a major approach to research and evaluation. After first noting various contexts in which case studies are commonly used, the chapter focuses on case study research directly Strengths and potential problematic issues are outlined and then key phases of the process.
The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.
Definitions of qualitative case study research. Case study research is an investigation and analysis of a single or collective case, intended to capture the complexity of the object of study (Stake, 1995).Qualitative case study research, as described by Stake (), draws together "naturalistic, holistic, ethnographic, phenomenological, and biographic research methods" in a bricoleur design ...
The case study method is a research strategy that aims to gain an in-depth understanding of a specific phenomenon by collecting and analyzing specific data within its true context (Rebolj, 2013 ...
A Case study is: An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes includes quantitative methodology. Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research. Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event. Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.
Nevertheless, the case study researchers mentioned above emphasize different features. Stake points out that crucial to case study research are not the methods of investigation, but that the object of study is a case: "As a form of research, the case study is defined by the interest in individual cases, not by the methods of inquiry used."
This book aims to provide case‐study researchers with a step‐by‐step practical guide to "help them conduct the study with the required degree of rigour" (p. xi). It seeks to "demonstrate that the case study is indeed a scientific method" (p. 104) and to show "the usefulness of the case method as one tool in the researcher's ...
Case study research is defined as "an empirical method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the 'case') in depth and within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident. ... As a methodology, case study research encompasses substantially more complexity than a ...
Written in an accessible and jargon-free style, this book provides a comprehensive, student-friendly guide to the nature and use of case study research. Whether as part of a more substantial study or as the foundation for a self-contained smaller project, case studies provide viable and valuable alternatives to conducting large-scale research.
Providing a complete portal to the world of case study research, the Fourth Edition of Robert K. Yin's bestselling text Case Study Research offers comprehensive coverage of the design and use of the case study method as a valid research tool. This thoroughly revised text now covers more than 50 case studies (approximately 25% new), gives fresh attention to quantitative analyses, discusses ...
According to the book Understanding Case Study Research, case studies are "small scale research with meaning" that generally involve the following: The study of a particular case, or a number of cases. ... This article defends case study methodology as an appropriate methodology, giving a description, the process and its strengths and weaknesses.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used.
Case Studies. Case studies are a popular research method in business area. Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization. According to its design, case studies in business research can be divided into three categories: explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.
What is a case study? A case study is a research method that is typically used in qualitative research and is often applied in academic papers such as bachelor's or master's theses. Having originated from the social sciences, the case study is now used in many other fields such as economics, political science and media studies.. The case study examines a specific example of an event or ...
If members of the OHIO community are looking to explore a new research methodology, hoping to reduce textbook costs or needing a case study for a course, Sage Research Methods can help. The platform boasts more than 500 downloadable datasets, with code books and instructional materials that provide step by step walk-throughs of the data analysis.
To conclude, there are two main objectives of this study. First is to provide a step-by-step guideline to research students for conducting case study. Second, an analysis of authors' multiple case studies is presented in order to provide an application of step-by-step guideline. This article has been divided into two sections.
An online survey to faculty, staff, postdocs, and graduate students at the University of Mississippi showed a wide variety of interest and expertise across several fields, mostly in the humanities, with important data and suggestions for future digital scholarship initiatives.
The second case illustrates an effort to promote reproductive justice in collaboration with Roma women and girls in Spain. The third exemplar depicts the use of life stories as a method to raise the voices of displaced, marginalized indigenous women in Peru. Based on these three case studies, we present a synthesis model of social justice.
A limited number of previous studies have focused on the selection of transportation routes considering sustainable development goals (SDGs). In this research, a methodology for selecting sustainable public transit (PT) routes is presented, consisting of generating a feasible initial route set, optimization, and assessment. Total welfare, road safety, and reduction in total emissions are ...
When conducting QLR, time is the lens used to inform the overall study design and processes of data collection and analysis. While QLR is an evolving methodology, spanning diverse disciplines (Holland et al., 2006), a key feature is the collection of data on more than one occasion, often described as waves (Neale, 2021).Thus, researchers embarking on designing a new study need to consider ...