write essay on learning theory

3 Learning Theories: Understanding How People Learn

Introduction.

Learning theories describe the conditions and processes through which learning occurs, providing teachers with models to develop instruction sessions that lead to better learning. These theories explain the processes that people engage in as they make sense of information, and how they integrate that information into their mental models so that it becomes new knowledge. Learning theories also examine what motivates people to learn, and what circumstances enable or hinder learning.

Sometimes people are skeptical of having to learn theory, believing those theories will not be relevant in the real world, but learning theories are widely applicable. The models and processes that they describe tend to apply across different populations and settings, and provide us with guidelines to develop exercises, assignments, and lesson plans that align with how our students learn best. Learning theories can also be engaging. People who enjoy teaching often find the theories interesting and will be excited when they start to see connections between the theory and the learning they see happening in their own classrooms.

General Learning Theories

With a basic understanding of learning theories, we can create lessons that enhance the learning process. This understanding helps us explain our instructional choices, or the “why” behind what and how we teach. As certain learning theories resonate with us and we consciously construct lessons based on those theories, we begin to develop a personal philosophy of teaching that will guide our instructional design going forward. This chapter provides a bridge from theory to practice by providing specific examples of how the theories can be applied in the library classroom. These theories provide a foundation to guide the instructional design and reflective practices presented in the rest of this textbook.

As you read, you might consider keeping track of the key points of each theory and thinking about how these theories could be applied to your practice. Figure 3.1 provides you with an example of a graphic organizer, one of the instructional materials that will be discussed in Chapter 11, that you could use to take notes as you read this chapter. In addition to the examples in practice that are provided in this chapter, you might add some of your own.

Figure 3.1: Graphic Organizer for Major Learning Theories

A table with four columns. The columns are labeled theory, major theorists, key concepts, and examples in practice. There are three blank rows where students can take notes.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based largely on the work of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorists were concerned with establishing psychology as a science and focused their studies on behaviors that could be empirically observed, such as actions that could be measured and tested, rather than on internal states such as emotions (McLeod, 2015). According to behaviorists, learning is dependent on a person’s interactions with their external environment. As people experience consequences from their interactions with the environment, they modify their behaviors in reaction to those consequences. For instance, if a person hurts their hand when touching a hot stove, they will learn not to touch the stove again, and if they are praised for studying for a test, they will be likely to study in the future

According to behavioral theorists, we can change people’s behavior by manipulating the environment in order to encourage certain behaviors and discourage others, a process called conditioning (Popp, 1996). Perhaps the most famous example of conditioning is Pavlov’s dog. In his classic experiment, Pavlov demonstrated that a dog could be conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food, so that eventually the dog would salivate whenever it heard the bell, regardless of whether it received food. Watson adapted stimulus conditioning to humans (Jensen, 2018). He gave an 11-month-old baby a rat, and the baby seemed to enjoy playing with it. Over time, Watson caused a loud, unpleasant sound each time he brought out the rat. Eventually, the baby associated the rat with the noise and cried when he saw the rat. Although Watson’s experiment is now considered ethically questionable, it did establish that people’s behavior could be modified through control of environmental stimuli.

Skinner (1938) examined how conditioning could shape behavior in longer-term and more complex ways by introducing the concept of reinforcement. According to Skinner, when people receive positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards for certain behaviors, those behaviors are strengthened, while negative reinforcement will deter behaviors. According to Skinner, by carefully controlling the environment and establishing a system of reinforcements, teachers, parents, and others can encourage and develop desired behaviors (Jensen, 2018). A simple example of behaviorism in the classroom is a point system in which students are awarded points for good behavior and deducted points for unwanted behavior. Eventually, accumulated points might be traded in for rewards like small gifts or homework passes. This approach assumes that motivation is external, in that students will engage in certain behaviors in order to gain the rewards.

Because it emphasizes the external environment, behaviorism largely ignores or discounts the role of internal influences such as prior knowledge and emotion (Popp, 1996). To an extent, behaviorists view learners as blank slates and emphasize the role of the teacher in the classroom. In this teacher-centered approach, instructors hold the knowledge, decide what will be learned, and establish the rewards for learning. Since their experience and prior knowledge are not considered relevant, learners are passive participants simply expected to absorb the knowledge transmitted by the teacher. While the idea of learners as blank slates has fallen out of favor, many of the conditioning aspects of behaviorism remain popular. As almost any student can attest, behavioral methods of reinforcement, such as the point system described above, are still common, especially in younger grades. Recent trends toward gaming in the classroom, where certain behaviors are rewarded with points and leveling up, are based in a behaviorist approach to learning. See Activity 3.1 for a brief activity on behaviorism.

Activity 3.1: Reflecting on Behaviorism

Think of some of your own learning experiences, whether they were in a traditional classroom, through professional development training, or related to personal interests, such as dance or photography lessons. Try to identify a few examples of behaviorism from those experiences and reflect on the following questions:

How did your instructors use behavioral practice in their classrooms?
Did you find those practices motivating? Why or why not?
If you can think of examples of behaviorism from several different learning experiences, were they more appropriate in some situations than others? How so?
Have you ever used, or can you imagine using, behaviorism in your own teaching practice? How so?

Humanism recognizes the basic dignity and worth of each individual and believes people should be able to exercise some control over their environment. Although humanism as an educational philosophy has its roots in the Italian Renaissance, the more modern theorists associated with this approach include John Dewey, Carl Rogers, Maria Montessori, Paolo Freire, and Abraham Maslow. Humanist learning theory is a whole-person approach to education that centers on the individual learners and their needs, and that considers affective as well as cognitive aspects of learning. At its essence, “humanism in education traditionally has referred to a broad, diffuse outlook emphasizing human freedom, dignity, autonomy, and individualism” (Lucas, 1996). Within this broader context, humanism is also characterized by the following tenets (Madsen & Wilson, 2012; Sharp, 2012):

Students are whole people, and learning must attend to their emotional as well as their cognitive state.
Teachers should be empathetic.
Learners are self-directed and internally motivated.
The outcome of learning is self-actualization.

Humanism centers the individual person as the subject and recognizes learners as whole beings with emotional and affective states that accompany their cognitive development. Recognizing the role of students’ emotions means understanding how those emotions impact learning. Student anxiety, say around a test or a research paper, can interfere with the cognitive processes necessary to be successful. Empathetic teachers recognize and try to understand students’ emotional states, taking steps to alleviate negative emotions that might detract from learning by creating a supportive learning environment.

In a library context, Mellon (1986) identified the phenomenon of library anxiety, or the negative emotions that some people experience when doing research or interacting with library tools and services. This anxiety can distract learners and make it difficult to engage in the processes necessary to search for, evaluate, and synthesize the information they need to complete their task. Similarly, in her Information Search Process, Kuhlthau (1990) describes the affective states as well as the cognitive processes students engage in when doing research, acknowledging that their emotions fluctuate among anxiety, optimism, and, ultimately, satisfaction or disappointment.

A humanist approach to education recognizes these affective states and seeks to limit their negative impact. For instance, we can acknowledge that feelings of anxiety are common so learners recognize that they are not alone. We can also explain how the skills students learn are relevant to their lives in and outside of the classroom.

Because humanists see people as autonomous beings, they believe that learning should be self-directed, meaning students should have some choice in what and how they learn. Humanistic education is often connected with student-centered pedagogical approaches such as differentiated curricula, self-paced learning, and discovery learning (Lucas, 1996). Self-directed learning can take many forms, but it generally means that the instructor acts as a guide, and learners are given the freedom to take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers will provide the materials and opportunities for learning, but students will engage with the learning on their own terms. In a library classroom, we can give students choices about the topics they will research or offer learners different types of activities to practice skills and demonstrate what they have learned.

Humanists also believe that learning is part of a process of self-actualization. They maintain that learning should be internally motivated and driven by students’ interests and goals, rather than externally motivated and focused on a material end goal such as achievement on tests, or employment (Sharp, 2012). The expectation is that when students are allowed to follow their interests and be creative, and when learning takes place within a supportive environment, students will engage in learning for its own sake. This emphasis on self-actualization is largely based on Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs. Maslow identified five levels of needs: basic physiological needs such as food, water, and shelter; safety and security needs; belongingness and love needs, including friends and intimate relationships; esteem needs, including feelings of accomplishment; and self-actualization, when people achieve their full potential. Importantly, these needs are hierarchical, meaning a person cannot achieve the higher needs such as esteem and self-actualization until more basic needs such as food and safety are met. The role of the humanist teacher is to facilitate the student’s self-actualization by helping to ensure needs such as safety and esteem are met through empathetic teaching and a supportive classroom.

In his book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed , Freire (2000) brings together many of the student-centered elements of humanistic education, with a strong emphasis on social justice aspects of learning and teaching. In contrast to behaviorist approaches, Freire emphasizes the importance of students’ life experience to their learning. He criticizes what he describes as the “banking model” of education, in which students are viewed as passive and empty vessels into which teachers simply deposit bits of knowledge that students are expected to regurgitate on exams or papers without any meaningful interaction. Freire insists that learning must be relevant to the student’s life and the student should be an active participant in order for learning to be meaningful. Freire also emphasized the emancipatory role of education, arguing that the purpose of education was for learners to gain agency to challenge oppressive systems and improve their lives, and praxis, in which learners put abstract and theoretical knowledge into practice in the real world.

While a student-centered approach and choice can be introduced in any classroom, observers note that in an age of curriculum frameworks and standardized tests, where teachers are often constrained by the material, the ability to provide students with choice and allow for exploration is limited (Sharp, 2012; Zucca-Scott, 2010). Librarians often face similar constraints. School librarians also must meet state and district curriculum standards. Academic librarians generally depend on faculty invitations to conduct instruction and need to adapt their sessions to fit the content, time frame, and learning objectives of the faculty member. Nevertheless, we can always find ways to integrate some self-direction. For instance, rather than using planned examples to demonstrate searches, we might have students suggest topics to search. If we plan hands-on practice activities, we could allow learners to explore their own interests as they engage in the activity, rather than limiting them to preselected topics.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism, or cognitive psychology, was pioneered in the mid-twentieth century by scientists including George Miller, Ulric Neisser, and Noam Chomsky. Whereas behaviorists focus on the external environment and observable behavior, cognitive psychologists are interested in mental processes (Codington-Lacerte, 2018). They assert that behavior and learning entail more than just response to environmental stimuli and require rational thought and active participation in the learning process (Clark, 2018). To cognitivists, learning can be described as “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 2).

Cognitivists view the brain as an information processor somewhat like a computer that functions on algorithms that it develops in order to process information and make decisions. According to cognitive psychology, people acquire and store knowledge, referred to as schema, in their long-term memory. In addition to storing knowledge, people organize their knowledge into categories, and create connections across categories or schema that help them retrieve relevant pieces of information when needed (Clark, 2018). When individuals encounter new information, they process it against their existing knowledge or schema in order to make new connections. Cognitivists are interested in the specific functions that allow the brain to store, recall, and use information, as well as in mental processes such as pattern recognition and categorization, and the circumstances that influence people’s attention (Codington-Lacerte, 2018).

Because cognitivists view memory and recall as the key to learning, they are interested in the processes and conditions that enhance memory and recall. According to cognitive psychology research, traditional methods of study, including rereading texts and drilling practice, or the repetition of terms and concepts, are not effective for committing information to memory (Brown et al., 2014). Rather, cognitivists assert that activities that require learners to recall information from memory, sometimes referred to as “retrieval practice,” lead to better memory and ultimately better learning. For example, they suggest that language learners use flash cards to practice vocabulary words, rather than writing the words out over and over or reading and rereading a list of words, because the flash cards force the learner to recall information from memory.

While testing has fallen out of favor with many educators and education theorists, cognitivists find tests can be beneficial as both a retrieval practice and a diagnostic tool. They view tests not only as a way to measure what has been learned but as a way to practice retrieval of important concepts, and as a way to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge so that learners know where to concentrate their efforts (Brown et al., 2014). Cognitivists encourage “spaced practice,” or recalling previously learned information at regular intervals, and “interleaving,” or learning related concepts together to establish connections among them. Their research has found that retrieval is more effective when the brain is forced to recall information after some time has passed, and when the recall involves two or more related subjects or concepts. Finally, cognitivists also promote problem-based learning, maintaining that “trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution leads to better learning, even when errors are made in the attempt” (Brown et al., 2014, p.4).

These processes that enhance memory and recall, and thus learning, have some implications for instructors in creating an optimal environment for learning. Gagné (1985) proposed nine conditions for learning, referred to as the external conditions of learning, or the nine events of instruction:

Gain attention. Engage students’ attention by tying learning to relevant events in their lives and asking stimulating questions.
Inform the learner of the objective. Begin by sharing the learning goals with the students, thus setting expectations and providing a map of the learning.
Stimulate recall of prior learning. Encourage students to remember previously learned relevant skills and knowledge before introducing new information.
Present the stimulus. Share new information. This step depends on the content of the lesson. For instance, a lesson on Boolean operators might begin with a Venn diagram and examples of the uses of and , or , and not .
Provide learner guidance. Facilitate learning by demonstration and explanation.
Elicit performance. Allow time for students to practice skills and demonstrate their abilities. Ideally, students would be given low-stakes opportunities for practice, so they feel comfortable if they do not succeed immediately.
Provide feedback. Offer students input on what they are doing well and where they can improve.
Assess performance. Employ measures such as assignments, activities, and projects to gauge whether learning has occurred.
Enhance retention and transfer. Give students opportunities to practice skills in new contexts, which improves retention and helps students see how the skills are applied to different areas.

Cognitivism remains a popular approach to learning. However, one criticism of cognitive psychology is that, unlike humanism, it does not account for the role of emotions in learning (Codington-Lacerte, 2018). Further, some critics believe that cognitivism overemphasizes memorization and recall of facts to the detriment of higher-order skills such as creativity and problem solving. However, cognitivists argue that the ability to recall facts and concepts is essential to higher-order thinking, and therefore the two are not mutually exclusive but actually interdependent (Brown et al., 2014). Finally, cognitivism is considered teacher-centered, rather than learner-centered, since it emphasizes the role of the instructor in organizing learning activities and establishing the conditions of learning (Clark, 2018). Activity 3.2 is a brief exercise on cognitivism.

Activity 3.2: Reflecting on Cognitivism

Cognitive scientists recommend retrieval practice, including spaced practice and interleaving, over drilling.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion:

What kind of study practices do you tend to use? Do your practices vary depending on the content or material you are studying? How so?
Can you think of ways to integrate retrieval practices into your work for this class?
Spaced practice involves returning to previously learned concepts at later times, but information professionals often teach one-shot sessions. Can you think of ways to integrate spaced practice into a one-shot session?

Constructivism

Constructivism posits that individuals create knowledge and meaning through their interactions with the world. Like cognitivism, and as opposed to behaviorism, constructivism acknowledges the role of prior knowledge in learning, believing that individuals interpret what they experience within the framework of what they already know (Kretchmar, 2019a). Social constructs, such as commonly held beliefs, and shared expectations around behavior and values provide a framework for knowledge, but people “do not just receive this knowledge as if they were empty vessels waiting to be filled. Individuals and groups interact with each other, contributing to the common trove of information and beliefs, reaching consensus with others on what they consider is the true nature of identity, knowledge, and reality” (Mercadal, 2018). Cognitivism and constructivism overlap in a number of ways. Both approaches build on the theories of Jean Piaget, who is sometimes referred to as a cognitive constructivist. However, while cognitivism is considered teacher-centered, constructivism centers the learner by recognizing their role in engaging with content and constructing meaning. Constructivist teachers act as guides or coaches, facilitating learning by developing supportive activities and environments, and building on what students already know (Kretchmar, 2019b).

Piaget discusses the concepts of assimilation, accommodation, and disequilibrium to describe how people create knowledge. In his early work as a biologist, Piaget noticed how organisms would adapt to their environment in order to survive. Through such adaptation, the organism achieved equilibrium. Extending these observations to cognitive science, he posited that human beings also seek equilibrium (Kretchmar, 2019a).

When they encounter new situations, or new information, human beings must find a way to deal with the new information. Similar to the processes described in the section on cognitivism, people will examine their existing knowledge, or schema, to see if the new information fits into what they already know. If it does, they are able to assimilate the information relatively easily. However, if the new information does not fit into what people already know, they experience disequilibrium or cognitive conflict, and must adapt by accommodating the new information. For example, once children learn what a dog is, they might call any four-legged creature they see a dog. This is assimilation, as the children are fitting new information into their existing knowledge. However, as children learn the differences between, say, a dog and cat, they can adjust their schema to accommodate this new knowledge (Heick, 2019).

Disequilibrium and accommodation can be uncomfortable. People might be confused or anxious when they encounter information that does not fit their existing schema, and they might struggle to accommodate that new information, but disequilibrium is crucial to learning (Kretchmar, 2019a). During assimilation, people might be adding new bits of information to their knowledge store, but they are not changing their understanding of the world. During accommodation, as people change their schema, construct new knowledge, and draw new connections among existing areas of knowledge, actual learning occurs, and accommodation requires disequilibrium.

Acknowledging the role of disequilibrium is important for both instructors and students. People naturally want to avoid discomfort, but that can also mean avoiding real learning. As instructors, we can facilitate accommodation by acknowledging that the process might be challenging, and by creating conditions that allow students to feel safe exploring new information. We can reassure learners that feelings of discomfort or anxiety are normal and provide them with low-stakes opportunities to engage with new information.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism builds on the traditions of constructivism and cognitivism; whereas those theories focus on how individuals process information and construct meaning, social constructivists also consider how people’s interactions with others impact their understanding of the world. Social constructivists recognize that different people can have different reactions and develop different understandings from the same events and circumstances, and are interested in how factors such as identity, family, community, and culture help shape those understandings (Mercadal, 2018).While cognitivists and constructivists view other people as mostly incidental to an individual’s learning, social constructivists see community as central. Social constructivism can be defined as “the belief that the meanings attached to experience are socially assembled, depending on the culture in which the child is reared and on the child’s caretakers” (Schaffer, 2006). Like constructivism, social constructivism centers on the learners’ experiences and engagement, and sees the role of the instructor as a facilitator or guide. Two of the major theorists associated with social constructivism are Pierre Bourdieu and Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky built on the work of Piaget and believed knowledge is constructed, but felt that prior theories overemphasized the role of the individual in that construction of knowledge. Instead, he “was most interested in the role of other people in the development and learning processes of children,” including how children learn in cooperation with adults and older or more experienced peers who can guide them with more complex concepts (Kretchmar, 2019b). Vygotsky was also interested in how language and learning are related. He postulated that the ways in which people communicate their thoughts and understandings, even when talking themselves through a concept or problem, are a crucial element of learning (Kretchmar, 2019b). For Vygotsky, interaction and dialogue among students, teachers, and peers are key to how learners develop an understanding of the world and of the socially constructed meanings of their communities.

Bourdieu examined the way in which social structures influence people’s values, knowledge, and beliefs, and how these structures often become so ingrained as to be invisible. People within a society become so enculturated into the systems and beliefs of that society that they often accept them as “normal” and do not see them as imposed structures (Roth, 2018). As a result, individuals might not question or challenge those structures, even when they are unfair or oppressive. In addition to examining how community and culture help shape knowledge, Bourdieu was interested in how issues of class impact learning. He observed that over time, schools developed to reflect the cultures of wealthier families, which enabled their children to succeed because they inherently understood the culture of the classroom and the system of education. We continue to see such issues today, and as discussed more in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6, part of our critical practice is to ensure that our classrooms and instructional strategies are inclusive of and responsive to all students.

Activity 3.3 explores how we can use theory to guide our practice.

Activity 3.3: Using Learning Theory to Plan Lessons

While learning theories can be interesting on their own, our goal as instructors is to apply them to classroom practice. Imagine that you are a high school librarian working with a class that has just been assigned a research paper. Your goal for this session is for students to brainstorm keywords and synonyms for their topics, and to learn how to string those words together using the Boolean operators and , or , and not . You want to be sure the students understand the function of the Boolean operators and can remember how to use them for future searches.

Choose one of the learning theories outlined in this chapter and design a brief lesson to teach Boolean operators from the perspective of that theory. Concentrate less on what you would teach but rather on how you would teach it in keeping with the chosen theory:

How would you introduce the topic?
What sort of learning activities would you use?
What would you be doing during the lesson? What would you expect students to do?
How might any of your answers to these questions change if you were to use a different theory as your guide?

Developmental Stages

The learning theories outlined above discuss various cognitive processes involved in learning, as well as some of the motivators and conditions that facilitate learning. While these theories attempt to describe how people learn, it is important to note that individuals are not born ready to engage in all of these processes at once, nor do they necessarily all engage in the same processes at the same time. Rather, more complex processes develop over time as people experience the world and as their brain matures. In addition to studying how people learn, some theorists have also proposed theories or frameworks to describe developmental stages, or the various points in human development when different cognitive processes are enabled, and different kinds of learning can occur.

Piaget outlined four hierarchical stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Clouse, 2019), illustrated in Table 3.1. In the sensorimotor stage, from birth to about two years, infants react to their environment with inherent reflexes such as sucking, swallowing, and crying. By about age two, they begin problem solving using trial and error. The preoperational stage, also sometimes called the intuitive intelligence stage, lasts from about ages two to seven. During this time, children develop language and mental imagery. They are able to use their imagination, but they view the world only from their own perspective and have trouble understanding other perspectives. Their understanding of the world during this stage is tied to their perceptions. Children are in the operational stage from about ages seven to 12, during which time they begin to think more logically about the world, can understand that objects are not always as they appear, and begin to understand other people’s perspectives. The final stage, formal operationalism, begins around age 12. At this point, individuals can think abstractly and engage in ideas that move beyond the concrete world around them, and they can use deductive reasoning and think through consequences (Clark, 2018; Clouse, 2019).

Table 3.1: Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development


Sensorimotor	Birth to 18-24 months
Preoperational	18-24 months to 7 years
Concrete operational	7 to 12 years
Formal operational	12 years and up

Perry’s (1970) Scheme of Intellectual and Moral Development offers another useful framework for understanding the developmental stages of learning. Perry proposed four stages of learning. In the first stage, dualism, children generally believe that all problems can be solved, and that there are right and wrong answers to each question. At this stage, children generally look to instructors to provide them with correct answers. The second stage is multiplicity, where learners realize that there are conflicting views and controversies on topics. Learners in the multiplicity stage often have trouble assessing the authority and credibility of arguments. They tend to believe that all perspectives are equally valid and rely on their own experiences to form opinions and decide what information to trust. In the next stage, referred to as relativism, learners begin to understand that there are different lenses for understanding and evaluating information. They learn that different disciplines have their own methods of research and analysis, and they can begin to apply these perspectives as they evaluate sources and evidence. At this point, learners can understand that not all answers or perspectives are equal, but that some answers or arguments might be more valid than others. In the final stage, commitment, students integrate selected information into their knowledge base. You might notice connections between Perry and the cognitivists and constructivists described above in the way they each describe people making sense of information by comparing new information to existing knowledge. However, Perry organizes the processes into developmental stages that outline a progression of learning.

Understanding the stages laid out by Piaget and Perry, we can develop lessons that are appropriate to learners at each stage. For example, in presenting a lesson on climate change to preoperational students using Piaget’s framework, an instructor could gather pictures of different animal habitats, or take children on a nature walk to observe the surrounding environment. Instructors could ask these children to describe what they see and reflect on their personal experiences with weather, while older children could be asked to imagine how the changes are impacting other people and organisms, anticipate consequences of the impact of climate change, and perhaps use problem solving to propose steps to improve their environment. Considering Perry’s Scheme, instructors might guide students from multiplicity to relativism by explaining scientific methods for measuring climate, and challenging learners to evaluate and compare different sources of information to determine which presents the strongest evidence.

Piaget and Perry offer developmental models that outline stages broadly aligned with a person’s age. Both models assume a relatively linear chronological development, with children and young adults passing through different stages at roughly the same time. Vygotsky, on the other hand, describes a model that focuses more on the content being mastered rather than the age of the student. According to Vygotsky’s theory, known as Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as learners acquire new knowledge or develop new skills, they pass through three stages, often illustrated as concentric circles, as in Figure 3.2. The center circle, or first zone, represents tasks that the learner can do on their own. The second zone, or the Zone of Proximal Development, represents an area of knowledge or set of tasks that the learner can accomplish with assistance. The tasks and knowledge in this zone require students to stretch their abilities somewhat beyond their current skill level but are not so challenging as to be completely frustrating. The outermost circle, or third zone, represents tasks that the learner cannot yet do. Vygotsky posits that by working within the ZPD, learners can continue to grow their skills and abilities and increase their knowledge (Flair, 2019).

Figure 3.2: The Zone of Proximal Development

Whereas Piaget and Perry’s theories suggest that learners pass through the same stages at roughly the same time, Vygotsky maintains that the ZPD, or the zone of learning that will appropriately challenge the learner, is different for each student, depending on their background knowledge, experience, and ability (Flair, 2019). The same individual can experience different ZPDs in different subject areas; they might be advanced in math and able to take on material above their grade level but might find languages more challenging. Like with social constructivism, interaction with others is central to ZPD. According to Vygotsky, learning takes place when students interact with others who are more knowledgeable, including peers and instructors, who can provide guidance in the ZPD (Schaffer, 2006).

Math can provide a good example of working within the ZPD. Once students are comfortable with addition, they can probably learn subtraction with some help from a teacher or other peers but are probably not ready to learn long division. Our challenge as instructors is to identify the ZPD for each student so that we are neither boring learners with material that is too easy nor overwhelming them with material that is too hard. Chapter 7 discusses methods for assessing learners’ background knowledge to help determine the appropriate level of learning.

Most of the educational theories and frameworks outlined in this chapter were developed with a focus on children and young adults. While many of the principles can apply to an adult audience, they do not necessarily account for the specific issues, challenges, and motivations of adult learners. Yet, many information professionals will work mostly or even exclusively with adults. Academic librarians and archivists largely work with students who are at least 17 years old and, as the numbers of nontraditional students continue to increase, will find themselves increasingly working with older learners. Likewise, information professionals in corporations and medical and legal settings work almost exclusively with adults. Public librarians see a range of patrons, and many public libraries are increasing educational programming for their adult patrons. This section presents the educational concept of andragogy, which addresses teaching and learning for adults.

Knowles proposed andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (1988, p. 43). Andragogy is based on a set of assumptions about the ways in which adult learners’ experience, motivations, and needs differ from those of younger students, and suggests that traditional classroom approaches developed with younger students in mind will not necessarily be successful with adult learners. Perhaps one of the biggest differences between child and adult learners, according to Knowles (1988), is that adults are interested in the immediate applicability of what they are learning and are often motivated by their social roles as employees, parents, and so on. As Knowles notes, in traditional classrooms, children are usually taught discrete subjects like math, reading, and history, and their learning is focused on building up knowledge for the future. Young students might not use geometry in their everyday lives, but it forms a foundation for more complex math and for future job or life tasks like measuring materials for home repairs.

Adults, on the other hand, are already immersed in the social roles for which younger students are only preparing, and they want to see how their learning applies to those roles. Thus, Knowles suggests that adults will be interested in a competency-based, rather than a subject-based, approach to learning. Further, as autonomous individuals, adults are likely to be more self-directed in their learning. That is, they will want to, and should be encouraged to, take an active part in the design and planning of lessons, providing input on content and goals. Finally, Knowles also argues that adults’ wider experience and larger store of knowledge should be a resource for learning.

Knowles (1988, p. 45) organized his approach around four assumptions of adult learners:

Their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward a self-directed human being.
They accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning.
Their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles.
Their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and, accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of performance-centeredness.

Later, he elaborated with two additional assumptions, summed up by Merriam et al. (2007):

The most potent motivations are internal rather than external.
Adults need to know why they need to learn something.

Certain understandings follow from Knowles’ assumptions that we can use to guide our practice with adult learners. To begin with, we should recognize and respect adults’ tendency to be self-motivated and self-directed learners. After all, in most states, school attendance is compulsory up to a certain age, and relatively strict curriculum standards are set by each state, meaning that children have little choice about attending school in some form or about what content they learn. At least in theory, adults have a choice about whether to attend college or engage in other kinds of learning opportunities such as workshops and professional development and continuing education courses. Presumably, adults are motivated to pursue these opportunities for a specific reason, whether out of personal curiosity, to advance in their careers, or to gain a new skill. These adult learners will likely have opinions and ideas about what they want to learn and perhaps even how they want to engage with the content, so Knowles suggests we provide adult learners with choices and opportunities for input to help shape the curriculum.

Adult learners also have a larger store of knowledge and experience than their younger counterparts. From a cognitivist or constructivist point of view, adults have a larger schema against which to compare new information and make new connections. As instructors, we should recognize this store of knowledge and find ways to integrate it into the classroom, by providing ample opportunity for reflection and using guiding questions to encourage learners to draw on that knowledge. We can approach adult learners as peers or co-learners, acting more as coaches or facilitators in the learning process than as the more directive teacher associated with a traditional school classroom. This focus on learner-centered approaches and a democratic environment overlaps with humanistic and constructivist approaches to teaching.

Points three, four, and six in Knowles’ list of assumptions underscore the importance of relevance and transparency for adult learners. Knowles suggests that adults have different priorities in learning, perhaps in part because they are learning by choice and are in a better position to direct their own learning. Adult learners also tend to have more demands on their time than younger students; they may have families and jobs that impact the time they have to devote to their studies. Thus, adult learners want to see the applicability of what they are learning and might be resistant to work or information that seems incidental. We should be transparent with our adult students, both about what they will learn and how that learning is important and relevant. Sharing learning goals is an important step toward transparency, as it can help set expectations so that students understand the purpose of the lesson and activities. To illustrate relevance, we can provide concrete examples of how the learning can be applied in practice. One could argue that all students, not just adults, deserve transparency and to see the relevance of lesson goals and learning. Knowles’ point is that adults are more likely to expect, and perhaps appreciate, such transparency.

While some controversy exists over whether andragogy really constitutes a theory per se or is more a set of guiding principles or best practices, the assumptions provide helpful guidance to instructors not just in how they organize content but also in how they frame the lesson and its purposes. Based on these assumptions, we can take certain steps to set an appropriate environment for adult education (Bartle, 2019):

Set a cooperative learning climate.
Create mechanisms for input.
Arrange for a diagnosis of learner needs and interests.
Enable the formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests.
Design sequential activities for achieving the objectives.
Execute the design by selecting methods, materials, and resources.
Evaluate the quality of the learning experience while rediagnosing needs for further learning.

As noted above, andragogy overlaps with other theories such as humanism and constructivism, and some of the principles of andragogy, like transparency, would benefit all learners. Still, this framework is useful in reminding instructors that adult learners likely have different priorities and motivations, and thus some differences in classroom approach might be warranted.

In addition to how people learn, we should also know something about why people learn. What motivates a student to put the time and effort into learning a skill or topic, and what can we do to cultivate that motivation? Svinicki (2004) offers an intriguing model that amalgamates some of the prevailing theories of motivation in learning. She suggests that motivation is a factor of the perceived value of the learning, along with students’ belief in their own self-efficacy, or their belief in their ability to achieve the goal. As Svinicki explains, “motivation involves a constant balancing of these two factors of value and expectations for success” (2004, p. 146). Most of the learning theories outlined above address motivation implicitly or explicitly. For instance, behaviorists talk in terms of reinforcement, or external motivators, as students strive to avoid negative consequences and achieve the rewards of good work. Humanists, on the other hand, focus on the internal motivation of self-actualization. As instructors, we can create environments to increase our learners’ motivation or their perception of the value of the goal and their self-efficacy:

Emphasize the relevance of the material. As outlined in the section on andragogy, learners are motivated when they see the benefits of learning and understand why the material is important. Instructors should explain how the effort individuals put into learning can help them achieve personal goals, such as getting a good grade on a paper or finding a job.
Make the material appropriately challenging. Reminiscent of the Zone of Proximal Development, material that is too easy will be boring for learners, while material that is too challenging will be overwhelming and frustrating.
Give learners a sense of choice and control. Choice allows learners to have a stake in the class, while control helps them determine the level of risk they will take and thus increase their confidence. We can foster choice and control by allowing learners options in the types of activities and assignments they engage in, or in the topics they research.
Set learners up for success. Clear expectations for the class or the assignment help learners understand what a successful performance or project looks like. By providing meaningful feedback, we can guide learners toward success.
Guide self-assessment. When learners accurately assess their current level of knowledge and skill, they can make reasonable predictions of the likelihood of their success with the current material.

Activity 3.4 offers an opportunity to reflect on motivation in learning.

Activity 3.4: What Motivates You?

Think back on learning experiences such as courses or workshops where you felt more or less motivated as a learner. These experiences could be related to academics, hobbies, sports, or other interests.

In the experiences in which you felt motivated, what steps did the instructor take that helped you feel motivated?
In the experiences where you felt less motivated, what could the instructor have done differently?
In each case, what role did self-efficacy, or your confidence in your own abilities, play?

Growth Mindset

Dweck’s (2016) mindset theory has gained much attention in the field of education over the last few decades and has some implications for student motivation. Although this theory is somewhat different in its conceptualizations than those described in the rest of this chapter, it is included here both because of its popularity and because it provides interesting insight into how instructors can coach learners to understand and build on their potential. Dweck’s theory is less about how people learn and more about how their attitude toward learning and their self-concept can impact their ability and willingness to learn. According to Dweck, people tend to approach learning with a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. Those with more of a fixed mindset tend to believe that ability is innate; either people are born with a certain talent and ability, or they are not. If individuals are not born with natural ability in a certain area, they would waste time working on that area because they will never truly be successful. People with more of a growth mindset, on the other hand, tend to believe that ability is the outcome of hard work and effort. These people see value in working at areas in which they are not immediately successful because they believe they can improve. Even when they are good at something, they are willing to continue to work at it because they believe they can continue to get better (Dweck, 2016).

These mindsets can have a profound impact on how a person approaches learning (Dweck, 2016). People with a fixed mindset will view low grades or poor test performance as a sign of their lack of natural ability and are likely to become discouraged. They might try to avoid that subject altogether or resign themselves to failure because they do not believe that practice or study will help them improve. Instead, they will tend to stick to subjects in which they already perform well. People with a growth mindset take an opposite view. They tend to view low grades or poor performance as a diagnostic tool that helps them see where they need to concentrate their efforts in order to get better. They are willing to put in extra effort because they believe that their hard work will lead to improved performance. They are also willing to take risks because they understand that failure is just part of the process of learning. We can see connections between Dweck’s theory and Piaget’s argument that the discomfort of disequilibrium is necessary to learning.

Understandably, people with a growth mindset are usually more successful learners because they believe in their own ability to learn and grow. Luckily, Dweck maintains that these mindsets themselves are not necessarily immutable. That is, a person with a fixed mindset can be coached to adopt a growth mindset. Learners can begin by recognizing when they are engaging in fixed mindset thinking, for instance when getting anxious about mistakes or telling themselves that they are “no good” at something. Once learners understand that this thinking is counterproductive, they can change their thinking to adopt a more encouraging voice.

Importantly, Dweck notes that encouraging a growth mindset in the classroom does not mean lowering standards for learning. She maintains that instructors should have high standards but also create a supportive and nurturing atmosphere. To begin with, instructors themselves must believe that learning and growth are possible, and not give up on students who are struggling. Instructors can model this belief for students by replacing fixed mindset feedback with growth mindset feedback. For example, Dweck suggests that if learners are struggling, instructors can respond by telling them they have not succeeded yet. The word “yet” implies that they will achieve the necessary learning; they just need to keep working at it. In that way, instructors can reframe mistakes and struggles as opportunities to learn rather than as failures. Instructors should encourage and appreciate effort as well as learning. In other words, rather than focusing only on a student’s achievement, instructors can praise the effort and hard work that led to that achievement. At the same time, Dweck (2015) notes that a growth mindset is not just about effort. In addition to putting in the work, learners must also be willing to try different strategies and be open to feedback on their performance. The goal is to help students view challenges as part of the learning process and to work with them rather than to fear or avoid them.

Learning theories are meant to help instructors understand the processes and circumstances that enable learning and, by extension, offer guidance in developing activities and environments that best support learning. But what to make of the fact that there are so many different theories and that some contradict each other? The truth is that the human brain and its cognitive processes are incredibly complex and not yet fully understood. Learning theorists do their best to describe how people learn based on careful observation and experimentation, but no learning theory is perfect. Indeed, each theory has its critics, and the various theories go in and out of favor over time. Even so, the theories provide us with an empirically based understanding of how learning occurs.

Further, these theories are not mutually exclusive. We do not have to strictly adhere to one theory but can combine elements across theories in ways that resonate with our teaching styles and reflect our best understanding of our students. For instance, a teacher might draw on elements of cognitivism to enhance students’ retention and recall but also develop group activities that promote social constructivism through peer-to-peer communication. Especially with younger children, instructors might draw on behaviorism by using rewards and positive reinforcement to motivate student engagement with the content, but also integrate humanism by empathizing with students and use constructive feedback to encourage a growth mindset. We can use our understanding of developmental stages to create lessons and activities that provide an appropriate level of challenge to help students grow in their understanding. Ultimately, we should view learning theories as guidelines, not rules, and draw on them in ways that reflect our own values and understandings.

Keeping this idea of learning across theories in mind, we can sum up the key takeaways from this chapter:

Learning is the change in knowledge, behavior, or understanding that occurs when people make connections between new information and their existing knowledge. Various theories attempt to describe the factors that enable the learning process.
Learning does not happen in the same way or at the same time for all students. Understanding developmental stages can help instructors align instruction with student readiness. Adult learners may have needs and constraints that differ from younger learners.
The learning process is influenced by internal factors such as the student’s level of motivation and feelings of self-efficacy, and external factors such as the classroom environment and the adults and peers with whom the learner interacts.
Creating a democratic, empathetic, and supportive learning environment
Assisting students in becoming self-directed learners and enhancing their motivation by offering a sense of control and choice in their learning
Acknowledging that learning can be challenging, and helping students develop the mindset and self-efficacy that will support their persistence
Offering regular and meaningful feedback

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15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

So what are educational learning theories and how can we use them in our teaching practice? There are so many out there, how do we know which are still relevant and which will work for our classes?

There are 3 main schemas of learning theories; Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. In this article you will find a breakdown of each one and an explanation of the 15 most influential learning theories; from Vygotsky to Piaget and Bloom to Maslow and Bruner.

Swimming through treacle!

That’s what it feels like when you are trying to sort through and make sense of the vast amount of learning theories we have at our disposal.

Way back in ancient Greece, the philosopher, Plato , first pondered the question “How does an individual learn something new if the subject itself is new to them” (ok, so I’m paraphrasing, my ancient Greek isn’t very good!).

Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students learn. Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and recall new information.

In this complete summary, we will look at the work of the following learning theorists.

Despite the fact there are so many educational theorists, there are three labels that they all fall under. Behaviorism , Cognitivism and Constructivism .

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt.

Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus learning occurs. Learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behavior. A non-educational example of this is the work done by Pavlov .

Through his famous “salivating dog” experiment, Pavlov showed that a stimulus (in this case ringing a bell every time he fed the dog) caused the dog to eventually start salivating when he heard a bell ring.

The dog associated the bell ring with being provided with food so any time a bell was rung the dog started salivating, it had learnt that the noise was a precursor to being fed.

I use a similar approach to classroom management.

I adapt my body language .

I have taught my students that if I stand in a specific place in the classroom with my arms folded, they know that I’m getting frustrated with the level of noise and they start to quieten down or if I sit cross-legged on my desk, I’m about to say something important, supportive and they should listen because it affects them directly.

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for establishing rules, especially for behavior management.

Cognitivism

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism.

There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.

Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt psychology by Wolfgang Kohler. In English, Gestalt roughly translates to the organization of something as a whole, that is viewed as more than the sum of its individual parts.

Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence based education theories, including cognitive load theory , schema theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval practice.

In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganizes information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

This is viewed as a change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being viewed as a change in behavior. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean Piaget .

Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking concepts together, linking concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.

Constructivism

Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum (see below) is a great example of constructivism in action.

As students are constructing their own knowledge base, outcomes cannot always be anticipated, therefore, the teacher should check and challenge misconceptions that may have arisen. When consistent outcomes are required, a constructivist approach may not be the ideal theory to use.

Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem-based learning, research and creative projects and group collaborations.

learning theories summary, behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism.

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget is an interesting character in Psychology. His theory of learning differs from many others in some important ways:

First, he focuses exclusively on children; Second, he talks about development (not learning per se) and Third, it’s a stage theory, not a linear progression theory. OK, so what’s he on about?

Well, there are some basic ideas to get your head around and some stages to understand too. The basic ideas are:

Schemas : The building blocks of knowledge.
Adaptation processes : These allow the transition from one stage to another. He called these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation.
Stages of Cognitive development : Sensorimotor; Preoperational; Concrete Operational; Formal Operational.

So here’s how it goes. Children develop Schemas of knowledge about the world. These are clusters of connected ideas about things in the real world that allow the child to respond accordingly.

When the child has developed a working Schema that can explain what they perceive in the world, that Schema is in a state of Equilibrium .

When the child uses the schema to deal with a new thing or situation, that Schema is in Assimilation and Accommodation happens when the existing Schema isn’t up to the job of explaining what’s going on and needs to be changed.

Once it’s changed, it returns to Equilibrium and life goes on. Learning is, therefore, a constant cycle of Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium; Assimilation and so on…

All that goes through the 4 Stages of Cognitive Development , which are defined by age:

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage runs from birth to 2 years and the child spends their time learning basic Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea that something still exists when you can’t see it).

The Preoperational Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years and the child develops more Schemas and the ability to think Symbolically (the idea that one thing can stand for another; words for example, or objects). At this point, children still struggle with Theory of Mind (Empathy) and can’t really get their head around the viewpoints of others.

The Concrete Operational Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years and this is the Stage when children start to work things out in their head rather than physically in the real world. They also develop the ability to Conserve (understand that something stays the same quantity even if it looks different).

The Formal Operational Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood and this is where abstract thought develops, as does logic and cool stuff like hypothesis testing.

According to Piaget, the whole process is active and requires the rediscovery and reconstructing of knowledge across the entire process of Stages.

Understanding the Stage a child is in informs what they should be presented with based on what they can and cannot do at the Stage they’re in.

Piaget’s work on cognitivism has given rise to some brilliant work from people like John Sweller who developed the fantastic Cognitive Load Theory and John Flavell’s work on metacognition

2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

Vygotsky takes a different approach to Piaget’s idea that development precedes learning.

Instead, he reckons that social learning is an integral part of cognitive development and it is culture, not developmental Stage that underlies cognitive development. Because of that, he argues that learning varies across cultures rather than being a universal process driven by the kind of structures and processes put forward by Piaget.

Zone of Proximal Development

He makes a big deal of the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development in which children and those they are learning from co-construct knowledge. Therefore, the social environment in which children learn has a massive impact on how they think and what they think about.

They also differ in how they view language. For Piaget, thought drives language but for Vygotsky, language and thought become intertwined at about 3 years and become a sort of internal dialogue for understanding the world.

And where do they get that from? Their social environment of course, which contains all the cognitive/linguistic skills and tools to understand the world.

Vygotsky talks about Elementary Mental Functions , by which he means the basic cognitive processes of Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory.

By using those basic tools in interactions with their sociocultural environment, children sort of improve them using whatever their culture provides to do so. In the case of Memory, for example, Western cultures tend towards note-taking, mind-maps or mnemonics whereas other cultures may use different Memory tools like storytelling.

In this way, a cultural variation of learning can be described quite nicely.

What are crucial in this learning theory are the ideas of Scaffolding, the Zone of Proximal Development ( ZPD ) and the More Knowledgeable Other ( MKO ). Here’s how all that works:

More Knowledgeable Other

The MKO can be (but doesn’t have to be) a person who literally knows more than the child. Working collaboratively, the child and the MKO operate in the ZPD, which is the bit of learning that the child can’t do on their own.

As the child develops, the ZPD gets bigger because they can do more on their own and the process of enlarging the ZPD is called Scaffolding .

Vygotsky Scaffolding

Knowing where that scaffold should be set is massively important and it’s the MKO’s job to do that so that the child can work independently AND learn collaboratively.

For Vygotsky, language is at the heart of all this because a) it’s the primary means by which the MKO and the child communicate ideas and b) internalizing it is enormously powerful in cementing understanding about the world.

That internalization of speech becomes Private Speech (the child’s “inner voice”) and is distinct from Social Speech , which occurs between people.

Over time, Social Speech becomes Private Speech and Hey Presto! That’s Learning because the child is now collaborating with themselves!

The bottom line here is that the richer the sociocultural environment, the more tools will be available to the child in the ZPD and the more Social Speech they will internalize as Private Speech. It doesn’t take a genius to work out, therefore, that the learning environment and interactions are everything.

Scaffolding is also an integral part of Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction .

3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning

In 1956, American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom, first proposed three domains of learning; cognitive, affective and psycho-motor . Bloom worked in collaboration with David Krathwohl and Anne Harrow throughout the 1950s-70s on the three domains.

The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

This was the first domain to be proposed in 1956 and it focuses on the idea that objectives that are related to cognition could be divided into subdivisions and ranked in order of cognitive difficulty.

These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s taxonomy . The original subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest with evaluation being the most cognitively difficult):

Understanding
Application

However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions in 2000-01 by Bloom’s original partner, David Krathwohl and his colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former student of Bloom’s).

The highlights of this revision were switching names of the subdivisions from nouns to verbs, thus making them easier to use when curriculum and lesson planning .

The other main change was the order of the top two subdivisions was reversed. The updated taxonomy is as follows:

The Affective Domain

The affective domain (sometimes referred to as the feeling domain) is concerned with feelings and emotions and also divides objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It was proposed by Krathwohl and Bloom in 1964.

The affective domain is not usually used when planning for math and sciences as feelings and emotion are not relevant for those subjects. However, for educators of arts and language, the inclusion of the affective domain is imperative wherever possible.

The ranked domain subcategories range from “receiving” at the lower end up to “characterization” at the top. The full ranked list is as follows:

Receiving. Being aware of an external stimulus (feel, sense, experience).
Responding. Responding to the external stimulus (satisfaction, enjoyment, contribute)
Valuing. Referring to the student’s belief or appropriation of worth (showing preference or respect).
Organization. The conceptualizing and organizing of values (examine, clarify, integrate.)
Characterization. The ability to practice and act on their values. (Review, conclude, judge).

The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain refers to those objectives that are specific to reflex actions interpretive movements and discreet physical functions.

A common misconception is that physical objectives that support cognitive learning fit the psycho-motor label, for example; dissecting a heart and then drawing it.

While these are physical (kinesthetic) actions, they are a vector for cognitive learning, not psycho-motor learning.

Psychomotor learning refers to how we use our bodies and senses to interact with the world around us, such as learning how to move our bodies in dance or gymnastics.

Anita Harrow classified different types of learning in the psycho-motor domain from those that are reflex to those that are more complex and require precise control.

Reflex movements. These movements are those that we possess from birth or appear as we go through puberty. They are automatic, that is they do not require us to actively think about them e.g. breathing, opening and closing our pupils or shivering when cold.
Fundamental movements. These are those actions that are the basic movements, running, jumping, walking etc and commonly form part of more complex actions such as playing a sport.
Perceptual abilities. This set of abilities features those that allow us to sense the world around us and coordinate our movements in order to interact with our environment. They include visual, audio and tactile actions.
Physical abilities. These abilities refer to those involved with strength, endurance, dexterity and flexibility etc.
Skilled movements. Objectives set in this area are those that include movements learned for sport (twisting the body in high diving or trampolining), dance or playing a musical instrument (placing fingers on guitar strings to produce the correct note). It is these movements that we sometimes use the layman’s term “muscle memory”.
Non-discursive communication. Meaning communication without writing, non-discursive communication refers to physical actions such as facial expressions, posture and gestures.

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist who, in 1965 published his book “The Conditions of Learning”. In it, he discusses the analysis of learning objectives and how the different classes of objective require specific teaching methods.

He called these his 5 conditions of learning, all of which fall under the cognitive, affective and psycho-motor domains discussed earlier.

Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning

Verbal information (Cognitive domain)
Intellectual skills (Cognitive domain)
Cognitive strategies (Cognitive domain)
Motor skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
Attitudes (Affective domain)

Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning

To achieve his five conditions of learning, Gagné believed that learning would take place when students progress through nine levels of learning and that any teaching session should include a sequence of events through all nine levels. The idea was that the nine levels of learning activate the five conditions of learning and thus, learning will be achieved.

Gain attention.
Inform students of the objective.
Stimulate recall of prior learning.
Present the content.
Provide learning guidance.
Elicit performance (practice).
Provide feedback.
Assess performance.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job.

Benefits of Gagné’s Theory

Used in conjunction with Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagné’s nine levels of learning provide a framework that teachers can use to plan lessons and topics. Bloom provides the ability to set objectives that are differentiated and Gagné gives a scaffold to build your lesson on.

5. Jerome Bruner

Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Cognitive learning theorist, Jerome Bruner based the spiral curriculum on his idea that “ We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development” .

In other words, he meant that even very complex topics can be taught to young children if structured and presented in the right way. The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.

Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout their school career. This reinforces the learning each time they return to the subject.
The complexity of the topic increases each time a student revisits it. This allows progression through the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.
When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with ones they have previously learned. The student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas enables them to grasp the more difficult elements of the topic in a stronger way.

Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966)

Following the idea of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three modes of representation. These modes of representation refer to the way knowledge is stored in memory. Unlike Piaget’s age-related stages, Bruner’s modes are loosely sequential.

Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of knowledge through physical actions.
Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual images.
Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

learning theories summary, maslow's hierarchy of needs

The basic premise for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that students progress through a set of sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization. As they move up through the levels, they feel more comfortable in their learning environment and have the confidence to push further.

It’s important to note that any group of students will have learners at different levels, some may not have the lower levels met at home so making sure these students feel safe and secure is of the utmost importance as they will find it very hard to move to the upper levels.

Maslow’s theory lends itself more to building student/teacher relationships rather than lesson or curriculum structure. You can have the best resources and most tightly planned lessons in the world but if you don’t show enthusiasm, passion and empathy it will be very difficult for your students to feel their needs have been met .

7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and professor of cognition and education at the Harvard graduate school at Harvard University. He studied under Erik Ericson (Below) and Jerome Bruner (above).

He published “Frames of Mind” in 1983, in it, he laid out his theory of “multiple intelligences”.

Gardner perceived intelligence as the ability to solve problems or make products that are useful in one or more cultural settings.

He developed a list of criteria he would use to judge possible contenders for the title “intelligence”. Candidates had to satisfy a range of the conditions on his list and also be able to solve genuine problems of difficulties. Initially, Gardner named seven intelligences.

Gardner’s 7 Intelligences

Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken forms to express oneself.
Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve mathematical problems and to perform scientific investigations.
Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of musical patterns, including the ability to recognize tone, pitch and rhythm.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to solve problems.
Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognize and use patterns in a wide or confined space.
Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and intentions of other people.
Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and motivations.

The Importance of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom

Gardner suggested that the intelligences rarely operate independently and compliment each other as students learn new skills and solve problems. He also commented that the intelligences are amoral, meaning they can be used for constructive or destructive purposes.

Whilst Gardner’s theory hasn’t been hugely accepted in the field of Psychology, it has had a strong positive response in education , especially in the US.

In the face of criticism that it is hard to teach things in the frame of a certain intelligence, Gardner replied by stating that the seven intelligences give 7 ways to teach a subject, allowing multiple strategies to be used, thus allowing all students to make progress.

Gardner believes that all seven intelligences are required to live life well and education systems should include all seven not just the more academic first two.

Naturalist Intelligence

Since its original publication, Gardner has since added an eighth intelligence; Naturalist intelligence. This deals with an individual’s ability to perceive, recognize and order features from the environment.

8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development

Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who developed Freud’s “Psychosexual Theory” and adapted it into a psychosocial (having both psychological and social aspects) theory encompassing eight stages.

According to Erikson, we experience eight stages of development during our life span. Within each stage, there is a dilemma that we must resolve in order to feel a sense of competence and will allow us to develop as a well-adjusted adult.

Erikson’s 8 Stages

Trust Vs. Mistrust (Age 0 – 1.5). In this first stage, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. If treated poorly children may grow up feeling mistrust towards people.
Autonomy Vs. Shame (Age 1.5 – 3). The “me do it’ stage, children start to make decisions and show preferences of elements in their environment such as what clothes to wear or what toy they prefer. If children are not allowed to explore these preferences they may develop low self-esteem and shame.
Initiative Vs. Guilt (Age 3 – 5) . This stage involves children learning to plan and achieve goals involving others. If parents or teachers allow children to explore this and support their choices they will develop a sense of purpose and strong self-confidence.
Industry Vs. Inferiority (Age 5 – 12). In this stage, children start comparing themselves with their peers. Success at this will result in a sense of accomplishment in their school work, social and family activities and sports.
Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Age 12 – 18). Students in this stage are asking themselves “Who am I” and “What do I want to do in my life”. They will try out multiple roles during this time to find what one “fits” best. A strong sense of identity and an ability to defend their core beliefs in the face of other opinions would be considered success at this stage.
Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Age 18 – 40). As students progress into early adulthood their focus shifts to making and maintaining strong, intimate relationships with others.
Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Age 40 – 65). In middle adulthood, people are concerned with contributing to society either through their work or parenthood. Continued self-improvement for the benefit of other people figures strongly here.
Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Age 65+). Those in late adulthood reflect on their lives, feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure. Those who feel failure will often obsess with ideas of what they “should have” or “could have” done.

Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Within an educational frame, Erikson’s work gives us as teachers a framework to base our teaching on. Knowing what questions our students are asking of themselves and the world around them allows us to plan effectively.

Problems arise when our class has children at different stages in it, in this case, we must carefully differentiate our pedagogy to allow supportive learning for all students.

9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory

Kolb’s experi e ntial learning cycle.

David Kolb, an American education theorist proposed his four-stage experiential learning theory in 1984. It is built on the premise that learning is the acquisition of abstract concepts which can then be applied to a range of scenarios.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” – Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next stage. Learning is achieved only if all four stages have been completed, however, a learner may travel around the cycle multiple times, further refining their understanding of the topic.

No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the reflective observation stage is skipped, the learner could continue to make the same mistakes.

10. The Peter Principle

The Peter Principle was developed by American educational theorist Laurence Peter and was explained in the book “The Peter Principle” that Peter wrote with his colleague, Raymond Hull.

Originally the book was supposed to be a satirical view on how people are promoted in organizations but it became popular as it actually made a valid point.

Whilst not strictly a learning theory, it does have some crossover to the classroom. The Peter Principal deals with four levels of competence. They could give a teacher planning a long term teaching strategy a framework to use when thinking about how students progress.

Unconscious Incompetence. Not knowing how to do a task without knowing you don’t know.
Conscious Incompetence. You still don’t know how to do the task but now you know you don’t know. You are aware of a gap in your knowledge.
Conscious Competence. You can now do the task but it requires a lot of concentration.
Unconscious Competence. You can perform the task with ease. This is achieved by repeated practice.

I’m sure you can see how this would translate to a student’s learning journey.

Further Reading: Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). The peter principle .

11. Laird’s Sensory Theory

In 1985 Dugan Laird stated in his book Approaches to Training and Development that learning occurs when the senses are stimulated.

He quoted research that found that 75% of an adult’s knowledge was obtained by seeing. 13% was through hearing, the remaining 12% was learned through touch, smell and taste combined.

Based on this research, providing visual prompts for students will enhance their learning. However, making your lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning even further. It’s worth considering this when planning your lessons.

12. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” (1898), in which it is proposed that behaviors that are followed by positive responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed by negative responses, not repeated.

Skinner refined the Law of Effect by introducing “reinforcement” into the descriptions. Using Skinner’s new description we end up with; those behaviors that are reinforced are repeated (strengthened) and those not reinforced tend to dissipate (are weakened).

Positive Reinforcement

From a classroom management perspective, positive reinforcement is an essential strategy for teaching students how to act and conduct themselves.

Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) should be given for behaviors that are desirable, for example, verbally answering questions in class . Initially, this should be done for all answers given, regardless of whether they are correct. This will build a culture of answering questions.

As the behavior in question becomes commonplace, the teacher should then both reduce the frequency of the reinforcement and, as in our above example, only give it for correct answers.

Ultimately the teacher will reduce the frequency of the positive reinforcement to only those responses of the highest caliber. This will create a culture of desired excellence in the students.

13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory

Developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers in the 1980s, facilitative learning is a humanistic approach to learning.

Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviorism. Both Rogers and Maslow (see above) based their work in humanism. The key perspectives of humanism are as follows:

People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualization (see Maslow’s theory above).
It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education, it is the process of learning itself.
The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be achieved through observing and exploring.
The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting students on their own personal journey.

Facilitative Learning

Rogers’ views the teacher as a facilitator to learning rather than just a conveyor of knowledge. The success of the teacher is in their ability to build positive relationships with students.

Roger’s proposed three attitudinal core characteristics that a teacher should possess for facilitative learning to be successful:

Realness. The teacher should be themselves and use their own personality when teaching. Being “real” with students breeds an ethos of trust between students and a teacher. The teacher should be able to convey their feelings rather than just being a monotonal, monochromatic robot.
Prizing, Accepting and Trusting. A teacher should care about their students and accept their feelings, regardless of whether they assist or detract from learning. Through these characteristics, deeper trust and respect is built.
Empathy. Understanding the student’s perception of learning and their feelings.

The effectiveness of facilitative learning also requires certain traits to be present in the student. They should be motivated , aware of the facilitative conditions they have been provided with and aware that the task they have been given is useful, realistic and relevant.

If all these characteristics are present then, in the words of Rogers himself:

“learning becomes life, and a very vital life at that. The student is on his way, sometimes excitedly, sometimes reluctantly, to becoming a learning, changing being”. – Rogers, Carl R. The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning. In Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process. Ed. T. Leeper. National Education Association, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, p1-18. 1967.

14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline

Assertive discipline is a structured system to enable teachers to manage their classrooms. It focuses on the teacher developing a positive behavior management strategy rather than being dictatorial.

Canter’s proposition is that the teacher has the right to decide what is best for their students and that no student should prevent any other from learning.

The teacher should very clear boundaries as to how they expect their students to behave and work, the students should know what these boundaries are and any deviation should be met with an assertive action from the teacher.

This all sounds quite draconian, right?

However, if the teacher gives a firm, clear instruction and those instructions are met, they should be followed by positive reinforcement (see Skinner above). Any deviation from the instruction should be met with negative consequences that the students have prior knowledge of.

The behavior management guru, Bill Rogers, bases his strategies on the assertive teacher model , which I know from personal use, works incredibly well.

15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory

Rudolf Dreikur proposed the theory that mutual respect should be the basis for discipline and that this mutual respect motivates learners to display positive behaviors.

He believed students have an innate desire to feel like an accepted member of a group and to feel like they have value and confidence to contribute to that group. Dreikur called this desire to belong, the “genuine goal of social behavior”.

If students are unable to achieve this goal, they start a series of “goals of misbehavior”. The resulting misbehavior is a misguided attempt at gaining the sense of belonging they are missing.

Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior

Gain power and control.
Gain revenge.
Display feelings of inadequacy.

If a student fails to gain social status by gaining attention , they move on to trying to gain power and control, failure at each successive level ultimately ends with feelings of inadequacy.

How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior.

Gain Attention. Ignore the attention-seeking and use positive reinforcement when positive behavior is shown. Distract the student by offering alternate actions or choices e.g. “Please could you hand out the books”.

Gain Power and Control. Focus on all the good behavior in the class, while ignoring the attempt to gain power, on no account should you engage in a battle for power. Bill Rogers, the behavior expert, calls this the black dot, white square approach.

Gain Revenge. Remember that the student is trying to gain a sense of belonging and this revenge-seeking is a masked attempt to gain it. Away from other students, let the student know that you care about them and their education, that despite their actions you want the best for them.

Display Feelings of Inadequacy. At this stage, the student has given up on themselves. This stage will manifest in the form of “not doing” (not doing homework, not participating etc.). Students at this stage should be shown how to recognize small successes and achievements. Showing an interest in them and their work will always help slowly bring a student out of this stage.

Learning Theories Summary

I know what you’re thinking. “How the hell am I supposed to do all of these” or “which ones should I use” or “I’m more confused than ever!”.

That’s how I felt when I was doing my teacher training. The truth is, great teaching involves a cocktail of most of these at some point (and a few actual cocktails at the weekend to recover!).

If you are just starting out on your journey as a teacher and you are worried that you’ll do it wrong, just remember these basic principles:

Building positive relationships with students is the bedrock of EVERYTHING.
Setting clear boundaries that students are aware of.
Consequences of breaking those boundaries are also known in advance.
Focus on and reward the positive things that happen in your classroom (positive reinforcement).
Treat your students as people with thoughts and feelings of their own that, while may seem irrelevant to you, they are not to them.
It is easier and more effective to change your perspective to theirs than make them change to yours.
Remember, their world is not the one you grew up in.

I hope you found this article useful, I know it reminded me of a good few things that I may have been slacking with. Feel free to share it with your teacher friends, I’m sure they will appreciate it.

Learning Theories FAQ

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for establishing rules, especially for behavior management . Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt. Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus leaning occurs. Learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behavior.

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism. There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information. In cognitive load theory , learning occurs when the student reorganizes information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual learner. Students adapt their models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions. Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum is a great example of constructivism in action.

10 thoughts on “15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)”

What a great overview! Thank you

Is there a new paradigm of AI-assisted education? Everybody uses this kind of education both in learning and teaching, yet there is not a universal theory of such that subject.

Wow..indeed a phenomenal explanation of various learning theories Thank you.

Thank you very much for this article. I’m in pre-major classes for my K-5 degree & licensure, and I’m developing my POE. This might be the most helpful resource I have found so far.

Thanks a lot.

This article is very helpful; it summarizes almost all the theories I encountered during my PGDE. In addition, although in summary, it clarifies many unclear terms I came across during my training.

You do such a great job of summarising the theories. Thank you for this! It can be overwhelming as a new teacher to get all these theories and get the cocktail that fits best to own’s teaching style. Also, thank you for simplifying and creating light moments about the theories. The seven principles are practical and applicable in any teaching situation.

You are awesome!

Thank you for this wonderful overview of the theories by these developmental greats. Summarized beautifully for easy reading and a very useful refresher. It is a most helpful reference for my studies.

Extremely well written. Covers all the theorists. Read and absorb Dr. B.

Multiple Intelligences has been thoroughly debunked, many studies have found no evidence for the brain working like that. I’ve even come across academic papers studying why it is still so prevalent.

Thank you so much for unpacking the theories in a very simple and clear way. Grateful

5 educational learning theories and how to apply them

This article was updated on April 22, 2024.

Written by Michael Feder

Reviewed by Pamela M. Roggeman , EdD, Dean, College of Education

Stylized illustration with a statue of Socrates against an abstract background in mint green, cloud blue and sandstone

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What are learning theories in education?

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how people absorb, process and retain information.

Theories in education didn’t begin in earnest until the early 20th century, but curiosity about how humans learn dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They explored whether knowledge and truth could be found within oneself ( rationalism ) or through external observation ( empiricism ).

By the 19th century, psychologists began to answer this question with scientific studies. The goal was to understand objectively how people learn and then develop teaching approaches accordingly.

In the 20th century, the debate among educational theorists centered on behaviorist theory versus cognitive psychology. In other words, do people learn by responding to external stimuli or by using their brains to construct knowledge from external data?

Why are learning theories important in education?

Learning theories help teachers and others who work in education better understand how people acquire knowledge. The theories can help curriculum designers develop more effective educational materials, and they can help teachers apply those materials more successfully in the classroom. After all, when those in charge of learning have this information in hand, they can help their students learn more effectively.

That applies to more than classroom lessons too. Applying educational theories can help engage learners as they collaborate with one another, and it can promote lifelong learning as people understand how they best learn.

That’s why educator preparation programs spend so much time having teacher candidates study human development and multiple learning theories. Foundational knowledge of how humans learn — specifically how a child learns and develops cognitively — is essential for educators who want to become effective instructors in the classroom.

Pamela Roggeman EdD, Dean of University of Phoenix’s College of Education

Pamela Roggeman, EdD, dean of University of Phoenix’s College of Education , explains her take on the role learning theory plays in preparing teachers: “Just as no two people are the same, no two students learn in the exact same way or at the same rate. Effective educators need to be able to pivot and craft instruction that meets the needs of the individual student to address the needs of the whole child.

“Sound knowledge of multiple learning theories is a first step toward this and another reason why great teachers work their entire careers to master both the art and the science of teaching.”

Although most teaching roles don’t require adhering to a particular learning theory, educators likely already follow one or another theory, even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Following learning theories can help teachers guide their students to success because they allow educators to offer alternative effective teaching strategies.

So, whether you’re an aspiring or experienced teacher, a student or a student's parent or guardian, knowing more about each theory can make you more effective in fostering learning.

5 types of learning theories in education

Educators typically familiarize themselves with five primary learning theories. Each prioritizes different concepts. These learning theories are:

Behaviorism

Cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism.

Behaviorism has roots in the work of John Watson, who is often regarded as the father of behavioral psychology.

Explanation: Behaviorism is concerned only with observable stimulus-response behaviors , as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Application: Learning is based on a system of routines that “drill” information into a student’s memory bank and elicit positive feedback from teachers and the educational institution itself. (Students who do an excellent job receive positive reinforcement and are signaled out for recognition.)

Most teachers who use behaviorist principles focus on delivering prompt feedback to encourage student learning. They also implement reward systems that reinforce good behavior. Finally, many teachers establish consistency by starting their classes with routine activities, like problems on the board.

Cognitive learning theory — or cognitivism — stems from the work of Jean Piaget (the founder of cognitive psychology) and focuses on the internal processes surrounding information and memory. It involves schema, the basic unit of knowledge, and schemata that build up over time.

Explanation: Learning relies on external factors (like information or data) and the internal thought process.

Application: Developed in the 1950s, this theory moves away from behaviorism to focus on the mind’s role in learning.

Teachers who engage in cognitive learning might ask students about their experiences with the lesson and emphasize connections between past ideas and new ones. Incorporating student experiences, perspectives and knowledge can foster engagement with the material and help students feel respected.

Constructivism promotes active, internal learning processes that use new information to build upon a foundation of previously acquired knowledge.

Explanation: The learner builds upon their previous experience and understanding to “construct” a new understanding.

Application: In constructivism, Roggeman says, students take an active approach to learning. Rather than being “filled up” with knowledge, they construct meaning by interacting with the world around them, as with experiments or studies.

Some of the best ways teachers can use constructivism in the classroom include promoting student autonomy by encouraging students to be active in their learning. Hands-on experimentation with interactive materials can also empower them to learn better, especially in science classes, because it can promote engagement and connectiveness in student learning. Open-ended questions are another tool for constructivist learning, since they can help foster classroom conversation and dialogue, which encourages students to think critically and form questions and solutions in real time.

Humanism emphasizes the importance of personal growth, self-actualization and whole-person development. Humanist learning theory emphasizes the unique needs and capabilities of each student and underscores the efficacy of a personalized education.

Explanation: This approach focuses on the unique capabilities of each learner rather than the method or materials.

Application: With the understanding that people are inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and learners themselves are then free to determine their own goals while the teacher assists them in meeting those learning goals.

In the classroom, a humanistic approach might look like a teacher providing students with choices about what to study in order to promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation. It also emphasizes positive teacher-student relationships, making it important for teachers to form connections with each student. Humanistic educators might use discussions, group work and self-evaluation to encourage critical thinking and this sort of connection.

Connectivism is a newer learning theory. It posits that knowledge and learning reside in diverse sources and experiences. That includes understanding how to navigate and source further information via digital means.

Explanation: Informed by the digital age, connectivism departs from constructivism by identifying and remediating gaps in knowledge.

Application: Strongly influenced by technology, connectivism focuses on a learner’s ability to source and update accurate information frequently. Knowing how and where to find the best information is as important as the information itself.

In the classroom, students are likely to learn good digital literacy habits to help navigate online resources to answer their questions. They may also use digital tools to collaborate.

Other types of learning theories in education

Like students themselves, learning theories in education are diverse. Although the five learning theories we have described are some of the most prominent, there are others to discover, such as:

Transformative learning theory: One of the most prominent adult learning theories , transformative learning theory posits that new information can essentially change our worldviews when our life experience and knowledge are paired with critical reflection.
Social learning theory: This theory incorporates some of the tacit tenets of peer pressure. Specifically, students observe other students and model their behavior accordingly. Sometimes it’s to emulate peers; other times it’s to distinguish themselves from peers. Harnessing the power of social learning theory involves getting students’ attention, focusing on how students can retain information, identifying when it’s appropriate to reproduce a previous behavior, and determining students’ motivation.
Experiential learning theory: There are plenty of clichés and parables about teaching someone something by doing it, although it wasn’t until the early 1980s that it became an official learning theory . This approach emphasizes learning about and experiencing something so that students can apply knowledge in real-world situations.

How educational theories influence learning

Educational theories influence learning in a variety of ways. Learning theory examples can affect teachers' approach to instruction and classroom management. Finding the right approach (even if combining two or more learning theories) can make the difference between an effective and inspiring classroom experience and an ineffective one.

Applied learning theories directly influence a classroom experience in a variety of ways, such as:

Providing students with structure and a comfortable, steady environment
Helping educators, administrators, students and parents align on goals and outcomes
Empowering teachers to determine their educational approach based on the needs of their students
Influencing how and what a person learns
Helping outsiders (colleges, testing organizations, etc.) determine what kind of education a student has had or is receiving
Allowing students to have a voice in determining how the class will be managed
Deciding if instruction will be primarily teacher-led or student-led
Determining how much collaboration will happen in a classroom

How to apply learning theories in education

So, how do learning theories apply in the real world? Education is an evolving field with a complicated future . And according to Roggeman, the effects of applied educational theory can be long-lasting. “The learning theories we experienced as a student influence the type of work environment we prefer as adults,” she explains. “For example, if one experienced classrooms based heavily on social learning during the K-12 years, that person, as an adult, may be very comfortable in a highly collaborative work environment. Reflection on one’s educational history might serve as an insightful tool as to one’s own fulfillment in the workplace.”

Educational theories have come a long way since the days of Socrates and even the pioneers of behaviorism and cognitivism. While learning theories will no doubt continue to evolve, teachers and students alike can reap the benefits of this evolution as we continue to develop our understanding of how humans most effectively learn.

Expand your educational knowledge at University of Phoenix

University of Phoenix offers a variety of degree programs and certificates to help educators and aspiring educators optimize their classroom experience. Discover the following:

Online bachelor’s degrees in education: Students can lay the foundation for a career in early childhood education or elementary education with one of these two degree programs and prepare for teacher licensure.
Online master’s degrees in education: Refine your career goals with an advanced degree in education. Options include focusing on adult education, curriculum and instruction, and special education, among others.
Online Doctor of Education : Ready to solve complex problems in education? This terminal degree program takes a deep dive into how to improve performance using critical and innovative thinking.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

A graduate of Johns Hopkins University and its Writing Seminars program and winner of the Stephen A. Dixon Literary Prize, Michael Feder brings an eye for detail and a passion for research to every article he writes. His academic and professional background includes experience in marketing, content development, script writing and SEO. Today, he works as a multimedia specialist at University of Phoenix where he covers a variety of topics ranging from healthcare to IT.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

As dean of the University of Phoenix College of Education, Pamela Roggeman has spent over a decade in higher education teacher preparation in both the public and private sector. Her experience has included national partnerships that help to advance thought leadership in the field of education. Dr. Roggeman also serves as the President of the Arizona Educational Foundation’s Board of Directors.

This article has been vetted by University of Phoenix's editorial advisory committee. Read more about our editorial process.

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Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984, from which he developed his learning style inventory.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage learning cycle and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory concerns the learner’s internal cognitive processes.

Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new concepts is provided by new experiences.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb’s experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner “touches all the bases”:

The terms “Reflective Cycle” and “Experiential Learning Cycle” are often used interchangeably when referring to this four-stage learning process. The main idea behind both terms is that effective learning occurs through a continuous cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.

Concrete Experience – the learner encounters a concrete experience. This might be a new experience or situation, or a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of new concepts.
Reflective Observation of the New Experience – the learner reflects on the new experience in the light of their existing knowledge. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
Abstract Conceptualization – reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).
Active Experimentation – the newly created or modified concepts give rise to experimentation. The learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb (1984) views learning as an integrated process, with each stage mutually supporting and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.

However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.

The process of going through the cycle results in the formation of increasingly complex and abstract ‘mental models’ of whatever the learner is learning about.

Learning Styles

Kolb’s learning theory (1984) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (see above). Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style.

Various factors influence a person’s preferred style. For example, social environment, educational experiences, or the basic cognitive structure of the individual.

Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate “choices” that we make, which Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either end.

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).

Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis simultaneously (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of these two choice decisions.

It’s often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms of a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two preferred styles.

The matrix also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:

	Active Experimentation (Doing)	Reflective Observation (Watching)
Concrete Experience (Feeling)	Accommodating (CE/AE)	Diverging (CE/RO)
Abstract Conceptualization (Thinking)	Converging (AC/AE)	Assimilating (AC/RO)

Knowing a person’s (and your own) learning style enables learning to be orientated according to the preferred method.

That said, everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another – it’s a matter of using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person’s learning style preferences.

Illustration showing a psychological model of the learning process for Kolb

Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:

Diverging (feeling and watching – CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.

Kolb called this style “diverging” because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.

They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

Assimilating (watching and thinking – AC/RO)

The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people.

These people require good, clear explanations rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.

This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

Converging (doing and thinking – AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.

People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.

People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities.

People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

Accommodating (doing and feeling – CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is “hands-on,” and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people’s analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.

They commonly act on “gut” instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.

Educational Implications

Both Kolb’s (1984) learning stages and the cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.

Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them best.

Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.

Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each stage of the experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in sequence.

Kolb, D. A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual . Boston, MA: McBer.

Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering (Ed.) The Modern American College (pp. 232–255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33–57). New York: Wiley.

Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., & McIntyre, J. M. (1984). Organizational psychology: readings on human behavior in organizations . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Learning Theories In Psychology

Theories that explain how we acquire knowledge

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Behavioral Learning Theories

Cognitive learning theories, constructivist learning theories, social learning theories, experiential learning theories, modern views of learning theories.

Learning can be a complex process. If you've ever tried to learn a new language or play an instrument, you probably know that learning outcomes can often vary. It's why you might struggle with the basics of French despite your 456-day Duolingo learning streak or stumble over reading sheet music despite regular practice.

That's why researchers, educators, and psychologists are so interested in understanding how this process works. Knowing how people learn allows us to create instructional materials that make the process easier and more effective.

How Psychologists Define Learning

While definitions may vary, learning is often thought of as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It is influenced by various biological, cultural, social, and emotional variables.

Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn. Some of the main theories of learning include:

Behavioral learning theory
Cognitive learning theory
Constructivist learning theory
Social learning theory
Experiential learning theory

Keep reading to take a closer look at thise learning theories, including how each one explains the learning process.

Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory

During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became increasingly interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. These psychologists, known as behaviorists , argued that psychology needed to study only things that could be measured and quantified to be more scientific.

A few different behavioral theories emerged to explain how and why people behave the way they do.

Behavioral theories are centered on the environmental influences on the learning process. Environmental influences include associations, reinforcements, and punishments.

According to behaviors, we don't need to consider the internal cognitive processes to understand how learning works. Instead, we must examine how someone interacts with the environment to see how information is acquired. Important types of learning in behavioral theory include classical conditioning (which involves learning by association) and operant conditioning (which involves learning through reinforcement and punishment).

Learning Through Association

Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs when an association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

In experiments conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov , a natural stimulus (food) was paired with the sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

In classical conditioning:

Learning occurs by forming associations between naturally occurring stimuli and a previously neutral stimulus
The neutral stimulus must occur immediately before the naturally occurring one
Focuses on automatic, naturally occurring behaviors

Learning Through Reinforcement

Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves strengthening or weakening a behavior by using reinforcement or punishment.

Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. It is sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning . Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning and was more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence behaviors.

Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In operant conditioning, however, associations are made between a behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

In operant conditioning:

Learning occurs when behaviors are followed by either reinforcement or punishment
The consequences must quickly follow the behavior
Focuses on voluntary behaviors

When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more likely that the behavior will be repeated in the future. The behavior becomes less likely if the actions lead to a negative outcome.

The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how attention, memory, and information processing contribute to knowledge acquisition. Cognitive learning theory explores how the thinking process itself can affect learning. That means it also explores different factors influencing our thinking, such as internal and external factors.

Internal factors influencing thinking and learning include concentration, distraction, and emotions. External factors that can impact how we think include our physical surroundings and our society's value of the information itself.

One of the best-known cognitive learning theories is Piaget's theory of cognitive development . Piaget described four stages of intellectual development that occur in childhood.

These four stages explain how a child learns about the world and processes information.

Sensorimotor stage : During this period of cognitive development, children learn about the world primarily through their senses.
Preoperational stage : This stage is marked by the emergence of language and learning through pretend play.
Concrete operations stage : During this period, kids begin to utilize logic but still think about the world very concretely.
Formal operations stage : At this point, kids begin to use deductive reasoning and can understand abstract, hypothetical ideas.

The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active participants in the process who play a role in constructing their knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning were influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky .

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and social interaction in the learning process.

Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more knowledgeable other and the zone of proximal development:

More knowledgeable other : Vygotsky described the more knowledgeable other as anyone with an understanding or ability level higher than the learner. This can often be a teacher or adult, but it can also refer to peers with more knowledge about a specific concept, task, or process.
Zone of proximal development : Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development as the range of knowledge or ability that a person can display with the help of the more knowledgeable other, but that they are not yet capable of performing independently. Gradually expanding this zone is how people can learn and improve their skills over time.

Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of learning takes place through observation. Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate these behaviors.

In social learning:

Learning occurs through observation
Observations can take place at any time
Focuses on the give-and-take interaction between social, cognitive, and environmental influences

In his well-known Bobo doll experiment , Bandura revealed just how easily children could be led to imitate even negative actions. Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll were likelier to copy those actions when given a chance.

Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a behavior change. Children frequently learn new things through observation but might not engage in such behaviors until they need or are motivated to utilize the information.

This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience. The theory was formally introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by the work of other theorists, including Jean Piaget and John Dewey .

According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning . The first two, abstract conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to how people grasp experiences. The final two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to how people transform experiences.

Such theories are typically not used in isolation. Instead, modern educators and psychologists draw on information from a variety of theories to develop effective educational strategies and psychological interventions that help people acquire new skills and knowledge.

For example, while behavioral approaches are no longer as dominant as they once were, they still play an important role in educational and therapeutic settings. For example, teachers continue to use behavioral strategies such as positive reinforcement and token economies to help shape the learning process.

The goal of learning more about these learning theories is to help adapt educational and therapeutic interventions to best suit an individual's needs.

All learners are different, so drawing on various approaches, such as incorporating behavioral, constructivist, and experiential strategies can help maximize learning opportunities and improve educational outcomes.

Behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, social, and experiential learning theories are among psychology's best-known and most influential. These theories have influenced education, therapy, and parenting approaches. Learning more about these theories can give you a deeper, richer understanding of how the learning process works.

Dong H, Lio J, Sherer R, Jiang I. Some learning theories for medical educators . Med Sci Educ . 2021;31(3):1157-1172. doi:10.1007/s40670-021-01270-6

Hugar SM, Kukreja P, Assudani HG, Gokhale N. Evaluation of the relevance of Piaget's cognitive principles among parented and orphan children in Belagavi City, Karnataka, India: A comparative study . I nt J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2017;10(4):346-350. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1463

Eun B. The zone of proximal development as an overarching concept: A framework for synthesizing Vygotsky’s theories . Educational Philosophy and Theory . 2017;51(1):18-30. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1421941

Galanaki E, Malafantis KD. Albert Bandura's experiments on aggression modeling in children: A psychoanalytic critique . Front Psychol . 2022;13:988877. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.988877

Wijnen-Meijer M, Brandhuber T, Schneider A, Berberat PO. Implementing Kolb´s experiential learning cycle by linking real experience, case-based discussion and simulation . J Med Educ Curric Dev . 2022;9:23821205221091511. doi:10.1177/23821205221091511

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cognitivism Learning Theory, Strategies and Examples

Cognitivism offers insight into how our minds process information and convert it into knowledge. This approach shifts our focus from visible actions to the internal cognitive processes at play. This article will explain the importance of cognitivism and illustrate how it can be used to improve the learning experience. So whether you are a student aiming to enhance your learning capabilities or an educator looking to upgrade your instructional methods, an understanding of cognitivism can help you achieve your goals.

What is cognitivism

The theory of cognitivism centers on how information is processed within the mind. It goes beyond observable behavior, emphasizing the internal mental processes that occur in learning. Cognitivism theory asserts that learners play an active role in information processing, and so there is a focus on developing areas such as knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. Integrating cognitivist principles into education involves adapting instructional strategies to match up with these internal cognitive processes.

The history of cognitivism goes back to the late 1950s. At this time, a notable change began to unfold in learning theory, steering away from traditional behavioral models towards ideas more based on cognitive sciences. This shift marked a departure from the exclusive focus on observable behavior, prompting psychologists and educators to highlight the significance of cognitive processes, and central to this change were new beliefs surrounding concepts such as critical thinking, problem-solving, language acquisition, and also the complex realm of information processing.

An image showing a summary of learning theories: Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism

In recent times, cognitivism has become more and more embedded into instructional design. Many psychology and education specialists, consciously rejecting entrenched behavioristic assumptions, have embraced the psychological principles derived from the cognitive sciences. This means that, in the modern classroom, students are not just seen as passive recipients of information but are encouraged to be actively engaged in mental processing. This deliberate departure from the conventional has been met with widespread recognition. Whether characterised as a learning revolution or a gradual evolutionary process, there is a consensus that cognitive theory now stands at the forefront of prevailing learning theories. Rather than just manipulating the materials presented, contemporary approaches prioritize directing student engagement and interaction within instructional systems (1).

How Does Learning Occur?

In the contested landscape of learning theories, cognitivism is positioned on the rationalist end of the epistemology spectrum, prioritizing the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures.

Cognitive theories put forward the belief that the nuanced processes underpinning learning must be understood and prioritised. This means thinking about how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Therefore, in cognitivism, the spotlight is not just on the actions of the learner, but also on understanding what they know and the mechanisms through which their knowledge is acquired. As mentioned, the learner is perceived as an active participant, engaging in mental activities that involve internal coding and structuring (2).

Supporters of cognitivism see the brain as an information processor similar to a computer, operating on self-developed algorithms for information processing and decision-making. In this process, individuals acquire and store their knowledge, forming schema (a mental framework) in their long-term memory. However, this knowledge is not randomly stored. Instead, it is subconsciously organized into categories, facilitating the retrieval of pertinent information when needed.

Memory , according to cognitivists, is one of the most crucial areas of interest, so the processes and conditions that enhance memory are key to the understanding of how we learn. Contrary to some study methods, cognitivists advocate for tasks like ‘retrieval practice’, where learners practice recalling information from memory, citing its effectiveness in improving memory and, consequently, allowing for better learning outcomes (3).

Furthermore, tests, which are sometimes viewed skeptically by some in education, are often supported by cognitivists. To them, tests serve a dual purpose as retrieval practice and diagnostic tools, allowing teachers and students to pinpoint gaps or weaknesses in knowledge. Additionally, cognitivists endorse strategies like ‘spaced practice’, recognizing that the brain’s effectiveness in recalling information improves when intervals are introduced.

Another cornerstone of cognitivist philosophy is problem-based learning , which asserts that attempting to solve problems before being taught the solution cultivates deeper learning, even if errors are part of the process. This holistic perspective on learning from a cognitive position not only shows the complexities of mental processes but also provides practical insights for educators and learners attempting to understand the concept of knowledge acquisition (4).

See also: Jean Piaget and His Theory & Stages of Cognitive Development

Which Factors Influence Learning?

In terms of the dynamics of learning, both cognitivism, which focuses on mental processes and internal structures, and behaviorism, which centers on observable behaviors shaped by external stimuli, underscore the crucial role played by environmental conditions. Cognitivism, in particular, explores how learners actively process information internally. For both theories, instructional strategies take center stage, with explanations, demonstrations, and examples believed to be very important in guiding students through the learning journey. Similarly, the value of practice, coupled with corrective feedback, is thought to be crucial in both these theoretical perspectives.

While these shared elements align the two theories in some ways, key differences occur in the perception of the learner’s role. For example, cognitivism introduces a distinctive perspective, stressing the ‘active’ nature of the learner. Here, the focus shifts beyond simply giving answers to questions. Instead, mental activities like planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies that precede the answering of a question are prioritized.

Interestingly, cognitive theories go even further, asserting that environmental cues and instructional components alone cannot completely explain learning outcomes in instructional situations. This is an important distinction to the ideas of behaviorism. Instead, cognitivism pays attention to how learners code, transform, store, and retrieve information. Furthermore, beyond the cognitive side of things, the psychological factors of learners are also considered. Thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes are recognized as influential elements woven into the experience of learning. So it is not just about what is presented externally. Cognitivism is equally about the internal landscape of the learner (5).

At the heart of the cognitive approach lies a transformative agenda, which is to change the learner. The emphasis is not on a transaction of knowledge. In contrast, the idea is to intentionally develop skills and strategies that empower the learner in their educational journey.

See also: Constructivist Learning Theory

What is the Role of Memory?

As previously mentioned, learning depends on memory, and so effective storage is key. Educators and designers play an important role in guiding learners to effectively organize information within their memory. The teacher’s task is not just to impart knowledge; they also need to help students improve their own memory and learn how to create organized spaces for holding information. However, this can be difficult due to the well-knows challenges of memory, like forgetting due to interference or absence of cues. This means that addressing these issues is integral to meaningful learning retention (6).

How Does Transfer Occur?

When a learner can skilfully apply new knowledge across varied contexts, the phenomenon of ‘transfer’ is said to be occurring. To do this, a learner must first develop an organized knowledge base built on rules and concepts . This focus on the dynamics of memory storage is a key characteristic of cognitivism.

Crucial to this development is the role of prior knowledge , acting as a guiding force that sets boundary constraints for recognizing similarities and differences in new information. To be clear, this is not just about storing knowledge in memory. The successful use of transfer also depends on retaining the practical applications or uses of that knowledge and recognizing how it can be applied in new contexts.

For example, think of ‘transfer’ like a chef using their cooking skills in different kitchens. To transfer knowledge well, learners need to organize what they know into rules and concepts, just like a chef organizes recipes. Imagine the chef skilfully moving from making French food to Asian dishes, noticing what is similar and different. Similarly, learners who are good at ‘transfer’ apply what they know in different situations by using their organized knowledge. This is like the chef using their cooking skills in new kitchens, showing how knowledge can be useful in different ways (7).

What Types of Learning Are Best Explained by This Position?

Cognitive theories are particularly effective in explaining complex forms of learning, such as reasoning and problem-solving , due to cognitivism’s focus on mental structures. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses on observable behaviors, cognitivism looks into the internal cognitive processes that drive learning. In the realm of complex learning, understanding intricate concepts, reasoning through problems, and applying knowledge in diverse contexts are mental activities that align with the key principles of cognitive theories. The focus on how information is received and processed within the mind allows cognitive theories to provide comprehensive insights into the processes involved in complex learning tasks.

However, despite theoretical distinctions, both cognitive and behavioral perspectives are similar in that their ultimate goal is to facilitate efficient and effective transferral of knowledge to students. To achieve this goal, both theories employ shared strategies: simplification and standardization . Knowledge is distilled into fundamental building blocks, with extra details discarded for streamlined transfer. Whether in workshops on management skills or other learning contexts, information is presented in a digestible format. For example, think about a situation where participants in a workshop on mastering effective communication skills are provided with information that is broken down into manageable parts for quick and easy understanding. In this type of class, behaviorists would concentrate on crafting an environment that enhances this transfer, while cognitivists would highlight the importance of using efficient mental strategies for processing the information.

See also: Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

What Basic Assumptions and Principles of This Theory Are Relevant to Instructional Design?

When designing learning experiences based on cognitivism, it is important to embrace certain fundamental principles. Firstly , the active involvement of learners is paramount. Therefore, it is important to create activities and tasks that prompt learners to actively engage, analyze, and apply knowledge rather than passively receive it.

Secondly , hierarchical analyses play a vital role. Recognizing and illustrating prerequisite relationships among concepts through cognitive tasks ensures that learners comprehend foundational concepts before progressing to more complex ones.

Similarly, the structure, organization, and sequencing of information are essential considerations. Careful attention must be given to the order in which learners encounter new concepts. This is because the sequence in which information is presented significantly influences how individuals build their mental frameworks and understand the relationships between different concepts. A well-thought-out structure helps learners to connect new information with their existing knowledge, creating a more cohesive and meaningful understanding of the subject matter (8).

Lastly , as in behaviourism, the creation of learning environments conducive to making connections is also important. Such environments should encourage students to relate new information to their existing knowledge, allowing for a holistic understanding. By integrating these principles into instructional design, one can create effective learning experiences that align with the core tenets of cognitivism.

How Should Instruction Be Structured?

As mentioned, cognitive theories advocate for meaningful knowledge construction, urging instructors to help learners organize and relate new information to existing mental structures.

For effective instruction from a cognitive standpoint, emphasis should be placed on connecting lesson content to a student’s existing mental structures, or schema . Moreover, information should be strategically organized, allowing for connections between new and existing knowledge.

To make this work, the responsibilities of teachers and learning designers include understanding the diverse learning experiences of individuals, determining effective ways to structure new information based on prior knowledge , and ensuring feedback is given after practice.

For example, in a situation where a manager is teaching a new employee how to perform a cost-benefit analysis, instead of presenting this task in isolation, the manager might cleverly connect this new task to familiar processes like budgeting or decision-making. This cognitive approach taps into the new member of staff’s existing knowledge, making the learning experience smoother and more memorable. This is an example of helping a learner to navigate through a well-known path to understand and apply a new concept.

The cognitive approach not only reduces processing requirements but also enhances the effectiveness of recall cues (triggers that help retrieve information from memory). Furthermore, it recognizes the importance of context in learning, aligning with the idea that meaningful connections contribute to a more robust and lasting understanding.

See also: Instructional Design Models and Theories

The cognitivist perspective on learning puts forward the idea that learners actively engage in the learning experience through cognitive processes. Because of the diversity in learning objectives and student abilities in different contexts, instructional designers need a working understanding of various instructional theories. While there is no singular theory that universally applies, the principles of cognitivism offer valuable frameworks for instructional designers to construct effective learning environments tailored to the diverse needs of learners.

In short, cognitivism matters because it digs into how our minds work. In education and design, it is the backbone, shaping methods that not only ‘teach’ but actually get our brains working effectively.

References:

Winn, W. (1990). Some implications of cognitive theory for instructional design. Instructional Science, 19, 53-69.
Garnham, A. (2019). Cognitivism. In The Routledge companion to philosophy of psychology (pp. 99-110). Routledge.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance improvement quarterly, 26(2), 43-71.
Al-Jarrah, T. M., Mansor, N., Talafhah, R. H., & Al-Jarrah, J. M. (2019). The application of metacognition, cognitivism, and constructivism in teaching writing skills. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.
Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2014). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. In Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 227-247). Routledge.
Olson, M. H., & Ramírez, J. J. (2020). An introduction to theories of learning. Routledge.
Anderson, J. R. (2013). Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Psychology Press.
Paas, F., Van Gog, T., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory: New conceptualizations, specifications, and integrated research perspectives. Educational psychology review, 22, 115-121.

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

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Overview of The Theories of Learning and Its Application

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Introduction, theories of learning, behaviourism, cognitive constructivism theory, social constructivism learning theory, experiential learning, andragogy theory.

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Conclusion on learning theories

Based on the four theories of learning previously discussed, you must have drawn conclusion that learning is a complex process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and external (environmental and social) influences and experiences that involves learners acquiring, enhancing, or adjusting her/his knowledge, values, skills, or views of the world. Though different learning theories involve contrasting ideas, in many cases the theories are not mutually exclusive but demonstrate overlapping or connecting ideas. Therefore, as a teacher, you will find yourself moving seamlessly through all learning theories.

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Learning Theories Essay Example

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Topic: Education , English , Information , Family , Students , Learning , Theory , Knowledge

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Section A: Learning Theories in the Big World

During the course of this semester, the process of gaining insightful information regarding the different learning theories allowed me to appreciate the different techniques used to facilitate learning. During the first part of the course, I was able to learning five learning theories which enable me to see how learners process insights and gain knowledge from them through the techniques proposed in the theories.

Under the Radical Behaviorism Theory I was able to gain an understanding on how important reinforcement is to facilitate learning. Reinforcement is the use of a stimulus to strengthen the drive that constitute to learning (Kaelbling, Littman, & Moore, 1996). Based on research, a stimulus can either be positive or negative. It can come in the form of a reward or a punishment. A negative behavior can be reversed if the learner can draw inference from a stimulus that trigger a positive feeling or initiates motivation. This was exemplified in the film of entitled Akeelah and the Bee (Atchison, 2006). From the video, it revealed that Akeelah was able to change her mind and decided to join the spelling bee because she was motivated by an incident when she experienced victory. That event boosted her confidence and motivated her to push further.

The theory on radical behaviorism is exactly like what is practiced at home. Parents would typically introduce the concept of reward and punishment to get their children motivated or to at least influence them to do what they would want them to do. At an early age when children are being potty trained, parents would offer praises as positive reinforcement every time the child would go to the bathroom to do their thing. At the same time, as the child goes to school to motivate them to study and good grades parents would say they will get something for bringing home an “A”, otherwise an “F” would be equivalent to being grounded. In the academe, the practice of radical behaviorism can be rooted from same principle. Using the example of Akeelah and the Bee, however, on the opposing aspect is utilizing a negative situation. For example, cutting class would create an impact if the students were discovered cutting class and had gotten reprimanded for doing it. The change in behavior has been introduced because of the negative reinforcement or punishment.

In another theory, it proposed that learners are often selective in the process of acquiring knowledge. This theory can best be explained by the Cognitive Information Processing Theory. The best argument that can be derived from this theory is relevance. The reason for selective learning is because the learner is only able to process and retain the information that is most important to them, or they find most significant (Hanten, 2012). In addition, a study conducted by Adler and Orprecio entitled, The eyes have it: visual pop-out in infants and adults, the researchers tried to use the manner from which the infant identifies and recognizes objects. In the same manner that learners are able to process information utilizing visual aids and other assistive learning medium. According to them, infants are able to recall objects base on their color and shape . In their study they concluded that most infants relate more favorably to color red and other bright colors like yellow and orange, while colors black, brown and gray has the tendency to blend in with the rest of the other objects (2006, p.193). Applying this in a classroom setting, we have students who performs really well in one subject but does very poorly in others. In a usual statement, there is a cliché in the academe which states that if you are good with numbers, you’re most likely poor in words. Specifically, a student who is interested in numbers would most likely excel in Math, Algebra, and similar subjects. However, they might not necessarily do well in History or Literature. Some find it extra difficult to understand why a Math genius has trouble memorizing dates and names in World History or constructing a decent formal composition for Technical Writing class, but has no trouble memorizing complex mathematical and algebraic formula. This can be explained by how much the student values the formula over the dates and the name, thereby allowing the learning to process only the information that is related to numerical and mathematical values. While the dates could include numbers, this cannot be manipulated as with in Math where numbers can be manipulated to assume a value.

In Chapter 4, Driscoll tried to explain David Ausubel’s learning theory was called Meaningful Learning and Schema. Meaningful learning and schema supports that learners learn through the use of objects that the learning relates with or finds significant . Ausubel suggests that students might find it effective to memorize nonsense words but associate them with something significant. For example, in memorizing the orders of the planets students use the mnemonics My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos. The first letter in each word in the sentence stands for the planets in the solar system—i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. This can prove why working with mnemonics is effective. Associating the object with something that is significant or interesting to the learner makes the processing of information more effective because there is something significant about it that triggers recall of information. In the case of the mnemonics for planetary order, the sentence is funny and although it might appear nonsense, that very reason triggers the recall. Another perfect example of this would be the television series Revenge. In this film meaningful learning and schema can be related to how the film’s plot development is based on activating prior knowledge. Emily Thorne/ Amanda Clarke whose father is murdered while young seeks to avenge his father’s death. As a result he gathers photographs, letters and other things that could provide information on his father’s killers and uses them to make connections as she seeks for the mysteries behind her father’s death. In season 1 for instance, Emily uses the knowledge that her father used to work for the Grayson family, to begin investigating if they had anything to do with the death of her father. Investigation in this case helps Emily learn of new secrets and connections leading towards his father's murderers. The prior Knowledge received through letters and photos helps her learn how to plan her revenge mission. In the film, she keeps on referring to the letters from her dad in a way to remind herself of her mission.

Almost in the same light as selective learning is the theory on situated cognition. This theory thrives in the idea that the instructor must be able to establish the relevance or the practicality of learning an insight or a principle or a concept which the students can relate to and find important to them in order to motivate the students to study and learn the subject being taught. The theory of situated cognition asserts that learners need to experience and get engage with the actual process for learning to be facilitate effectively (Driscoll 2005, p.177). Most often than not, students complain of the irrelevance of studying a particular course. As a result, these students failed to learn the necessary insights associated with the subject. For practical application, the TV series The Apprentice can best represent this theory. The Apprentice was a real-life television series that covers the process of learning by experience of some selected participants. During the duration of the series, each apprentice will be taught of a concept in business which they necessarily have to master. Failing to master the concepts or principle that was tasked for the week or days would result to the elimination of the participant from the game. The theory of situated cognition fosters the entry of a newcomer into the learning process and eventually leaves the process fully equipped with the necessary insights.

Finally, the Cognitive and Knowledge Development Theory is the most socially-motivated if not entirely the most interesting theory of learning learned during the course duration of the semester. Naturally, it is not only through the use of technology, research, experimentation and other learning methodologies that an individual can actually learn. In fact, by actively engaging in social interaction and fostering interpersonal relationships, the transfer of knowledge can also be possible. The technical basis for this assumption is through immersion. In order for one person to truly learn about a given culture, the theory of Cognitive and Knowledge Development asserts that the learner would learn best if it is facilitated through personal interaction. The best example for this is the movie entitled, What to Expect when Expecting (2012). In the film, when Holly decides to adopt a child who had Ethiopian origin, she decided to travel to Ethiopia to learn the culture of the Ethiopians. There she was able to learn their culture, their ways and their behavior. By becoming immersed in the community Holly was able to learn and actually lived-out the life of an Ethiopian. This made her fully understanding of the needs of the child as well as the personalities and behavior of the child.

Section B: Illustration of the Learning Theory in the Curriculum

It was Jean Piaget’s concept of pattern that provided the necessary framework to form the Cognitive Information Processing Theory. This theory of learning supports that every individual has an existing set of knowledge which they have acquired in the past. Piaget argues that almost all learners have pre-existing knowledge that has been formed in an individual’s psyche or mind as a product of experience or previous insights and generalization .

Piaget explained this theory through two psychological concepts—accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation is the process how humans acquire knowledge and retain it to blend with their existing learned insights (Block, 1982). However, since the world is dynamic it is not impossible that new things are discovered, and things are modified to fit the new insights and discoveries. The process of taking these new sets of information to alter or change previous stored information is called accommodation (Block, 1982). These concepts creates balance or equilibrium that is increased by development. The state of balance or equilibrium allows for mental processing of operative intelligence to be generated (Driscoll, 2005, p.199).

Assimilation is applied when the learner tries to blend new information from pre-existing cognitive information to create a respond. In the same manner, the application of a debate in which the students will not be given the opportunity to choose their side allows for the process of accommodation to takes place. Given this activity, those who are not in favor of the position of their group will be forced to reason and modify their existing cognitive knowledge with the new information so they can argue effectively the position of their group. Accommodation accounts for the process in which the learner tries to modify their existing cognitive information to make way for the new learned insights.

In this activity, students become discerning when there is the need to modify or alter existing beliefs to accommodate the new insights. This can be the same with latest discoveries and the need to change our pre-existing knowledge to accommodate the results from latest studies. To be more concrete about this, our previous knowledge of the order of the planets in the solar system were as follow: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. However, in recent studies it was proven that Pluto is not a planet so it was removed from the order. Instead we now just have the following planets to form the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This is an example of Piaget’s accommodation principle from his Cognitive Information Processing Theory.

Section C: Instructional Planning and the Situated Cognition Theory

In a curriculum for English Technical Writing class, students are required to learn how to construct a formal business letter. In this case, the proposed learning theory to apply for this special curriculum is Situated Cognition. This theory supports that an activity to foster knowledge and to ensure learning is facilitated requires the connection of the academic pursuit to practical application within a cultural, physical and social context (Shaw, Kadar, Sim, & Repperger, 1992). Usually, learners are not motivated to study or learn a concept because they find it unnecessary. For example, students could not see the logic why they need to study about molecular composition and the sub-atomic properties of matter because they do not see this as something relevant to their day-to-day activity. They also do not see the reason people have to spend time learning about trajectory especially since they plan to take a course and pursue a profession that has no use for such knowledge.Given this argument, the student needs to see the relevance of the activity through practical application.

The normal conversational language can be different from formal business language. This is the reason every year, and students have an English class that allows them to master the different skills and competencies in language. This includes grammar, syntax, vocabulary and technical writing. The said competencies facilitate for effective communication that is almost necessary for every career choice. Many students argue that they do not need to learn English anymore considering that they are using it every day. However, any business analyst and consultant could easily say that conversational English and entirely different from Business English. Business English is more formal and more direct to the point. In addition. Business English requires the use of certain keywords and key phrases not normally seen in conversational English. Among these words include transition words like whereas, however and nevertheless. Instead, conversational English would rather use, but or yet.

After studying several theories used in education for over the duration of the semester, my attention was caught by the most appropriate theory that could establish the relevance of taking a course. The theory utilizes real-life scenarios in applying the insights from a particular subject for the students to establish the relevance of understanding the insights being taught. This theory is called the Situated Cognition Theory. A perfect application of this theory relates to the subject of Basic English. Many native English speaker students could not see the relevance for studying something that they knew from the time they were born. Unfortunately, this is a shallow interpretation for the English language course. In fact, English is not introduced as part of the curriculum for redundancy or for the purpose of simply filling out a course in the curriculum. In fact, English is included to the K-12 curriculum to teach students of the proper syntax involved in using the English language.

In the case of the proposed curriculum in technical writing the instructor can connect the activity towards something that the students might find relevant to them or to the profession they intend to pursue. For example, in the 12th grade the instructor can ask the student to write a sales letter. However, instead of selling a product or a service, the letter can be drafted as if it were themselves they were selling to a company to hire them for example. The letter should be formatted in the proper business format. The content should have the proper salutation and signatories. In addition, the content of the letter should be formal and not conversational or slang. Following the activity, the teacher could ask for the student’s insights regarding the activity. The teacher could ask how each student responds to the activity and how they find it useful. Conclusion

Adler, S., & Orprecio, J. (2006). The eyes have it: visual pop-out in infants and adults. Developmental Science, 189-206. Atchison, D. (Director). (2006). Akeelah and the Bee [Motion Picture]. Block, J. (1982). Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development , 281-295. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn and Bacon. Hanten, G. (2012). Selective Learning. In N. Seel, Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 2989-2992). New York: Springer Publishing, Inc. Hawthorne, N. (2009). The Scarlet Letter. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. Kaelbling, L., Littman, M., & Moore, A. (1996). Reinforcement Learning: A Survey. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research , 237–285. Shaw, R., Kadar, E., Sim, M., & Repperger, D. (1992). The intentional spring: A strategy for modeling systems that learn to perform intentional acts. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3-28.

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What Is Learning? Essay about Learning Importance

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What Is learning? 👨‍🎓️ Why is learning important? Find the answers here! 🔤 This essay on learning describes its outcomes and importance in one’s life.

Introduction

The Key Concepts

Learning is a continuous process that involves the transformation of information and experience into abilities and knowledge. Learning, according to me, is a two way process that involves the learner and the educator leading to knowledge acquisition as well as capability.

It informs my educational sector by making sure that both the students and the teacher participate during the learning process to make it more real and enjoyable so that the learners can clearly understand. There are many and different learning concepts held by students and ways in which the different views affect teaching and learning.

What Is Learning? The Key Concepts

One of the learning concept held by students is, presentation of learning material that is precise. This means that any material that is meant for learning should be very clear put in a language that the learners comprehend (Blackman & Benson 2003). The material should also be detailed with many examples that are relevant to the prior knowledge of the learner.

This means that the learner must have pertinent prior knowledge. This can be obtained by the teacher explaining new ideas and words that are to be encountered in a certain field or topic that might take more consecutive lessons. Different examples assist the students in approaching ideas in many perspectives.

The learner is able to get similarities from the many examples given thus leading to a better understanding of a concept since the ideas are related and linked.

Secondly, new meanings should be incorporated into the students’ prior knowledge, instead of remembering only the definitions or procedures. Therefore, to promote expressive learning, instructional methods that relate new information to the learner’s prior knowledge should be used.

Moreover, significant learning involves the use of evaluation methods that inspire learners to relate their existing knowledge with new ideas. For the students to comprehend complex ideas, they must be combined with the simple ideas they know.

Teaching becomes very easy when a lesson starts with simple concepts that the students are familiar with. The students should start by understanding what they know so that they can use the ideas in comprehending complex concepts. This makes learning smooth and easy for both the learner and the educator (Chermak& Weiss 1999).

Thirdly, acquisition of the basic concepts is very essential for the student to understand the threshold concepts. This is because; the basic concepts act as a foundation in learning a certain topic or procedure. So, the basic concepts must be comprehended first before proceeding to the incorporation of the threshold concepts.

This makes the student to have a clear understanding of each stage due to the possession of initial knowledge (Felder &Brent 1996). A deeper foundation of the study may also be achieved through getting the differences between various concepts clearly and by knowing the necessary as well as the unnecessary aspects. Basic concepts are normally taught in the lower classes of each level.

They include defining terms in each discipline. These terms aid in teaching in all the levels because they act as a foundation. The stage of acquiring the basics determines the students’ success in the rest of their studies.

This is because lack of basics leads to failure since the students can not understand the rest of the context in that discipline, which depends mostly on the basics. For learning to become effective to the students, the basics must be well understood as well as their applications.

Learning by use of models to explain certain procedures or ideas in a certain discipline is also another learning concept held by students. Models are helpful in explaining complex procedures and they assist the students in understanding better (Blackman & Benson 2003).

For instance, in economics, there are many models that are used by the students so that they can comprehend the essential interrelationships in that discipline. A model known as comparative static is used by the students who do economics to understand how equilibrium is used in economic reason as well as the forces that bring back equilibrium after it has been moved.

The students must know the importance of using such kind of models, the main aspect in the model and its relationship with the visual representation. A model is one of the important devices that must be used by a learner to acquire knowledge. They are mainly presented in a diagram form using symbols or arrows.

It simplifies teaching especially to the slow learners who get the concept slowly but clearly. It is the easiest and most effective method of learning complex procedures or directions. Most models are in form of flowcharts.

Learners should get used to learning incomplete ideas so that they can make more complete ideas available to them and enjoy going ahead. This is because, in the process of acquiring the threshold concepts, the prior knowledge acquired previously might be transformed.

So, the students must be ready to admit that every stage in the learning process they get an understanding that is temporary. This problem intensifies when the understanding of an idea acquired currently changes the understanding of an idea that had been taught previously.

This leads to confusion that can make the weak students lose hope. That is why the teacher should always state clear similarities as well as differences of various concepts. On the other hand, the student should be able to compare different concepts and stating their similarities as well as differences (Watkins & Regmy 1992).

The student should also be careful when dealing with concepts that seem similar and must always be attentive to get the first hand information from the teacher. Teaching and learning becomes very hard when learners do not concentrate by paying attention to what the teacher is explaining. For the serious students, learning becomes enjoyable and they do not get confused.

According to Chemkar and Weiss (1999), learners must not just sit down and listen, but they must involve themselves in some other activities such as reading, writing, discussing or solving problems. Basically, they must be very active and concentrate on what they are doing. These techniques are very essential because they have a great impact to the learners.

Students always support learning that is active than the traditional lecture methods because they master the content well and aids in the development of most skills such as writing and reading. So methods that enhance active learning motivate the learners since they also get more information from their fellow learners through discussions.

Students engage themselves in discussion groups or class presentations to break the monotony of lecture method of learning. Learning is a two way process and so both the teacher and the student must be involved.

Active learning removes boredom in the class and the students get so much involved thus improving understanding. This arouses the mind of the student leading to more concentration. During a lecture, the student should write down some of the important points that can later be expounded on.

Involvement in challenging tasks by the learners is so much important. The task should not be very difficult but rather it should just be slightly above the learner’s level of mastery. This makes the learner to get motivated and instills confidence. It leads to success of the learner due to the self confidence that aids in problem solving.

For instance, when a learner tackles a question that deemed hard and gets the answer correct, it becomes the best kind of encouragement ever. The learner gets the confidence that he can make it and this motivates him to achieve even more.

This kind of encouragement mostly occurs to the quick learners because the slow learners fail in most cases. This makes the slow learners fear tackling many problems. So, the concept might not apply to all the learners but for the slow learners who are determined, they can always seek for help incase of such a problem.

Moreover, another concept held by students is repetition because, the most essential factor in learning is efficient time in a task. For a student to study well he or she should consider repetition, that is, looking at the same material over and over again.

For instance, before a teacher comes for the lesson, the student can review notes and then review the same notes after the teacher gets out of class. So, the student reviews the notes many times thus improving the understanding level (Felder & Brent 1996). This simplifies revising for an exam because the student does not need to cram for it.

Reviewing the same material makes teaching very easy since the teacher does not need to go back to the previous material and start explaining again. It becomes very hard for those students who do not review their work at all because they do not understand the teacher well and are faced by a hard time when preparing for examinations.

Basically, learning requires quite enough time so that it can be effective. It also becomes a very big problem for those who do not sacrifice their time in reviews.

Acquisition of the main points improves understanding of the material to the student. Everything that is learnt or taught may not be of importance. Therefore, the student must be very keen to identify the main points when learning. These points should be written down or underlined because they become useful when reviewing notes before doing an exam. It helps in saving time and leads to success.

For those students who do not pay attention, it becomes very difficult for them to highlight the main points. They read for the sake of it and make the teacher undergo a very hard time during teaching. To overcome this problem, the students must be taught how to study so that learning can be effective.

Cooperative learning is also another concept held by the students. It is more detailed than a group work because when used properly, it leads to remarkable results. This is very encouraging in teaching and the learning environment as well.

The students should not work with their friends so that learning can be productive, instead every group should have at least one top level student who can assist the weak students. The groups assist them in achieving academic as well as social abilities due to the interaction. This learning concept benefits the students more because, a fellow student can explain a concept in a better way than how the teacher can explain in class.

Assignments are then given to these groups through a selected group leader (Felder& Brent 1996). Every member must be active in contributing ideas and respect of one’s ideas is necessary. It becomes very easy for the teacher to mark such kind of assignments since they are fewer than marking for each individual.

Learning becomes enjoyable because every student is given a chance to express his or her ideas freely and in a constructive manner. Teaching is also easier because the students encounter very many new ideas during the discussions. Some students deem it as time wastage but it is necessary in every discipline.

Every group member should be given a chance to become the group’s facilitator whose work is to distribute and collect assignments. Dormant students are forced to become active because every group member must contribute his or her points. Cooperative learning is a concept that requires proper planning and organization.

Completion of assignments is another student held learning concept. Its main aim is to assist the student in knowing whether the main concepts in a certain topic were understood. This acts as a kind of self evaluation to the student and also assists the teacher to know whether the students understood a certain topic. The assignments must be submitted to the respective teacher for marking.

Those students who are focused follow the teacher after the assignments have been marked for clarification purposes. This enhances learning and the student understands better. Many students differ with this idea because they do not like relating with the teacher (Marton &Beaty 1993). This leads to very poor grades since communication is a very essential factor in learning.

Teaching becomes easier and enjoyable when there is a student- teacher relationship. Assignment corrections are necessary to both the student and the teacher since the student comprehends the right method of solving a certain problem that he or she could not before.

Lazy students who do not do corrections make teaching hard for the teacher because they make the other students to lag behind. Learning may also become ineffective for them due to low levels of understanding.

Acquisition of facts is still another student held concept that aims at understanding reality. Students capture the essential facts so that they can understand how they suit in another context. Many students fail to obtain the facts because they think that they can get everything taught in class or read from books.

When studying, the student must clearly understand the topic so that he or she can develop a theme. This helps in making short notes by eliminating unnecessary information. So, the facts must always be identified and well understood in order to apply them where necessary. Teaching becomes easier when the facts are well comprehended by the students because it enhances effective learning.

Effective learning occurs when a student possesses strong emotions. A strong memory that lasts for long is linked with the emotional condition of the learner. This means that the learners will always remember well when learning is incorporated with strong emotions. Emotions develop when the students have a positive attitude towards learning (Marton& Beaty 1993).

This is because they will find learning enjoyable and exciting unlike those with a negative attitude who will find learning boring and of no use to them. Emotions affect teaching since a teacher will like to teach those students with a positive attitude towards what he is teaching rather than those with a negative attitude.

The positive attitude leads to effective learning because the students get interested in what they are learning and eventually leads to success. Learning does not become effective where students portray a negative attitude since they are not interested thus leading to failure.

Furthermore, learning through hearing is another student held concept. This concept enables them to understand what they hear thus calling for more attention and concentration. They prefer instructions that are given orally and are very keen but they also participate by speaking. Teaching becomes very enjoyable since the students contribute a lot through talking and interviewing.

Learning occurs effectively because the students involve themselves in oral reading as well as listening to recorded information. In this concept, learning is mostly enhanced by debating, presenting reports orally and interviewing people. Those students who do not prefer this concept as a method of learning do not involve themselves in debates or oral discussions but use other learning concepts.

Learners may also use the concept of seeing to understand better. This makes them remember what they saw and most of them prefer using written materials (Van Rosum & Schenk 1984). Unlike the auditory learners who grasp the concept through hearing, visual learners understand better by seeing.

They use their sight to learn and do it quietly. They prefer watching things like videos and learn from what they see. Learning occurs effectively since the memory is usually connected with visual images. Teaching becomes very easy when visual images are incorporated. They include such things like pictures, objects, graphs.

A teacher can use charts during instruction thus improving the students’ understanding level or present a demonstration for the students to see. Diagrams are also necessary because most students learn through seeing.

Use of visual images makes learning to look real and the student gets the concept better than those who learn through imaginations. This concept makes the students to use text that has got many pictures, diagrams, graphics, maps and graphs.

In learning students may also use the tactile concept whereby they gain knowledge and skills through touching. They gain knowledge mostly through manipulative. Teaching becomes more effective when students are left to handle equipments for themselves for instance in a laboratory practical. Students tend to understand better because they are able to follow instructions (Watkins & Regmy 1992).

After applying this concept, the students are able to engage themselves in making perfect drawings, making models and following procedures to make something. Learning may not take place effectively to those students who do not like manipulating because it arouses the memory and the students comprehends the concept in a better way.

Learning through analysis is also another concept held by students because they are able to plan their work in an organized manner which is based on logic ideas only. It requires individual learning and effective learning occurs when information is given in steps. This makes the teacher to structure the lessons properly and the goals should be clear.

This method of organizing ideas makes learning to become effective thus leading to success and achievement of the objectives. Analysis improves understanding of concepts to the learners (Watkins & Regmy 1992). They also understand certain procedures used in various topics because they are sequential.

Teaching and learning becomes very hard for those students who do not know how to analyze their work. Such students learn in a haphazard way thus leading to failure.

If all the learning concepts held by students are incorporated, then remarkable results can be obtained. A lot information and knowledge can be obtained through learning as long as the learner uses the best concepts for learning. Learners are also different because there are those who understand better by seeing while others understand through listening or touching.

So, it is necessary for each learner to understand the best concept to use in order to improve the understanding level. For the slow learners, extra time should be taken while studying and explanations must be clear to avoid confusion. There are also those who follow written instructions better than those instructions that are given orally. Basically, learners are not the same and so require different techniques.

Reference List

Benson, A., & Blackman, D., 2003. Can research methods ever be interesting? Active Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 4, No. 1, 39-55.

Chermak, S., & Weiss, A., 1999. Activity-based learning of statistics: Using practical applications to improve students’ learning. Journal of Criminal Justice Education , Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 361-371.

Felder, R., & Brent, R., 1996. Navigating the bumpy road to student-centered instruction. College Teaching , Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 43-47.

Marton, F. & Beaty, E., 1993. Conceptions of learning. International Journal of Educational Research , Vol. 19, pp. 277-300.

Van Rossum, E., & Schenk, S., 1984. The relationship between learning conception, study strategy and learning outcome. British Journal of Educational Psychology , Vol. 54, No.1, pp. 73-85.

Watkins, D., & Regmy, M., 1992. How universal are student conceptions of learning? A Nepalese investigation. Psychologia , Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 101-110.

What Is Learning? FAQ

Why Is Learning Important? Learning means gaining new knowledge, skills, and values, both in a group or on one’s own. It helps a person to develop, maintain their interest in life, and adapt to changes.
Why Is Online Learning Good? Online learning has a number of advantages over traditional learning. First, it allows you to collaborate with top experts in your area of interest, no matter where you are located geographically. Secondly, it encourages independence and helps you develop time management skills. Last but not least, it saves time on transport.
How to Overcome Challenges in Online Learning? The most challenging aspects of distant learning are the lack of face-to-face communication and the lack of feedback. The key to overcoming these challenges is effective communication with teachers and classmates through videoconferencing, email, and chats.
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3 Learning Theories: Understanding How People Learn

General Learning Theories

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

Social Constructivism

Developmental Stages

Growth Mindset

Suggested Readings

Share This Book

15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

More Knowledgeable Other

Vygotsky Scaffolding

3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning

The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

The Affective Domain

The Psychomotor Domain

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning

Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning

Benefits of Gagné’s Theory

5. Jerome Bruner

Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966)

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s 7 Intelligences

The Importance of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom

Naturalist Intelligence

8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development

Erikson’s 8 Stages

Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory

10. The Peter Principle

11. Laird’s Sensory Theory

12. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement

13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory

Facilitative Learning

14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline

15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory

Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior

How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior.

Learning Theories Summary

Learning Theories FAQ

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5 educational learning theories and how to apply them

In this article

What are learning theories in education?

Why are learning theories important in education?

5 types of learning theories in education

Behaviorism

Other types of learning theories in education

How educational theories influence learning

How to apply learning theories in education

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Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Learning Styles

Diverging (feeling and watching – CE/RO)

Assimilating (watching and thinking – AC/RO)

Converging (doing and thinking – AC/AE)

Accommodating (doing and feeling – CE/AE)

Educational Implications

Further Reading