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Using thematic analysis in psychology.

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Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.

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Using thematic analysis in psychology

Braun, virginia; clarke, victoria.

Virginia Braun

Dr Victoria Clarke [email protected] Associate Professor in Qualitative & Critical Psychology

Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology. © 2006 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

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Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3

This article was downloaded by: [Yale University Library] On: 02 May 2013, At: 08:56 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Qualitative Research in Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uqrp20 Using thematic analysis in psychology Virginia Braun a & Victoria Clarke b a University of Auckland b University of the West of England Published online: 21 Jul 2008.

To cite this article: Virginia Braun & Victoria Clarke (2006): Using thematic analysis in psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3:2, 77-101 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. www.QualResearchPsych.com Qualitative Research in Psychology 2006; 3: 77Á/101

Using thematic analysis in psychology

Virginia Braun1 and Victoria Clarke2

1University of Auckland and 2University of the West of England

Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology. Qualitative Research in

Psychology 2006; 3: 77Á/101

Key words: epistemology ; flexibility; patterns; qualitative psychology; thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated plication and evaluation of thematic ana- and rarely acknowledged, yet widely used lysis, and one which does so in a way Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 qualitative analytic method (Boyatzis, accessible to students and those not parti- 1998; Roulston, 2001) within and beyond cularly familiar with qualitative research.1 psychology. In this paper, we aim to fill That is, we aim to write a paper that will what we, as researchers and teachers in be useful as both a teaching and research qualitative psychology, have experienced tool in qualitative psychology. Therefore,

as a current gap Á/ the absence of a paper in this paper we discuss theory and which adequately outlines the theory, ap- method for thematic analysis, and clarify

Correspondence: Virginia Braun, Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected]

# 2006 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa 78 V Braun and V Clarke

the similarities and differences between manifestations of the method, from within different approaches that share features in the broad theoretical framework. Second, common with a thematic approach. there are methods that are essentially in- Qualitative approaches are incredibly dependent of theory and epistemology, and diverse, complex and nuanced (Holloway can be applied across a range of theoretical and Todres, 2003), and thematic analysis and epistemological approaches. Although should be seen as a foundational method often (implicitly) framed as a realist/experi- for qualitative analysis. It is the first ential method (Aronson, 1994; Roulston, qualitative method of analysis that re- 2001), thematic analysis is actually firmly searchers should learn, as it provides core in the second camp, and is compatible with skills that will be useful for conducting both essentialist and constructionist para- many other forms of qualitative analysis. digms within psychology (we discuss this Indeed, Holloway and Todres (2003: 347) later). Through its theoretical freedom, the- identify ‘thematizing meanings’ as one of a matic analysis provides a flexible and use- few shared generic skills across qualitative ful research tool, which can potentially analysis.2 For this reason, Boyatzis (1998) provide a rich and detailed, yet complex, characterizes it, not as a specific method, account of data. but as a tool to use across different meth- Given the advantages of the flexibility of ods. Similarly, Ryan and Bernard (2000) thematic analysis, it is important that we are locate thematic coding as a process per- clear that we are not trying to limit this formed within ‘major’ analytic traditions flexibility. However, an absence of clear and (such as grounded theory ), rather than a concise guidelines around thematic analysis specific approach in its own right. We means that the ‘anything goes’ critique of argue thematic analysis should be consid- qualitative research (Antaki et al., 2002) may ered a method in its own right. well apply in some instances. With this One of the benefits of thematic analysis is paper, we hope to strike a balance between

its flexibility. Qualitative analytic methods demarcating thematic analysis clearly Á/ ie,

can be roughly divided into two camps. explaining what it is, and how to do it Á/ and Within the first, there are those tied to, or ensuring flexibility in relation to how it is stemming from, a particular theoretical or used, so that it does not become limited and epistemological position. For some of these constrained, and lose one of its key advan-

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 Á such as conversation analysis (CA; eg, tages. Indeed, a clear demarcation of this Hutchby and Wooffitt, 1998) and interpre- method will be useful to ensure that those tative phenomenological analysis (IPA; eg, who use thematic analysis can make active

Smith and Osborn, 2003) Á/ there is (as yet) choices about the particular form of analysis relatively limited variability in how the they are engaged in. Therefore, this paper method is applied, within that framework. seeks to celebrate the flexibility of the In essence, one recipe guides analysis. For method and provide a vocabulary and

others of these Á/ such as grounded theory ‘recipe’ for people to undertake thematic (Glaser, 1992; Strauss and Corbin, 1998), analysis in a way that is theoretically and discourse analysis (DA; eg, Burman and methodologically sound.3 As we will show, Parker, 1993; Potter and Wetherell, 1987; what is important is that as well as apply- Willig, 2003) or narrative analysis (Murray, ing a method to data, researchers make

2003; Riessman, 1993) Á/ there are different their (epistemological and other) assump- Using thematic analysis in psychology 79

tions explicit (Holloway and Todres, 2003). So in Virginia’s example, if she was inter- Qualitative psychologists need to be clear ested in how ‘sexual pleasure’ was talked about what they are doing and why, and to about, her data set would consist of all include the often-omitted ‘how’ they did instances across the entire data corpus that their analysis in their reports (Attride- had some relevance to sexual pleasure. Stirling, 2001). These two approaches might sometimes In this paper we outline: what thematic be combined to produce the data set. Data analysis is; a 6-phase guide to performing item is used to refer to each individual thematic analysis; potential pitfalls to piece of data collected, which together avoid when doing thematic analysis; what make up the data set or corpus. A data makes good thematic analysis; and advan- item in this instance would be an indivi- tages and disadvantages of thematic analy- dual surgeon interview , a television docu- sis. Throughout, we provide exam- mentary, or one particular website. Finally, ples from the research literature, and our data extract refers to an individual coded own research. By providing examples, we chunk of data, which has been identified show the types of research questions and within, and extracted from, a data item. topics that thematic analysis can be used to There will be many of these, taken from study. throughout the entire data set, and only a Before we begin, we need to define a few selection of these extracts will feature in of the terms used throughout the paper. the final analysis. Data corpus refers to all data collected for a particular research project, while data set refers to all the data from the corpus that What is thematic analysis? are being used for a particular analysis. There are two main ways of choosing the Thematic analysis is a method for identify- data set (which approach you take depends ing, analysing and reporting patterns on whether you are coming to the data (themes) within data. It minimally orga- with a specific question or not Á/ see ‘A nizes and describes your data set in (rich) number of decisions’ below). First, the data detail. However, frequently if goes further set may consist of many, or all, individual than this, and interprets various aspects of data items within your data corpus. So, for the research topic (Boyatzis, 1998). The

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 example, in a project on female genital range of different possible thematic ana- cosmetic surgery, Virginia’s data corpus lyses will further be highlighted in relation consists of interviews with surgeons, to a number of decisions regarding it as a media items on the topic, and surgeon method (see below). websites. For any particular analysis, her Thematic analysis is widely used, but data set might just be the surgeon inter- there is no clear agreement about what views, just the websites (Braun, 2005b), or thematic analysis is and how you go about it might combine surgeon data with some doing it (see Attride-Stirling, 2001; Boyat- media data (eg, Braun, 2005a). Second, the zis, 1998; Tuckett, 2005, for other exam- data set might be identified by a particular ples). It can be seen as a very poorly analytic interest in some topic in the data, ‘branded’ method, in that it does not appear and the data set then becomes all instances to exist as a ‘named’ analysis in the same in the corpus where that topic is referred. way that other methods do (eg, narrative 80 V Braun and V Clarke

analysis, grounded theory). In this sense, it can be misinterpreted to mean that themes ‘re- is often not explicitly claimed as the side’ in the data, and if we just look hard enough they will ‘emerge’ like Venus on the half shell. method of analysis, when, in actuality, we If themes ‘reside’ anywhere, they reside in argue that a lot of analysis is essentially our heads from our thinking about our data and thematic Á/ but is either claimed as some- creating links as we understand them. (Ely et al., thing else (such as DA, or even content 1997: 205Á/6) analysis (eg, Meehan et al., 2000)) or not At this point, it is important to acknowledge identified as any particular method at all Á/ for example, data were ‘subjected to quali- our own theoretical positions and values in tative analysis for commonly recurring relation to qualitative research. We do not themes’ (Braun and Wilkinson, 2003: 30). subscribe to a naı¨ve realist view of qualita- If we do not know how people went about tive research, where the researcher can analysing their data, or what assumptions simply ‘give voice’ (see Fine, 2002) to their participants. As Fine (2002): 218) argues, informed their analysis, it is difficult to even a ‘giving voice’ approach ‘involves evaluate their research, and to compare carving out unacknowledged pieces of and/or synthesize it with other studies on narrative evidence that we select, edit, that topic, and it can impede other research- and deploy to border our arguments’. How- ers carrying out related projects in the ever, nor do we think there is one ideal future (Attride-Stirling, 2001). For these theoretical framework for conducting quali- reasons alone, clarity on process and prac- tative research, or indeed one ideal method. tice of method is vital. We hope that this What is important is that the theoretical paper will lead to more clarity around framework and methods match what the thematic analysis. researcher wants to know, and that they Relatedly, insufficient detail is often gi- acknowledge these decisions, and recognize ven to reporting the process and detail of them as decisions. analysis (Attride-Stirling, 2001). It is not Thematic analysis differs from other ana- uncommon to read of themes ‘emerging’ lytic methods that seek to describe patterns from the data (although this issue is not across qualitative data Á/ such as ‘thematic’ limited to thematic analysis). For example, DA, thematic decomposition analysis, IPA Singer and Hunter’s (1999: 67) thematic and grounded theory.5 Both IPA and discourse analysis of women’s experiences grounded theory seek patterns in the data,

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 of early menopause identified that ‘several but are theoretically bounded. IPA is at- themes emerged’ during the analysis. Rubin tached to a phenomenological epistemology and Rubin (1995: 226) claim that analysis is (Smith et al., 1999; Smith and Osborn, exciting because ‘you discover themes and 2003), which gives experience primacy concepts embedded throughout your inter- (Holloway and Todres, 2003), and is about views’. An account of themes ‘emerging’ or understanding people’s everyday experi- being ‘discovered’ is a passive account of ence of reality, in great detail, in order to the process of analysis, and it denies the gain an understanding of the phenomenon active role the researcher always plays in in question (McLeod, 2001). To complicate identifying patterns/themes, selecting matters, grounded theory comes in different which are of interest, and reporting them versions (Charmaz, 2002). Regardless, the to the readers (Taylor and Ussher, 2001).4 goal of a grounded theory analysis is to

The language of ‘themes emerging’: generate a plausible Á/ and useful Á/ theory Using thematic analysis in psychology 81

of the phenomena that is grounded in the knowledge of approaches, such as grounded data (McLeod, 2001). However, in our ex- theory and DA, it can offer a more accessible perience, grounded theory seems increas- form of analysis, particularly for those early ingly to be used in a way that is essentially in a qualitative research career.

grounded theory ‘lite’ Á/ as a set of proce- In contrast to IPA or grounded theory (and dures for coding data very much akin to other methods like narrative analysis DA or thematic analysis. Such analyses do not CA), thematic analysis is not wedded to any appear to fully subscribe to the theoretical pre-existing theoretical framework, and commitments of a ‘full-fat’ grounded theory, therefore it can be used within different which requires analysis to be directed to- theoretical frameworks (although not all), wards theory development (Holloway and and can be used to do different things Todres, 2003). We argue, therefore, that a within them. Thematic analysis can be an ‘named and claimed’ thematic analysis essentialist or realist method, which reports means researchers need not subscribe to experiences, meanings and the reality of the implicit theoretical commitments of participants, or it can be a constructionist grounded theory if they do not wish to method, which examines the ways in which produce a fully worked-up grounded-theory events, realities, meanings, experiences and analysis. so on are the effects of a range of discourses The term ‘thematic DA’ is used to refer to operating within society. It can also be a a wide range of pattern-type analysis of ‘contextualist’ method, sitting between the data, ranging from thematic analysis within two poles of essentialism and construction- a social constructionist epistemology (ie, ism, and characterized by theories, such as critical realism (eg, Willig, 1999), which where patterns are identified as socially acknowledge the ways individuals make produced, but no discursive analyse is meaning of their experience, and, in turn, conducted), to forms of analysis very the ways the broader social context im- much akin to the interpretative repertoire pinges on those meanings, while retaining form of DA (Clarke, 2005). Thematic decom- focus on the material and other limits of position analysis (eg, Stenner, 1993; Ussher ‘reality’. Therefore, thematic analysis can be and Mooney-Somers, 2000) is a specifically a method that works both to reflect reality named form of ‘thematic’ DA, which iden- and to unpick or unravel the surface of tifies patterns (themes, stories) within data, ‘reality’. However, it is important that the

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 and theorizes language as constitutive of theoretical position of a thematic analysis is meaning and meaning as social. made clear, as this is all too often left These different methods share a search unspoken (and is then typically a realist for certain themes or patterns across an account). Any theoretical framework carries (entire) data set, rather than within a data with it a number of assumptions about the item, such as an individual interview or nature of the data, what they represent in interviews from one person, as in the case of terms of the ‘the world’, ‘reality’, and so biographical or case-study forms of analy- forth. A good thematic analysis will make sis, such as narrative analysis (eg, Murray, this transparent. 2003; Riessman, 1993). In this sense, they more or less overlap with thematic analysis. A number of decisions As thematic analysis does not require the Thematic analysis involves a number of detailed theoretical and technological choices which are often not made explicit 82 V Braun and V Clarke

(or are certainly typically not discussed in might appear in relatively little of the data the method section of papers), but which set. So, researcher judgement is necessary to need explicitly to be considered and dis- determine what a theme is. Our initial cussed. In practice, these questions should guidance around this is that you need to be considered before analysis (and some- retain some flexibility, and rigid rules really times even collection) of the data begins, do not work. (The question of prevalence is and there needs to be an ongoing reflexive revisited in relation to themes and sub- dialogue on the part of the researcher or themes, as the refinement of analysis (see researchers with regards to these issues, later) will often result in overall themes, throughout the analytic process. The and sub-themes within those.) method section of Taylor and Ussher’s Furthermore, the ‘keyness’ of a theme is (2001) thematic DA of S&M provides a not necessarily dependent on quantifiable

good example of research which presents measures Á/ but rather on whether it cap- this process explicitly; the method section tures something important in relation to of Braun and Wilkinson (2003) does not. the overall research question . For exam- ple, in Victoria’s research on representa- What counts as a theme? tions of lesbians and gay parents on 26 A theme captures something important talk shows (Clarke and Kitzinger, 2004), about the data in relation to the research she identified six ‘key’ themes. These six question, and represents some level of themes were not necessarily the most pre- patterned response or meaning within the valent themes across the data set Á/ they data set. An important question to address appeared in between two and 22 of the 26 in terms of coding is: what counts as a talk shows Á/ but together they captured an pattern/theme, or what ‘size’ does a theme important element of the way in which need to be? This is a question of prevalence, lesbians and gay men ‘normalize’ their in terms both of space within each data item families in talk show debates. In this in- and of prevalence across the entire data set. stance, her thematic analysis was driven by Ideally, there will be a number of instances this particular analytic question. How she of the theme across the data set, but more ‘measured’ prevalence is relevant, as pre- instances do not necessarily mean the valence can be determined in a number of theme itself is more crucial. As this is different ways. Prevalence was counted at

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 qualitative analysis, there is no hard-and- the level of the data item (ie, did a theme fast answer to the question of what propor- appear anywhere in each individual talk tion of your data set needs to display show?). Alternatively, it could have been evidence of the theme for it to be considered counted in terms of the number of different a theme. It is not the case that if it was speakers who articulated the theme, across present in 50% of one’s data items, it would the entire data set, or each individual be a theme, but if it was present only in occurrence of the theme across the entire 47%, then it would not be a theme. Nor is it data set (which raises complex questions the case that a theme is only something that about where an ‘instance’ begins and ends

many data items give considerable attention within an extended sequence of talk Á/ see to, rather than a sentence or two. A theme Riessman, 1993). Because prevalence was might be given considerable space in some not crucial to the analysis presented, Vic- data items, and little or none in others, or it toria chose the most straightforward form, Using thematic analysis in psychology 83

but it is important to note there is no right or scription is maintained. This might be a wrong method for determining prevalence. particularly useful method when you are Part of the flexibility of thematic analysis investigating an under-researched area, or is that it allows you to determine themes you are working with participants whose (and prevalence) in a number of ways. What views on the topic are not known. is important is that you are consistent in An alternative use of thematic analysis is how you do this within any particular to provide a more detailed and nuanced analysis. account of one particular theme, or group of There are various ‘conventions’ for repre- themes, within the data. This might relate to senting prevalence in thematic (and other a specific question or area of interest within

qualitative) analysis that does not provide a the data (a semantic approach Á/ see below), quantified measure (unlike much content or to a particular ‘latent’ theme (see below)

analysis, Wilkinson, 2000) Á/ for instance: across the whole or majority of the data set. ‘the majority of participants’ (Meehan et al., An example of this would be Victoria’s talk 2000: 372), ‘many participants’ (Taylor and show paper, discussed previously (Clarke Ussher, 2001: 298), or ‘a number of and Kitzinger, 2004), which examined nor- participants’ (Braun et al., 2003: 249). malization in lesbians’ and gay men’s ac- Such descriptors work rhetorically to counts of parenting. suggest a theme really existed in the data, and to convince us they are reporting Inductive versus theoretical thematic truthfully about the data. But do they tell analysis us much? This is perhaps one area where Themes or patterns within data can be more debate is needed about how and why identified in one of two primary ways in we might represent the prevalence of thematic analysis: in an inductive or ‘bot- themes in the data, and, indeed, whether, tom up’ way (eg, Frith and Gleeson, 2004), if, and why prevalence is particularly im- or in a theoretical or deductive or ‘top portant. down’ way (eg, Boyatzis, 1998; Hayes, 1997). An inductive approach means the A rich description of the data set, or a themes identified are strongly linked to the detailed account of one particular aspect data themselves (Patton, 1990) (as such, this It is important to determine the type of form of thematic analysis bears some simi-

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 analysis you want to do, and the claims larity to grounded theory). In this approach, you want to make, in relation to your data if the data have been collected specifically set. For instance, you might wish to provide for the research (eg, via interview or focus a rich thematic description of your entire group), the themes identified may bear little data set, so that the reader gets a sense of the relation to the specific questions that were predominant or important themes. In this asked of the participants. They would also case, the themes you identify, code, and not be driven by the researcher’s theoretical analyse would need to be an accurate reflec- interest in the area or topic. Inductive tion of the content of the entire data set. In analysis is therefore a process of coding such an analysis, some depth and complex- the data without trying to fit it into a pre- ity is necessarily lost (particularly if you are existing coding frame, or the researcher’s writing a short dissertation or article with analytic preconceptions. In this sense, this strict word limits), but a rich overall de- form of thematic analysis is data-driven. 84 V Braun and V Clarke

However, it is important to note, as we Semantic or latent themes discussed earlier, that researchers cannot Another decision revolves around the ‘le- free themselves of their theoretical and vel’ at which themes are to be identified: at epistemological commitments, and data a semantic or explicit level, or at a latent or are not coded in an epistemological va- interpretative level (Boyatzis, 1998).6 A cuum. thematic analysis typically focuses exclu- In contrast, a ‘theoretical’ thematic analy- sively or primarily on one level. With a sis would tend to be driven by the research- semantic approach, the themes are identi- er’s theoretical or analytic interest in the fied within the explicit or surface meanings area, and is thus more explicitly analyst- of the data, and the analyst is not looking for driven. This form of thematic analysis tends anything beyond what a participant has to provide less a rich description of the data said or what has been written. Ideally, the overall, and more a detailed analysis of analytic process involves a progression from some aspect of the data. Additionally, the description, where the data have simply choice between inductive and theoretical been organized to show patterns in seman- maps onto how and why you are coding the tic content, and summarized, to interpreta- data. You can either code for a quite specific tion, where there is an attempt to theorize research question (which maps onto the the significance of the patterns and their more theoretical approach) or the specific broader meanings and implications (Patton, research question can evolve through the 1990), often in relation to previous literature coding process (which maps onto the in- (for an excellent example of this, see Frith ductive approach). and Gleeson, 2004). For example, if a researcher was inter- In contrast, a thematic analysis at the ested in talk about heterosex, and had latent level goes beyond the semantic con- collected interview data, with an inductive tent of the data, and starts to identify or approach they would read and re-read the examine the underlying ideas, assumptions,

data for any themes related to heterosex, and conceptualizations Á/ and ideologies Á/ and code diversely, without paying atten- that are theorized as shaping or informing tion to the themes that previous research on the semantic content of the data. If we the topic might have identified. For exam- imagine our data three-dimensionally as ple, the researcher would not look to the an uneven blob of jelly, the semantic

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 influential research of Hollway (1989), approach would seek to describe the surface identifying discourses of heterosex, and of the jelly, its form and meaning, while the code just for male sexual drive, have/hold latent approach would seek to identify the or permissive discourse themes. In contrast, features that gave it that particular form and with a theoretical approach, the researcher meaning. Thus, for latent thematic analysis, may well be interested in the way permis- the development of the themes themselves siveness plays out across the data, and involves interpretative work, and the ana- focus on that particular feature in coding lysis that is produced is not just descrip- the data. This would then result in a tion, but is already theorized. number of themes around permissiveness, Analysis within this latter tradition tends which may include, speak to, or expand on to come from a constructionist paradigm something approximating Hollway’s origi- (eg, Burr, 1995), and in this form, thematic nal theme. analysis overlaps with some forms of ‘DA’ Using thematic analysis in psychology 85

(which are sometimes specifically referred instead seeks to theorize the sociocultural to as ‘thematic DA’ (eg, Singer and Hunter, contexts, and structural conditions, that 1999; Taylor and Ussher, 2001)), where enable the individual accounts that are broader assumptions, structures and/or provided. Thematic analysis that focuses meanings are theorized as underpinning on ‘latent’ themes tends to be more con- what is actually articulated in the data. structionist, and it also tends to start to Increasingly, a number of discourse analysts overlap with thematic DA at this point. are also revisiting psycho-analytic modes of However, not all ‘latent’ thematic analysis interpretation (eg, Hollway and Jefferson, is constructionist. 2000), and latent thematic analysis would also be compatible with that framework. The many questions of qualitative research It is worth briefly noting that qualitative Epistemology: essentialist/realist versus research involves a series of questions, and constructionist thematic analysis there is a need to be clear about the relation- As we have argued, thematic analysis can be ship between these different questions. conducted within both realist/essentialist First, there is the overall research question and constructionist paradigms , although or questions that drive the project. A re- the outcome and focus will be different for search question might be very broad (and each. The question of epistemology is exploratory), such as ‘how is lesbian and usually determined when a research project gay parenting constructed?’ or ‘what are the is being conceptualized, although episte- meanings of the vagina?’. Narrower research mology may also raise its head again during questions might be ‘how and why is lesbian analysis, when the research focus may shift and gay parenting normalized?’ (Clarke and to an interest in different aspects of the data. Kitzinger, 2004), or ‘what are the discourses The research epistemology guides what you around vaginal size?’ (see Braun and Kit- can say about your data, and informs how zinger, 2001). These narrow questions may you theorize meaning. For instance, with an be part of a broader overarching research essentialist/realist approach, you can theo- question, and if so, the analyses they inform rize motivations, experience, and meaning would also provide answers to the overall in a straightforward way, because a simple, research question. Although all projects are largely unidirectional relationship is as- guided by research questions, these may

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 sumed between meaning and experience also be refined as a project progresses. and language (language reflects and enables Second, if data from interviews or focus us to articulate meaning and experience) groups have been collected, there are the (Potter and Wetherell, 1987; Widdicombe questions that participants have responded and Wooffitt, 1995). to. Finally, there are the questions that In contrast, from a constructionist per- guide the coding and analysis of the data. spective, meaning and experience are so- There is no necessary relationship between cially produced and reproduced, rather these three, and indeed, it is often desirable than inhering within individuals (Burr, that there is a disjuncture between them. 1995). Therefore, thematic analysis con- Some of the worst examples of ‘thematic’ ducted within a constructionist framework analysis we have read have simply used cannot and does not seek to focus on the questions put to participants as the

motivation or individual psychologies, but ‘themes’ identified in the ‘analysis’ Á/ 86 V Braun and V Clarke

although in such instances, no analysis has (Ryan and Bernard, 2000: 780). Analysis really been done at all! involves a constant moving back and for- To sum up, thematic analysis involves the ward between the entire data set, the coded searching across a data set Á/ be that a extracts of data that you are analysing, and number of interviews or focus groups, or a the analysis of the data that you are produ- range of texts Á/ to find repeated patterns of cing. Writing is an integral part of analysis, meaning. The exact form and product of not something that takes place at the end, as thematic analysis varies, as indicated above, it does with statistical analyses. Therefore, and so it is important that the questions writing should begin in phase one, with the outlined above are considered before and jotting down of ideas and potential coding during thematic analyses. Those appro- schemes, and continue right through the aches which consider specific aspects, la- entire coding/analysis process. tent themes and are constructionist tend to There are different positions regarding often cluster together, while those that when you should engage with the literature consider meanings across the whole data relevant to your analysis Á/ with some set, semantic themes, and are realist, often arguing that early reading can narrow your cluster together. However, there are no hard- analytic field of vision, leading you to focus and-fast rules in relation to this, and differ- on some aspects of the data at the expense ent combinations are possible. What is of other potentially crucial aspects. Others important is that the finished product con- argue that engagement with the literature tains an account Á/ not necessarily that can enhance your analysis by sensitizing Á/ detailed of what was done, and why. So you to more subtle features of the data what does one actually do? We now provide (Tuckett, 2005). Therefore, there is no one what is, we hope, a straightforward step- right way to proceed with reading for the- by-step guide to conducting thematic ana- matic analysis, although a more inductive lysis. approach would be enhanced by not enga- ging with literature in the early stages of analysis, whereas a theoretical approach Doing thematic analysis: a step-by-step requires engagement with the literature guide prior to analysis. We provide an outline guide through the

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 Some of the phases of thematic analysis are six phases of analysis, and offer examples to 7 similar to the phases of other qualitative demonstrate the process. The different research, so these stages are not necessarily phases are summarized in Table 1. It is all unique to thematic analysis. The process important to recognize that qualitative ana- starts when the analyst begins to notice, lysis guidelines are exactly that Á/ they are and look for, patterns of meaning and not rules, and, following the basic precepts,

issues of potential interest in the data Á/ will need to be applied flexibly to fit the this may be during data collection. The research questions and data (Patton, 1990). endpoint is the reporting of the content Moreover, analysis is not a linear process of and meaning of patterns (themes) in the simply moving from one phase to the next. data, where ‘themes are abstract (and often Instead, it is more recursive process, where fuzzy) constructs the investigators identify movement is back and forth as needed, [sic] before, during, and after analysis’ throughout the phases. It is also a process Using thematic analysis in psychology 87

Table 1 Phases of thematic analysis

Phase Description of the process

1. Familiarizing yourself Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data, noting down with your data: initial ideas. 2. Generating initial codes: Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code. 3. Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. 4. Reviewing themes: Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts (Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2), generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis. 5. Defining and naming Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the overall story the themes: analysis tells, generating clear definitions and names for each theme. 6. Producing the report: The final opportunity for analysis. Selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back of the analysis to the research question and literature, producing a scholarly report of the analysis.

that develops over time (Ely et al., 1997), research will become apparent Á/ the read- and should not be rushed. ing and re-reading of data is time-consum- ing. It is, therefore, tempting to skip over Phase 1: familiarizing yourself with your this phase, or be selective. We would data strongly advise against this, as this phase When you engage in analysis, you may have provides the bedrock for the rest of the collected the data yourself, or they may have analysis. been given to you. If you collected them During this phase, it is a good idea to start through interactive means, you will come to taking notes or marking ideas for coding the analysis with some prior knowledge of that you will then go back to in subsequent the data, and possibly some initial analytic phases. Once you have done this, you are interests or thoughts. Regardless, it is vital ready to begin, the more formal coding that you immerse yourself in the data to the process. In essence, coding continues to be extent that you are familiar with the depth developed and defined throughout the en- and breadth of the content. Immersion tire analysis. usually involves ‘repeated reading’ of the

data, and reading the data in an active way Á/ Transcription of verbal data searching for meanings, patterns and so on. If you are working with verbal data, such as

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 It is ideal to read through the entire data set interviews, television programmes or poli- at least once before you begin your coding, tical speeches, the data will need to be as ideas and identification of possible pat- transcribed into written form in order to terns will be shaped as you read through. conduct a thematic analysis. The process of Whether or not you are aiming for an transcription, while it may seen time-con- overall or detailed analysis, are searching suming, frustrating, and at times boring, can for latent or semantic themes, or are data- or be an excellent way to start familiarizing theoretically-driven will inform how the yourself with the data (Riessman, 1993). reading proceeds. Regardless, it is impor- Further, some researchers even argue tant to be familiar with all aspects of your it should be seen as ‘a key phase of data. At this phase, one of the reasons why data analysis within interpretative qualita- qualitative research tends to use far smaller tive methodology’ (Bird, 2005: 227), and samples than, for example, questionnaire recognized as an interpretative act, where 88 V Braun and V Clarke

meanings are created, rather than simply a ing and interpretative skills needed to ana- mechanical act of putting spoken sounds on lyse the data (Lapadat and Lindsay, 1999). If paper (Lapadat and Lindsay, 1999). your data have already been, or will be, Various conventions exist for transforming transcribed for you, it is important that you spoken texts into written texts (see Edwards spend more time familiarising yourself with and Lampert, 1993; Lapadat and Lindsay, the data, and also check the transcripts back 1999). Some systems of transcription have against the original audio recordings for been developed for specific forms of analysis ‘accuracy’ (as should always be done).

Á/ such as the ‘Jefferson’ system for CA (see Atkinson and Heritage, 1984; Hutchby and Phase 2: generating initial codes Wooffitt, 1998). However, thematic analysis, Phase 2 begins when you have read and even constructionist thematic analysis, does familiarized yourself with the data, and have not require the same level of detail in the generated an initial list of ideas about what transcript as conversation, discourse or even is in the data and what is interesting about narrative analysis. As there is no one way to them. This phase then involves the produc- conduct thematic analysis, there is no one set tion of initial codes from the data. Codes of guidelines to follow when producing a identify a feature of the data (semantic transcript. However, at a minimum it re- content or latent) that appears interesting quires a rigorous and thorough ‘ortho- to the analyst, and refer to ‘the most basic

graphic’ transcript Á/ a ‘verbatim’ account of segment, or element, of the raw data or

all verbal (and sometimes nonverbal Á/ eg, information that can be assessed in a mean- coughs) utterances.8 What is important is ingful way regarding the phenomenon’ that the transcript retains the information (Boyatzis, 1998: 63). See Figure 1 for an you need, from the verbal account, and in a example of codes applied to a short segment way which is ‘true’ to its original nature (eg, of data. The process of coding is part of punctuation added can alter the meaning of analysis (Miles and Huberman, 1994), as you

data Á/ for example ‘I hate it, you know. I do’ are organising your data into meaningful versus ‘I hate it. You know I do’, Poland, groups (Tuckett, 2005). However, your 2002: 632), and that the transcription con- coded data differ from the units of analysis vention is practically suited to the purpose of (your themes), which are (often) broader. analysis (Edwards, 1993). Your themes, which you start to develop in As we have noted, the time spent in the next phase, are where the interpretative Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 transcription is not wasted, as it informs analysis of the data occurs, and in relation to the early stages of analysis, and you will which arguments about the phenomenon develop a far more thorough understanding being examined are made (Boyatzis, 1998). of your data through having transcribed it. Coding will, to some extent, depend on Furthermore, the close attention needed to whether the themes are more ‘data-driven’

transcribe data may facilitate the close read- or ‘theory-driven’ Á/ in the former, the

Data extract Coded for it's too much like hard work I mean how much paper have you got to sign 1. Talked about with partner to change a flippin’ name no I I mean no I no we we have thought about it 2. Too much hassle to change name ((inaudible)) half heartedly and thought no no I jus- I can’t be bothered, it’s too much like hard work. (Kate F07a)

Figure 1 Data extract, with codes applied (from Clarke et al., 2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology 89

themes will depend on the data, but in the lost (Bryman, 2001); and (c) remember that latter, you might approach the data with you can code individual extracts of data in

specific questions in mind that you wish to as many different ‘themes’ as they fit into Á/ code around. It will also depend on whether so an extract may be uncoded, coded once, you are aiming to code the content of the or coded many times, as relevant. Note that entire data set, or whether you are coding to no data set is without contradiction, and a identify particular (and possibly limited) satisfactory thematic ‘map’ that you will features of the data set. Coding can be eventually produce Á/ an overall conceptua- performed either manually or through a lization of the data patterns, and relation- 9 software programme (see, eg, Kelle, 2004; ships between them Á/ does not have to Seale, 2000, for discussion of software smooth out or ignore the tensions and programmes). inconsistencies within and across data Work systematically through the entire items. It is important to retain accounts data set, giving full and equal attention to that depart from the dominant story in the each data item, and identify interesting analysis, so do not ignore these in your aspects in the data items that may form coding. the basis of repeated patterns (themes) Phase 3: searching for themes across the data set. There are a number of Phase 3 begins when all data have been ways of actually coding extracts. If coding initially coded and collated, and you have a manually, you can code your data by writ- long list of the different codes that you have ing notes on the texts you are analysing, identified across the data set. This phase, by using highlighters or coloured pens to which re-focuses the analysis at the broader indicate potential patterns, or by using level of themes, rather than codes, involves ‘post-it’ notes to identify segments of data. sorting the different codes into potential You may initially identify the codes, and themes, and collating all the relevant coded then match them with data extracts that data extracts within the identified themes. demonstrate that code, but it is important in Essentially, you are starting to analyse your this phase to ensure that all actual data codes and consider how different codes extracts are coded, and then collated to- may combine to form an overarching theme. gether within each code. This may involve It may be helpful at this phase to use visual copying extracts of data from individual representations to help you sort the differ-

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 transcripts or photocopying extracts of ent codes into themes. You might use tables, printed data, and collating each code to- or mind-maps, or write the name each code gether in separate computer files or using (and a brief description) on a separate piece file cards. If using computer software, you of paper and play around with organizing code by tagging and naming selections of them into theme-piles. A thematic map of text within each data item. this early stage can be seen in Figure 2 (the

Key advice for this phase is: (a) code for as examples in Figures 2Á/4 come from the many potential themes/patterns as possible analysis presented in Braun and Wilkinson, (time permitting) Á/ you never know what 2003 of women’s talk about the vagina). might be interesting later; (b) code extracts This is when you start thinking about the of data inclusively Á/ ie, keep a little of the relationship between codes, between surrounding data if relevant, a common themes, and between different levels of criticism of coding is that the context is themes (eg, main overarching themes and 90 V Braun and V Clarke

Figure 2 Initial thematic map, showing five main themes (final analysis presented in Braun and Wilkinson, 2003)

sub-themes within them). Some initial You end this phase with a collection of codes may go on to form main themes, candidate themes, and sub-themes, and all whereas others may form sub-themes, and extracts of data that have been coded in others still may be discarded. At this stage, relation to them. At this point, you will start you may also have a set of codes that do not to have a sense of the significance of seem to belong anywhere, and it is perfectly individual themes. However, do not aban- acceptable to create a ‘theme’ called ‘mis- don anything at this stage, as without

cellaneous’ to house the codes Á/ possibly looking at all the extracts in detail (the

temporarily Á/ that do not seem to fit into next phase) it is uncertain whether the your main themes. themes hold as they are, or whether some Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013

Figure 3 Developed thematic map, showing three main themes (final analysis presented in Braun and Wilkinson, 2003) Using thematic analysis in psychology 91

Figure 4 Final thematic map, showing final two main themes (see Braun and Wilkinson, 2003).

need to be combined, refined and separated, rework your theme, creating a new theme, or discarded. finding a home for those extracts that do not currently work in an already-existing Phase 4: reviewing themes theme, or discarding them from the analy- Phase 4 begins when you have devised a set sis. Once you are satisfied that your candi- of candidate themes, and it involves the date themes adequately capture the

refinement of those themes. During this contours of the coded data Á/ once you phase, it will become evident that some have a candidate ‘thematic map’ Á/ you candidate themes are not really themes (eg, are ready to move on to level two of this if there are not enough data to support them, phase. The outcome of this refinement or the data are too diverse), while others process can be seen in the thematic map might collapse into each other (eg, two presented in Figure 3. apparently separate themes might form Level two involves a similar process, but one theme). Other themes might need in relation to the entire data set. At this to be broken down into separate themes. level, you consider the validity of indivi- Patton’s (1990) for dual criteria judging dual themes in relation to the data set, but categories Á/ internal homogeneity and ex- also whether your candidate thematic map ternal heterogeneity Á/ are worth consider- ‘accurately’ reflects the meanings evident in ing here. Data within themes should cohere the data set as a whole. To some extent, together meaningfully, while there should what counts as ‘accurate representation’ be clear and identifiable distinctions be- tween themes. depends on your theoretical and analytic This phase involves two levels of review- approach. However, in this phase you re- read your entire data set for two purposes. Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 ing and refining your themes. Level one involves reviewing at the level of the coded The first is, as discussed, to ascertain data extracts. This means you need to read whether the themes ‘work’ in relation to all the collated extracts for each theme, and the data set. The second is to code any consider whether they appear to form a additional data within themes that has been coherent pattern. If your candidate themes missed in earlier coding stages. The need for do appear to form a coherent pattern, you re-coding from the data set is to be expected then move on to the second level of this as coding is an ongoing organic process. phase. If your candidate themes do not fit, If the thematic map works, then you you will need to consider whether the moves on to the next phase. However, if theme itself is problematic, or whether the map does not fit the data set, you need some of the data extracts within it simply to return to further reviewing and refining

do not fit there Á/ in which case, you would of your coding until you have devised a 92 V Braun and V Clarke

satisfactory thematic map. In so doing, it is you do not just paraphrase the content of possible that you will identify potential the data extracts presented, but identify new themes, and you will need to start what is of interest about them and why. coding for these as well, if they are of For each individual theme, you need to interest and relevent. However, a word conduct and write a detailed analysis. As of warning: as coding data and generating well as identifying the ‘story’ that each themes could go on ad infinitum,itis theme tells, it is important to consider important not to get over-enthusiastic with how it fits into the broader overall ‘story’ endless re-coding. It is impossible to pro- that you are telling about your data, in vide clear guidelines on when to stop, but relation to the research question or ques- when your refinements are not adding any- tions, to ensure there is not too much thing substantial, stop! If the process of overlap between themes. So it is necessary recoding is only fine-tuning and making to consider the themes themselves, and more nuanced a coding frame that already each theme in relation to the others. As works Á/ ie, it fits the data well Á/ recognize part of the refinement, you will need to this and stop. Consider it as similar to identify whether or not a theme contains editing written work Á/ you could endlessly any sub-themes. Sub-themes are essentially edit your sentences and paragraphs, but themes-within-a-theme. They can be useful after a few editing turns, any further work for giving structure to a particularly large is usually unnecessary refinement Á/ similar and complex theme, and also for demon- to rearranging the hundreds and thousands strating the hierarchy of meaning within the on an already nicely decorated cake. data. For instance, in one of Virginia’s At the end of this phase, you should have analyses of women’s talk about the vagina, a fairly good idea of what your different she identified two overarching themes in themes are, how they fit together, and the women’s talk: the vagina as liability, and the overall story they tell about the data. vagina as asset (Braun and Wilkinson, Phase 5: defining and naming themes 2003). Within each theme, three sub-themes Phase 5 begins when you have a satisfactory were identified: for liability the sub-themes were ‘nastiness and dirtiness’, ‘anxieties’ thematic map of your data Á/ see Figure 4 for the final refinements of Virginia’s thematic and ‘vulnerability’; for asset the sub-themes map. At this point, you then define and were ‘satisfaction’, ‘power’ and ‘pleasure’.

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 further refine the themes you will present However, these eventual final themes and for your analysis, and analyse the data sub-themes resulted from a process of re- within them. By ‘define and refine’, we finement of initial themes and sub-themes, mean identifying the ‘essence’ of what as shown in Figures 2Á/4. each theme is about (as well as the themes It is important that by the end of this phase overall), and determining what aspect of the you can clearly define what your themes are data each theme captures. It is important and what they are not. One test for this is to not to try and get a theme to do too much, or see whether you can describe the scope and to be too diverse and complex. You do this content of each theme in a couple of sen- by going back to collated data extracts for tences. If not, further refinement of that each theme, and organizing them into a theme may be needed. Although you will coherent and internally consistent account, already have given your themes working with accompanying narrative. It is vital that titles, this is also the point to start thinking Using thematic analysis in psychology 93

about the names you will give them in the study to study. As a first step, we recom- final analysis. Names need to be concise, mend looking at published examples of punchy, and immediately give the reader a thematic analysis, particularly of the speci- sense of what the theme is about. fic version you are planning to use (this is made somewhat more difficult in that the- Phase 6: producing the report matic analysis is often not a named method, Phase 6 begins when you have a set of fully but you can find examples, eg, Ellis and worked-out themes, and involves the final Kitzinger, 2002; Kitzinger and Willmott, analysis and write-up of the report. The 2002; Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004). In task of the write-up of a thematic anal- order to provide a sense of the sorts of ysis, whether it is for publication or for a questions you should be asking of your data, research assignment or dissertation, is to and the sorts of analytic claims you should tell the complicated story of your data in a be seeking to make, we will discuss a way which convinces the reader of the merit particularly good example of an inductive and validity of your analysis. It is important thematic analysis, which emphasizes un- that the analysis (the write-up of it, includ- derstanding men’s experiences in relation to ing data extracts) provides a concise, coher- the broader social context (see Frith and ent, logical, non-repetitive and interesting Gleeson, 2004). account of the story the data tell Á/ within Frith and Gleeson (2004) aim to ex- and across themes. Your write-up must plore how men’s feelings about their provide sufficient evidence of the themes bodies influence their clothing practices, within the data Á/ ie, enough data extracts to and they use data gathered in qualitative demonstrate the prevalence of the theme. questionnaires from 75 men to answer Choose particularly vivid examples, or ex- this question. They report four themes: tracts which capture the essence of the practicality of clothing choices; lack of point you are demonstrating, without un- necessary complexity. The extract should be concern about appearance; use of cloth- easily identifiable as an example of the ing to conceal or reveal the body; use of issue. However, your write-up needs to do clothing to fit cultural ideals. Each theme more than just provide data. Extracts need is clearly linked back to the overall to be embedded within an analytic narrative research question, but each is distinct. that compellingly illustrates the story you They provide a clear sense of the scope

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 are telling about your data, and your analy- and diversity of each theme, using a tic narrative needs to go beyond description combination of analyst narrative and of the data, and make an argument in illustrative data extracts. Where relevant, relation to your research question. they broaden their analysis out, moving from a descriptive to an interpretative level (often relating their claims to exist- ing literature). For example, in ‘men Pinning down what interpretative value practicality’, they make sense of analysis actually entails men’s accounts in relation to gender norms and stereotypes, linking the ac- It is difficult to specify exactly what inter- counts individual men provided to the

pretative analysis actually entails, particu- expectations that men Á/ as members of

larly as the specifics of it will vary from society Á/ face. What they do, as analysts, 94 V Braun and V Clarke

is relate the patterns of meaning in men’s does not require the same detailed theore- responses to an academic analysis of how tical and technical knowledge that ap- gender operates. In so doing, they de- proaches such as DA or CA do. It is monstrate the dual position that analysts relatively easy to conduct a good thematic need to take: as both cultural members analysis on qualitative data, even when you and cultural commentators. Their ‘discus- are still learning qualitative techniques. sion’ section makes broader analytic However, there are a number of things that statements about the overall story that can result in a poor analysis. In this section the themes tell us about men’s relation- we identify these potential pitfalls, in the ship with clothing. This story reveals hope that they can be avoided. that men ‘deliberately and strategically The first of these is a failure to actually use clothing to manipulate their appear- analyse the data at all! Thematic analysis is ance to meet cultural ideals of masculi- not just a collection of extracts strung nity’ (Frith and Gleeson, 2004: 45), in a together with little or no analytic narrative. way more traditionally associated with Nor is it a selection of extracts with analytic women. This analysis makes an impor- comment that simply or primarily para- tant contribution in that it challenges phrases their content. The extracts in the- perceived wisdom about clothing/appear- matic analysis are illustrative of the analytic ance and masculinity. points the researcher makes about the data, As this example demonstrates, your ana- and should be used to illustrate/support an lytic claims need to be grounded in, but go analysis that goes beyond their specific beyond, the ‘surface’ of the data, even for a content, to make sense of the data, and tell ‘semantic’ level analysis. The sort of ques- the reader what it does or might mean Á/ as tions you need to be asking, towards the end discussed above. A second, associated pit- phases of your analysis, include: ‘What does fall is the using of the data collection this theme mean?’ ‘What are the assump- questions (such as from an interview sche- tions underpinning it?’ ‘What are the im- dule) as the ‘themes’ that are reported. In plications of this theme?’ ‘What conditions such a case, no analytic work has been are likely to have given rise to it?’ ‘Why carried out to identify themes across the do people talk about this thing in this entire data set, or make sense of the pattern- particular way (as opposed to other ing of responses. ways)?’ and ‘What is the overall story the The third is a weak or unconvincing Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 different themes reveal about the topic?’. analysis, where the themes do not appear These sorts of questions should guide the to work, where there is too much overlap analysis once you have a clear sense of your between themes, or where the themes are thematic map. not internally coherent and consistent. All aspects of the theme should cohere around a central idea or concept. This pitfall has Potential pitfalls to avoid when doing occurred if, depending on what the analysis thematic analysis is trying to do, it fails adequately to capture the majority of the data, or fails to provide a Thematic analysis is a relatively straight- rich description/interpretation of one or forward form of qualitative analysis, which more aspects of the data. A weak or un- Using thematic analysis in psychology 95

convincing analysis can also stem from a The fifth involves a mismatch between failure to provide adequate examples from theory and analytic claims, or between the

the data Á/ for example, only one or two research questions and the form of thematic extracts for a theme. This point is essen- analysis used. A good thematic analysis tially about the rhetorics of presentation, needs to make sure that the interpretations and the need for the analysis to be convin- of the data are consistent with the theoretical cing to someone who has not read the entire framework. So, for instance, if you are work- data set: ‘The ‘‘analysis’’ of the material...is ing within an experiential framework, you a deliberate and self-consciously artful crea- would typically not make claims about the tion by the researcher, and must be con- social construction of the research topic, and structed to persuade the reader of the if you were doing constructionist thematic analysis, you would not treat people’s talk plausibility of an argument’ (Foster and of experience as a transparent window on Parker, 1995: 204). In so doing, one avoids their world. Finally, even a good and inter- (the appearance of) what Bryman (1988) has esting analysis which fails to spell out referred to as ‘anecdotalism’ in qualitative its theoretical assumptions, or clarify how it research Á/ where one or a few instances of a was undertaken, and for what purpose, is phenomenon are reified into a pattern or lacking crucial information (Holloway and theme, when it or they are actually idiosyn- Todres, 2003), and thus fails in one aspect. cratic. This is not to say that a few instances cannot be of interest, or revealing; but it is important not to misrepresent them as an overarching theme. What makes good thematic analysis? The fourth pitfall is a mismatch between the data and the analytic claims that are One of the criticisms of qualitative research made about it. In such an (unfounded) from those outside the field is the percep- analysis, the claims cannot be supported tion that ‘anything goes’. For instance, this by the data, or, in the worst case, the data sentiment is echoed in the first sentence of extracts presented suggest another analysis Laubschagne’s (2003) abstract: ‘For many or even contradict the claims. The re- scientists used to doing quantitative studies searcher needs to make sure that their the whole concept of qualitative research is interpretations and analytic points are con- unclear, almost foreign, or ‘‘airy fairy’’ Á/ not

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 ‘‘real’’ research.’ However, although ‘quali- sistent with the data extracts. A weak tative’ research cannot be subjected to the analysis does not appear to consider other same criteria as ‘quantitative’ approaches, it obvious alternative readings of the data, or does provide methods of analysis that fails to consider variation (and even contra- should be applied rigorously to the data. diction) in the account that is produced. A Furthermore, criteria for conducting good pattern in data is rarely, if ever, going to be qualitative research Á/ both data collection 100% complete and non-contradicted, so an and analysis Á/ do exist (eg, Elliott et al., analysis which suggests that it is, without a 1999; Parker, 2004; Seale, 1999; Silverman, thorough explanation, is open to suspicion. 2000; Yardley, 2000). The British Psycholo- It is important to pick compelling examples gical Society offers relatively succinct on- to demonstrate the themes, so give this line guidelines for assessing quality in qua- considerable thought. litative research (see http://www.bps.org. 96 V Braun and V Clarke

uk/publications/journals/joop/qualitative- whose assumptions are congruent with the guidelines.cfm). ‘Criteria’ for assessing qua- way one conceptualizes the subject matter’ litative research is a not uncontroversial (Reicher and Taylor, 2005: 549). A concise topic, with concerns raised about rigid checklist of criteria to consider when deter- criteria limiting freedom and stifling meth- mining whether you have generated a good odological development (Elliott et al., 1999; thematic analysis is provided in Table 2. Parker, 2004; Reicher, 2000). Reicher (2000) takes the critique further, by asking whether the incredibly diverse range of qualitative So what does thematic analysis offer approaches can and should be subject to psychologists? the same criteria. Bracketing these critiques off, the issues We now end this paper with some brief raised in many general qualitative research comments on the advantages and disadvan- assessment criteria can be more or less tages of thematic analysis. As we have applied to thematic forms of analysis. As shown throughout this paper, thematic ana- thematic analysis is a flexible method, you lysis is not a complex method. Indeed, as also need to be clear and explicit about what you can see from Table 3, its advantages are you are doing, and what you say you are many. However, it is not without some doing needs to match up with what you disadvantages, which we will now briefly actually do. In this sense, the theory and consider. Many of the disadvantages de- method need to be applied rigorously, and pend more on poorly conducted analyses ‘rigour lies in devising a systematic method or inappropriate research questions than on

Table 2 A 15-point checklist of criteria for good thematic analysis

Process No. Criteria

Transcription 1 The data have been transcribed to an appropriate level of detail, and the transcripts have been checked against the tapes for ‘accuracy’. Coding 2 Each data item has been given equal attention in the coding process. 3 Themes have not been generated from a few vivid examples (an anecdotal approach), but instead the coding process has been thorough, inclusive and comprehensive. 4 All relevant extracts for all each theme have been collated. 5 Themes have been checked against each other and back to the original data set. Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 6 Themes are internally coherent, consistent, and distinctive. Analysis 7 Data have been analysed Á/ interpreted, made sense of Á/ rather than just paraphrased or described. 8 Analysis and data match each other Á/ the extracts illustrate the analytic claims. 9 Analysis tells a convincing and well-organized story about the data and topic. 10 A good balance between analytic narrative and illustrative extracts is provided. Overall 11 Enough time has been allocated to complete all phases of the analysis adequately, without rushing a phase or giving it a once-over-lightly. Written report 12 The assumptions about, and specific approach to, thematic analysis are clearly explicated. 13 There is a good fit between what you claim you do, and what you show you have done Á/ ie, described method and reported analysis are consistent. 14 The language and concepts used in the report are consistent with the epistemological position of the analysis. 15 The researcher is positioned as active in the research process; themes do not just ‘emerge’. Using thematic analysis in psychology 97

Table 3 Advantages of thematic analysis allow the researcher to make claims about language use, or the fine-grained function- Flexibility. Relatively easy and quick method to learn, and do. ality of talk. Accessible to researchers with little or no experience of Finally, it is worth noting that thematic qualitative research. analysis currently has no particular kudos Results are generally accessible to educated general public. as an analytic method Á/ this, we argue, Useful method for working within participatory re- stems from the very fact that it is poorly search paradigm, with participants as collaborators. demarcated and claimed, yet widely used. Can usefully summarize key features of a large body of data, and/or offer a ‘thick description’ of the data set. This means that thematic analysis is fre- Can highlight similarities and differences across the quently, or appears to be, what is simply data set. carried out by someone without the knowl- Can generate unanticipated insights. Allows for social as well as psychological interpreta- edge or skills to perform a supposedly more tions of data. sophisticated Á/ certainly more kudos-bear-

Can be useful for producing qualitative analyses suited ing Á/ ‘branded’ form of analysis like to informing policy development. grounded theory, IPA or DA. We hope this paper will change this view as, we argue, a rigorous thematic approach can produce an the method itself. Further, the flexibility of insightful analysis that answers particular research questions. What is important is the method Á/ which allows for a wide range choosing a method that is appropriate to of analytic options Á/ means that the poten- tial range of things that can be said about your research question, rather than falling victim to ‘methodolatry’, where you are your data is broad. While this is an advan- committed to method rather than topic/ tage, it can also be a disadvantage in that it content or research questions (Holloway makes developing specific guidelines for and Todres, 2003). Indeed, your method of higher-phase analysis difficult, and can be analysis should be driven by both your potentially paralysing to the researcher try- research question and your broader theore- ing to decide what aspects of their data to tical assumptions. As we have demon- focus on. Another issue to consider is that a strated, thematic analysis is a flexible thematic analysis has limited interpretative approach that can be used across a range power beyond mere description if it is not of epistemologies and research questions. used within an existing theoretical frame-

Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 work that anchors the analytic claims that Notes are made. Other disadvantages appear when the- 1. Boyatzis (1998) provides a much more matic analysis is considered in relation to detailed account of thematic analysis. However, some of the other qualitative analytic meth- we do not feel that it is a particularly accessible ods. For instance, unlike narrative or other account for those unfamiliar with qualitative biographical approaches, you are unable to approaches. Moreover, his approach differs retain a sense of continuity and contradic- from ours in that, although he acknowledges the subjective dimension of qualitative analysis, tion through any one individual account, his approach is ultimately, if often implicitly, and these contradictions and consistencies located within a positivist empiricist paradigm. across individual accounts may be reveal- 2. Dey’s (1993) account of on ‘qualitative data ing. In contrast to methods similar to DA analysis’, which aims to identify shared techni- and CA, a simple thematic analysis does not ques across the diverse range of qualitative 98 V Braun and V Clarke

methods, and demonstrate how to do ‘qualitative 6. The definition by Boyatzis (1998) of latent analysis’, reinforces this point in that his focus is and manifest is somewhat narrower than our

largely thematic Á/ but not claimed as such. identification of latent and semantic, and he

3. Some authors, such as Potter (1997: 147Á/ identifies thematic analysis as incorporating 48) argue that one should not simply provide both latent and manifest aspects. However, this ‘recipes’ for qualitative methods, such as DA, results from the fact that he associates the because ‘a large part of doing discourse analysis process of interpretation with latent analysis Á/ is a craft skill, more like bike riding or sexing a whereas we would argue that it should also be an chicken than following the recipe for a mild important element of a semantic approach. chicken rogan josh... This makes it hard to 7. We are assuming that you will be working describe and learn’. While we do not disagree with a ‘good quality’ data corpus and data set. We would argue that ‘good data’ are defined by a that the skills needed for qualitative analyses of particular set of criteria regarding what, why, all types need to be learned, others, such as and how they were collected, and offer rich, McLeod (2001), argue that by not discussing the detailed and complex accounts of the topic. ‘how to’ of analysis, we keep certain methods Good data do not just provide a surface over- mysterious (and thus elitist). Instead, if we want view of the topic of interest, or simply reiterate a to make methods democratic and accessible Á/ commonsense account. The challenge for the and indeed, to make qualitative research of all novice researcher is to interact with research forms more understandable to those not trained participants in such a way that they generate in the methods, and arguably thus more popular rich and complex insights. Producing a good Á/ we need to provide concrete advice on how to analysis of poor quality data is a far more actually do it. We are not questioning the demanding task for the analyst, although it can importance of ‘non-recipe’ forms of training, potentially be performed by a skilled and ex- but while ‘recipes’ necessarily diminish the perienced analyst. complexity of certain methods, they are impor- 8. See Poland (2002) for a discussion of the tant for making methods accessible. problems with the idea of a ‘verbatim’ transcript, 4. Foster and Parker (1995) suggest one and what is left out, and retained, through this way to acknowledge the creative and active role process. of the analyst is to use the first person when 9. What we mean by thematic map is similar writing. to, but less detailed than, the ‘codebook’ Ryan 5. Content analysis is another method that and Bernard (2000) refer to, which involves a can be used to identify patterns across qualitative detailed account of the hierarchical relationship data, and is sometimes treated as similar to between codes, as well as a description of each, thematic approaches (eg, Wilkinson, 2000). How- their criteria, exemplars and counter Á/ examples, Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 ever, content analysis tends to focus at a more and other such details. Like Boyatzis’s (1998) account of a thematic code, this model is then micro level, often provides (frequency) counts applied to (and revised in relation to) the data. (Wilkinson, 2000), and allows for quantitative See Figures 2Á/4 for visual representations of a analyses of initially qualitative data (Ryan and thematic maps and its refinement. Another ex- Bernard, 2000). Thematic analysis differs from ample of a thematic map Á/ this time in table this in that themes tend not to be quantified form Á/ can be found in Frith and Gleeson (2004). (although sometimes they may be; and Boyatzis (1998) suggests thematic analysis can be used to transform qualitative data into a quantitative References form, and subject them to statistical analyses; and the unit of analysis tends to be more than a Antaki, C., Billig, M., Edwards, D. and Potter, J. word or phrase, which it typically is in content 2002: Discourse analysis means doing ana- analysis. lysis: a critique of six analytic shortcomings. Using thematic analysis in psychology 99

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About the authors VIRGINIA BRAUN is a senior lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Auckland, where she teaches, supervises and conducts qualitative research. Her Downloaded by [Yale University Library] at 08:56 02 May 2013 research interests are primarily focused around women’s health, gendered bodies, and sex and sexuality, and the intersections between these areas. She is currently working on projects related to ‘sex in long-term relationships’, ‘female genital cosmetic surgery’ and ‘the social context of STI transmission’. VICTORIA CLARKE is a senior lecture in social psychology at the University of the West of England. She has published a number of papers on lesbian and gay parenting, and co-edited two special issues of Feminism and Psychology on Marriage (with Sara-Jane Finlay and Sue Wilkinson). She is currently conducting ESRC-funded research on same- sex relationships (with Carol Burgoyne and Maree Burns) and co-editing (with Elizabeth Peel) a book on LGBTQ psychology (Out in psychology, Wiley).

Resources for thematic analysis

Wondering where to get started on your reading, or unsure of how to tell if something’s a good or a poor example of thematic analysis? We have developed an extensive reading list, organised into sections, to help guide you through the diversity of approaches and practices around TA. We have organised our resources into sections – and for some readings, we provide a succinct summary of what it offers. This reading list is intended as a starting- rather than end-point! We also encourage you to visit our page of resources showcasing a range of resources related to qualitative research thinking and practice that we particularly like and find useful . And to visit our page of talks related to TA , from ourselves, and others.

Check out Victoria’s YouTube – there is a wide range of TA and other qualitative talks hosted there.

Follow Victoria on Twitter for super informative qualitative research related tweets and threads.

Check out Ginny’s YouTube – there is a wide range of TA and other qualitative talks hosted there.

Follow Ginny on Twitter for great retweets of Victoria’s tweets (and a bit more).

Practical guidance and commentary on Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach to TA, written by us and various collaborators

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide . Sage.

• The most comprehensive guide to and discussion of our approach to date! Supplemented by an extensive open-access companion website, including an additional online-only chapter Teaching, Supervising and Examining for Quality TA .

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Is thematic analysis used well in health psychology? A critical review of published research, with recommendations for quality practice and reporting . Health Psychology Review.

• By reviewing the use of (reflexive) TA within the discipline of Health Psychology, we highlight common problems in the use of TA, noting best practice alternatives and suggesting strategies for making published TA research more methodologically coherent.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Thematic analysis. In N. Denzin, Y. Lincoln, G. Cannella & M. Giardina (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (6th ed.). Sage.

• This chapter combines both ‘how to’ advice with more critical and reflexive commentary. The ‘how to’ is a more personal reflexive account that most of what we write, using a story completion dataset about childfree couples.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Thematic analysis. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (2nd ed., pp1-7). Springer.

• A brief guide to understanding and doing TA, with a particular focus on TA as an applied research method.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Toward good practice in thematic analysis: Avoiding common problems and be(com)ing a knowing researcher . International Journal of Transgender Health , 24 (1), 1-6.

• This open-access editorial review offers a focus on quality by identifying common challenges and issues, specifically in relation to published transgender health resaerch, but with wider applicability.

Joy, E., Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2023). Doing reflexive thematic analysis: A reflexive account. In F. Meyer & K. Meissel (Eds.), R esearch Methods in Education, Social Work, and Counselling (pp. 155-171). New Zealand Council for Educational Research Press.

• This chapter offers useful reflexive insights into the TA process, alongside more practical guidance, from a doctoral student using reflexive TA in their research in Social Work in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Conceptual and design thinking for thematic analysis . Qualitative Psychology, 9(1) , 3–26.

• A paper written to support researchers with the conceptual and design thinking that is necessary to undertake a coherent TA study. This paper maps out the key conceptual differences between the various branches of the TA family tree, and outlines the conceptual underpinnings, assumptions and values of reflexive TA. It provides guidance on designing a coherent TA study, and ends with a discussion of reporting standards for reflexive TA.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., & Hayfield, N. (2022). “A starting point for your journey, not a map”: Nikki Hayfield in conversation with Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke about thematic analysis . Qualitative Research in Psychology, 19(2) , 424-445

• In this interview with frequent TA collaborator Nikki Hayfield we reflect on the context for writing our original 2006 paper, how TA, and our understanding of TA, has evolved since then, common myths and misconceptions of TA, the importance of interpretation and our key messages for editors and reviewers.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., Hayfield, N., Davey, L., & Jenkinson, E. (2022). Doing reflexive thematic analysis. In S. Bager-Charleson & A. McBeath (Eds.), Supporting Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research (pp. 19-38) . Springer International Publishing.

• This chapter presents the essentials of conceptualising, designing and doing reflexive Thematic Analysis, with specific reference to Counselling and Psychotherapy.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern‐based qualitative analytic approaches . Counselling and Psychotherapy Research , 21 (1), 37-47.

• This paper helps researchers determine whether they should use reflexive TA, another type of TA, or another pattern-based method – qualitative content analysis, IPA, grounded theory, or discourse analysis – for their research. We discuss key differences and similarities in the conceptualisation and procedures of TA and these other method/ologies.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psychology , 18 (3), 328-352 .

• This paper considers quality in TA through identifying and discussing 10 common problems in published TA research. The paper also introduces our tool for editors and reviewers evaluating TA manuscripts for publication.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis. In E. Lyons, A. Coyle & C. Walton (Eds.), Analysing Qualitative Data in Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 128-147). Sage.

• A revised and updated general introduction to TA including a worked example of coding and theme development using qualitative survey data from the study of gay men’s sense-making around their clothing and appearance practices.

Terry, G., Braun, V., Jayamaha, S., & Madden, H. (2021). Report 1: Choice, awareness, complicity and resistance in younger women’s accounts of body hair removal : A reflective account of a thematic analysis study. In E. Lyons & A. Coyle, (Eds.), Analysing Qualitative Data in Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 365-379). Sage.

• A condensed version of a paper originally published in Feminism & Psychology (2017) with reflective commentary written by the first author addressing various aspects of the research process and the written report.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis. In J.-F. Morin, C. Olsson & E. O. Atikcan (Eds .), Research Methods in Social Sciences: An A-Z of Key Concepts (pp. 283-288). Open University Press.

• A short definition and discussion of the TA family of methods and a brief introduction to concepts and processes of reflexive TA for social scientists.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). To saturate or not to saturate? Questioning data saturation as a useful concept for thematic analysis and sample-size rationales . Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health , 13 (2), 201-216 .

• This paper explains why saturation – conceptualised as information redundancy – is not a useful or coherent concept for determining the size of datasets/participant groups, and when to stop data collection, in reflexive TA. We focus in particular on a number of papers that have sought to determine ‘how many’ interviews or focus groups are necessary to achieve saturation – variously conceptualised as data, code, theme and meaning saturation – in TA research. We highlight numerous problems with these how many ‘experiments’ and argue that because they use coding reliability and codebook types of TA, they make assumptions about TA and qualitative research which means their claims about saturation do not translate to reflexive TA.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis . Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health , 11 (4), 589-597.

• In this paper we reflect on some of the assumptions we made when we first articulated our approach to TA and discuss our reasons for now demarcating our approach as reflexive TA.

Lainson, K., Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Being both narrative practitioner and academic researcher: A reflection on what thematic analysis has to offer narratively informed research . International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work , 4 , 86-98.

• In an interview with narrative practitioner and researcher Kristina Lainson, we reflect on the thinking, heritages and intentions that underpinned the development of our approach to TA. Kristina shares her journey from being a practitioner to a practitioner-researcher and the role TA played in that. The paper ends with a discussion of key points of congruence between TA and narrative practice principles.

Clarke, V., Braun, V., Terry, G., & Hayfield N. (2019). Thematic analysis . In Liamputtong, P. (Ed.), Handbook of Research Methods in Health and Social Sciences (pp. 843-860). Springer.

• This chapter discusses the differences between the three main types of TA (coding reliability, codebook and reflexive), and the different conceptualisations of a theme in TA (topic/domain summary versus pattern of shared meaning underpinned by a central concept), as well as practical guidance on implementing our approach.

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2018). Using thematic analysis in counselling and psychotherapy research: A critical reflection . Counselling and Psychotherapy Research Journal , 18 (2), 107-110 .

• A commentary on the use of our approach in counselling and psychotherapy research including a discussion of common problems in published research.

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Commentary: Thematic analysis . Journal of Positive Psychology , 12 (3), 297-298 .

• A very brief introduction to TA for researchers in the field of positive psychology.

Terry, G., Hayfield, N., Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. In C. Willig & W. Stainton-Rogers (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 17-37). Sage.

• A general introduction to TA that includes a discussion of the history and development of TA and maps the terrain of TA (as we see it), also includes a detailed worked example using interview data from a study of women’s experiences of being childfree

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2016). (Mis)conceptualising themes, thematic analysis, and other problems with Fugard and Potts’ (2015) sample-size tool for thematic analysis . International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 19 (6), 739-743.

• A commentary on Fugard and Potts’ (2015) paper proposing a power analysis tool for determining ‘sample’ size in TA research. We identify various problematic assumptions underpinning this tool, and Fugard and Potts’ conceptualisation of TA and themes, and explain why the tool is not appropriate for use in our reflexive approach to TA.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., & Weate, P. (2016). Using thematic analysis in sport and exercise research. In B. Smith & A. C. Sparkes (Eds.), International handbook on qualitative research in sport and exercise (pp. 191-218). Routledge.

• This chapter discusses the use of TA in the context of sport and exercise research and provides a worked example of coding and theme development using focus group data from a broadly experiential study of women’s perspectives on, and experiences of, exercise.

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2016). Thematic analysis. In E. Lyons & A. Coyle, (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data in psychology (2nd ed., pp. 84-103). Sage.

• A general introduction to TA including a worked example of coding and theme development using qualitative survey data from the study of gay men’s sense-making around their clothing and appearance practices.

Huxley, C., Clarke, V., & Halliwell, E. (2016). Report 2: Are lesbian and bisexual women ‘protected’ from sociocultural pressure to be thin? A reflective account of a thematic analysis study. In E. Lyons & A. Coyle, (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data in psychology (2nd ed., pp. 306-321). Sage.

• A condensed version of a paper originally published in the Journal of Health Psychology (2014) with reflective commentary written by the first author addressing various aspects of the research process and the written report.

Clarke, V., Braun, V., & Hayfield, N. (2015). Thematic analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (3rd ed.) (pp. 222-248). Sage.

• A general introduction to TA including a worked example of coding and theme development using qualitative interview data from a study of bisexual women’s visual identities.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2014). Guest editorial: What can ‘thematic analysis’ offer health and well-being researchers? International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being , 9 , 26152.

• A very brief introduction to TA for researchers in the field of health and well-being research.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., & Rance, N. (2014). How to use thematic analysis with interview data. In Vossler, A. & Moller, N. (Eds.), The counselling and psychotherapy research handbook (pp. 183-197). Sage.

• An introduction to TA for researchers in the field of counselling and psychotherapy research, with a worked example of a TA of interview data from a study of lived experiences of treatment/therapy for anorexia.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., & Terry, G. (2014). Thematic analysis. In P. Rohleder & A. Lyons (Eds.), Qualitative research in clinical and health psychology (pp. 95-113) . Palgrave MacMillan.

• An introduction to TA for researchers in clinical and health psychology, and featuring worked examples of coding and theme development from an interview study of sexual health professionals’ views on impediments to sexual health in Aotearoa/New Zealand.

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In T. Teo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1947-1952). Springer.

• A brief discussion of TA for critical psychologists, including a consideration of the potential of TA as a method for critical psychology.

Clarke, V. & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 6626-6628). Springer.

• A very brief introduction to TA for quality of life and well-being research.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners . Sage.

• Our qualitative textbook, which includes our most detailed account of TA (outside our new book ), including a worked example of TA using a focus group discussion on the ‘so-called’ obesity crisis. The companion website includes various data sets that can be used in teaching TA.

Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2013). Teaching thematic analysis: Overcoming challenges and developing strategies for effective learning. The Psychologist , 26 (2), 120-123.

• A paper that considers some of the challenges of teaching TA to psychology undergraduates and outlines some strategies for maximising the often-limited curriculum time dedicated to the teaching of qualitative methods in psychology.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57-71). American Psychological Association.

• A general introduction to TA, including a detailed worked example using interview data from a study exploring gay student’s experiences of university life.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3 (2), 77-101.

• The original paper in which we outlined our approach to TA; reprinted in: B. Gough (Ed.), (2014). Qualitative research in psychology . Sage.

Practical guidance on Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach, written by Nikki Hayfield & Gareth Terry

Terry, G., & Hayfield, N. (2021). Essentials of thematic analysis . American Psychological Association.

• An introductory text to reflexive TA, illustrated with worked examples from a number of qualitative projects with different kinds of data sources (interviews, qualitative surveys, story completion ).

Terry, G., & Hayfield, N. (2020). Reflexive thematic analysis. In M. Ward & S. Delamont (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research in education (2nd ed., pp. 428-439) . Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.

• A general introduction to TA that explores some of the differences between reflexive TA and other theming methods (content analysis, other forms of TA). Includes a worked example using data from a LGBTQ+ student experience project conducted at UWE.

Terry, G. (2021). Doing thematic analysis. In E. Lyons & A. Coyle (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data in psychology (3rd ed., pp. 148-161). Sage.

• A revised and updated chapter-length worked example of TA using the interview accounts of two men who had transitioned from the army to civilian life.

Terry, G. (2016). Doing thematic analysis. In E. Lyons & A. Coyle, (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data in psychology (2nd ed., pp. 104-118). Sage.

• A chapter-length worked example of TA using the interview accounts of two men who had transitioned from the army to civilian life.

Practical guidance on Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach, written by other authors

Herzog, C., Handke, C., & Hitters, E. (2019). Thematic analysis of policy data . In H. Van den Bulck, M. Puppis, K. Donders & L. Van Audenhove (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of methods for media policy research . Palgrave Macmillan.

Howitt, D. (2012). Introduction to qualitative methods in psychology (3rd ed.). (Chapter 7: Thematic analysis). Pearson Education.

Howitt, D. & Cramer, D. (2007). Research methods in psychology (5th ed.). (Chapter 21: Thematic analysis). Pearson Education.

Kiger, M. E., & Varpio, L. (2020). Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131 . Medical Teacher , 42 (8), 846-854.

Stainton Rogers, W. (2011). Social psychology (2nd ed.) (Chapter 5: Qualitative research in social psychology). Open University Press.

Whittaker, A. (2009). Research skills for social work (Chapter 7: Analysing your data). Learning Matters.

Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology (3rd ed.). (Chapter 6: Thematic analysis). Open University Press.

Practical guidance on Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach – forthcoming publications written by us and various collaborators

Braun V., & Clarke, V. (in press). Approaches to thematic analysis: Becoming a knowing researcher . In E. Rees, A. Ledger & K. Walker (Eds.), Starting Research in Clinical Education . Wiley.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (in press). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.

Braun, V., Clarke, V & Hayfield, N. (in press). Thematic Analysis: A reflexive approach. In J. A Smith (Ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods (4 th ed). Sage.

Braun, V., Clarke, V., Terry, G., & Wheeler, L. (in press). Thematic Analysis. In K. Brown, M. Hagger, C. Cheng, K. Hamilton, & S. Sutton (Eds.), Thn SAGE Handbook of Health Psychology (2nd ed). Sage.

Papers oriented to quality practice in (reflexive) TA

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(3), 328-352.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Toward good practice in thematic analysis: Avoiding common problems and be(com)ing a knowing researcher . International Journal of Transgender Health, 1-6. ONLINE FIRST

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (accepted, in press). Is thematic analysis used well in health psychology? A critical review of published research, with recommendations for quality practice and reporting. Health Psychology Review.

Useful papers on (reflexive) thematic analysis by other authors

Connelly, L. M. & Peltzer, J. N. (2016). Underdeveloped themes in qualitative research: Relationships with interviews and analysis . Clinical Nurse Specialist , January/February, 51-57.

• We highly recommend this paper – the discussion of the limitations of ‘domain summaries’ compared to fully realised themes is particularly useful.

DeSantis, L. & Ugarriza, D. N. (2000). The concept of theme as used in qualitative nursing research . Western Journal of Nursing Research , 22 (3), 351-372.

• A useful definition of the concept of the ‘theme’; helpful if you are struggling to make sense of the difference between topic/domain summaries and fully realised themes.

Finlay, L. (2021). Thematic Analysis: The ‘Good’, the ‘Bad’ and the ‘Ugly’. European Journal for Qualitative Research in Psychotherapy, 11 , 103-116.

• Linda Finlay makes a differentiation between ‘scientifically descriptive’ and ‘artfully interpretative’ approaches to thematic analysis, which we find perfectly captures both the processes and purposes between the more ‘small q’ and ‘Big Q’ modes of TA researching.

Ho, K. H., Chiang, V. C., & Leung, D. (2017). Hermeneutic phenomenological analysis: The “ possibility ” beyond “ actuality ” in thematic analysis . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 73 (7), 1757 – 1766.

• A wonderful, reflexive account of the first author’s deep and prolonged engagement with their data from a study of foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong, and questioning of their taken-for-granted assumptions, to produce and rich and complex analysis that moved beyond the surface meanings of the data.

Morse, J. M. (1997). “Perfectly healthy, but dead”: The myth of inter-rater reliability . Qualitative Health Research , 7 (4), 445-447.

• A brief discussion of some of the problems with the use of inter-coder/rater reliability in qualitative analysis.

Sandleowski, M. & Leeman, J. (2012). Writing usable qualitative health research findings . Qualitative Health Research , 22 (10), 1404-1413.

• A useful discussion of the limitations of topic/domain summaries and the importance of developing fully realised themes in order to produce ‘actionable outcomes’ in applied research.

Trainor, L. R., & Bundon, A. (2021). Developing the craft: Reflexive accounts of doing reflexive thematic analysis . Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(5) , 705-726.

• This offers a wonderful reflexive account of the first author’s process of doing, and learning to do, reflexive TA. You can also watch a useful YouTube presentation from Lisa on this topic.

Resources on thematic analysis in languages other than English

This Prezi presentation offers a general introduction to Braun and Clarke’s approach to TA in German .

There are Marathi and Hindi translations of our textbook Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners .

Safal Gunaatmak Anusandhaan: Naye shodhkartaon ke liye vyaavharik Margdarshan (Hindi Translation of Successful Qualitative Research , 2018)

Yashasvi Gunatmak Sanshodhan: Navshikya Vidyarthyansathi Vyavharik Margdarshan (Marathi, 2017)

Our original 2006 paper has been translated into Turkish and translated/adapted into Brazilian Portuguese .

Other approaches to thematic analysis

Approaches to ta that advocate the use of coding frames and inter-coder reliability scores (‘small q’ or ‘coding reliability’ ta).

Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development . Sage.

Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis . Sage.

Joffe, H. (2011). Thematic analysis. In D. Harper & A. R. Thompson (Eds), Qualitative methods in mental health and psychotherapy: A guide for students and practitioners (pp. 209-223). Wiley.

Joffe, H., & Yardley, L. (2004). Content and thematic analysis. In D. F. Marks & L. Yardley (Eds), Research methods for clinical and health psychology (pp. 56-68). Sage.

O ’ Connor, C., & Joffe, H. (2020). Intercoder reliability in qualitative research: Debates and practical guidelines . International Journal of Qualitative Methods . Advance online publication.

Approaches to TA based on the use of a codebook or coding frame

Template analysis

Nigel King’s Template Analysis website .

Brooks, J., McCluskey, S., Turley, E., & King, N. (2015). The utility of template analysis in qualitative psychology research . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 12 (2), 202-222.

King, N. (2012). Doing template analysis . In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative organisation research: Core methods and current challenges (pp. 426-450). Sage.

King, N. (2008). What will hatch? A constructivist autobiographical account of writing poetry . Journal of Constructivist Psychology , 21 , 274-287.

King, N. (2004). Using templates in the qualitative analysis of text . In G. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.), Essential guide to qualitative methods in organisational research (pp. 256-270). Sage.

King, N. (1998). Template analysis. In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative methods and analysis in organizational research (pp. 118-134). London: Sage.

King, N., & Brooks, J. M. (2017). Template analysis for business and management students . Sage.

King, N., & Brooks, J. (2017). Thematic analysis in organisational research . In C. Cassell, A. L. Cunliffe & G. Grandy (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative business and management research methods (pp. 219-236). Sage.

Framework analysis

Gale, N. K., Heath, G., Cameron, E., Rashid, S., & Redwood, S. (2013). Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research . BMC Medical Research Methodology , 13 , 117.

Leal, I., Engebretson, J., Cohen, L., Rodriguez, A., Wangyai, T., Lopez, G., & Chaoul, A. (2015). Experiences of paradox: A qualitative analysis of living with cancer using a framework approach . Psycho-Oncology , 24 , 138-146.

Parkinson, S., Eatough, V., Holes, J., Stapley, E., & Midgley, N. (2016). Framework analysis: A worked example of a study exploring young people’s experiences of depression . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 13 (2), 109-129.

Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Ormston, R., O’Connor, W., & Barnard, M. (2013). Analysis: Principles and Processes. In Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C. M., & Ormston, R. (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers   (pp. 269-294). Sage.

Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., O’Connor, W., Morrell, G., & Ormston, R., (2013). Analysis in Practice. In Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C. M., & Ormston, R. (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers   (pp. 295-346). Sage.

Smith, J., & Firth, J. (2011). Qualitative data analysis: Application of the framework approach . Nurse Researcher , 18 (2), 52-62.

Srivastava, A., & Thomson, S. B. (2009). Framework analysis: A qualitative methodology for applied policy research. Journal of Administration & Governance , 4 , 72-79.

Swallow, V. Newton, J., & Van Lottum, C. (2003). How to manage and display qualitative data using ‘framework’ and Microsoft Excel . Journal of Clinical Nursing , 12 , 610-612.

Ward, D. J., Furber, C., Tierney, S., & Swallow, V. (2013). Using framework analysis in nursing research: A worked example . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 69 (11), 2423-2431.

Other codebook approaches

Cassell, C., & Nadin, S. (2004). Using data matrices. In C. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.), Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research (pp. 271 – 287). Sage.

Crabtree, B. F., & Miller, W. L. (1999). Using codes and code manuals: A template organizing style of interpretation. In B. F. Crabtree & W. L. Miller (Eds.), Doing qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 163 – 178). Sage.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994 ). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage.

Pope, C., Ziebland, S., & Mays, N. (2007). Analysing qualitative data . In C. Pope & N. Mays (Eds.), Qualitative research in health care (pp. 63-81). Blackwell.

Other approaches to TA

Aguinaldo, J.P. (2012). Qualitative analysis in gay men’s health research: Comparing thematic, critical discourse, and conversation analysis . Journal of Homosexuality , 59 (6), 765-787.

Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis . The Qualitative Report , 2 (1).

Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative research . Qualitative Research, 1 (3), 385-405.

Ayres, L. (2008). Thematic coding and analysis. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 876 – 868). Sage.

Barbour, R. (2008). Introducing qualitative research: A student guide to the craft of doing qualitative research (Chapter 9: Analysis groundwork – storing, coding and retrieving data and Chapter 10: Interrogating your data – identifying patterns). Sage.

Barbour, R. (2013). Introducing qualitative research: A student guide to the craft of doing qualitative research (2nd ed.) (Chapter 11: Analysis: Processing, coding, and interrogating data). Sage.

Buetow, S. (2010). Thematic analysis and its reconceptualization as ‘saliency analysis ’. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 15 (2), 123-225.

Crowe, M., Inder, M., & Porter, R. (2015). Conducting qualitative research in mental health: Thematic and content analyses . Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 49 (7), 616 – 623.

Daly, J. Kellehear, A. & Gliksman, M. (1997). The public health researcher: A methodological guide (Chapter 9: Secondary analysis). Oxford University Press.

Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development . International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5 (1), 1-11.

Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research (6th ed.) (Chapter 26: Thematic coding and content analysis). Sage.

Flick, U. (2014). An introduction to qualitative research (5th ed.). Sage.

Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research (4th ed.) (Chapter 23: Coding and categorising). Sage.

Floersch, J., Longhofer, J. L., Kranke, D., & Townsend, L. (2010). Integrating thematic, grounded theory and narrative analysis: A case study of adolescent psychotropic treatment . Qualitative Social Work , 9 (3), 407-425.

Freeman, L., & Sullivan, C. (2018). Thematic analysis. In Sullivan, C. & Forrester, M. A. (Eds.), Doing qualitative research in psychology: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Sage.

Fugard, A., & Potts, H. W. W. (2020). Thematic analysis. In P. Atkinson, S. Delamont, A. Cernat, J. W. Sakshaug & R. A. Williams (Eds.), SAGE research methods foundations.  Sage.

Gibson, W. J., & Brown, A. (2009). Working with qualitative data (Chapter 8: Identifying themes, codes and hypotheses). Sage.

Gleeson, K. (2011). Polytextual thematic analysis for visual data: Pinning down the analytic. In P. Reavey (Ed.), Visual methods in psychology (pp. 314 – 329). Routledge.

Gleeson, K. (2020). Polytextual thematic analysis for visual data: Analysing visual images. In P. Reavey (Ed.), A handbook of visual methods in psychology: Using and interpreting images in qualitative research (pp. 536 – 554). Routledge.

Green, J. (2013). The use of focus groups in research into health. In M. Saks & J. Allsop (Eds.), Researching health: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods (pp 128-147). Sage.

Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2018). Qualitative methods for health research (4th ed.). (Chapter 10: Beginning Data Analysis). Sage.

Hayes, N. (2000). Doing psychological research: Gathering and analyzing data . Open University Press.

Hayes, N. (1997). Theory-led thematic analysis: Social identification in small companies . In N. Hayes (Ed.), Doing qualitative analysis in psychology . Psychology Press.

Langdridge, D. (2004). Introduction to research methods and data analysis in psychology (Chapter 14: Transcribing, coding and organising textual data). Pearson.

Langdridge, D., & Hagger-Johnson, G. (2013). Introduction to research methods and data analysis in psychology (3rd ed.). (Chapter 18: Transcribing, coding and organising textual data). Pearson.

Lochmiller, C. R. (2021). Conducting thematic analysis with qualitative data . The Qualitative Report , 26 (6), 2029-2044.

Luborsky, M. (1994). The identification and analysis of themes and patterns. In J. F. Gubrium & A. Sankar (Eds.), Qualitative methods in aging research (pp. 189-210). Sage.

MacQueen, K. M., McLellan, E., Kay, K., & Milstein, B. (1998). Codebook development for team-based qualitative analysis . CAM Journal , 10 (2), 31 – 36.

Malterud, K. (2013). Systematic text condensation: A strategy for qualitative analysis . Scandinavian Journal of Public Health , 40 , 795-805.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2021). Designing qualitative research (7th ed.). (Chapter 8: Managing, analysing and interpreting data). Sage.

Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria . International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 16 (1), 1 – 13.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.) (Chapter 8: Qualitative analysis and interpretation). Sage.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (Chapter 8: Qualitative analysis and interpretation). Sage.

Peterson, B. L. (2017). Thematic analysis/interpretive thematic analysis. In J. Matthes, C. S. Davis & R. F. Potter (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of communication research methods (pp. 1 – 9). Wiley-Blackwell.

Rivas, C. (2018). Finding themes in qualitative data. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching society and culture (4th ed., pp. 429–453). Sage.

Robinson, O. C. (2021). Conducting thematic analysis on brief texts: The structured tabular approach. Qualitative Psychology . Advance online publication.

Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes . Field Methods , 15 (1), 85 – 109.

Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). Sage.

Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). Sage.

Singer, D., & Hunter, M. (1999). The experience of premature menopause: A thematic discourse analysis . Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17 (1), 63-81.

Spiers, J., & Riley, R. (2019). Analysing one dataset with two qualitative methods: The distress of general practitioners, a thematic and interpretative phenomenological analysis . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 16 (2), 276 – 290.

Stenner, P. (1993). Discoursing jealousy. In E. Burman & I. Parker (Eds.), Discourse analytic research: Repertoires and readings of texts in action (pp. 94-132). Routledge.

Swain, J. (2018). A hybrid approach to thematic analysis in qualitative research: Using a practical example . SAGE Research Methods Cases .

Taylor, G. W., & Ussher, J. M. (2001). Making sense of S&M: A discourse analytic account . Sexualities, 4 (3), 293-314.

Tesch, R. (1990) Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools . Falmer Press.

Tuckett, A. G. (2005). Applying thematic analysis theory to practice: A researcher’s experience . Contemporary Nurse, 19 (1-2), 75-87.

Vaismoradi, M., Turunen, H., & Bondas, H. (2013). Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study . Nursing & Health Sciences , 15 (3), 398-405.

Vaismoradi, M., Jones, J., Turunen, H., & Snelgrove, S. (2016). Theme development in qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis . Journal of Nursing Education and Practice , 6 (5), 100 – 110.

Xu, W., & Zammit, K. (2020). Applying thematic analysis to education: A hybrid approach to interpreting data in practitioner research . International Journal of Qualitative Methods , online first, April 14.

Related approaches

Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis . Qualitative Health Research , 15 (9), 1277-1288.

Early examples of TA

Benner, P. (1985). Quality of life: A phenomenological perspective on explanation, prediction, and understanding in nursing science . Advances in Nursing Science, 8 (1), 1-14.

Christ, T. (1970). A thematic analysis of the American business creed . Social Forces , 49 (2), 239-245.

Dapkus, M. A. (1985). A thematic analysis of the experience of time . Personality Processes and Individual Differences , 49 (2), 408-419.

Examples of more descriptive/semantic TA

Anderson, S., & Clarke, V. (2019). Disgust, shame and the psychosocial impact of skin picking: Evidence from an online support forum . Journal of Health Psychology, 24 (13), 1773-1784.

Davey, L., Clarke, V., & Jenkinson, E. (2019). Living with alopecia areata: An online qualitative survey study . British Journal of Dermatology , 180 (6), 1377-1389 .

Douglas, H., Hamilton, R., & Grubs, R. (2009). The effect of BRCA gene testing on family relationships: A thematic analysis of qualitative interviews . Journal of Genetic Counselling, 18 (5), 418-435.

Graham, R., & Clarke, V. (2021). Staying strong: Exploring experiences of managing emotional distress for African Caribbean women living in the UK . Feminism & Psychology, 31 (1), 140-159.

Kushner, B., Neville, S., & Adams, J. (2013). Perceptions of ageing as an older gay man: a qualitative study . Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22 (23-24), 3388-3395.

Malik, S. H., & Coulson, N. (2008). The male experience of infertility: A thematic analysis of an online fertility support group bulletin board . Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 26 (1), 18-30.

Rance, N. M., Clarke, V., & Moller, N. P. (2014). ‘If I see somebody… I’ll immediately scope them out’: Anorexia Nervosa clients’ perceptions of their therapists’ body. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 22 (2), 111-120.

Sezier, A. E. I., Saywell, N., Terry, G., Taylor, D., & Kayes, N. (2019). Working-age adults’ perspectives on living with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness: A qualitative exploratory study . BMJ Open, 9 , e024326.

Examples of more conceptual/latent TA

Beres, M. A., & Farvid, P. (2010). Sexual ethics and young women ’ s accounts of heterosexual casual sex . Sexualities , 13 (3), 377-393.

Braun, V. (2008). ”She’ll be right”? National identity explanations for poor sexual health statistics in Aotearoa/New Zealand . Social Science & Medicine, 67 (11), 1817-1825.

Farvid, P., Braun, V., & Rowney, C. (2017). ‘No girl wants to be called a slut!’: Women, heterosexual casual sex and the sexual double standard . Journal of Gender Studies, 26 (5), 544-560.

Li, A. Y., & Braun, V. (2016). Pubic hair and its removal: A practice beyond the personal . Feminism & Psychology, 27 (3), 336-356.

Terry, G., Braun, V., Jayamaha, S., & Madden, H. (2018). Negotiating the hairless ideal in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Choice, awareness, complicity, and resistance in younger women’s accounts of body hair removal . Feminism & Psychology , 28 (2), 272-291.

Vandenburg, T., & Braun, V. (2017). ‘Basically, it’s sorcery for your vagina’: Unpacking Western representations of vaginal steaming . Culture, Health & Sexuality, 19 (4), 470-485.

Examples of essentialist/(critical) realist TA

Everson-Hock, E. S., Taylor, A. H., Ussher, M., & Faulkner, G. (2010). A qualitative perspective on multiple health behaviour change: Views of smoking cessation advisors who promote physical activity . The Journal of Smoking Cessation, 5 (1), 7-14.

Moller, N. P., Timms, J., & Alilovic, K. (2009). Risky business or safety net? Trainee perceptions of personal therapy: A qualitative thematic analysis . European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 11 (4), 369-384.

Terry, G., & Kayes, N. (2020). Person-centred care in neurorehabilitation: A secondary analysis . Disability and Rehabilitation, 46, 2334-2343.

Examples of critical/constructionist TA/thematic discourse analysis

Braun, V. (2008). ”She’ll be right”? National identity explanations for poor sexual health statistics in Aotearoa/New Zealand . Social Science & Medicine, 67 (11), 1817-1825 .

Clarke, V., & Smith, M. (2015). “ Not hiding, not shouting, just me”: Gay men negotiate their visual identities . Journal of Homosexuality , 62 (1), 4-32.

Clarke, V., & Spence, K. (2013). ‘I am who I am’: Navigating norms and the importance of authenticity in lesbian and bisexual women’s accounts of their appearance practices . Psychology & Sexuality, 4 (1), 25-33.

Clarke, V., & Kitzinger, C. (2004). Lesbian and gay parents on talk shows: Resistance or collusion in heterosexism . Qualitative Research in Psychology, 1 (3), 195-217.

Clarke, V., Burgoyne, C., & Burns, M. (2007). Romance, rights, recognition, responsibilities and radicalism: Same-sex couples’ views on civil partnership and marriage. In V. Clarke & E. Peel (Eds.), Out in Psychology: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer perspectives (pp. 173-193). Chichester: Wiley.

Farvid, P., & Braun, V. (2017). Unpacking the “Pleasures” and “Pains” of Heterosexual Casual Sex: Beyond Singular Understandings . The Journal of Sex Research, 54 (1), 73-90.

Hayfield, N., & Wood, M. (2019). Looking heteronormatively good! Combining story completion tasks with Bitstrips to explore understandings of sexuality and appearance . Qualitative Research in Psychology, 16 (1), 115-135.

Examples of TA using interview data

Braun, V., Terry, G., Gavey, N., & Fenaughty, J. (2009). ‘Risk’ and sexual coercion among gay and bisexual men in Aotearoa/New Zealand-key informant accounts . Culture, Health & Sexuality, 11 (2), 111-124.

Cowie, L., & Braun, V. (2021). Between social and biomedical explanation: queer and gender diverse young people’s explanations of psychological distress . Psychology & Sexuality , 1-12.

Douglas, H., Hamilton, R., & Grubs, R. (2009). The effect of BRCA gene testing on family relationships: A thematic analysis of qualitative interviews . Journal of Genetic Counseling, 18 (5), 418-435.

Hayfield, N., Campbell, C., & Reed, L. (2018). Misrecognition and managing marginalisation: Bisexual people’s experiences of bisexuality and relationships . Psychology and Sexuality, 9 (3), 221-236 .

Hayfield, N., Terry, G., Clarke, V., & Ellis, S. (2019). “Never say never?” Heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian women’s accounts of being childfree . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 43 (4), 526–538.

Pickens, C., & Braun, V. (2018). “Stroppy bitches who just need to learn how to settle”? Young single women and norms of femininity and heterosexuality . Sex Roles, 79 (7-8), 431–448.

Wong, W. K. T., & Ussher, J. (2009). Bereaved informal cancer carers making sense of their palliative care experiences at home . Health & Social Care in the Community, 17 (3), 274-282.

Examples of TA using focus group data

King, M., & Ussher, J. M. (2013). It’s not all bad: Women’s construction and lived experience of positive premenstrual change. Feminism & Psychology , 23 (3), 399-417.

Nicolson, P., Kopp, Z., Chapple, C. R., & Kelleher, C. (2008). ‘ It’s just the worry about not being able to control it!’: A qualitative study of living with overactive bladder. British Journal of Health Psychology , 13 (2), 343-359.

Examples of TA using qualitative survey/questionnaire data

Braun, V., Tricklebank, G., & Clarke, V. (2013). ‘It shouldn’t stick out from your bikini at the beach’: Meaning, gender, and the hairy/hairless body . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 37 (4), 478-493.

Clarke, V., & Smith, M. (2015). “Not hiding, not shouting, just me”: Gay men negotiate their visual identities . Journal of Homosexuality , 62 (1), 4-32.

Frith, H., & Gleeson, K. (2008). Dressing the body: The role of clothing in sustaining body pride and managing body distress . Qualitative Research in Psychology, 5 (4), 249-264.

Hayfield, N., & Křížová, K. (2021). It’s like bisexuality, but it isn’t: Pansexual and panromantic people’s understandings of their identities and experiences of becoming educated about gender and sexuality . Advance online publication. Journal of Bisexuality .

Jowett, A., & Peel, E. (2009). Chronic Illness in Non-heterosexual Contexts: An online survey of experiences . Feminism & Psychology , 19 (4), 454–474.

Terry, G., & Braun, V. (2016). “I think gorilla-like back effusions of hair are rather a turn-off”: Mandatory ‘grooming’ and body hair removal among male New Zealanders . Body Image , 17, 14-24.

Winter-Gray, T., & Hayfield, N. (2021). “Can I be a kinky ace?”: How asexual people negotiate their experiences of kinks and fetishes . Psychology and Sexuality , 12( 3), 163-179 .

If you’re now curious about the method of qualitative surveys , we encourage you to read both our brief blog on online qualitative surveys for International Journal of Social Research Methodology , and the full paper it’s based on.

Examples of TA using story completion data

Clarke, V., Braun, V., & Wooles, K. (2015). Thou shalt not covet another man? Exploring constructions of same-sex and different-sex infidelity using story completion . Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology , 25 (2), 153-166.

Jennings, E., Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Breaking gendered boundaries? Exploring constructions of counter-normative body hair practices in Aotearoa/New Zealand using story completion . Qualitative Research in Psychology, 16 (1), 74-95 .

Shah-Beckley, I., & Clarke, V. (2021). Exploring constructions of sexual refusal in heterosexual relationships: A qualitative story completion study . Counselling & Psychotherapy Research. Advance online publication.

Shah-Beckley, I., Clarke, V., & Thomas, Z. (2020). Therapists’ and non-therapists’ constructions of heterosex: A qualitative story completion study . Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice , 93(2), 189-206.

Examples of TA using secondary sources for data

Braun, V., & Carruthers, S. (2020). Working at self and wellness: A critical analysis of vegan vlogs. In D. Lupton & Z. Feldman (Eds.), Digital Food Cultures (pp. 82-96). Routledge.

Farvid, P., & Braun, V. (2006). ‘Most of us guys are raring to go anytime, anyplace, anywhere’: Male and female sexuality in Cleo and Cosmo . Sex Roles, 55 (5), 295-310.

Examples of TA using diary data

Malinen, K., Rönkä, A., & Sevón, E. (2010). Good moments in parents’ spousal relationships: A daily relational maintenance perspective . Family Science , 1 (3-4), 230-241.

Sillence, E., Briggs, P., Harris, P.R., & Fishwick, L. (2007). How do patients evaluate and make use of online health information? Social Science & Medicine, 64 (9), 1853-1862.

Examples of TA using ‘naturalistic’ data

Peel E. (2009). Intergroup relations in action: Questions asked about lesbian, gay and bisexual issues in diversity training. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 19 (4), 271-285.

Examples of TA in case study research

Cedervall, Y., & Åberg, A. C. (2010). Physical activity and implications on well-being in mild Alzheimer’s disease: A qualitative case study on two men with dementia and their spouses . Physiotherapy Theory and Practice , 26 (4), 226–239.

Gadberry, A. L. (2014). Cross-cultural perspective: A thematic analysis of a music therapist’s experience providing treatment in a foreign country . Australian Journal of Music Therapy , 25 , 66–80.

Manago, A. M. (2013). Negotiating a sexy masculinity on social networking sites . Feminism & Psychology , 23 (4), 478–497.

Examples of mash-ups of TA and narrative analysis

Palomäki, J., Laakasuo, M., & Salmela, M. (2013). “This is just so unfair!”: A qualitative analysis of loss-induced emotions and tilting in on-line poker . International Gambling Studies , 13 (2), 255–270.

Ronkainen, N. J., Watkins, I., & Ryba, T. V. (2016). What can gender tell us about the pre-retirement experiences of elite distance runners in Finland? A thematic narrative analysis . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 22 , 37–45.

Examples of TA used in combination with discursive analytic approaches

Terry, G., & Braun, V. (2016). “I think gorilla-like back effusions of hair are rather a turn-off”: ‘Excessive hair’ and male body hair (removal) discourse . Body Image, 17 , 14-24.

Terry, G., & Braun, V. (2013). “We have friends, for example, and he will not get a vasectomy”: Imagining the self in relation to others when talking about sterilization. Health Psychology, 32 (1), 100.

Examples of feminist TA

Jenkinson, B., Kruskex, S., & Kildea, S. (2017). The experiences of women, midwives and obstetricians when women decline recommended maternity care: A feminist thematic analysis . Midwifery, 52, 1-10.

McDougall, S. D., & McGeorge, C. R. (2014). Utilizing women’s feminist identities in family therapy: A phenomenological exploration of the meaning women assign to their feminist identities . Journal of Feminist Family Therapy , 26 (2), 73–98.

Thematic Analysis Of Autistic Burnout On Online Platforms

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Autistic burnout is a chronic condition characterized by extreme exhaustion, reduced functioning, and heightened sensitivity to stimuli. It results from the ongoing stress of navigating a world not designed for autistic ways of thinking and being, compounded by lack of support and understanding. Autistic people have identified burnout as a significant, pervasive mental health challenge that can impact their quality of life and lead to worse outcomes. Understanding autistic burnout is crucial for helping individuals manage and prevent autistic burnout .

• Autistic burnout is a chronic condition resulting from a mismatch of expectations and abilities without adequate support, characterized by long-term exhaustion, reduced functioning, and heightened sensitivity to stimuli.
• Factors like masking autistic traits, stigma and discrimination, lack of awareness and acceptance of autism significantly contribute to autistic burnout.
• The research, while enlightening, has limitations such as lack of demographic information about participants and only including perspectives of autistic adults who communicate in writing online.
• Understanding autistic burnout is crucial for improving mental health outcomes and quality of life for autistic individuals.

Autistic adults experience poorer mental health outcomes compared to the general population, including increased risk of suicidal ideation, self-harm and death by suicide (Cassidy et al., 2018; Hedley & Uljarević, 2018; Hirvikoski et al., 2016).

The autistic community has identified autistic burnout as a significant mental health risk. However, to date only one study has been published on the topic (Raymaker et al., 2020).

Early research highlights the harmful impact of autistic burnout and the urgent need to better understand this phenomenon to inform prevention and support.

This study used qualitative data analysis, specifically reflexive thematic analysis, to examine 1127 public posts about autistic burnout shared on two online platforms, Twitter and Wrong Planet, between 2005-2019.

An inductive, “bottom-up” approach was used to identify patterns of meaning across the data.

Two autistic researchers with self-reported experience of autistic burnout reviewed the themes and provided insight.

The sample comprised 683 individuals – 612 self-identified autistic adults and 71 non-autistic individuals, including researchers, advocates, parents, and friends of autistic people whose posts addressed the research objectives.

Demographic information was only available for the 124 Wrong Planet users.

Eight primary themes and three subthemes about autistic burnout were identified:

1. Systemic, pervasive lack of autism awareness (overarching theme)

The overarching theme identified was a systemic and pervasive lack of awareness and acceptance of autism, which underlies the occurrence and perpetuation of autistic burnout.

“People who don’t understand Autism are seeing behaviours that they assume are mental health problems. Confusing Burnout for depression, seeing meltdowns & only seeing it as inappropriate negative behaviour, not sensory overwhelm.” (T290)

1.1 Discrimination and stigma

Participants experienced discrimination and stigma related to their autism, which contributed to burnout. Many felt pressure to mask their autistic traits to avoid negative consequences.

“I’m #ActuallyAutistic and I view Autism as a mental health issue, but not a mental illness. Lack of accommodation, stigma, & burnout all affect my MH” (T260)

2. A chronic or recurrent condition

Autistic burnout was described as a chronic or recurring condition, often first experienced in adolescence and recurring throughout adulthood, with recovery taking months or years.

“In burnout now and going on Month 15. No end in sight. Experienced it maybe 4 times now. I crashed and burned hard.” (T386)

3. Direct impact on health and well-being

Autistic burnout had a significant direct impact on participants’ physical and mental health, cognitive abilities, capacity to function, and overall well-being.

“I am so low on energy, I can’t cope with anything right now. I shut down after only little stimuli…I shut down so badly I don’t dare to drive anymore (too dangerous). I don’t enjoy my special interests anymore, and feel mentally stupid” (WP59)

4. A life unlived

Autistic burnout indirectly impacted participants’ lives by limiting educational and employment opportunities, leading to a sense of lost potential and “failure to launch.”

“Oh and good luck breaking into a different field if you succumb to autistic burnout. [..] goodbye income goodbye lifestyle goodbye independence” (T280)

5. A blessing in disguise?

Some participants reported positive outcomes from autistic burnout, such as receiving an autism diagnosis , finding the autistic community, and making beneficial life changes.

“Burnout […] was huge. 39 months later and my life is very different but much more sustainable.” (T476)

Self-awareness and personal control influence risk

Participants’ ability to identify and manage stressors and energy levels influenced their vulnerability to burnout. Lack of control over environments and competing demands increased risk.

“[…] the only thing that would help me is beyond my control […] I have nowhere to go where I’d avoid being overwhelmed.” (WP98)

6.1. “You need enough balloons to manage the weight of the rocks”

Participants used various strategies to manage their energy levels and stressors to prevent or recover from burnout, such as stimming, pursuing special interests, and resting.

“Autism only gives me so much energy to work with and if I overstretch myself, I’ll be prone to meltdown and burnout” (T427)

7. Masking: Damned if you do, damned if you don’t

Masking or camouflaging autistic traits was a double-edged sword – it allowed participants to fit in and access opportunities but was exhausting and often led to burnout. Unmasking, while necessary, also led to negative social consequences.

“I get told by everyone that I seem to be managing my autism well […] but the constant masking at work is exhausting and I ended up in burnout this weekend.” (T349)

8. Ask the experts

Participants positioned themselves as experts on autistic burnout and generously shared knowledge and resources with each other. The findings reinforce the importance of learning directly from autistic people’s lived experiences.

“The autistic community has been saying burnout is a medical problem forever” (T90)

8.1. Stronger together

Online communities provided a sense of belonging, mutual support and understanding for participants, which was especially valuable during burnout episodes.

“As an #ActuallyAutistic woman who did not get diagnosed until age 41. this thread made me cry multiple times because of how SEEN I felt. Particularly the section about Autism Burnout.” (T477)

Insight and Depth

This study provides a comprehensive understanding of autistic burnout directly from lived experience accounts spanning over a decade.

It identifies distinct yet interrelated factors that characterize autistic burnout as a recurring condition that can directly and indirectly impact autistic people’s functioning, mental health, quality of life, and well-being across the lifespan.

Importantly, it positions autistic people as experts and partners in research.

Below are some of the strengths of this study:

• Large sample size with data spanning 12 years
• Inclusion of autistic people as researchers
• Builds upon and extends the limited existing research
• Identifies risk and protective factors to inform future research

Limitations

Below are some of the possible limitations of this study:

• Lack of diversity – the majority of participants were English-speaking autistic adults who communicate in writing and have access to online platforms. Perspectives of non-English speakers, those with higher communication needs, and additional marginalized identities are missing.
• Retrospective data prevented follow-up questioning.
• Study was not co-designed with autistic people despite the topic being a high priority for the autistic community.

The findings may not be generalizable to the wider autistic population, especially those with intersecting minority identities and higher support needs. More inclusive and participatory research is needed.

Implications

The findings suggest that increased awareness and acceptance of autism could be key to burnout prevention and recovery.

Educating families, health professionals, and the wider public to recognize autism and burnout, especially in adolescence, is vital.

Societies and institutions should examine how they can better support autistic inclusion and participation. At an individual level, learning effective coping, energy management, and self-awareness skills may protect against burnout.

Autistic people were able to communicate online during burnout, offering possibilities for delivering remote support. More research is needed on prevalence, screening tools, and links between burnout and suicidality.

This study reinforces the serious impact of autistic burnout on mental health and quality of life. It provides a foundation for raising awareness and acceptance of autism to prevent the harmful cycle of autistic burnout.

The findings position autistic adults as experts and partners in developing solutions. However, the complexity of autistic burnout and intersectionality of people’s experiences means further research, especially with more diverse samples, is essential.

Continuing to amplify and learn from autistic voices is key to supporting wellbeing across the lifespan.

Primary reference

Mantzalas, J., Richdale, A. L., Adikari, A., Lowe, J., & Dissanayake, C. (2022). What is autistic burnout? A thematic analysis of posts on two online platforms.  Autism in Adulthood ,  4 (1), 52-65. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2021.0021

Other references

Cassidy, S., Bradley, L., Shaw, R., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2018). Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults. Molecular Autism, 9 (42), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4

Hedley, D., & Uljarević, M. (2018). Systematic review of suicide in autism spectrum disorder: Current trends and implications. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 5 , 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-018-0133-6

Hirvikoski, T., Mittendorfer-Rutz, E., Boman, M., Larsson, H., Lichtenstein, P., & Bölte, S. (2016). Premature mortality in autism spectrum disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208 , 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.160192

Raymaker, D. M., Teo, A. R., Steckler, N. A., Lentz, B., Scharer, M., Delos Santos, A., Kapp, S. K., Hunter, M., Joyce, A., & Nicolaidis, C. (2020). “Having all of your internal resources exhausted beyond measure and being left with no clean-up crew”: Defining autistic burnout. Autism in Adulthood, 2 (2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2019.0079

Keep Learning

Here are some potential discussion questions for a college class on this paper:

• How does the lack of awareness and acceptance of autism contribute to the occurrence of autistic burnout? What changes in society might help prevent autistic burnout?
• In what ways does masking or camouflaging autistic traits impact mental health and risk of autistic burnout? How can we support autistic people to unmask safely?
• Why is it important that autistic adults were positioned as experts in this research? How can we amplify autistic voices and make autism research more inclusive?
• The study found that autistic burnout often first occurs in adolescence. What unique challenges might autistic teenagers face and how can we better support them through this transition period?
• How might the experience of autistic burnout differ for people with additional marginalized identities, such as autistic people of color or LGBTQIA+ autistic people? What steps can we take to understand and support these intersectional experiences?

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Women’s emotional roller coasters during pregnancy as a consequence of infertility: a qualitative phenomenological study

• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

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You have full access to this open access article

• Parisa Hadavibavili   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0135-9651 1 , 2 ,
• Yasemin Hamlaci Başkaya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1533-8667 1 ,
• Gamze Bayazi̇t   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-0816-3960 3 &
• Arif Serhan Cevrioğlu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3810-6519 4  

Women experiencing infertility tend to experience distinct emotions during pregnancy following infertility. Individuals in this population often struggle with psychological and social challenges during pregnancy. This qualitative phenomenological study determines how infertility experiences affect mothers’ mental well-being during pregnancy as well as their experiences and emotions after becoming pregnant. A face-to-face, in-depth interview with 15 women with infertility was conducted between November 2022 and May 2023. The study adhered to ethical guidelines, with informed written consent obtained prior to interviews and voice recordings. The COREQ checklist is applied to follow the EQUATOR guidelines for reporting research and the data were coded using MAXQDA.20 software. A thematic analysis revealed four main themes and 15 codes. Main themes included “Over Emotional Burden,” “Overprotection,” “Overthinking,” and “Social Activity Changes.” Pregnancy after infertility is a unique and emotionally charged experience for women, encompassing a spectrum of feelings that can be difficult to express. The importance of caring for these women and receiving support from their partners, families, and healthcare providers should not be overstated. Healthcare providers should be aware of these emotional challenges so they can provide better support and counselling to improve women’s overall pregnancy experience. It is believed that empathetic communication and tailored support can significantly improve the psychological well-being of this population. Psychologists, psychiatrists, and midwives should also be more attentive to mothers’ emotional challenges and integrate comprehensive emotional support and provide coping mechanisms in perinatal care programs.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Infertility has been a prevalent health problem in recent generations around the world (Fainberg & Kashanian, 2019 ). Couples with infertility generally struggle with socioeconomic, psychological, physical, and cultural consequences of this condition (Kianfar et al., 2023 ). Based on statistical analysis, 10–15% of the world’s population experience infertility (Bakhtiyar et al., 2019 ). This condition is considered a severe disability and ranks fifth in severity. Considering the causes and duration of infertility, it may significantly affect a couple’s psychological well-being (Borumandnia et al., 2022 ). According to the literature, nearly half of women seeking infertility treatments struggle with disorders aligned with posttraumatic stress disorder. Researchers have also noted that infertility concerns impair coping mechanisms in individuals which result in considerable stress and anxiety among infertile couples (Renzi et al., 2023b ). Nowadays, infertility procedure is often suggested as a double-edged sword that can cause considerable emotional distress, social stigma, and financial concerns in couples (Taebi et al., 2021 ). According to the literature, infertility treatment processes mainly affect women more than men, and infertile women are considered deficient women in some cultures and societies (Olma & Bir, 2018 ; Yao et al., 2018 ). According to a literature, the better quality of life of couples is strongly associated with more success rates in infertility treatments. It also appears that decreased psychological symptoms as well as enhanced emotion regulation abilities may contribute to improved success rates in treatment centers (Renzi et al., 2023a ). Pregnancy after infertility can be a unique and emotionally inspiring experience for infertile couples. However, even after achieving a successful pregnancy, women who have experienced infertility may struggle with psychological and social challenges during pregnancy and after childbirth (Crespo & Bestard, 2016 ). Studies have shown that women who get pregnant after infertility experience some levels of stress and anxiety regarding their fetal and maternal outcomes. Their pregnancy may also result in confusing feelings between excitement and grief (Maehara et al., 2022 ). In the first trimester, the infertile woman often struggles with fears of pregnancy loss, possible fetal abnormalities, and adapting to significant physical changes (Dornelles et al., 2016 ). During the third trimester, anxiety and stress can be caused by the fear of pregnancy complications and preterm labor. Furthermore, infertile women may face challenges in selecting a safe delivery method (Huang et al., 2019 ). According to the literature, there is considerable research on mental health before and after pregnancy in infertile couples (McMahon et al., 2011 ).

In this qualitative study, we aim to investigate how infertility experiences affect mothers’ mental well-being during pregnancy as well as their perspectives and feelings after becoming pregnant.

Study design

This research is a qualitative study with a Heideggerian, hermeneutic phenomenological approach. This study was framed by Heideggerian phenomenology, and its Heideggerian influence extends throughout the entire study. In this approach, personal experience and the interpretation of events is emphasized as significant components of understanding human cognition and behavior (Heidegger, 1996 ). As a method of studying human experience, hermeneutic phenomenology has the unique potential of being able to examine complex phenomena in depth. Methodologies like this are well suited for representing the depth and complexity of individual experiences, providing detailed context to understand the complex interaction of factors influencing individuals’ life experiences (Plager, 1994 ). All in all, this study uses hermeneutic phenomenology because of its suitability to explore human experiences of complex phenomena. This method involves analyzing and reflecting on participants’ life experiences in order to gain a deeper understanding of their subjective perceptions, interpretations, and understandings (Annells, 1996 ).

In this study, the COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) checklist is applied to follow the EQUATOR guidelines for reporting research. This is a 32-item checklist for reporting interviews and focus groups systematically. The checklist provides researchers with a framework for reporting key study design, data collection, and analysis aspects, fostering clarity and reproducibility. The criteria also cover various aspects of qualitative research, including data collection methods, participant recruitment, and analysis processes. Furthermore, following established reporting guidelines facilitates peer review by providing standardized criteria for assessing the validity and quality of qualitative research. In reporting qualitative research, the COREQ checklist emphasizes ethical considerations, such as ensuring participant privacy and providing a clear ethical rationale. Ultimately, adopting EQUATOR guidelines further improves qualitative research reporting standards, as well as improving qualitative research practices more broadly (Hope & King, 2022 ).

Participant selection

This study included participants who got pregnant after being diagnosed with infertility and agreed to participate in interviews. Researchers recruited participants from pregnant women who had experienced infertility and attended the Sakarya Training and Research Hospital’s perinatal clinic between November 2022 and May 2023. The interviewer, who was a registered midwife, obtained patient information from the hospital’s electronic medical records system. In order to recruit participants, A phone call was initially made to inform and gain permission from the participants, and then appointments were scheduled at convenient times and dates using social media and messenger applications such as WhatsApp and Telegram. Interviews took place in a quiet consulting room at the hospital, allowing open and honest communication. Interviews were conducted without the presence of other participants or researchers in order to preserve privacy and confidentiality. In this way, participants were able to share their experiences without concern for their privacy. Participants under 18 years of age and participants who withdraw from the study during the interview are excluded from the study. The registered midwife contacted 20 mothers initially and invited them to participate in the study. One mother declined participation due to her husband’s objection. Another mother cited privacy concerns as the reason for her non-participation. A third mother commented that her pregnancy period was challenging and she wished to forget it. The fourth mother moved to a different hospital and the final mother relocated to a different city in the second trimester. In this study, a comprehensive amount of data was collected and data saturation was deemed sufficient by the authors. A total of 15 mothers participated in the study. The interviews began with open-ended questions such as “How would you describe yourself before and after pregnancy?”, “How has the diagnosis of infertility affected your perspective on pregnancy?”, “How do you evaluate your relationship with your partner after becoming pregnant?”.

Pregnant women who experienced infertility and attended Sakarya Training and Research Hospital’s perinatal clinic between November 2022 and May 2023 were participants in the study. The interviews were conducted without the presence of any other participants or researchers.

Data collection

An in-depth interview was conducted with participants using a sociodemographic form, semi-structured interview form, and a TSCO audio recording device (Model no. TR906, Made in China). A written consent was obtained from participants before the interview and recording. The demographic characteristics of the participants were collected from the patients face-to-face in a quiet consulting room at the hospital. The interview took place during a period when patients were visiting the hospital for routine pregnancy check-ups. We decided on this for patient convenience and time efficiency. Audio recording permission was also obtained before the interviews began from the participants. In order to eliminate hesitation about the study and to encourage the interviewees to answer the questions honestly, the researcher explained to each interviewee that they would be assigned a number based on their order in the interview. After the interview, notes were taken while listening to the recordings. After obtaining written consent, completing sociodemographic forms, and scheduling face-to-face sessions, approximately 25–30-minute interviews were conducted. In qualitative research, the sample size is determined by the concept of data saturation. Data saturation occurs when no new information or themes emerge from the data, indicating that the sample size is adequate (Francis et al., 2010 ). According to our study, themes and insights recurred as the interviews progressed, indicating that the desired themes were thoroughly explored. Data saturation was considered sufficient in the study as all desired themes were adequately explored, and a comprehensive amount of data was collected.

Data analysis

In the study, two researchers contributed as data coders. The data was coded through thematic analysis to form related themes based on the document’s content. In qualitative data, themes can be identified, analyzed, and interpreted through thematic analysis. It emphasizes the active role of the researcher in the process of coding and theme development. Researchers organize and report their analytical observations using themes and psychiatrists are using these versions due to their greater flexibility (Clarke & Braun, 2017 ). Ultimately, 15 codes were determined along with four themes. The corresponding author (Ph.D. candidate) and second researcher (Ph.D.), who were experienced in analyzing qualitative data, classified and identified codes and themes through the study content. The first three authors of this study were female, and the last author was male. All of the authors have considerable experience in infertility and pregnancy and a keen interest in filling a gap in infertile women’s mental health during pregnancy. In the study, the themes were derived from the data rather than being predetermined, and through researchers’ analysis of participants’ responses and experiences, themes emerged initially. A MAXQDA Analytics Pro 2020 program was used to manage the data in this study.

Rigor and trustworthiness

The data’s trustworthiness was assessed based on the suggestions of Guba and Lincoln (Cypress, 2017 ; Guba & Lincoln, 1981 ). A trustworthiness concept can be categorized into credibility and dependability. The concept of credibility corresponds roughly to the concept of internal validity as defined by positive ideologues, while that of dependability corresponds to the concept of reliability. In terms of reliability, transferability, which is external validity, and confirmability, which relies mostly on presentation (Gunawan, 2015 ). The phenomenological approach was used in our study as a qualitative research design to verify the study’s credibility (Rodriguez & Smith, 2018 ). The last researcher, who was an obstetrics and gynecologist and specialized in infertility, reviewed the themes and verified the process’ accuracy. The concept of transferability is traditionally associated with the application or generalization of findings to a wide range of situations. However, qualitative research emphasizes the richness and depth of insights rather than strictly transferring them into other contexts. By examining individuals’ experiences within a specific context, qualitative research illuminates the intricacies and mechanisms underlying a phenomenon (Leung, 2015 ). Through member checking we allow participants to review and verify the findings as part of the research process.

Furthermore, we ensured that the findings were transferable and considered different viewpoints by incorporating multiple perspectives. In order to enhance the dependability of our data and ensure that our findings are accurate and reliable, we use an audit trail. In the audit trail approach, we tried to keep a detailed record of the research process, from decisions to data collection and analysis. A skilled researcher enhances the dependability of data through qualitative research principles, so we provided education courses with certificates for authors with little or no experience in qualitative studies. In order to enhance data confirmability, peer review strategies were used to ensure that the findings accurately reflect the participants’ perspectives and experiences, as well as the researcher’s interpretation, and enabled us to examine the data, analysis, and interpretation critically, ensuring the findings were trustworthy.

Ethical consideration

This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of Sakarya University on 05.10.2022 by the number E-71522473-050.01.04-171377-258. Informed written consent was obtained from participants before the interview and recording the voice, ensuring that they understood the study’s purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and confidentiality. All participants were informed that they had the right to withdraw from the research at any time without consequence.

The demographic analysis revealed that the participants were between the ages of 22 and 38, with a mean age of 30.33 ± 4.19. There were 15 women; three graduated from universities, five from high schools, three from secondary schools, and four from primary schools. Eleven women were housewives, three were civil servants, and the remaining one was a family physician. The median duration of infertility was 3.73 years, ranging from 1 to 10 years. All participants except four mentioned female factors as a cause of infertility. One participant had both male and female factors. Two participants mentioned a malefactor, and another mentioned unexplained reasons. Regarding infertility treatment, seven participants got pregnant through IUI, and eight got pregnant through IVF. Some demographic characteristics of the participants are shown in Table  1 .

Mothers’ perspectives on emotional challenges during pregnancy after infertility revealed four themes and 15 codes: (1) Over Emotional Burden, (2) Overprotection, (3) Overthinking, (4) Social Activity Changes. Figure  1 shows the coding tree.

Coding tree of the mothers’ psychological experiences in pregnancy after infertility

Theme 1: Over Emotional Burden

An infertility diagnosis can continue to impact the emotional well-being of the couple after pregnancy, making the perinatal period even more challenging. Pregnancy after experiencing infertility can be a journey filled with a complex combination of emotions, almost like a roller coaster ride of emotions. In the present study, pregnant women with a history of infertility reported intense emotional burdens, including Emotional Roller Coaster, Fear, Anxiety, Hopelessness, and Regret.

Emotional Roller Coaster

The roller coaster represents mothers’ unpredictable emotional ups and downs. Consequently, they feel overwhelmed and incapable of coping with their emotions. The emotional roller coaster women experience post-infertility is complex. An initial feeling of happiness and excitement can quickly turn into anxiety and uncertainty after a successful pregnancy.

“I am moving through some ups and downs emotionally. Actually, I express my emotional state to my husband a little bit, but he manages me well, thanks to him. Sometimes, I cry for no reason; sometimes, I get angry. Things happen momentarily.” (P1, female factor, 1-year infertility)

“Pregnancy was both a dream and a nightmare for me.” (P4, female factor, 4-years infertility)

Fear / Anxiety

It is common and understandable for women to feel fear and anxiety during pregnancy, especially following an infertility diagnosis. There may be a fear of miscarriage, preterm birth, or other complications that women experience during pregnancy, intensified by the memories of previous struggles. The women who participated in the current study stated that they often experience disappointment and uncertainty during pregnancy.

“In the early stages of my pregnancy, I was filled with fears and worries. I was afraid of miscarriage first, then … ” (P13, female factor, 8-years infertility)

“During the early stages of my pregnancy, I was very anxious. It was a fear in my mind to have a fake pregnancy.” (P3, female factor, 1-year infertility)

Hopelessness

Hopelessness after long infertility treatment is a complex and reasonable emotional response in infertile couples. Many couples struggle with infertility for months or even years with repeated medical interventions and emotional challenges.

“I always thought pregnancy was impossible and unachievable for a long time.” (P13, female factor, 8-years infertility)

“There were many difficult experiences for me during infertility treatments, especially waiting in infertility clinics, which were emotionally draining for me. There were pregnant patients waiting in the reception hall. When I saw them, I thought it would never happen to me to be a mother.” (P9, female factor, 6-years infertility)

The experience of pregnancy may cause regret after years of infertility struggle. There are many factors that can contribute to regret, and it is a deeply personal emotion. It may result from a sense of lost control over one’s reproductive journey or from the impact it has had on one’s family and relationships.

“The first few months, I was constantly suffering from illness. I thought I would never recover, and I just wanted to deliver as soon as possible. Even I asked myself, what did we do? I was certain it would not pass. My health isn’t that bad, but it was quite bad.” (P2, female factor, 1-year infertility)

Theme 2: Overprotection

Overprotection is a natural reaction to the possibility of losing something that was so highly desired and hard-earned. When a mother experiences infertility, balancing motherhood and safeguarding pregnancy could be challenging and may lead to overprotection during pregnancy. In this study, this phenomenon is displayed in various aspects, including impacting changes in sexual life, delivery mode preferences, disruptions in social life, and an insistence on maintaining constant check-ups. It is imperative to recognize and address these feelings by healthcare providers to ensure a successful transition to pregnancy and a healthy psychological state.

Changes in Sexual Life

A pregnancy after struggling with infertility can significantly affect a couple’s sexual life. A shift in women’s sexual behaviors is often accompanied by a tendency to overprotection due to fears of potential complications.

“I don’t have a sexual life anymore. As soon as I learned I was pregnant, my husband would not even touch me.” (P4, female factor, 4-years infertility)

“I am afraid of causing harm to the baby, so we don’t want it at all. It is fear, not reluctance, that makes us avoid sexual activity.” (P2, female factor, 1-year infertility)

Delivery Mode Preference

Delivery mode preferences should be based on medical advice and individual circumstances. However, for couples who have experienced infertility, overprotection thoughts can influence their decision-making process. It is imperative to understand the reasons behind preferences and provide comprehensive information during the prenatal period. This will assist couples in making an informed decision.

“I am insistent on a cesarean section because I’m afraid something will happen during labor and harm the baby.” (P15, female factor, 10-years infertility)

Disrupted Social Life

Experiencing a pregnancy after infertility can change one’s social life. Transitioning from infertility to pregnancy can also introduce new dynamics and challenges in social interaction, while the entire experience can be isolating in itself.

“Pregnancy left me socially withdrawn.” (P13, female factor, 8-years infertility)

“Fear of abortion prevented us from having a normal social life during pregnancy. I always had to rest in bed. Consequently, we were socially isolated.” (P8, female factor, 4-years infertility)

Maintaining Constant Check-ups

Couples who experience pregnancy after long-term infertility often maintain continuous perinatal check-ups due to overprotective thoughts and a desire for early detection of potential complications. Anxiety and cautiousness can often increase among women who have struggled with infertility, fearing something unexpected may occur during pregnancy.

“In the first trimester, the doctor told me there might be something wrong with his heartbeat, so I tried to schedule an appointment with another doctor that day or sooner, but I couldn’t find an appointment, so I went to a private hospital right away.” (P2, female factor, 1-year infertility)

“My perinatal care and follow-ups are carried out in two private hospitals, a state hospital, a city hospital, and a university hospital. In other words, I visit for perinatal check-ups in five different hospitals to ease my anxiety and heightened concern. I also remembered that I visited different doctors three days in a row.” (P1, female factor, 1-year infertility)

Theme 3: Overthinking

For many couples struggling with infertility, overthinking during pregnancy is a common phenomenon. The long-term process of infertility treatment and its low success rate often results in considerable uncertainty, disappointment, and anxiety, which can continue to develop during pregnancy and cause mental overload.

In psychology, escapism is the act of removing oneself from issues, stress, or discomforts in the present moment. A number of effective strategies were used by the women in this study.

“I did a lot of knitting, quilting, and embroidery. I was always excited, and I needed to distract my thoughts.” (P15, female factor, 10-years infertility)

Information Hunting

In this study, the process of seeking knowledge, guidance, and reassurance during pregnancy after infertility is known as information hunting.

“During my pregnancy, I downloaded all available pregnancy programs, consulted friends who were pregnant or had delivery experiences, and consulted medical professionals” (P11, female & male factors, 7-years infertility)

“I did a lot of research on the internet about my pregnancy. I even burned my food because of it. My close friends also gave me advice….” (P6, female factor, 1-year infertility)

The Future in Mind

A woman who overcomes infertility and gets pregnant experiences different emotions. Eventually, her fears of losing the pregnancy turn into joy and hope. The mother began to dream about a future with the baby she had been expecting for so long.

“The baby’s coming makes us happy; our happiness depends on our baby. I am very happy and excited. At some point after all these years, I’d like to hear a baby crying at home. The scent of the baby is what I want to smell.” (P5, female factor, 2-years infertility)

“I want to cuddle my baby as soon as possible and put her to sleep with me. Spending time with my baby and going for walks together is what I dream of all the time.” (P4, female factor, 4-years infertility)

Whirlpool of Thought

In this study, the whirlpool of thought does not just refer to the feelings that mothers experience during pregnancy but also the overwhelming thoughts they deal with.

“As time went on, I got more and more worried, and the little things started to affect me very much.” (P7, Male factors, 2-years infertility)

“My priorities changed even while the fetus was still in my abdomen. I became more nervous, and I feared the baby would not move. Everything was planned around the baby.” (P11, female & male factors, 7-years infertility)

Theme 4: Social Activity Changes

For the expecting mother, pregnancy after infertility can cause a variety of social changes. During pregnancy and motherhood, she experiences profoundly personal and emotionally stressful moments.

Care Expectation

An expectant mother has unique expectations when it comes to pregnancy after infertility. During this precious time of infertility, the woman may have heightened emotional and physical needs.

“It would be great to have my mom and husband with me during pregnancy.” (P12, unexplained, 3-years infertility)

“In infertility and during pregnancy, you only need attention and thank God my husband was always by my side.” (P11, female & male factors, 7-years infertility)

Self-Stigma

An unconscious negative belief or feeling of a woman about her infertility process and pregnancy may lead to self-stigma at the time.

“I felt a sense of responsibility towards my husband since I was the one with the infertile factor and responsible for our infertility. I thought I wouldn’t have any chance of getting pregnant.” (P6, female factor, 1-year infertility)

“For a long time prior to becoming pregnant, I felt inadequate and useless in many aspects of my life. Our past difficulties during the infertility treatment process really exhaust me, I think.” (P13, female factor, 8-years infertility)

Spousal Support

Spouse support is imperative to navigating from infertility to a pregnancy process. In this study, most women reported their husbands supported them financially and emotionally during pregnancy.

“My husband liked me much better and started paying more attention to me after getting pregnant. Thank God, he helped me with house chores and didn’t make me tired doing them.” (P4, female factor, 4-years infertility)

“My husband is the most supportive person in my life. I may have talked a lot about him, but he really is my biggest supporter. I feel stronger when he is beside me; he is my source of strength.” (P1, female factor, 1-year infertility)

In this study, participants stated that they experience a variety of mixed emotions, which lead to a feeling of overwhelming following infertility treatment and during pregnancy. Our study identified four dominant themes: Overemotional Burden, Overprotection, Overthinking, and Social Activity Changes. Our results show that, pregnancy after long-term infertility treatments often results in roller-coaster emotions, fear, anxiety, and hopelessness in mothers. According to mothers’ reports, moments during pregnancy they caused mothers anxiety in different trimesters. They also mentioned feeling relieved and emotionally inspired by becoming mothers. The study conducted by Bovin et al. in 2023 showed that approximately 12% of women with infertility mentioned the words anxious and worried, and 8% mentioned disappointment as the most frequent words to describe their feelings even after pregnancy (Boivin et al., 2023 ). Swanson et al. in 2021 also describe the infertility process as full of a roller coaster of emotions and feelings. It is described that the infertility treatment process is characterized by a period of sadness and grief, followed by some renewed sense of hope after getting successful results (Swanson & Braverman, 2021 ).

According to our study, overprotection is reported as a common reaction among pregnant women during interviews. Fear of loss, a desire to safeguard, and long-awaited expectations of a baby can lead to overprotective attitudes, which are reflected in their sexual and social lives adversely and in the perinatal care process. It is also possible for such overprotection to impact the preferred mode of delivery to ensure the baby’s safety. In our study, mothers report decreasing or withdrawing from sexual activity during pregnancy due to fears that they may harm the baby, cause miscarriage, or adversely affect the pregnancy. Mothers also reported social isolation due to their fears of miscarriage or complications during pregnancy. According to our results, mothers need frequent medical check-ups and continuous monitoring to ensure their babies’ health and detect potential complications early to protect their fetuses. According to a study conducted by Fukui in 2021, mother-to-infant bonding scores were positively related to perceived maternal overprotective attitude in late pregnancy (Fukui et al., 2021 ). However, a study conducted by Ohara in 2018 showed that excessive overprotection sense during pregnancy could be determined as a cause of bonding failure during pregnancy. When a mother exhibits overprotective behavior during pregnancy, she generally spends more time in the caring process. As a result, she may not have enough time to establish a motherhood role during pregnancy (Ohara et al., 2018 ). A study conducted by Phan et al. in 2021 reported that approximately 30% of pregnant women had no sexual activity during their pregnancy. Pregnant women in this study were most concerned about infection and damage to the fetus (Phan et al., 2021 ).

In our study, pregnant women described adverse changes in their social life which introduce new dynamics and challenges to their social interaction. A study conducted in 2016 by Velikonja et al. reported that women who get pregnant with assisted reproductive technologies are more likely to be socially marginalized. They also reported greater positive emotions and greater life satisfaction as the pregnancy progressed despite experiencing more medical challenges during the pregnancy (Velikonja et al., 2016 ).

According to our results, mothers experiencing pregnancy following long-term infertility tend to choose delivery modes based on their overprotective attitudes. In 2015, Reichelt et al. reported that the Cesarean rate was significantly higher in pregnancy after infertility than in spontaneous pregnancy compared to 20 years ago (Reichelt et al., 2015 ). A study by Chien et al. in 2015 reported that infertility treatment significantly influences mothers’ decisions about delivery modes. They also found that women who get pregnant with the In vitro fertilization method (IVF) may consider their fetus to be more vulnerable, and a cesarean delivery may be considered a low-risk method for the baby’s safety (Chien et al., 2015 ).

Overthinking in this study highlights how women who experience infertility always struggle with pregnancy-related thoughts. During the infertility treatment period, women may experience uncertainty, disappointment, and anxiety Several times. This condition can even cause psychological overload and mental exhaustion during pregnancy. Mothers in our study mentioned doing handicrafts such as knitting as a way to escape overthinking. Pedro, in 2015, identified escapism as a successful strategy for avoiding overthinking regarding infertility, pregnancy, and delivery in infertile women. Infertile women in this study describe escapism as a way to avoid thinking about anything else except their activities (Pedro, 2015 ). In our study, mothers mentioned they are always in the middle of information hunting online, in person, or consulting resources, even for the most straightforward pregnancy-related questions. A study conducted by Brochu et al. in 2019 reported that approximately 90% of infertile individuals surf the internet for information about infertility treatment processes and attempt to find more mental and medical support (Brochu et al., 2019 ). We believe that overthinking during pregnancy can be calming and exciting, especially when dreaming about the baby. However, when it is exaggerated, it can lead to overwhelming stress and anxiety in mothers. Mothers in our study shared their most precious dreams of holding their new baby after a challenging infertility journey. In our study, it was observed that that most infertile couples think about their future with their expected baby at least once a day.

Pregnancy after infertility results in various social changes for women (Boulet et al., 2017 ). A woman’s emotional experience of infertility and her various concerns and experiences during pregnancy adversely affect her mental health and contribute to the stigma attached to infertility (Zargar et al., 2023 ). In our study, women with female factor infertility often suffer from self-stigma and low self-esteem. According to Lin et al. in 2020, women who experience infertility suffer from low self-confidence and feeling inadequate, which results in self-stigma (Lin et al., 2022 ). In this study, mothers describe spousal support as an essential support system to overcome infertility challenges. In addition, they reported a higher level of mental support following pregnancy, as well as assisting with household chores and other daily activities. According to Choi et al. in 2023, spousal support significantly reduces stress levels in women with infertility. Women with a supportive husband are more likely to develop a more positive attitude towards infertility treatment and can also cope more effectively with infertility challenges (Choi & Moon, 2023 ).

Limitations

The study has limitations, despite providing valuable insight into women’s emotional challenges after infertility. The small sample size limits generalizability of results, since qualitative research inherently cannot be generalized to a broader population. Additionally, a stratified thematic analysis based on factors such as age group, education level, cause of infertility, and number of previous attempts was not feasible due to the high level of variability among the women included in the study. A more nuanced understanding of the diverse experiences would have been possible. A qualitative study involving spouses, family members, and healthcare professionals can provide valuable insight into the emotional challenges pregnant women face after infertility from multiple perspectives. A better understanding of the complexities of this experience could lead to more comprehensive support systems and interventions to help women who are experiencing these emotional challenges.

Pregnancy after infertility is a unique and emotionally charged experience for women, encompassing a spectrum of feelings that can be difficult to express. Our study results show four dominant themes which illustrate women’s complex emotional experiences and coping strategies during pregnancy. In this study, Over Emotional Burden, Overprotection, Overthinking, and Social Activity Changes were mentioned as the most common psychological concerns during pregnancy after infertility. Study results suggest healthcare providers who interact directly with pregnant women should be aware of these emotional burdens to understand mothers better and counsel them more effectively. Midwives, psychologists, and psychiatrists should also be more attentive to mothers’ emotions and provide coping mechanisms. This will enable mothers to experience their pregnancy with fewer possible adverse effects on both mother and fetus. However, research on infertile women’s emotional reactions and mental reactions during pregnancy is still limited. It may result from infertile mothers often concealing their emotions, ideas, and beliefs during pregnancy because they sacrifice themselves for the expected baby. This study can provide a starting point for further qualitative and quantitative studies on the psychological burden of pregnant women who experience infertility for a long time.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank the participants for sharing with us all of their experiences, no matter how positive or negative, hoping that no one will suffer as they did.

Open access funding provided by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK). This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Gamze Bayazi̇t

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Data analysis: PHB, YHB.

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Hadavibavili, P., Hamlaci Başkaya, Y., Bayazi̇t, G. et al. Women’s emotional roller coasters during pregnancy as a consequence of infertility: a qualitative phenomenological study. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06158-3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06158-3

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• Infertility (MeSH D007246)
• Pregnancy (MeSH D011247)
• Qualitative research (MeSH D036301)
• Mental health (MeSH D008603)
• Fertility (MeSH D005298)
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