what health dimension demonstrates great problem solving skills

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Acquisition
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music and Religion
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Society
• Law and Politics
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Games
• Computer Security
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business Strategy
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Systems
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Politics and Law
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

9 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Skills for Public Health Practice

• Published: October 2023
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This chapter provides an initial definition of problem-solving and the components of the problem-solving process. It identifies common mistakes early in the process and their implications. It explains that the first step toward successful problem-solving is thoroughly and accurately defining the problem and acknowledging that multiple solutions must be considered. It explores multiple approaches to problem-solving, such as rational problem-solving and organic problem-solving, as well as a type of organic problem-solving called appreciative inquiry. The chapter also explores seven decision-making styles and elaborates on common mistakes made during the process, as well as how to overcome them.

Signed in as

Institutional accounts.

• Google Scholar Indexing
• GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code

Institutional access

• Sign in with a library card Sign in with username/password Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Brain Health Basics: What is Intellectual Health?

Did you know that being creative and curious is part of being healthy? Your intellectual health is part of your brain health. Taking care of your brain health will improve your intellectual health. This means making healthy choices and doing activities where you think and create.

What is Intellectual Health?

How to improve intellectual health, habits for intellectual health, brain health education programs.

Intellectual health includes creativity, curiosity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Intellectual health is not a person’s IQ score or how much they know.

Intellectual health is sometimes called intellectual wellness, intellectual well-being, or the intellectual dimension of health.

Examples of intellectual health include:

Academic success

Creative hobbies like music, writing, painting, or design

Problem-solving

Motivation to learn new things

Developing self-identity

Knowing when and how to ask for help

All parts of our health are connected. Taking care of our mental health and physical health improves our intellectual health.

If you’re an educator or a caregiver, you may be helping improve someone else’s intellectual health.

Four ways to improve intellectual health include:

Eating nutrient-dense foods

Caring for your physical health

Pursuing hobbies and interests

Managing your stress

#1 Eating Nutrient-Dense Foods

Nutrient-dense foods have lots of vitamins, minerals, and nutrients and not too much sugar, sodium, or saturated fats.

Learn more about brain-boosting foods in our nutrition education programs .

Berries, nuts, seeds, beans, whole grains, wild salmon, and avocado are brain-healthy foods. For intellectual wellness, look for foods with antioxidants, healthy fats, fiber, and vitamin E.

Introducing young children to different foods, flavors, and textures will encourage them to eat brain-healthy foods.

If you have food aversions or are a caregiver for someone with food aversions, a speech therapist may be able to help.

#2 Caring for Your Physical Health

Caring for your physical health supports your intellectual health. Your brain is healthier when your body is healthy. Healthy brain habits include getting quality sleep, staying hydrated, and exercising.

Fitness is not just for your muscles. Exercise makes your brain think about body movements and release "feel good" chemicals like dopamine.

Staying active can look different for everyone. If you are an individual with a disability or a caregiver for an individual with a disability, a physical therapist or a recreational therapist may be able to help.

#3 Pursuing Hobbies and Interests

When you pursue a hobby or interest, it keeps your brain thinking and engaged. Intellectually healthy hobbies aren't just reading, writing, or doing puzzles.

You can improve your intellectual health by doing physical hobbies too. You might be interested in team sports, running, kayaking, weightlifting, skiing, or even construction. These activities require quick reactions, problem-solving, memory, and critical thinking skills.

Other hobbies like working on cars, interior design, playing an instrument, cooking, or party planning all support intellectual health.

Parents and educators can build intellectual health from an early age by reading to babies and introducing creative art activities to young children.

#4 Managing Your Stress

Stress affects all parts of our health. Long-term stress wears down our intellectual health. Stress can make it hard to problem-solve or complete tasks. When we are stressed, we can lose our motivation and curious spark.

Managing stress is an important part of staying intellectually healthy. Check out McMillen Health's mental health education programs:

Preschool: PreK Mood Monsters

Kindergarten: Mini Mood Monsters

Elementary: MOOD Monsters

Middle School: Mind-Full of Stress

High School: Social Emotional Smarts

Activities that make your brain work improve your intellectual health. These activities include:

Doing puzzles

Creative writing

Playing board games and card games

Listening to music

Playing an instrument

Exploring outdoors

Trying new hobbies

Learning about a new topic

Using high-tech media rooms, our educators can reach classrooms anywhere with an internet connection. We offer brain health programs for students of all ages.

If you want to learn more about McMillen Health's health education programs, visit our program guide .

Elementary: Hooked on a Feeling

Grades 5 & 6: Be a Brain Builder

Senior Adults: Active Brain Booster

Ready to schedule a program? Click here.

Alysia Marshall-Seslar is the Writing and Marketing Associate at McMillen Health. Along with being the author of TamTalks, Alysia contributes to the research and development of McMillen’s custom health education curriculum.

Top Refusal Skills for Teens: How to Say No Under Pressure

5 questions about substance use and the brain.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

1.6: The Six Dimensions of Health

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 53309

• Garrett Rieck & Justin Lundin
• College of the Canyons

Body size and functioning; recognizing the need for physical activity, healthy foods, and adequate sleep; avoiding unhealthy habits

Developing a sense of connection, belonging, and sustained support system; having positive relationships

• Intellectual

Recognizing creative abilities and finding ways to expand knowledge and skills; being open-minded

Coping effectively with life and expressing emotions in an appropriate manner

Having a sense of purpose and meaning in life; establishing peace, harmony, and balance in our lives

• Environmental

Occupying pleasant, healthy, and safe environments that support wellbeing; positively impacting the quality of our surroundings (including protecting and preserving nature)

Learning about the Six Dimensions of Health can help a person choose how to make wellness a part of everyday life. Wellness strategies are practical ways to start developing healthy habits that can have a positive impact on physical and mental health.

The Dimensions of Wellness

By: Sarai Ordonez

The World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmary.” This definition basically states that health is more than just being sick or healthy. Health is a wide spectrum that fluctuates daily and has multiple parts and key factors that can affect it. Health effects everyone and we all have the ability to improve our health through conscious efforts!

So we will be focusing on the dimensions of wellness.

The Dimensions of Wellness model was originally developed by Dr. Bill Hettler at the National Wellness Institute and included only six dimensions. However some models now include 8 dimensions and add financial and environmental to the wheel.

The dimensions of wellness model is a holistic and interdependent model, meaning that every dimension affects the other and together, all of the dimensions contribute to a healthy life.

Health is a central part of human happiness and wellbeing.

Wellness is very important because every behavior we engage in and every emotion we feel affects our wellbeing. Wellbeing also affects our actions and emotions as well, demonstrating the interdependence of this model. For example, When you feel physically sick, like the flu or a stomach virus, you are more likely to be short with others and get angry or be frustrated.

So let's get into the different dimensions of wellness.

First dimension we’re going to talk about is the physical dimension. The physical dimension is the dimension everyone thinks of when they think of health. It’s essentially caring for your body. It encompasses everything dealing with your physical body such as nutrition, exercise, biological illness and sleep. It also includes getting help when you need it, like going to the doctor when you feel sick. and paying attention to the signs of illness given by your body.

So how can we ensure we are physically fit? The Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommends 150 minutes of physical activity every week for adults. This might sound like a lot but when split up, it’s only 30 minutes per day for 5 days a week. Setting a reminder on your phone M-F to complete 30 minutes of physical activity can increase the chances of you actually engaging in it. It’s all about the priority you place on it. And trust me, your health is worth prioritizing ! 

Next we’re going to talk about the social dimension of wellness. The social dimension encourages engagement with your community through active communication and intimacy. Typically when people think of communities they think of the city they live in or college they attend but we are a part of so many different communities like our families, the churches we attend, even the Manna community! By recognizing yourself as an important part of a community, you begin to develop a sense of responsibility for the improvement of your community by using your knowledge and skills. 

This dimension also looks at the social networks we have access to that can create opportunities to develop new healthy and intimate relationships and friendships. This has been a bit difficult with COVID but in this new virtual space we have access to a large and diverse network through Manna that we are able to develop new relationships in!

The environmental dimension is a new dimension that inspires us to live a healthy lifestyle that respects the earth by living in harmony with Earth and all of Earth's creatures. This dimension also promotes having interactions with nature to motivate us to take action to protect the Earth. Some ways we can begin to protect Earth and work on our environmental dimensions of health is reducing our waste production, and recycling plastic, Conserving water use, and minimizing the use of chemicals that are harmful to the environment. This can include carpooling, turning off the water when brushing your teeth and finding new ways to use old plastic. By being socially responsible and aware of our impact on earth, we will be able to live in more harmony with nature, leading to an increased connection of the self and the earth.

The next dimension of the emotional dimension. The emotional dimensions encompasses at the awareness and acceptance of the wide range of feelings felt by yourself and others. By being aware and accepting of your emotions, you will be better able to manage the feelings and behaviors produced by your emotions. 

A key part of being emotionally healthy is having healthy coping mechanisms for stress. Stress is a very normal part of life but having too much can negatively affect your health. Long term exposure to stress has been linked to an increased risk for heart disease. So it’s very important to learn to cope with it effectively and not fall into bad coping mechanisms. Some examples of negative coping strategies include eating when emotional, sleeping, being overly busy, and other. Some great stress coping mechanisms are mediating, deep breathing exercises, and sharing how you feel with others. And Remember your emotions are valid !

The fifth dimension is the intellectual dimension. This dimension recognizes the need for stimulating mental activities. Just like we exercise our bodies, we also need to exercise our minds as well. When someone has a rich intellectual dimension, they enjoy expanding their knowledge and skills. This can go beyond just the classroom, although formal education is a great source of intellectual growth. Engaging in activities related to problem solving and creativity are great ways to improve your intellectual dimension of health. The main point is to continue to expand and challenge your mind as you age.

The next dimension is the occupational dimension. This dimension involves the personal satisfaction and enrichment that is gained from working. It’s important that the work being done aligns with your personal values, goals, and lifestyle in order to feel personal satisfaction from it. This dimension also includes enjoying work endeavors and contributing your unique gifts, skills and talents to do work that is fulfilling to you.

This dimension is especially important as we enter adulthood by envisioning what your future goals are and choosing a career path that fits your values. The Myers Briggs personality test is a great starting point for this.

So tying into the occupational dimension is the spiritual dimension. The spiritual dimension of health recognizes our need for meaning and purpose in life. When seeking meaning and purpose in life it is essential to develop values. This does not necessarily have to be religious but it can be if you are religious. It can also include things like relaxation and mediation. Being spiritually well means knowing which resources to use to cope with issues that come up in everyday life and coping effectively with life’s ups and downs. 

People who are spiritually well are typically inquisitive, fully present, and live by their principles while giving themselves and others the freedom to be their true self.

The last dimension is the financial dimension. Money management is crucial to being a well rounded and healthy person. An important part of the financial dimension is learning how to successfully manage financial expenses, income, debts and savings. Savings are very important when planning for the future and emergencies. Creating a budget listing incomes and expenses can help to prioritize saving money and allow for wiser spending decisions, reducing unnecessary expenses.

Hopefully by now you have a general understanding of how complex health can be. It’s important to take time to work on each dimension of wellness and always work towards improving your health! Your health is worth prioritizing!

TAKE ACTION Volunteer Donate Contact Us

ABOUT MPI Mission Blog Accountability FAQ Jobs

WHO WE ARE Our Story Our Team Partners Alumni

COUNTRIES Ecuador

PROGRAMS Health Education Livelihoods

OPPORTUNITIES Program Director Summer Intern Short-term Trips  

Building Health Skills: Decision Making

By Suzanne Schrag HealthSmart Series Editor

Skills are a vital part of effective health education. And, in addition to acquiring knowledge, a focus on practicing skills is becoming more and more accepted as the best way to help young people establish healthy behaviors. This, in turn, helps them reduce their health risks.

The  National Health Education Standards  (NHES) outline performance indicators for comprehending concepts—the knowledge part of the equation—and also address seven critical health skills. The CDC’s  Health Education Curriculum Analysis Tool  (HECAT) builds on the National Standards to outline both knowledge and skills expectations for students in Grades K through 12.

Teaching Skills Across the Grades: Healthy Choices

But how do these health skills look at different grade levels? What does it mean to analyze influences, access resources, set a goal or make a decision when you’re 6 versus when you’re 16?

The Standards offer exactly this kind of guidance through the performance indicators outlined for the skills at each grade level. As students grow in knowledge, capacity and independence, what it means to practice a particular health skill also evolves.

Let’s take decision making as an example.

In other words, for young children, it is enough to understand when they might need to make a decision and then to determine if they need help with their choice.

At higher grade levels, more sophistication is expected and taught. By the time students are in high school, the performance indicators outline a complete decision-making process:

• Examine barriers that can hinder healthy decision making.
• Determine the value of applying a thoughtful decision-making process in health-related situations.
• Justify when individual or collaborative decision making is appropriate.
• Generate alternatives to health-related issues or problems.
• Predict the potential short-term and long-term impact of each alternative on self and others.
• Defend the healthy choice when making decisions.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of health-related decisions.

Of course, within the health lessons, these standards need to translate into language that makes sense to children and teens.  HealthSmart , ETR’s skills-based K-12 health education program, puts considerable emphasis on delivering developmentally appropriate language and activities that meet NHES objectives.

A  HealthSmart  Example: Decision Making

For example, in the Kindergarten and Grade 1 Safety and Injury Prevention lessons, students are taught to ask the following simple questions when making a choice related to safety:

• Do I feel safe?
• Do I need help in any way?

As we move through the elementary grades, students learn a slightly more complex series of questions that they can apply to some basic either/or situations around safety, as in the following example from Grade 2.

• What are my choices?
• What could happen with each choice?
• Which choice is smart and will keep me safe?
• Why is this the Safety Smart choice?

By Grade 5, students are engaging in a multi-step decision-making process:

• Do you have a decision to make?
• What choices do you have?
• Do you need help with this choice? Who can help you?
• What’s the healthy choice for you? Why?

• Does a decision need to be made?
• Stop and think before you act. What information do you need to make a healthy decision?
• Do you need help with this decision? Who can help?
• What are the possible outcomes for each of these choices?
• What’s the healthy and safe choice for you? Why?
• How could you evaluate the results of your decision?

At each of these grade levels, students are able to practice a skills process that makes sense developmentally and helps them meet the objectives from the National Health Education Standards.

Request a quote for your district, school or classroom

Get access to preview sample HealthSmart lessons

Learn more about HealthSmart – curriculum, format and language options

An official website of the Department of Health & Human Services

• Search All AHRQ Sites
• Email Updates

1. Use quotes to search for an exact match of a phrase.

2. Put a minus sign just before words you don't want.

3. Enter any important keywords in any order to find entries where all these terms appear.

• The PSNet Collection
• All Content
• Perspectives
• Current Weekly Issue
• Past Weekly Issues
• Curated Libraries
• Clinical Areas
• Patient Safety 101
• The Fundamentals
• Training and Education
• Continuing Education
• WebM&M: Case Studies
• Training Catalog
• Submit a Case
• Improvement Resources
• Innovations
• Submit an Innovation
• About PSNet
• Editorial Team
• Technical Expert Panel

Developing critical thinking skills for delivering optimal care

Scott IA, Hubbard RE, Crock C, et al. Developing critical thinking skills for delivering optimal care. Intern Med J. 2021;51(4):488-493. doi:&nbsp;10.1111/imj.15272

Sound critical thinking skills can help clinicians avoid cognitive biases and diagnostic errors. This article describes three critical thinking skills essential to effective clinical care – clinical reasoning, evidence-informed decision-making, and systems thinking – and approaches to develop these skills during clinician training.

Medication use and cognitive impairment among residents of aged care facilities. June 23, 2021

COVID-19 pandemic and the tension between the need to act and the need to know. October 14, 2020

Choosing wisely in clinical practice: embracing critical thinking, striving for safer care. April 6, 2022

Scoping review of studies evaluating frailty and its association with medication harm. June 22, 2022

Countering cognitive biases in minimising low value care. June 7, 2017

'More than words' - interpersonal communication, cognitive bias and diagnostic errors. August 11, 2021

A partially structured postoperative handoff protocol improves communication in 2 mixed surgical intensive care units: findings from the Handoffs and Transitions in Critical Care (HATRICC) prospective cohort study. February 6, 2019

Enabling a learning healthcare system with automated computer protocols that produce replicable and personalized clinician actions. August 4, 2021

Analysis of lawsuits related to diagnostic errors from point-of-care ultrasound in internal medicine, paediatrics, family medicine and critical care in the USA. June 24, 2020

Developing and aligning a safety event taxonomy for inpatient psychiatry. July 13, 2022

Changes in unprofessional behaviour, teamwork, and co-operation among hospital staff during the COVID-19 pandemic. September 28, 2022

Pharmacists reducing medication risk in medical outpatient clinics: a retrospective study of 18 clinics. March 8, 2023

Prevalence and causes of diagnostic errors in hospitalized patients under investigation for COVID-19. April 12, 2023

Barriers to accessing nighttime supervisors: a national survey of internal medicine residents. March 17, 2021

Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016 March 3, 2017

Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among frontline health care personnel in a multistate hospital network--13 academic medical centers, April-June 2020. September 23, 2020

Transforming the medication regimen review process using telemedicine to prevent adverse events. December 16, 2020

The MedSafer study-electronic decision support for deprescribing in hospitalized older adults: a cluster randomized clinical trial. February 2, 2022

Perceived patient safety culture in a critical care transport program. July 31, 2013

Video-based communication assessment of physician error disclosure skills by crowdsourced laypeople and patient advocates who experienced medical harm: reliability assessment with generalizability theory. May 18, 2022

Implementation of the I-PASS handoff program in diverse clinical environments: a multicenter prospective effectiveness implementation study. November 16, 2022

Patient harm from cardiovascular medications. August 25, 2021

Delays in diagnosis, treatment, and surgery: root causes, actions taken, and recommendations for healthcare improvement. June 1, 2022

Influence of opioid prescription policy on overdoses and related adverse effects in a primary care population. May 19, 2021

Evaluation of a second victim peer support program on perceptions of second victim experiences and supportive resources in pediatric clinical specialties using the second victim experience and support tool (SVEST). November 3, 2021

Diagnostic errors in hospitalized adults who died or were transferred to intensive care. January 17, 2024

Estimation of breast cancer overdiagnosis in a U.S. breast screening cohort. March 16, 2022

Multiple meanings of resilience: health professionals' experiences of a dual element training intervention designed to help them prepare for coping with error. March 31, 2021

Care coordination strategies and barriers during medication safety incidents: a qualitative, cognitive task analysis. March 10, 2021

TRIAD IX: can a patient testimonial safely help ensure prehospital appropriate critical versus end-of-life care? September 15, 2021

An act of performance: exploring residents' decision-making processes to seek help. April 14, 2021

Preventing home medication administration errors. March 14, 2022

A randomized trial of a multifactorial strategy to prevent serious fall injuries. July 29, 2020

Clinical predictors for unsafe direct discharge home patients from intensive care units. October 21, 2020

Association between limiting the number of open records in a tele-critical care setting and retract-reorder errors. July 21, 2021

Standardized assessment of medication reconciliation in post-acute care. April 27, 2022

Estimating the economic cost of nurse sensitive adverse events amongst patients in medical and surgical settings. June 16, 2021

Survey of nurses' experiences applying The Joint Commission's medication management titration standards. November 3, 2021

Effectiveness of acute care remote triage systems: a systematic review. February 5, 2020

Physician task load and the risk of burnout among US physicians in a national survey. December 2, 2020

Hospital ward adaptation during the COVID-19 pandemic: a national survey of academic medical centers. September 23, 2020

Patient and physician perspectives of deprescribing potentially inappropriate medications in older adults with a history of falls: a qualitative study. May 5, 2021

We asked the experts: the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist and the COVID-19 pandemic: recommendations for content and implementation adaptations. March 17, 2021

Association between surgeon technical skills and patient outcomes. September 9, 2020

Developing the Safer Dx Checklist of Ten Safety Recommendations for Health Care Organizations to address diagnostic errors. October 12, 2022

Influence of psychological safety and organizational support on the impact of humiliation on trainee well-being. June 8, 2022

Comparison of health care worker satisfaction before vs after implementation of a communication and optimal resolution program in acute care hospitals. April 5, 2023

Not overstepping professional boundaries: the challenging role of nurses in simulated error disclosures. September 21, 2011

Temporal associations between EHR-derived workload, burnout, and errors: a prospective cohort study. July 20, 2022

Adherence to national guidelines for timeliness of test results communication to patients in the Veterans Affairs health care system. May 4, 2022

Deferral of care for serious non-COVID-19 conditions: a hidden harm of COVID-19. November 18, 2020

An observational study of postoperative handoff standardization failures. June 23, 2021

Content analysis of patient safety incident reports for older adult patient transfers, handovers, and discharges: do they serve organizations, staff, or patients? January 8, 2020

Exploring the impact of employee engagement and patient safety. September 14, 2022

Deprescribing for community-dwelling older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. September 16, 2020

The abrupt expansion of ambulatory telemedicine: implications for patient safety. February 9, 2022

Nurse's Achilles Heel: using big data to determine workload factors that impact near misses. April 14, 2021

A diagnostic time-out to improve differential diagnosis in pediatric abdominal pain. July 14, 2021

What safety events are reported for ambulatory care? Analysis of incident reports from a patient safety organization. October 21, 2020

Expert consensus on currently accepted measures of harm. September 9, 2020

The July Effect in podiatric medicine and surgery residency. July 14, 2021

The calm before the storm: utilizing in situ simulation to evaluate for preparedness of an alternative care hospital during COVID-19 pandemic. June 2, 2021

Missed nursing care in the critical care unit, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a comparative cross-sectional study. June 22, 2022

The association between nurse staffing and omissions in nursing care: a systematic review. July 11, 2018

Creating a learning health system for improving diagnostic safety: pragmatic insights from US health care organizations. June 22, 2022

Effect of pharmacist counseling intervention on health care utilization following hospital discharge: a randomized control trial. June 8, 2016

Impact of the initial response to COVID-19 on long-term care for people with intellectual disability: an interrupted time series analysis of incident reports. October 14, 2020

Pediatric surgical errors: a systematic scoping review. July 20, 2022

Racial bias in pulse oximetry measurement. December 20, 2020

Accuracy of practitioner estimates of probability of diagnosis before and after testing. May 5, 2021

Recommendations for the safe, effective use of adaptive CDS in the US healthcare system: an AMIA position paper. April 21, 2021

Impact of interoperability of smart infusion pumps and an electronic medical record in critical care. September 23, 2020

Decreased incidence of cesarean surgical site infection rate with hospital-wide perioperative bundle. September 29, 2021

Association of diagnostic stewardship for blood cultures in critically ill children with culture rates, antibiotic use, and patient outcomes: results of the Bright STAR Collaborative. May 18, 2022

Second victim experiences of nurses in obstetrics and gynaecology: a Second Victim Experience and Support Tool Survey December 23, 2020

Understanding the second victim experience among multidisciplinary providers in obstetrics and gynecology. May 19, 2021

eSIMPLER: a dynamic, electronic health record-integrated checklist for clinical decision support during PICU daily rounds. June 16, 2021

Treatment patterns and clinical outcomes after the introduction of the Medicare Sepsis Performance Measure (SEP-1). May 5, 2021

Organizational safety climate and job enjoyment in hospital surgical teams with and without crew resource management training, January 26, 2022

Evaluation of effectiveness and safety of pharmacist independent prescribers in care homes: cluster randomised controlled trial. March 1, 2023

The Critical Care Safety Study: the incidence and nature of adverse events and serious medical errors in intensive care.  August 24, 2005

Safety II behavior in a pediatric intensive care unit. August 1, 2018

Diagnosis of physical and mental health conditions in primary care during the COVID-19 pandemic: a retrospective cohort study. October 21, 2020

The working hours of hospital staff nurses and patient safety. January 9, 2005

Effects of tall man lettering on the visual behaviour of critical care nurses while identifying syringe drug labels: a randomised in situ simulation. April 20, 2022

Family Input for Quality and Safety (FIQS): using mobile technology for in-hospital reporting from families and patients. March 2, 2022

Bundle interventions including nontechnical skills for surgeons can reduce operative time and improve patient safety. December 9, 2020

COVID-19: an emerging threat to antibiotic stewardship in the emergency department. October 21, 2020

Improving self-reported empathy and communication skills through harm in healthcare response training. January 26, 2022

Association between in-clinic opioid administration and discharge opioid prescription in urgent care: a retrospective cohort study. February 17, 2021

Predicting avoidable hospital events in Maryland. December 1, 2021

Specificity of computerized physician order entry has a significant effect on the efficiency of workflow for critically ill patients. April 21, 2005

Why do hospital prescribers continue antibiotics when it is safe to stop? Results of a choice experiment survey. September 2, 2020

COVID-19: patient safety and quality improvement skills to deploy during the surge. June 24, 2020

Patient safety skills in primary care: a national survey of GP educators. February 4, 2015

Implementing human factors in anaesthesia: guidance for clinicians, departments and hospitals: Guidelines from the Difficult Airway Society and the Association of Anaesthetists. March 1, 2023

Can an electronic prescribing system detect doctors who are more likely to make a serious prescribing error? June 8, 2011

Training in safe opioid prescribing and treatment of opioid use disorder in internal medicine residencies: a national survey of program directors. October 12, 2022

Diagnostic discordance, health information exchange, and inter-hospital transfer outcomes: a population study. June 20, 2018

Systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions for operating room to intensive care unit handoffs. March 10, 2021

All in Her Head. The Truth and Lies Early Medicine Taught Us About Women's Bodies and Why It Matters Today. March 20, 2024

The racial disparities in maternal mortality and impact of structural racism and implicit racial bias on pregnant Black women: a review of the literature. December 6, 2023

A scoping review exploring the confidence of healthcare professionals in assessing all skin tones. October 4, 2023

Patient safety in palliative care at the end of life from the perspective of complex thinking. August 16, 2023

Only 1 in 5 people with opioid addiction get the medications to treat it, study finds. August 16, 2023

Factors influencing in-hospital prescribing errors: a systematic review. July 19, 2023

Introducing second-year medical students to diagnostic reasoning concepts and skills via a virtual curriculum. June 28, 2023

Context matters: toward a multilevel perspective on context in clinical reasoning and error. June 21, 2023

The good, the bad, and the ugly: operative staff perspectives of surgeon coping with intraoperative errors. June 14, 2023

Explicitly addressing implicit bias on inpatient rounds: student and faculty reflections. June 7, 2023

The time is now: addressing implicit bias in obstetrics and gynecology education. May 17, 2023

Listen to the whispers before they become screams: addressing Black maternal morbidity and mortality in the United States. May 3, 2023

Annual Perspective

Formalizing the hidden curriculum of performance enhancing errors. March 22, 2023

Implicit racial bias, health care provider attitudes, and perceptions of health care quality among African American college students in Georgia, USA. January 18, 2023

Structural racism and impact on sickle cell disease: sickle cell lives matter. January 11, 2023

The REPAIR Project: a prospectus for change toward racial justice in medical education and health sciences research: REPAIR project steering committee. January 11, 2023

Using the Assessment of Reasoning Tool to facilitate feedback about diagnostic reasoning. January 11, 2023

Exploring the intersection of structural racism and ageism in healthcare. December 7, 2022

Calibrate Dx: A Resource to Improve Diagnostic Decisions. October 19, 2022

Improved Diagnostic Accuracy Through Probability-Based Diagnosis. September 28, 2022

Medical malpractice lawsuits involving trainees in obstetrics and gynecology in the USA. September 21, 2022

A state-of-the-art review of speaking up in healthcare. August 24, 2022

Skin cancer is a risk no matter the skin tone. But it may be overlooked in people with dark skin. August 17, 2022

Oxford Professional Practice: Handbook of Patient Safety. July 27, 2022

Narrowing the mindware gap in medicine. July 20, 2022

From principles to practice: embedding clinical reasoning as a longitudinal curriculum theme in a medical school programme. June 15, 2022

A call to action: next steps to advance diagnosis education in the health professions. June 8, 2022

Does a suggested diagnosis in a general practitioners' referral question impact diagnostic reasoning: an experimental study. April 27, 2022

WebM&M Cases

Connect With Us

Sign up for Email Updates

To sign up for updates or to access your subscriber preferences, please enter your email address below.

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20857 Telephone: (301) 427-1364

• Accessibility
• Disclaimers
• Electronic Policies
• HHS Digital Strategy
• HHS Nondiscrimination Notice
• Inspector General
• Plain Writing Act
• Privacy Policy
• Viewers & Players
• U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
• The White House
• Don't have an account? Sign up to PSNet

Submit Your Innovations

Please select your preferred way to submit an innovation.

Continue as a Guest

Track and save your innovation

in My Innovations

Edit your innovation as a draft

Continue Logged In

Please select your preferred way to submit an innovation. Note that even if you have an account, you can still choose to submit an innovation as a guest.

Continue logged in

New users to the psnet site.

Access to quizzes and start earning

CME, CEU, or Trainee Certification.

Get email alerts when new content

matching your topics of interest

in My Innovations.

Why Is Problem-solving an Important Skill to Address Mental Health?

Problems that we cannot solve take a toll on our mental well-being . When we can’t get rid of a problem, it stresses us out. We lose sleep. We couldn’t even eat properly. That’s when our physical and mental health starts to decline . We feel stressed by the simplest of things. A small problem can lead to a bigger problem when left unsolved. We end up feeling depressed and hopeless because there seems to be no way out of the problem.

But when you learn how to solve your problems efficiently, you can also remove the stressors in your life. You will begin to learn how to cope with these problems, and you will soon find out that it’s easier to face them than run away from them. After all, no matter what you do, your problems are going to hound you.

What if the problems are not easily fixed?

There are problems, of course, that will be hard to address. Marriage problems are on the top of that list. Whenever you deal with issues in your personal relationship, you sometimes feel like there is no way out. No matter where you look, there will be consequences from your actions. There is, however, one particular step that you need to take when the matters get too serious—you have to call an  attorney from a family law firm . The attorney will guide you through the process of solving your marital problems.

Sometimes, you don’t even have to deal with the problem on your own. It’s through legal means. While the solution is complicated and expensive, what’s important is there is a way to solve the issue legally. Even problems in your workplace can be solved through legal means, so make sure you’re aware of your rights at work and at home.

Better functioning, improved productivity

When you can deal with the challenges that you face in your personal and professional life, you will be more productive at work. Stress will not weigh you down. You will also be better at dealing with your personal relationships when you have fewer problems and issues to think about. A problem-free life? Is that possible? Not really possible, but problems can be better managed.

Closer relationships with family, friends, and co-workers

People who cannot deal with problems often find themselves isolated from their family, friends, and co-workers. They become moody because of the stress of running away from their problems. But you can enjoy your relationships better when you have the skills to solve your problems, from small ones to complicated ones. You will become a better version of yourself, someone who can forge lasting relations with other people, even with your co-workers.

Higher Self-esteem

When you are confident with your ability to handle your problems, that will translate into everything you do. You will be more confident at work and in your personal relationships. You’re going to be more outgoing, too. This will improve not only your self-esteem but your social skills, too. You will be confident among your peers. That will create a positive impact on your mental health because your problem-solving skills will arm you with the tools you need to socialize, build camaraderie in the workplace, and improve your well-being.

Higher Life Satisfaction

Aren’t you more satisfied with life when you are free from worries? People tend to wallow in their sorrow when they don’t have any idea how to deal with their problems. However, once you have a “formula” of how to manage the issues that you face at work and home, then you will also have a better understanding of what makes you happy. Although you cannot always avoid situations that might lead to even bigger problems (since that is no way to live your life), you can arm yourself with the skills you need to be happier and more fulfilled.

Problems create stress in your life when you have no idea how to deal with them. Most people wouldn’t know how to solve or even face their problems. That’s normal because who really has a Ph.D. in problem-solving? But as you go through life and face challenges left and right, you need to find a “formula” that works for you. What is it that works for you? Do you need time to think, or are you the kind of person who acts immediately? Do you find it more satisfying when you face a problem head-on or when you take time off at first before dealing with it?

About The Author

Maria Santos

Related posts.

The Herd Mentality: 3 Strategies for Using Social Proof to Increase Conversions

How Pets Can Affect Your Mood And Overall Mental Health

The Mental Health Benefits of Playing the Drums

You are using an outdated browser

Unfortunately Ausmed.com does not support your browser. Please upgrade your browser to continue.

Cultivating Critical Thinking in Healthcare

Published: 06 January 2019

Critical thinking skills have been linked to improved patient outcomes, better quality patient care and improved safety outcomes in healthcare (Jacob et al. 2017).

Given this, it's necessary for educators in healthcare to stimulate and lead further dialogue about how these skills are taught , assessed and integrated into the design and development of staff and nurse education and training programs (Papp et al. 2014).

So, what exactly is critical thinking and how can healthcare educators cultivate it amongst their staff?

What is Critical Thinking?

In general terms, ‘ critical thinking ’ is often used, and perhaps confused, with problem-solving and clinical decision-making skills .

In practice, however, problem-solving tends to focus on the identification and resolution of a problem, whilst critical thinking goes beyond this to incorporate asking skilled questions and critiquing solutions .

Several formal definitions of critical thinking can be found in literature, but in the view of Kahlke and Eva (2018), most of these definitions have limitations. That said, Papp et al. (2014) offer a useful starting point, suggesting that critical thinking is:

‘The ability to apply higher order cognitive skills and the disposition to be deliberate about thinking that leads to action that is logical and appropriate.’

The Foundation for Critical Thinking (2017) expands on this and suggests that:

‘Critical thinking is that mode of thinking, about any subject, content, or problem, in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analysing, assessing, and reconstructing it.’

They go on to suggest that critical thinking is:

• Self-directed
• Self-disciplined
• Self-monitored
• Self-corrective.

Key Qualities and Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

Given that critical thinking is a process that encompasses conceptualisation , application , analysis , synthesis , evaluation and reflection , what qualities should be expected from a critical thinker?

In answering this question, Fortepiani (2018) suggests that critical thinkers should be able to:

• Formulate clear and precise questions
• Gather, assess and interpret relevant information
• Reach relevant well-reasoned conclusions and solutions
• Think open-mindedly, recognising their own assumptions
• Communicate effectively with others on solutions to complex problems.

All of these qualities are important, however, good communication skills are generally considered to be the bedrock of critical thinking. Why? Because they help to create a dialogue that invites questions, reflections and an open-minded approach, as well as generating a positive learning environment needed to support all forms of communication.

Lippincott Solutions (2018) outlines a broad spectrum of characteristics attributed to strong critical thinkers. They include:

• Inquisitiveness with regard to a wide range of issues
• A concern to become and remain well-informed
• Alertness to opportunities to use critical thinking
• Self-confidence in one’s own abilities to reason
• Open mindedness regarding divergent world views
• Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinions
• Understanding the opinions of other people
• Fair-mindedness in appraising reasoning
• Honesty in facing one’s own biases, prejudices, stereotypes or egocentric tendencies
• A willingness to reconsider and revise views where honest reflection suggests that change is warranted.

Papp et al. (2014) also helpfully suggest that the following five milestones can be used as a guide to help develop competency in critical thinking:

Stage 1: Unreflective Thinker

At this stage, the unreflective thinker can’t examine their own actions and cognitive processes and is unaware of different approaches to thinking.

Stage 2: Beginning Critical Thinker

Here, the learner begins to think critically and starts to recognise cognitive differences in other people. However, external motivation  is needed to sustain reflection on the learners’ own thought processes.

Stage 3: Practicing Critical Thinker

By now, the learner is familiar with their own thinking processes and makes a conscious effort to practice critical thinking.

Stage 4: Advanced Critical Thinker

As an advanced critical thinker, the learner is able to identify different cognitive processes and consciously uses critical thinking skills.

Stage 5: Accomplished Critical Thinker

At this stage, the skilled critical thinker can take charge of their thinking and habitually monitors, revises and rethinks approaches for continual improvement of their cognitive strategies.

Facilitating Critical Thinking in Healthcare

A common challenge for many educators and facilitators in healthcare is encouraging students to move away from passive learning towards active learning situations that require critical thinking skills.

Just as there are similarities among the definitions of critical thinking across subject areas and levels, there are also several generally recognised hallmarks of teaching for critical thinking . These include:

• Promoting interaction among students as they learn
• Asking open ended questions that do not assume one right answer
• Allowing sufficient time to reflect on the questions asked or problems posed
• Teaching for transfer - helping learners to see how a newly acquired skill can apply to other situations and experiences.

(Lippincott Solutions 2018)

Snyder and Snyder (2008) also make the point that it’s helpful for educators and facilitators to be aware of any initial resistance that learners may have and try to guide them through the process. They should aim to create a learning environment where learners can feel comfortable thinking through an answer rather than simply having an answer given to them.

Examples include using peer coaching techniques , mentoring or preceptorship to engage students in active learning and critical thinking skills, or integrating project-based learning activities that require students to apply their knowledge in a realistic healthcare environment.

Carvalhoa et al. (2017) also advocate problem-based learning as a widely used and successful way of stimulating critical thinking skills in the learner. This view is echoed by Tsui-Mei (2015), who notes that critical thinking, systematic analysis and curiosity significantly improve after practice-based learning .

Integrating Critical Thinking Skills Into Curriculum Design

Most educators agree that critical thinking can’t easily be developed if the program curriculum is not designed to support it. This means that a deep understanding of the nature and value of critical thinking skills needs to be present from the outset of the curriculum design process , and not just bolted on as an afterthought.

In the view of Fortepiani (2018), critical thinking skills can be summarised by the statement that 'thinking is driven by questions', which means that teaching materials need to be designed in such a way as to encourage students to expand their learning by asking questions that generate further questions and stimulate the thinking process. Ideal questions are those that:

• Embrace complexity
• Challenge assumptions and points of view
• Question the source of information
• Explore variable interpretations and potential implications of information.

To put it another way, asking questions with limiting, thought-stopping answers inhibits the development of critical thinking. This means that educators must ideally be critical thinkers themselves .

Drawing these threads together, The Foundation for Critical Thinking (2017) offers us a simple reminder that even though it’s human nature to be ‘thinking’ most of the time, most thoughts, if not guided and structured, tend to be biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or even prejudiced.

They also note that the quality of work depends precisely on the quality of the practitioners’ thought processes. Given that practitioners are being asked to meet the challenge of ever more complex care, the importance of cultivating critical thinking skills, alongside advanced problem-solving skills , seems to be taking on new importance.

Additional Resources

• The Emotionally Intelligent Nurse | Ausmed Article
• Refining Competency-Based Assessment | Ausmed Article
• Socratic Questioning in Healthcare | Ausmed Article
• Carvalhoa, D P S R P et al. 2017, 'Strategies Used for the Promotion of Critical Thinking in Nursing Undergraduate Education: A Systematic Review', Nurse Education Today , vol. 57, pp. 103-10, viewed 7 December 2018, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0260691717301715
• Fortepiani, L A 2017, 'Critical Thinking or Traditional Teaching For Health Professionals', PECOP Blog , 16 January, viewed 7 December 2018, https://blog.lifescitrc.org/pecop/2017/01/16/critical-thinking-or-traditional-teaching-for-health-professions/
• Jacob, E, Duffield, C & Jacob, D 2017, 'A Protocol For the Development of a Critical Thinking Assessment Tool for Nurses Using a Delphi Technique', Journal of Advanced Nursing, vol. 73, no. 8, pp. 1982-1988, viewed 7 December 2018, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jan.13306
• Kahlke, R & Eva, K 2018, 'Constructing Critical Thinking in Health Professional Education', Perspectives on Medical Education , vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 156-165, viewed 7 December 2018, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40037-018-0415-z
• Lippincott Solutions 2018, 'Turning New Nurses Into Critical Thinkers', Lippincott Solutions , viewed 10 December 2018, https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/expert-insights/turning-new-nurses-into-critical-thinkers
• Papp, K K 2014, 'Milestones of Critical Thinking: A Developmental Model for Medicine and Nursing', Academic Medicine , vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 715-720, https://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/Fulltext/2014/05000/Milestones_of_Critical_Thinking___A_Developmental.14.aspx
• Snyder, L G & Snyder, M J 2008, 'Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills', The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal , vol. L, no. 2, pp. 90-99, viewed 7 December 2018, https://dme.childrenshospital.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Optional-_Teaching-Critical-Thinking-and-Problem-Solving-Skills.pdf
• The Foundation for Critical Thinking 2017, Defining Critical Thinking , The Foundation for Critical Thinking, viewed 7 December 2018, https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-conception-of-critical-thinking/411
• Tsui-Mei, H, Lee-Chun, H & Chen-Ju MSN, K 2015, 'How Mental Health Nurses Improve Their Critical Thinking Through Problem-Based Learning', Journal for Nurses in Professional Development , vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 170-175, viewed 7 December 2018, https://journals.lww.com/jnsdonline/Abstract/2015/05000/How_Mental_Health_Nurses_Improve_Their_Critical.8.aspx

Anne Watkins View profile

Help and feedback, publications.

Ausmed Education is a Trusted Information Partner of Healthdirect Australia. Verify here .

Fastest Nurse Insight Engine

• MEDICAL ASSISSTANT
• Abdominal Key
• Anesthesia Key
• Basicmedical Key
• Otolaryngology & Ophthalmology
• Musculoskeletal Key
• Obstetric, Gynecology and Pediatric
• Oncology & Hematology
• Plastic Surgery & Dermatology
• Clinical Dentistry
• Radiology Key
• Thoracic Key
• Veterinary Medicine
• Gold Membership

Making Decisions and Solving Problems

CHAPTER 6 Making Decisions and Solving Problems Rose Aguilar Welch This chapter describes the key concepts related to problem solving and decision making. The primary steps of the problem-solving and decision-making processes, as well as analytical tools used for these processes, are explored. Moreover, strategies for individual or group problem solving and decision making are presented. Objectives •  Apply a decision-making format to list options to solve a problem, identify the pros and cons of each option, rank the options, and select the best option. •  Evaluate the effect of faulty information gathering on a decision-making experience. •  Analyze the decision-making style of a nurse leader/manager. •  Critique resources on the Internet that focus on critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making. Terms to Know autocratic creativity critical thinking decision making democratic optimizing decision participative problem solving satisficing decision The Challenge Vickie Lemmon RN, MSN Director of Clinical Strategies and Operations, WellPoint, Inc., Ventura, California Healthcare managers today are faced with numerous and complex issues that pertain to providing quality services for patients within a resource-scarce environment. Stress levels among staff can escalate when problems are not resolved, leading to a decrease in morale, productivity, and quality service. This was the situation I encountered in my previous job as administrator for California Children Services (CCS). When I began my tenure as the new CCS administrator, staff expressed frustration and dissatisfaction with staffing, workload, and team communications. This was evidenced by high staff turnover, lack of teamwork, customer complaints, unmet deadlines for referral and enrollment cycle times, and poor documentation. The team was in crisis, characterized by in-fighting, blaming, lack of respectful communication, and lack of commitment to program goals and objectives. I had not worked as a case manager in this program. It was hard for me to determine how to address the problems the staff presented to me. I wanted to be fair but thought that I did not have enough information to make immediate changes. My challenge was to lead this team to greater compliance with state-mandated performance measures. What do you think you would do if you were this nurse? Introduction Problem solving and decision making are essential skills for effective nursing practice. Carol Huston (2008) identified “expert decision-making skills” as one of the eight vital leadership competencies for 2020. These processes not only are involved in managing and delivering care but also are essential for engaging in planned change. Myriad technologic, social, political, and economic changes have dramatically affected health care and nursing. Increased patient acuity, shorter hospital stays, shortage of healthcare providers, increased technology, greater emphasis on quality and patient safety, and the continuing shift from inpatient to ambulatory and home health care are some of the changes that require nurses to make rational and valid decisions. Moreover, increased diversity in patient populations, employment settings, and types of healthcare providers demands efficient and effective decision making and problem solving. More emphasis is now placed on involving patients in decision making and problem solving and using multidisciplinary teams to achieve results. Nurses must possess the basic knowledge and skills required for effective problem solving and decision making. These competencies are especially important for nurses with leadership and management responsibilities. Definitions Problem solving and decision making are not synonymous terms. However, the processes for engaging in both processes are similar. Both skills require critical thinking, which is a high-level cognitive process, and both can be improved with practice. Decision making is a purposeful and goal-directed effort that uses a systematic process to choose among options. Not all decision making begins with a problem situation. Instead, the hallmark of decision making is the identification and selection of options or alternatives. Problem solving, which includes a decision-making step, is focused on trying to solve an immediate problem, which can be viewed as a gap between “what is” and “what should be.” Effective problem solving and decision making are predicated on an individual’s ability to think critically. Although critical thinking has been defined in numerous ways, Scriven and Paul (2007) refer to it as “ the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.” Effective critical thinkers are self-aware individuals who strive to improve their reasoning abilities by asking “why,” “what,” or “how.” A nurse who questions why a patient is restless is thinking critically. Compare the analytical abilities of a nurse who assumes a patient is restless because of anxiety related to an upcoming procedure with those of a nurse who asks if there could be another explanation and proceeds to investigate possible causes. It is important for nurse leaders and managers to assess staff members’ ability to think critically and enhance their knowledge and skills through staff-development programs, coaching, and role modeling. Establishing a positive and motivating work environment can enhance attitudes and dispositions to think critically. Creativity is essential for the generation of options or solutions. Creative individuals can conceptualize new and innovative approaches to a problem or issue by being more flexible and independent in their thinking. It takes just one person to plant a seed for new ideas to generate . The model depicted in Figure 6-1 demonstrates the relationship among related concepts such as professional judgment, decision making, problem solving, creativity, and critical thinking. Sound clinical judgment requires critical or reflective thinking. Critical thinking is the concept that interweaves and links the others. An individual, through the application of critical-thinking skills, engages in problem solving and decision making in an environment that can promote or inhibit these skills. It is the nurse leader’s and manager’s task to model these skills and promote them in others. FiGURE 6-1 Problem-solving and decision-making model. Decision Making This section presents an overview of concepts related to decision models, decision-making styles, factors affecting decision making, group decision making (advantages and challenges), and strategies and tools. The phases of the decision-making process include defining objectives, generating options, identifying advantages and disadvantages of each option, ranking the options, selecting the option most likely to achieve the predefined objectives, implementing the option, and evaluating the result. Box 6-1 contains a form that can be used to complete these steps. BOX 6-1    Decision-Making Format Objective: _____________________________________ Options Advantages Disadvantages Ranking                                 Add more rows as necessary. Rank priority of options, with “1” being most preferred. Select the best option. Implementation plan: ______________________________________________________________________________ Evaluation plan: __________________________________________________________________________________ A poor-quality decision is likely if the objectives are not clearly identified or if they are inconsistent with the values of the individual or organization. Lewis Carroll illustrates the essential step of defining the goal, purpose, or objectives in the following excerpt from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland: One day Alice came to a fork in the road and saw a Cheshire Cat in a tree. “Which road do I take?” she asked. His response was a question: “Where do you want to go?” “I don’t know,” Alice answered. “Then,” said the cat, “it doesn’t matter.” Decision Models The decision model that a nurse uses depends on the circumstances. Is the situation routine and predictable or complex and uncertain? Is the goal of the decision to make a decision conservatively that is just good enough or one that is optimal? If the situation is fairly routine, nurse leaders and managers can use a normative or prescriptive approach. Agency policy, standard procedures, and analytical tools can be applied to situations that are structured and in which options are known. If the situation is subjective, non-routine, and unstructured or if outcomes are unknown or unpredictable, the nurse leader and manager may need to take a different approach. In this case, a descriptive or behavioral approach is required. More information will need to be gathered to address the situation effectively. Creativity, experience, and group process are useful in dealing with the unknown. In the business world, Camillus described complex problems that are difficult to describe or resolve as “wicked” (as cited in Huston, 2008 ). This term is apt in describing the issues that nurse leaders face. In these situations, it is especially important for nurse leaders to seek expert opinion and involve key stakeholders. Another strategy is satisficing. In this approach, the decision maker selects the solution that minimally meets the objective or standard for a decision. It allows for quick decisions and may be the most appropriate when time is an issue. Optimizing is a decision style in which the decision maker selects the option that is best, based on an analysis of the pros and cons associated with each option. A better decision is more likely using this approach, although it does take longer to arrive at a decision. For example, a nursing student approaching graduation is contemplating seeking employment in one of three acute care hospitals located within a 40-mile radius of home. The choices are a medium-size, not-for-profit community hospital; a large, corporate-owned hospital; and a county facility. A satisficing decision might result if the student nurse picked the hospital that offered a decent salary and benefit packet or the one closest to home. However, an optimizing decision is more likely to occur if the student nurse lists the pros and cons of each acute care hospital being considered such as salary, benefits, opportunities for advancement, staff development, and mentorship programs. Decision-Making Styles The decision-making style of a nurse manager is similar to the leadership style that the manager is likely to use. A manager who leans toward an autocratic style may choose to make decisions independent of the input or participation of others. This has been referred to as the “decide and announce” approach, an authoritative style. On the other hand, a manager who uses a democratic or participative approach to management involves the appropriate personnel in the decision-making process. It is imperative for managers to involve nursing personnel in making decisions that affect patient care. One mechanism for doing so is by seeking nursing representation on various committees or task forces. Participative management has been shown to increase work performance and productivity, decrease employee turnover, and enhance employee satisfaction. Any decision style can be used appropriately or inappropriately. Like the tenets of situational leadership theory, the situation and circumstances should dictate which decision-making style is most appropriate. A Code Blue is not the time for managers to democratically solicit volunteers for chest compressions! The autocratic method results in more rapid decision making and is appropriate in crisis situations or when groups are likely to accept this type of decision style. However, followers are generally more supportive of consultative and group approaches. Although these approaches take more time, they are more appropriate when conflict is likely to occur, when the problem is unstructured, or when the manager does not have the knowledge or skills to solve the problem. Exercise 6-1 Interview colleagues about their most preferred decision-making model and style. What barriers or obstacles to effective decision making have your colleagues encountered? What strategies are used to increase the effectiveness of the decisions made? Based on your interview, is the style effective? Why or why not? Factors Affecting Decision Making Numerous factors affect individuals and groups in the decision-making process. Tanner (2006) conducted an extensive review of the literature to develop a Clinical Judgment Model. Out of the research, she concluded that five principle factors influence decision making. (See the Literature Perspective below.) Literature Perspective Resource: Tanner, C. A. (2006). Thinking like a nurse: A research-based model of clinical judgment in nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 45 (6), 204-211. Tanner engaged in an extensive review of 200 studies focusing on clinical judgment and clinical decision making to derive a model of clinical judgment that can be used as a framework for instruction. The first review summarized 120 articles and was published in 1998. The 2006 article reviewed an additional 71 studies published since 1998. Based on an analysis of the entire set of articles, Tanner proposed five conclusions which are listed below. The reader is referred to the article for detailed explanation of each of the five conclusions. The author considers clinical judgment as a “problem-solving activity.” She notes that the terms “clinical judgment,” “problem solving,” “decision making,” and “critical thinking” are often used interchangeably. For the purpose of aiding in the development of the model, Tanner defined clinical judgment as actions taken based on the assessment of the patient’s needs. Clinical reasoning is the process by which nurses make their judgments (e.g., the decision-making process of selecting the most appropriate option) ( Tanner, 2006 , p. 204): 1.  Clinical judgments are more influenced by what nurses bring to the situation than the objective data about the situation at hand. 2.  Sound clinical judgment rests to some degree on knowing the patient and his or her typical pattern of responses, as well as an engagement with the patient and his or her concerns. 3.  Clinical judgments are influenced by the context in which the situation occurs and the culture of the nursing care unit. 4.  Nurses use a variety of reasoning patterns alone or in combination. 5.  Reflection on practice is often triggered by a breakdown in clinical judgment and is critical for the development of clinical knowledge and improvement in clinical reasoning. The Clinical Judgment Model developed through the review of the literature involves four steps that are similar to problem-solving and decision-making steps described in this chapter. The model starts with a phase called “Noticing.” In this phase, the nurse comes to expect certain responses resulting from knowledge gleaned from similar patient situations, experiences, and knowledge. External factors influence nurses in this phase such as the complexity of the environment and values and typical practices within the unit culture. The second phase of the model is “Interpreting,” during which the nurse understands the situation that requires a response. The nurse employs various reasoning patterns to make sense of the issue and to derive an appropriate action plan. The third phase is “Responding,” during which the nurse decides on the best option for handling the situation. This is followed by the fourth phase, “Reflecting,” during which the nurse assesses the patient’s responses to the actions taken. Tanner emphasized that “reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action” are major processes required in the model. Reflection-in-action is real-time reflection on the patient’s responses to nursing action with modifications to the plan based on the ongoing assessment. On the other hand, reflection-on-action is a review of the experience, which promotes learning for future similar experiences. Nurse educators and managers can employ this model with new and experienced nurses to aid in understanding thought processes involved in decision making. As Tanner (2006) so eloquently concludes, “If we, as nurse educators, help our students understand and develop as moral agents, advance their clinical knowledge through expert guidance and coaching, and become habitual in reflection-on-practice, they will have learned to think like a nurse” ( p. 210 ). Implications for Practice Nurse educators and managers can employ this model with new and experienced nurses to aid in understanding thought processes involved in decision making. For example, students and practicing nurses can be encouraged to maintain reflective journals to record observations and impressions from clinical experiences. In clinical post-conferences or staff development meetings, the nurse educator and manager can engage them in applying to their lived experiences the five conclusions Tanner proposed. The ultimate goal of analyzing their decisions and decision-making processes is to improve clinical judgment, problem-solving, decision-making, and critical-thinking skills. Internal and external factors can influence how the situation is perceived. Internal factors include variables such as the decision maker’s physical and emotional state, personal philosophy, biases, values, interests, experience, knowledge, attitudes, and risk-seeking or risk-avoiding behaviors. External factors include environmental conditions, time, and resources. Decision-making options are externally limited when time is short or when the environment is characterized by a “we’ve always done it this way” attitude. Values affect all aspects of decision making, from the statement of the problem/issue through the evaluation. Values, determined by one’s cultural, social, and philosophical background, provide the foundation for one’s ethical stance. The steps for engaging in ethical decision making are similar to the steps described earlier; however, alternatives or options identified in the decision-making process are evaluated with the use of ethical resources. Resources that can facilitate ethical decision making include institutional policy; principles such as autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, veracity, paternalism, respect, justice, and fidelity; personal judgment; trusted co-workers; institutional ethics committees; and legal precedent. Certain personality factors, such as self-esteem and self-confidence, affect whether one is willing to take risks in solving problems or making decisions. Keynes (2008) asserts that individuals may be influenced based on social pressures. For example, are you inclined to make decisions to satisfy people to whom you are accountable or from whom you feel social pressure? Characteristics of an effective decision maker include courage, a willingness to take risks, self-awareness, energy, creativity, sensitivity, and flexibility. Ask yourself, “Do I prefer to let others make the decisions? Am I more comfortable in the role of ‘follower’ than leader? If so, why?” Exercise 6-2 Identify a current or past situation that involved resource allocation, end-of-life issues, conflict among healthcare providers or patient/family/significant others, or some other ethical dilemma. Describe how the internal and external factors previously described influenced the decision options, the option selected, and the outcome. Group Decision Making There are two primary criteria for effective decision making. First, the decision must be of a high quality; that is, it achieves the predefined goals, objectives, and outcomes. Second, those who are responsible for its implementation must accept the decision. Higher-quality decisions are more likely to result if groups are involved in the problem-solving and decision-making process. In reality, with the increased focus on quality and safety, decisions cannot be made alone. When individuals are allowed input into the process, they tend to function more productively and the quality of the decision is generally superior. Taking ownership of the process and outcome provides a smoother transition. Multidisciplinary teams should be used in the decision-making process, especially if the issue, options, or outcome involves other disciplines. Research findings suggest that groups are more likely to be effective if members are actively involved, the group is cohesive, communication is encouraged, and members demonstrate some understanding of the group process. In deciding to use the group process for decision making, it is important to consider group size and composition. If the group is too small, a limited number of options will be generated and fewer points of view expressed. Conversely, if the group is too large, it may lack structure, and consensus becomes more difficult. Homogeneous groups may be more compatible; however, heterogeneous groups may be more successful in problem solving. Research has demonstrated that the most productive groups are those that are moderately cohesive. In other words, divergent thinking is useful to create the best decision. For groups to be able to work effectively, the group facilitator or leader should carefully select members on the basis of their knowledge and skills in decision making and problem solving. Individuals who are aggressive, are authoritarian, or manifest self-oriented behaviors tend to decrease the effectiveness of groups. The nurse leader or manager should provide a nonthreatening and positive environment in which group members are encouraged to participate actively. Using tact and diplomacy, the facilitator can control aggressive individuals who tend to monopolize the discussion and can encourage more passive individuals to contribute by asking direct, open-ended questions. Providing positive feedback such as “You raised a good point,” protecting members and their suggestions from attack, and keeping the group focused on the task are strategies that create an environment conducive to problem solving. Advantages of Group Decision Making The advantages of group decision making are numerous. The adage “two heads are better than one” illustrates that when individuals with different knowledge, skills, and resources collaborate to solve a problem or make a decision, the likelihood of a quality outcome is increased. More ideas can be generated by groups than by individuals functioning alone. In addition, when followers are directly involved in this process, they are more apt to accept the decision, because they have an increased sense of ownership or commitment to the decision. Implementing solutions becomes easier when individuals have been actively involved in the decision-making process. Involvement can be enhanced by making information readily available to the appropriate personnel, requesting input, establishing committees and task forces with broad representation, and using group decision-making techniques. The group leader must establish with the participants what decision rule will be followed. Will the group strive to achieve consensus, or will the majority rule? In determining which decision rule to use, the group leader should consider the necessity for quality and acceptance of the decision. Achieving both a high-quality and an acceptable decision is possible, but it requires more involvement and approval from individuals affected by the decision. Groups will be more committed to an idea if it is derived by consensus rather than as an outcome of individual decision making or majority rule. Consensus requires that all participants agree to go along with the decision. Although achieving consensus requires considerable time, it results in both high-quality and high-acceptance decisions and reduces the risk of sabotage. Majority rule can be used to compromise when 100% agreement cannot be achieved. This method saves time, but the solution may only partially achieve the goals of quality and acceptance. In addition, majority rule carries certain risks. First, if the informal group leaders happen to fall in the minority opinion, they may not support the decision of the majority. Certain members may go so far as to build coalitions to gain support for their position and block the majority choice. After all, the majority may represent only 51% of the group. In addition, group members may support the position of the formal leader, although they do not agree with the decision, because they fear reprisal or they wish to obtain the leader’s approval. In general, as the importance of the decision increases, so does the percentage of group members required to approve it. To secure the support of the group, the leader should maintain open communication with those affected by the decision and be honest about the advantages and disadvantages of the decision. The leader should also demonstrate how the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, suggest ways the unwanted outcomes can be minimized, and be available to assist when necessary.

Share this:

• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)

Related posts:

• Patient Safety
• Developing the Role of Manager
• Care Delivery Strategies

Stay updated, free articles. Join our Telegram channel

Comments are closed for this page.

Full access? Get Clinical Tree

Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills to Healthcare Professionals

• Published: 27 October 2020
• Volume 31 , pages 235–239, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Jessica A. Chacon 1 &
• Herb Janssen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8015-9369 1  

7401 Accesses

6 Citations

1 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Determining approaches that improve student learning is far more beneficial than determining what can improve a professor’s teaching. As previously stated, “Lecturing is that mysterious process by which the contents of the note-book of the professor are transferred through the instrumentation of the fountain-pen to the note-book of the student without passing through the mind of either” [ 1 ]. This process continues today, except that the professor’s note-book has been replaced with a PowerPoint lecture and the student’s note-book is now a computer.

In 1910, the Flexner report noted that didactic lectures were antiquated and should be left to a time when “professors knew and students learned” [ 2 ]. Approximately 100 years later, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) affirmed Flexner’s comment and suggested that student learning must involve active components [ 3 ]: It seems somewhat obscured that almost 100 years separated these two statements.

Our strategy requires the following: student engagement in the learning process; a curriculum that develops a foundation for each student’s knowledge acquisition; focusing primarily on student learning instead of professor teaching; helping enable students develop critical thinking skills; and encouraging students to develop “expertise” in their chosen discipline.

Six fundamental topics that play a role in the development of a health sciences student’s critical thinking ability will be described. In “Section I,” these topics will be discussed independently, highlighting the importance of each. In “Section II: Proposed Curriculum and Pedagogy to Improve Student Learning,” the topics will be united into a practical approach that can be used to improve student learning, curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment.

Foundation Knowledge

Students use mnemonics to provide a foundation for new information. Although mnemonics help students associate information that they want to remember with something they already know, students learn tads of information that is not placed into a practical, meaningful framework developed by the student [ 4 , 5 ]. This commentary highlights the problem of recalling facts when these facts are presented in isolation. The responsibility for this resides not with the student, but with a curriculum that teaches isolated facts, instead of integrated concepts.

A taxonomy for significant learning presented by Dr. Fink emphasizes the need to develop foundational knowledge before additional information can be learned in an effective manner [ 6 ]. He provides suggestions on developing specific learning goals in given courses. Two of his most important criteria are (1) the development of a foundation of knowledge and (2) helping students “learn how to learn” [ 6 ].

Learning Approaches and Abilities

Howard Gardner introduced the concept of multiple intelligences in the 1980s [ 7 ]. Gardner expanded this idea to include intelligence in the areas of (1) Verbal-linguistic, (2) Logical-mathematical, (3) Spatial-visual, (4) Bodily-kinesthetic, (5) Musical, (6) Interpersonal, (7) Intrapersonal personal, (8) Naturalist, and (9) Existential. He concluded that students gifted in certain areas will be drawn in that direction due to the ease with which they excel. While it is important to recognize these differences, it is crucial to not ignore the need for student development in areas where they are less gifted. For example, students gifted in mathematics who fail to develop intrapersonal and interpersonal skills will more likely become recluse, limiting their success in real-world situations [ 7 , 8 ]. Similar examples can also be found in the medical world [ 7 , 8 ].

Based on Gardner’s work, it seems evident that students admitted to our health sciences schools will arrive with different skills and abilities. Despite this, educators are required to produce graduates who have mastered the competencies required by the various accrediting agencies. Accomplishing this task demands sensitivity to the students’ different abilities. While the curriculum remains focused on the competencies students must demonstrate when training is complete. Creating this transition using a traditional lecture format is difficult, if not impossible.

Active Engagement

In 1910, Flexner suggested that didactic lecture is important; however, it should be limited only to the introduction or conclusion of a given topic [ 2 ]. Flexner stated that students should be given the opportunity to experience learning in a context that allowed them to use scientific principles rather than empirical observations [ 2 ]. Active engagement of the student in their learning process has been recently promoted by the LCME [ 3 ]. This reaffirmation of Flexner’s 1910 report highlights the incredibly slow pace at which education changes.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is an active process that, when applied appropriately, allows each of us to evaluate our own activities and achievements. Critical thinking also allows an individual to make minor, mid-course corrections in thinking, instead of waiting until disastrous outcomes are unavoidable.

Educators in Allied Health and Nursing have included critical thinking as part of their curriculum for many years [ 9 ]. Medical educators, on the other hand, have not fully integrated critical thinking as part of their curriculum [ 10 , 11 ].

Bloom’s taxonomy has often been used to define curriculum [ 12 ]. The usefulness and importance of Bloom’s taxonomy is not to be underestimated; however, its limitations must also be addressed. As Bloom and his colleagues clearly stated, their taxonomy describes behavioral outcomes and is incapable of determining the logical steps through which this behavior was developed [ 12 ]. Bloom highlights this shortcoming in his initial book on the cognitive domain. He described two students who solved the same algebra problem. One student does this by rote memory, having been exposed to the problem previously, while the other student accomplishes the task by applying mathematical principles. The observer has no way of knowing which approach was used unless they have prior knowledge of the students’ background [ 12 ]. The importance of this distinction becomes apparent in medical problem-solving.

Contextual Learning

Enabling students to learn in context is critical; however, trying to teach everything in context results in a double-edged sword [ 13 ]. On the one hand, learning material in context helps the student develop a solid foundation in which the new information can be built. On the other hand, the educator will find it impossible to duplicate all situations the student will encounter throughout his or her career as a healthcare provider. This dilemma again challenges the educator to develop a variety of learning situations that simulate real-world situations. It seems that “in context” can at best be developed by presenting a variety of patients in a variety of different situations.

In the clinical setting, the physician cannot use a strict hypothesis-driven study on each patient, but must treat patients using the best, most logical treatment selected based on his or her knowledge and the most reliable information.

Development of Expertise

Several researchers have studied the characteristics required of expert performance, the time required to obtain these traits, and the steps that are followed as an individual’s performance progresses from novice to expert.

Studies involving expert physicians have provided data that can be directly used in our attempt to improve curriculum and pedagogy in the healthcare profession. Patel demonstrated that medical students and entry-level residents can recall a considerable amount of non-relevant data while the expert cannot [ 14 ]. Conversely, the expert physician has a much higher level of relevant recall, suggesting they have omitted the non-relevant information and retained only relevant information that is useful in their practice. Using these methods, the expert physicians produce accurate diagnosis in almost 100% of cases, while the medical students can achieve only patricianly correct or component diagnosis only [ 14 ].

In the healthcare setting, both methods are used. The expert physicians will use forward reasoning when the accuracy of the data allows this rapid problem-solving method. When the patient’s conditions cannot be accurately described using known information, the expert diagnostician will resort to the slower hypothesis-driven, backward reasoning approach. In this manner, the highest probability of achieving an accurate diagnosis in the shortest time will be realized [ 14 ].

Section II: Proposed Curriculum and Pedagogy to Improve Student Learning

The following section will outline several distinct but interrelated approaches to accomplish the six educational principles discussed above. The topics will be highlighted as they apply to the specific topic and each section will be comprised of curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment.

Developing a Knowledge Base Using Active Learning Sensitive to Students’ Abilities

Students admitted into healthcare training programs come from various backgrounds. This is both a strength for the program and a challenge for the educator. The strength is recognized in the diversity the varied backgrounds bring to the class and ultimately the profession. The challenge for the educator is attempting to provide each student with the material and a learning approach that will fit their individual ability and knowledge level. The educator can provide prerequisite objectives that identify the basic knowledge required before the student attempts the more advanced curriculum. Scaffolding questions can also be provided that allow students to determine their mastery of these prerequisite objectives. Briefly, scaffolding questions are categorized based on complexity. Simple, factual questions are identified with a subscript “0” (i.e. 1. 0 , 2. 0 , etc.). Advanced questions have a subscript suggesting the estimated number of basic concepts that must be included/combined to derive the answer.

Using technology to provide these individual learning opportunities online allows each student to address his or her own potential deficits. Obviously, those who find their knowledge lacking will need to spend additional time learning this information; however, using technology, this can be accomplished without requiring additional class time. This approach will decrease learning gaps for students, while excluding unnecessarily repeating material known by others.

The curriculum is divided into two parts: (1) content and (2) critical thinking/problem-solving skills. The basic knowledge and factual content can be provided online. Students are expected to learn this by actively engaging the material during independent study. This saves classroom or small-group sessions for interaction where students can actively learn critical thinking/problem-solving skills.

The curriculum should be designed so that students can start at their own level of understanding. The more advanced students can identify the level appropriate for themselves and/or review the more rudimentary information as needed. As shown by previous investigators, experts omit non-relevant information so that they can focus on appropriate problem-solving. Requiring students to learn by solving problems or exploring case studies will be emphasized when possible.

Technology can be used to deliver the “content” portion of the curriculum. Voice-over PowerPoints and/or video clips made available online through WebCT or PodCast will allow each student to study separately or in groups at their own rate, starting at their own level of knowledge. The content delivered in this fashion will complement the handout and/or textbook information recommended to the students. This will provide the needed basic information that will be used as a foundation for the development of critical thinking and problem-solving. The flipped classroom and/or team-based learning can both be used to help facilitate this type of learning. [ 15 ]

Student Assessments

It is imperative for students to know whether they have mastered the material to the extent needed. This can be accomplished by providing online formative evaluations. These will not be used to determine student performance; however, the results will be provided to the educator to determine the class’s progress and evaluation of the curriculum.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills in the Classroom or Small-Group Setting

Critical thinking skills are essential to the development of well-trained healthcare professionals. These skills are not “taught” but must be “learned” by the student. The educator provides learning experiences through which the students can gain the needed skills and experience. Mastery of the content should be a responsibility placed on the student. Information and assistance are given to the students, but students are held accountable for learning the content. This does not indicate that the educator is freed from responsibility. In fact, the educator will most likely spend more time planning and preparing, compared to when didactic lectures were given; however, the spotlight will be placed on the student. Once the learning modules are developed, they can be readily updated, allowing the educators to improve their sessions with each evaluation.

Curriculum designed to help student students develop critical thinking/problem-solving skills should be learned in context. During the introductory portions of the training, this can be accomplished by providing problem-based scenarios similar to what will be expected in the later clinical setting. The transition to competency-based evaluation in many disciplines has made this a virtual necessity. Critical thinking/problem-solving skills should emphasize self-examination. It should teach an individual to accomplish this using a series of steps that progress in a logical fashion, stressing that critical thinking is a progression of logical thought, not an unguided process.

The methods of teaching critical thinking can be traced back to the dialectic methods used by Socrates. Helping the students learn by posing questions remains an effective tool. Accomplishing this in a group setting also provides each student with the opportunity to learn, not only from their mistakes and accomplishments, but from the mistakes and accomplishments of others. Scenario questions can be presented in a manner similar to those found in many board and licensure exams. This exposes students to material in a format relevant to the clinical setting and to future exams. In larger groups, PowerPoint presentation of scenario questions can be used. Team-based learning (TBL) is useful in encouraging individual self-assessment and peer-peer instruction, while also providing an opportunity for the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. After the Individual Readiness Assurance Test (iRAT) exam, students work together to answer the Group Readiness Assurance Test (gRAT). Following this, relevant material is covered by clinicians and basic scientists working together and questions asked using an audience response system. This has been useful in encouraging individual self-assessment and peer-peer instruction while also providing an opportunity for the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Formative assessment of the students will be given in the class session. This can be accomplished using an audience response system. This gives each individual a chance to determine their own critical thinking skill level. It will prevent the “Oh, I knew that” response from students who are in denial of their own inabilities. Summative assessment in the class will be based on the critical thinking skills presented in the classroom or small-group setting. As mentioned earlier, the students will be evaluated on their ability to think critically and to problem-solve. This will by necessity include evaluation of content knowledge—but only as it pertains to the critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This will be made clear through the use of objectives that describe both content and critical thinking.

Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills in Simulation Centers and Clinics

The development of critical thinking skills in healthcare is somewhat unique. In chess, students can start playing using the same tools employed by the experts (the chess board); however, in healthcare, allowing students to make medical decisions is ethically inappropriate and irresponsible. Simulations centers allow students to gain needed experience and confidence without placing patients at risk. Once the students have mastered simulation center experiences and acquired the needed confidence, they can participate in patient diagnosis under the watchful eye of the expert healthcare professional.

The student’s curriculum now becomes the entire knowledge base of each healthcare discipline. This includes textbooks and journal articles. Students are required to come well prepared to the clinics and/or hospital having developed and in-depth understanding of each patient in their care.

Each day, the expert healthcare provider, serving as a mentor, will provide formative evaluation of the student and his/her performance. Mentors will guide the student, suggesting changes in the skills needed to evaluate the patients properly. In addition, standardized patients provide an excellent method of student/resident evaluation.

Summative evaluation is in the form of subject/board exams. These test the student’s or resident’s ability to accurately describe and evaluate the patient. The objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) is used to evaluate the student’s ability to correctly assess the patient’s condition. Thinking aloud had been previously shown as an effective tool for evaluating expert performance in such settings [ 16 ]. Briefly, think aloud strategies require the student to explain verbally the logic they are using to combine facts to arrive at correct answers. This approach helps the evaluator to determine both the accuracy of the answer and if the correct thought process was followed by the student.

If the time required to develop an expert is a minimum of ten years, what influence can education have on the process?

Education can:

Provide the student with a foundation of knowledge required for the development of future knowledge and skills.

Introduce the student to critical thinking and problem-solving techniques.

Require the student to actively engage the material instead of attempting to learn using rote memory only.

Assess the performance of the student in a formative manner, allowing the lack of information of skills to be identified early, thus reducing the risk of failure when changes in study skills are more difficult and/or occur too late to help.

Provide learning in a contextual format that makes the information meaningful and easier to remember.

Provide training in forward reasoning and backward reasoning skills. It can relate these skills to the problem-solving techniques in healthcare.

Help students develop the qualities of an expert healthcare provider.

Data Availability

Maguire ER. The group-study plan: a teaching technique based on pupil participation: Sharles Charles Scribner’s Sons; 1928.

Flexner A. Medical education in the United States and Canada. From the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, bulletin number four, 1910. Bull World Health Organ 2002;80(7):594–602.

Liaison Committee on Medical Education [Available from: https://lcme.org/ .

Learning WC. Chapter 6: Kinds of mnemonics [Available from: http://college.cengage.com/collegesurvival/wong/essential_study/6e/assets/students/protecte d/wong_ch06_in-depthmnemonics.html.

Wong L. Essential study skills. Boston: Wadsworth, Inc.; 2015.

Google Scholar  

Fink LD. Creating significant learning experiences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2003.

Gardner H. Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books; 1983.

Gardner H. Multiple intelligences: the theory in practice. New York: Basic Books; 1993.

Alfaro-LeFevre R. Critical thinking in nursing: a practical approach. 2, illustrated ed: Saunders, 1999.

Sharple JM, Oxman AD, Mahtani KR, Chambers I, Oliver S, Colins K, et al. Critical thinking in healthcare and education. BMJ. 2017;357:2234.

Article   Google Scholar  

Kahlke R, Kevin E. Constructing critical thinking in health professional education. Perspect Med Educ. 2018;7(3):156–65.

Bloom BS, MD E, Furst E, Hill W, Krathwohl DR. Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.; 1956.

Laurillard D. Rethinking university teaching. New York: London: Routledge Falmer; 2002.

Book   Google Scholar  

Patel V, Groen G. The general and specific nature of medical expertise: a critical look. In: Ericsson KA, Smith J, editors. Toward a general theory of expertise. New York: Cambridge. University Press; 1991.

Khe Foon HEW, Chung KLO. Flipped classroom improve students learning in health professions education: a meta-analysis. BMC Medical Education. 2018;18:38.

Brown JL, Ilgen JS. Now you see it, now you don’t: what thinking aloud tells us about clinical reasoning. J Grad Med Educ. 2014;6(4):783–5.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Medical Education, Paul L Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA

Jessica A. Chacon & Herb Janssen

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

The authors wrote and contributed to the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Herb Janssen .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethics Approval

Code availability, additional information, publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Chacon, J.A., Janssen, H. Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills to Healthcare Professionals. Med.Sci.Educ. 31 , 235–239 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-020-01128-3

Download citation

Accepted : 15 October 2020

Published : 27 October 2020

Issue Date : February 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-020-01128-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Top Courses
• Online Degrees
• Find your New Career
• Join for Free

7 Problem-Solving Skills That Can Help You Be a More Successful Manager

Discover what problem-solving is, and why it's important for managers. Understand the steps of the process and learn about seven problem-solving skills.

1Managers oversee the day-to-day operations of a particular department, and sometimes a whole company, using their problem-solving skills regularly. Managers with good problem-solving skills can help ensure companies run smoothly and prosper.

If you're a current manager or are striving to become one, read this guide to discover what problem-solving skills are and why it's important for managers to have them. Learn the steps of the problem-solving process, and explore seven skills that can help make problem-solving easier and more effective.

What is problem-solving?

Problem-solving is both an ability and a process. As an ability, problem-solving can aid in resolving issues faced in different environments like home, school, abroad, and social situations, among others. As a process, problem-solving involves a series of steps for finding solutions to questions or concerns that arise throughout life.

The importance of problem-solving for managers

Managers deal with problems regularly, whether supervising a staff of two or 100. When people solve problems quickly and effectively, workplaces can benefit in a number of ways. These include:

Greater creativity

Higher productivity

Increased job fulfillment

Satisfied clients or customers

Better cooperation and cohesion

Improved environments for employees and customers

7 skills that make problem-solving easier

Companies depend on managers who can solve problems adeptly. Although problem-solving is a skill in its own right, a subset of seven skills can help make the process of problem-solving easier. These include analysis, communication, emotional intelligence, resilience, creativity, adaptability, and teamwork.

1. Analysis

As a manager , you'll solve each problem by assessing the situation first. Then, you’ll use analytical skills to distinguish between ineffective and effective solutions.

2. Communication

Effective communication plays a significant role in problem-solving, particularly when others are involved. Some skills that can help enhance communication at work include active listening, speaking with an even tone and volume, and supporting verbal information with written communication.

3. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage emotions in any situation. People with emotional intelligence usually solve problems calmly and systematically, which often yields better results.

4. Resilience

Emotional intelligence and resilience are closely related traits. Resiliency is the ability to cope with and bounce back quickly from difficult situations. Those who possess resilience are often capable of accurately interpreting people and situations, which can be incredibly advantageous when difficulties arise.

5. Creativity 

When brainstorming solutions to problems, creativity can help you to think outside the box. Problem-solving strategies can be enhanced with the application of creative techniques. You can use creativity to:

Approach problems from different angles

Improve your problem-solving process

Spark creativity in your employees and peers

6. Adaptability

Adaptability is the capacity to adjust to change. When a particular solution to an issue doesn't work, an adaptable person can revisit the concern to think up another one without getting frustrated.

7. Teamwork

Finding a solution to a problem regularly involves working in a team. Good teamwork requires being comfortable working with others and collaborating with them, which can result in better problem-solving overall.

Steps of the problem-solving process

Effective problem-solving involves five essential steps. One way to remember them is through the IDEAL model created in 1984 by psychology professors John D. Bransford and Barry S. Stein [ 1 ]. The steps to solving problems in this model include: identifying that there is a problem, defining the goals you hope to achieve, exploring potential solutions, choosing a solution and acting on it, and looking at (or evaluating) the outcome.

1. Identify that there is a problem and root out its cause.

To solve a problem, you must first admit that one exists to then find its root cause. Finding the cause of the problem may involve asking questions like:

Can the problem be solved?

How big of a problem is it?

Why do I think the problem is occurring?

What are some things I know about the situation?

What are some things I don't know about the situation?

Are there any people who contributed to the problem?

Are there materials or processes that contributed to the problem?

Are there any patterns I can identify?

2. Define the goals you hope to achieve.

Every problem is different. The goals you hope to achieve when problem-solving depend on the scope of the problem. Some examples of goals you might set include:

Gather as much factual information as possible.

Brainstorm many different strategies to come up with the best one.

Be flexible when considering other viewpoints.

Articulate clearly and encourage questions, so everyone involved is on the same page.

Be open to other strategies if the chosen strategy doesn't work.

Stay positive throughout the process.

3. Explore potential solutions.

Once you've defined the goals you hope to achieve when problem-solving , it's time to start the process. This involves steps that often include fact-finding, brainstorming, prioritizing solutions, and assessing the cost of top solutions in terms of time, labor, and money.

4. Choose a solution and act on it.

Evaluate the pros and cons of each potential solution, and choose the one most likely to solve the problem within your given budget, abilities, and resources. Once you choose a solution, it's important to make a commitment and see it through. Draw up a plan of action for implementation, and share it with all involved parties clearly and effectively, both verbally and in writing. Make sure everyone understands their role for a successful conclusion.

5. Look at (or evaluate) the outcome.

Evaluation offers insights into your current situation and future problem-solving. When evaluating the outcome, ask yourself questions like:

Did the solution work?

Will this solution work for other problems?

Were there any changes you would have made?

Would another solution have worked better?

As a current or future manager looking to build your problem-solving skills, it is often helpful to take a professional course. Consider Improving Communication Skills offered by the University of Pennsylvania on Coursera. You'll learn how to boost your ability to persuade, ask questions, negotiate, apologize, and more. 

You might also consider taking Emotional Intelligence: Cultivating Immensely Human Interactions , offered by the University of Michigan on Coursera. You'll explore the interpersonal and intrapersonal skills common to people with emotional intelligence, and you'll learn how emotional intelligence is connected to team success and leadership.

Build job-ready skills with a Coursera Plus subscription

• Get access to 7,000+ learning programs from world-class universities and companies, including Google, Yale, Salesforce, and more
• Try different courses and find your best fit at no additional cost
• Earn certificates for learning programs you complete
• A subscription price of $59/month, cancel anytime

Article sources

Tennessee Tech. “ The Ideal Problem Solver (2nd ed.) , https://www.tntech.edu/cat/pdf/useful_links/idealproblemsolver.pdf.” Accessed December 6, 2022.

Keep reading

Coursera staff.

Editorial Team

Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.