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Improve water quality through meaningful, not just any, citizen science

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Rathenau Instituut, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, The Hague, The Netherlands

Affiliation HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

• Anne-Floor M. Schölvinck, 
• Wout Scholten, 
• Paul J. M. Diederen

Published: December 7, 2022

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000065
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Citation: Schölvinck A-FM, Scholten W, Diederen PJM (2022) Improve water quality through meaningful, not just any, citizen science. PLOS Water 1(12): e0000065. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000065

Editor: Debora Walker, PLOS: Public Library of Science, UNITED STATES

Copyright: © 2022 Schölvinck et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Water pollution is an urgent and complex problem worldwide, with many dire consequences for ecosystems, human health and economic development. Although policy measures in OECD countries have helped to reduce point source pollution, the situation is set to worsen: population growth and climate change are placing increasing pressures on the ability of water bodies to process wastewater, nutrients and contaminants [ 1 ].

For future generations to maintain a sufficient supply of clean drinking water and to retain a vital level of biodiversity, it is critical to involve the general public in dealing with the problems of water quality and water pollution. One specifically important and increasingly prominent way for the general public to get acquainted with water quality issues is through participation in research projects. All around the world numerous citizen science (CS) projects take place in the field of (drinking) water quality, hydrology, groundwater levels, and water biology [ 2 ]. In most cases these projects are motivated by the enormous potential volunteering citizens have to increase the temporal and spatial data availability. We argue that the value of many CS projects lies beyond data availability, in the broader societal benefits that these projects aspire or claim to achieve. In turn, these benefits could improve the way we approach water quality issues. The list of claimed and potential benefits is long: raising awareness, democratisation of science, development of mutual trust, confidence, and respect between scientists, authorities and the public, increased knowledge and scientific literacy, social learning, incorporation of local, traditional and indigenous knowledge, increased social capital, citizen empowerment, behavioural change, improved environment, health and livelihoods, and finally motivational benefits [ 3 ].

Many of these broader societal benefits of public engagement with water research are especially important to battle water related issues worldwide. Increased ‘water awareness’ among the public is needed to encourage a general sense of urgency and hence support for research investments and policy measures. In the Netherlands, like in many other countries, many citizens take safe and clean (drinking) water for granted [ 4 ]. Therefore, people are not sufficiently aware what investments are needed to provide safe tap water and what they themselves should do to reduce domestic water pollution. To truly counter the dangers of deteriorating water quality, water science and policy must be organised more inclusively and democratically.

The potential societal effect of CS in the water quality sector is substantial. In the Netherlands alone, more than 100,000 citizens volunteer as ‘sensors’ or observers in the numerous nature oriented research projects, in which they, for example, count aquatic animals or measure the chemical composition of river water. These projects are generally low-threshold, because the research tasks are relatively simple and adapted to the limited expertise and research skills of the participants. The large-scale and long-term monitoring done by volunteers would be unaffordable if carried out by professionals [ 5 ]. In other CS projects, though smaller in quantity, citizens have a larger degree of control. This is a gradual difference, typically divided in four categories, ranging from contributory (lowest level of control) to collaborative, co-creative and finally collegial [ 6 ]. Alternatively, these levels have been designated crowdsourcing, distributed intelligence, participatory science and extreme citizen science [ 7 ]. We consider all these levels of control as participating in research, even when the volunteers merely function as observers.

Although the potential benefits of citizen involvement with research projects are numerous and the potential societal impact is high, there are two main obstacles that must be overcome. First, the actual effects of these types of projects, other than the well-reported scientific benefits, remain largely unknown [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. Do participants have an increased understanding of the concerns of water quality researchers? Do they flush fewer medicines down the toilet? Do they avoid using pesticides in their gardens? Moreover, in order to truly raise public awareness and support for policies addressing water quality, it is important to not only get people involved who are already interested in nature, water quality and/or scientific research. The challenge is to have a diverse group of participants and to involve hard-to-reach groups [ 10 ].

Second, the dominant picture of CS projects, in our own Dutch based study as well as all across the world [ 3 ], is that most citizens participate in the collection of research data. Recalling Shirk et al.’s typology of involvement [ 6 ], this can be considered the lowest level of control and participation. Researchers, policy makers and interest groups hope that this type of involvement will generate public support for more scientific research and more effective policy measures to improve water quality, but citizens performing more significant roles in the research process is still uncommon.

From our analysis, we draw three recommendations to overcome these obstacles and to move beyond CS in water research for the sake of research only, in order to make it more meaningful in a broader, societal sense. For a start, we recommend to thoroughly evaluate the effect of citizen science on the attitudes , behaviour and knowledge of participants and on the system as a whole . As mentioned above, and also pointed out by Somerwill & Wehn [ 9 ], ‘the exact impacts of citizen science are still to be fully and comprehensively understood, while up to date impact assessment methods and frameworks are not yet fully integrated in practice’. Since the potential and claimed benefits are substantial, there is a considerable responsibility to prove these effects and to improve CS project designs to stimulate the occurrence of these benefits. Recent work provides the necessary tools to guide professional researchers and citizens to build the right project designs [ 11 , 12 ], integrate working evaluations [ 9 ], and consider several factors for successful CS projects [ 2 ]. It also needs to be established how to include diverse groups of participants, including the ones with a low interest in nature and environmental issues.

Secondly, we recommend to involve participants more intensively in agenda setting and research design . Currently, the threshold to participate in CS projects tends to be fairly low, but so is the level of control and participation. Tasks of citizen scientists are typically limited and so is their sense of project ownership, although the likelihood of actual effects taking place increases with an increased degree of control for participants [ 3 ]. For instance, a number of projects report a rise or restoration of trust in local authorities and research institutions ‘due to the co-production process and the appreciation of local knowledge’ [ 3 , 13 ].

There is ample potential to increase participation to more shared decision-making on the purpose and design of the research. An important step would be to open up the drafting of research agendas to diverse groups of citizens and societal actors. This type of citizen involvement is already common practice in other fields of research. One might look at some research fields within health and healthcare studies as good practices. ‘Nothing about us without us’ has become a guiding principle, also within health research (see one of our other studies, on public engagement in psychiatry research [ 14 ]).

In the Netherlands, it is becoming common practice for experts by experience (current patients, recovered patients, patient associations) to have a seat at the table when funding decisions are made. Funding agencies increasingly demand applicants to demonstrate how they included patients or other experts by experience in the development of their research proposal. Funding agencies also include patient associations in the development of their research and funding agendas. These practices show that more shared-decision making processes are possible. We consider three conditions that are crucial for meaningful involvement: A) leadership and management of funding agencies to actively value and endorse public engagement leading to changes in their modus operandi; B) training and support for participating citizens, experts by experience and other societal stakeholders; C) researchers who do not regard public engagement as just another box to tick, but who truly integrate public engagement in their research design. This also means these researchers should be incentivised to integrate public engagement in their research, which points to necessary changes in the way they are recognised and rewarded [ 15 ].

Lastly, we recommend to employ public involvement as an extra stimulus for the practical application of knowledge . For professional scientists, the participation of volunteers in research has concrete value. They use the inputs to improve data availability, improve data quality and for their publications. For participants, the benefit is less tangible. Often, their only reward is the joy of the experience itself. However, as participants contribute more, there is a risk of exploitation. We emphasise that intrinsic motivations are most important for participants, but these motivations go beyond the joy of the experience, such as learning, environmental concern, making a difference, and social aspects of participation [ 2 , 16 ]. Rewards should fit these main drivers of participants for instance by showing how their engagement makes a difference, and by public acknowledgement for their work. A stronger incentive for participation could be provided by showing how the research contributes to the improvement of the (local) natural environment, water quality and biodiversity. Therefore, researchers should provide the volunteers with feedback about the results of the study to which they contributed. Beyond this act of courtesy, they should derive inspiration from the interaction with societal actors to focus more on the societal impact of their work. Some scholars emphasise how several motivations and effects of CS projects reinforce one another to create a desired upwards spiral (e.g. more knowledge and scientific literacy → more environmental concern → intrinsic motivation to make a difference → greater participation in CS projects → more knowledge and scientific literacy) [ 2 ], [ 3 ]. Professional scientists could and should play an active role in realising these societal effects.

In all, citizen science has great potential in water quality research. In fact, numerous projects already illustrate the value of CS to improve water quality around the world. It may help fight the dire threats of water pollution, by raising water awareness, strengthening public support for research, and ultimately for better policies and changes in behaviour. Yet, to reap success with citizen science fully, it should be purposefully designed for such broader societal goals. Therefore, efforts must be made to get a better understanding of the effects of research participation on volunteers, to involve citizen scientist in research agenda setting and the design of research projects, and to listen to them for the practical application of research results.

This article is based on the Dutch report Scholten W, Schölvinck AFM, Van Ewijk S, Diederen PJM. Open science op de oever–Publieke betrokkenheid bij onderzoek naar waterkwaliteit. The Hague: Rathenau Instituut; 2020. Available from: https://www.rathenau.nl/nl/vitale-kennisecosystemen/open-science-op-de-oever [ 17 ].

• 1. OECD. Diffuse Pollution, Degraded Waters: Emerging Policy Solutions. Paris: OECD; 2017.
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• 15. Felt U. “Response-able practices” or “new bureaucracies of virtue”: The challenges of making RRI work in academic environments. In: Asveld L, Van Dam-Mieras R, Swierstra T, Lavrijssen S, Linse K, Van den Hoven J, editors. Responsible Innovation 3: A European Agenda? Cham: Springer; 2017. pp. 49–68.

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Review article, effects of water pollution on human health and disease heterogeneity: a review.

• 1 Research Center for Economy of Upper Reaches of the Yangtse River/School of Economics, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
• 2 School of Economics and Management, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China

Background: More than 80% of sewage generated by human activities is discharged into rivers and oceans without any treatment, which results in environmental pollution and more than 50 diseases. 80% of diseases and 50% of child deaths worldwide are related to poor water quality.

Methods: This paper selected 85 relevant papers finally based on the keywords of water pollution, water quality, health, cancer, and so on.

Results: The impact of water pollution on human health is significant, although there may be regional, age, gender, and other differences in degree. The most common disease caused by water pollution is diarrhea, which is mainly transmitted by enteroviruses in the aquatic environment.

Discussion: Governments should strengthen water intervention management and carry out intervention measures to improve water quality and reduce water pollution’s impact on human health.

Introduction

Water is an essential resource for human survival. According to the 2021 World Water Development Report released by UNESCO, the global use of freshwater has increased six-fold in the past 100 years and has been growing by about 1% per year since the 1980s. With the increase of water consumption, water quality is facing severe challenges. Industrialization, agricultural production, and urban life have resulted in the degradation and pollution of the environment, adversely affecting the water bodies (rivers and oceans) necessary for life, ultimately affecting human health and sustainable social development ( Xu et al., 2022a ). Globally, an estimated 80% of industrial and municipal wastewater is discharged into the environment without any prior treatment, with adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. This proportion is higher in the least developed countries, where sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities are severely lacking.

Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollution are mainly concentrated in industrialization, agricultural activities, natural factors, and insufficient water supply and sewage treatment facilities. First, industry is the main cause of water pollution, these industries include distillery industry, tannery industry, pulp and paper industry, textile industry, food industry, iron and steel industry, nuclear industry and so on. Various toxic chemicals, organic and inorganic substances, toxic solvents and volatile organic chemicals may be released in industrial production. If these wastes are released into aquatic ecosystems without adequate treatment, they will cause water pollution ( Chowdhary et al., 2020 ). Arsenic, cadmium, and chromium are vital pollutants discharged in wastewater, and the industrial sector is a significant contributor to harmful pollutants ( Chen et al., 2019 ). With the acceleration of urbanization, wastewater from industrial production has gradually increased. ( Wu et al., 2020 ). In addition, water pollution caused by industrialization is also greatly affected by foreign direct investment. Industrial water pollution in less developed countries is positively correlated with foreign direct investment ( Jorgenson, 2009 ). Second, water pollution is closely related to agriculture. Pesticides, nitrogen fertilizers and organic farm wastes from agriculture are significant causes of water pollution (RCEP, 1979). Agricultural activities will contaminate the water with nitrates, phosphorus, pesticides, soil sediments, salts and pathogens ( Parris, 2011 ). Furthermore, agriculture has severely damaged all freshwater systems in their pristine state ( Moss, 2008 ). Untreated or partially treated wastewater is widely used for irrigation in water-scarce regions of developing countries, including China and India, and the presence of pollutants in sewage poses risks to the environment and health. Taking China as an example, the imbalance in the quantity and quality of surface water resources has led to the long-term use of wastewater irrigation in some areas in developing countries to meet the water demand of agricultural production, resulting in serious agricultural land and food pollution, pesticide residues and heavy metal pollution threatening food safety and Human Health ( Lu et al., 2015 ). Pesticides have an adverse impact on health through drinking water. Comparing pesticide use with health life Expectancy Longitudinal Survey data, it was found that a 10% increase in pesticide use resulted in a 1% increase in the medical disability index over 65 years of age ( Lai, 2017 ). The case of the Musi River in India shows a higher incidence of morbidity in wastewater-irrigated villages than normal-water households. Third, water pollution is related to natural factors. Taking Child Loess Plateau as an example, the concentration of trace elements in water quality is higher than the average world level, and trace elements come from natural weathering and manufacture causes. Poor river water quality is associated with high sodium and salinity hazards ( Xiao et al., 2019 ). The most typical water pollution in the middle part of the loess Plateau is hexavalent chromium pollution, which is caused by the natural environment and human activities. Loess and mudstone are the main sources, and groundwater with high concentrations of hexavalent chromium is also an important factor in surface water pollution (He et al., 2020). Finally, water supply and sewage treatment facilities are also important factors affecting drinking water quality, especially in developing countries. In parallel with China rapid economic growth, industrialization and urbanization, underinvestment in basic water supply and treatment facilities has led to water pollution, increased incidence of infectious and parasitic diseases, and increased exposure to industrial chemicals, heavy metals and algal toxins ( Wu et al., 1999 ). An econometric model predicts the impact of water purification equipment on water quality and therefore human health. When the proportion of household water treated with water purification equipment is reduced from 100% to 90%, the expected health benefits are reduced by up to 96%.. When the risk of pretreatment water quality is high, the decline is even more significant ( Brown and Clasen, 2012 ).

To sum up, water pollution results from both human and natural factors. Various human activities will directly affect water quality, including urbanization, population growth, industrial production, climate change, and other factors ( Halder and Islam, 2015 ) and religious activities ( Dwivedi et al., 2018 ). Improper disposal of solid waste, sand, and gravel is also one reason for decreasing water quality ( Ustaoğlua et al., 2020 ).

Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health

Unsafe water has severe implications for human health. According to UNESCO 2021 World Water Development Report , about 829,000 people die each year from diarrhea caused by unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hand hygiene, including nearly 300,000 children under the age of five, representing 5.3 percent of all deaths in this age group. Data from Palestine suggest that people who drink municipal water directly are more likely to suffer from diseases such as diarrhea than those who use desalinated and household-filtered drinking water ( Yassin et al., 2006 ). In a comparative study of tap water, purified water, and bottled water, tap water was an essential source of gastrointestinal disease ( Payment et al., 1997 ). Lack of water and sanitation services also increases the incidence of diseases such as cholera, trachoma, schistosomiasis, and helminthiasis. Data from studies in developing countries show a clear relationship between cholera and contaminated water, and household water treatment and storage can reduce cholera ( Gundry et al., 2004 ). In addition to disease, unsafe drinking water, and poor environmental hygiene can lead to gastrointestinal illness, inhibiting nutrient absorption and malnutrition. These effects are especially pronounced for children.

Purpose of This Paper

More than two million people worldwide die each year from diarrhoeal diseases, with poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water being the leading cause of nearly 90% of deaths and affecting children the most (United Nations, 2016). More than 50 kinds of diseases are caused by poor drinking water quality, and 80% of diseases and 50% of child deaths are related to poor drinking water quality in the world. However, water pollution causes diarrhea, skin diseases, malnutrition, and even cancer and other diseases related to water pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to study the impact of water pollution on human health, especially disease heterogeneity, and clarify the importance of clean drinking water, which has important theoretical and practical significance for realizing sustainable development goals. Unfortunately, although many kinds of literature focus on water pollution and a particular disease, there is still a lack of research results that systematically analyze the impact of water pollution on human health and the heterogeneity of diseases. Based on the above background and discussion, this paper focuses on the effect of water pollution on human health and its disease heterogeneity.

Materials and Methods

Search process.

This article uses keywords such as “water,” “water pollution,” “water quality,” “health,” “diarrhea,” “skin disease,” “cancer” and “children” to search Web of Science and Google Scholar include SCI and SSCI indexed papers, research reports, and works from 1990 to 2021.

Inclusion-Exclusion Criteria and Data Extraction Process

The existing literature shows that water pollution and human health are important research topics in health economics, and scholars have conducted in-depth research. As of 30 December 2021, 104 related literatures were searched, including research papers, reviews and conference papers. Then, according to the content relevancy, 19 papers were eliminated, and 85 papers remained. The purpose of this review is to summarize the impact of water pollution on human health and its disease heterogeneity and to explore how to improve human health by improving water pollution control measures.

Information extracted from all included papers included: author, publication date, sample country, study methodology, study purpose, and key findings. All analysis results will be analyzed according to the process in Figure 1 .

FIGURE 1 . Data extraction process (PRISMA).

The relevant information of the paper is exported to the Excel database through Endnote, and the duplicates are deleted. The results were initially extracted by one researcher and then cross-checked by another researcher to ensure that all data had been filtered and reviewed. If two researchers have different opinions, the two researchers will review together until a final agreement is reached.

Quality Assessment of the Literature

The JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist was used to evaluate the quality of each paper. The JBI (Joanna Briggs Institute) key assessment tool was developed by the JBI Scientific Committee after extensive peer review and is designed for system review. All features of the study that meet the following eight criteria are included in the final summary:1) clear purpose; 2) Complete information of sample variables; 3) Data basis; 4) the validity of data sorting; 5) ethical norms; (6); 7) Effective results; 8) Apply appropriate quantitative methods and state the results clearly. Method quality is evaluated by the Yes/No questions listed in the JBI Key Assessment List. Each analysis paper received 6 out of 8.

The quality of drinking water is an essential factor affecting human health. Poor drinking water quality has led to the occurrence of water-borne diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) survey, 80% of the world’s diseases and 50% of the world’s child deaths are related to poor drinking water quality, and there are more than 50 diseases caused by poor drinking water quality. The quality of drinking water in developing countries is worrying. The negative health effects of water pollution remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries. Different from the existing literature review, this paper mainly studies the impact of water pollution on human health according to the heterogeneity of diseases. We focuses on diarrhea, skin diseases, cancer, child health, etc., and sorts out the main effects of water pollution on human health ( Table 1 ).

TABLE 1 . Major studies on the relationship between water pollution and health.

Water Pollution and Diarrhea

Diarrhea is a common symptom of gastrointestinal diseases and the most common disease caused by water pollution. Diarrhea is a leading cause of illness and death in young children in low-income countries. Diarrhoeal diseases account for 21% of annual deaths among children under 5 years of age in developing countries ( Waddington et al., 2009 ). Many infectious agents associated with diarrhea are directly related to contaminated water ( Ahmed and Ismail, 2018 ). Parasitic worms present in non-purifying drinking water when is consumed by human beings causes diseases ( Ansari and Akhmatov., 2020 ) . It was found that treated water from water treatment facilities was associated with a lower risk of diarrhea than untreated water for all ages ( Clasen et al., 2015 ). For example, in the southern region of Brazil, a study found that factors significantly associated with an increased risk of mortality from diarrhoea included lack of plumbed water, lack of flush toilets, poor housing conditions, and overcrowded households. Households without access to piped water had a 4.8 times higher risk of infant death from diarrhea than households with access to piped water ( Victora et al., 1988 )

Enteroviruses exist in the aquatic environment. More than 100 pathogenic viruses are excreted in human and animal excreta and spread in the environment through groundwater, estuarine water, seawater, rivers, sewage treatment plants, insufficiently treated water, drinking water, and private wells ( Fong and Lipp., 2005 ). A study in Pakistan showed that coliform contamination was found in some water sources. Improper disposal of sewage and solid waste, excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, and deteriorating pipeline networks are the main causes of drinking water pollution. The main source of water-borne diseases such as gastroenteritis, dysentery, diarrhea, and viral hepatitis in this area is the water pollution of coliform bacteria ( Khan et al., 2013 ). Therefore, the most important role of water and sanitation health interventions is to hinder the transmission of diarrheal pathogens from the environment to humans ( Waddington et al., 2009 ).

Meta-analyses are the most commonly used method for water quality and diarrhea studies. It was found that improving water supply and sanitation reduced the overall incidence of diarrhea by 26%. Among Malaysian infants, having clean water and sanitation was associated with an 82% reduction in infant mortality, especially among infants who were not breastfed ( Esrey et al., 1991 ). All water quality and sanitation interventions significantly reduced the risk of diarrhoeal disease, and water quality interventions were found to be more effective than previously thought. Multiple interventions (including water, sanitation, and sanitation measures) were not more effective than single-focus interventions ( Fewtrell and Colford., 2005 ). Water quality interventions reduced the risk of diarrhoea in children and reduced the risk of E. coli contamination of stored water ( Arnold and Colford., 2007 ). Interventions to improve water quality are generally effective in preventing diarrhoea in children of all ages and under 5. However, some trials showed significant heterogeneity, which may be due to the research methods and their conditions ( Clasen et al., 2007 ).

Water Pollution and Skin Diseases

Contrary to common sense that swimming is good for health, studies as early as the 1950s found that the overall disease incidence in the swimming group was significantly higher than that in the non-swimming group. The survey shows that the incidence of the disease in people under the age of 10 is about 100% higher than that of people over 10 years old. Skin diseases account for a certain proportion ( Stevenson, 1953 ). A prospective epidemiological study of beach water pollution was conducted in Hong Kong in the summer of 1986–1987. The study found that swimmers on Hong Kong’s coastal beaches were more likely than non-swimmers to complain of systemic ailments such as skin and eyes. And swimming in more polluted beach waters has a much higher risk of contracting skin diseases and other diseases. Swimming-related disease symptom rates correlated with beach cleanliness ( Cheung et al., 1990 ).

A study of arsenic-affected villages in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan emphasized that skin diseases were caused by excessive water quality. By studying the relationship between excessive arsenic in drinking water caused by water pollution and skin diseases (mainly melanosis and keratosis), it was found that compared with people who consumed urban low-arsenic drinking water, the hair of people who consumed high-arsenic drinking water arsenic concentration increased significantly. The level of arsenic in drinking water directly affects the health of local residents, and skin disease is the most common clinical complication of arsenic poisoning. There is a correlation between arsenic concentrations in biological samples (hair and blood) from patients with skin diseases and intake of arsenic-contaminated drinking water ( Kazi et al., 2009 ). Another Bangladesh study showed that many people suffer from scabies due to river pollution ( Hanif et al., 2020 ). Not only that, but water pollution from industry can also cause skin cancer ( Arif et al., 2020 ).

Studies using meta-analysis have shown that exposure to polluted Marine recreational waters can have adverse consequences, including frequent skin discomfort (such as rash or itching). Skin diseases in swimmers may be caused by a variety of pathogenic microorganisms ( Yau et al., 2009 ). People (swimmers and non-swimmers) exposed to waters above threshold levels of bacteria had a higher relative risk of developing skin disease, and levels of bacteria in seawater were highly correlated with skin symptoms.

Studies have also suggested that swimmers are 3.5 times more likely to report skin diseases than non-swimmers. This difference may be a “risk perception bias” at work on swimmers, who are generally aware that such exposure may lead to health effects and are more likely to detect and report skin disorders. It is also possible that swimmers exaggerated their symptoms, reporting conditions that others would not classify as true skin disorders ( Fleisher and Kay. 2006 ).

Water Pollution and Cancer

According to WHO statistics, the number of cancer patients diagnosed in 2020 reached 19.3 million, while the number of deaths from cancer increased to 10 million. Currently, one-fifth of all global fevers will develop cancer during their lifetime. The types and amounts of carcinogens present in drinking water will vary depending on where they enter: contamination of the water source, water treatment processes, or when the water is delivered to users ( Morris, 1995 ).

From the perspective of water sources, arsenic, nitrate, chromium, etc. are highly associated with cancer. Ingestion of arsenic from drinking water can cause skin cancer and kidney and bladder cancer ( Marmot et al., 2007 ). The risk of cancer in the population from arsenic in the United States water supply may be comparable to the risk from tobacco smoke and radon in the home environment. However, individual susceptibility to the carcinogenic effects of arsenic varies ( Smith et al., 1992 ). A high association of arsenic in drinking water with lung cancer was demonstrated in a northern Chilean controlled study involving patients diagnosed with lung cancer and a frequency-matched hospital between 1994 and 1996. Studies have also shown a synergistic effect of smoking and arsenic intake in drinking water in causing lung cancer ( Ferreccio et al., 2000 ). Exposure to high arsenic levels in drinking water was also associated with the development of liver cancer, but this effect was not significant at exposure levels below 0.64 mg/L ( Lin et al., 2013 ).

Nitrates are a broader contaminant that is more closely associated with human cancers, especially colorectal cancer. A study in East Azerbaijan confirmed a significant association between colorectal cancer and nitrate in men, but not in women (Maleki et al., 2021). The carcinogenic risk of nitrates is concentration-dependent. The risk increases significantly when drinking water levels exceed 3.87 mg/L, well below the current drinking water standard of 50 mg/L. Drinking water with nitrate concentrations lower than current drinking water standards also increases the risk of colorectal cancer ( Schullehner et al., 2018 ).

Drinking water with high chromium content will bring high carcinogenicity caused by hexavalent chromium to residents. Drinking water intake of hexavalent chromium experiments showed that hexavalent chromium has the potential to cause human respiratory cancer. ( Zhitkovich, 2011 ). A case from Changhua County, Taiwan also showed that high levels of chromium pollution were associated with gastric cancer incidence ( Tseng et al., 2018 ).

There is a correlation between trihalomethane (THM) levels in drinking water and cancer mortality. Bladder and brain cancers in both men and women and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and kidney cancer in men were positively correlated with THM levels, and bladder cancer mortality had the strongest and most consistent association with THM exposure index ( Cantor et al., 1978 ).

From the perspective of water treatment process, carcinogens may be introduced during chlorine treatment, and drinking water is associated with all cancers, urinary cancers and gastrointestinal cancers ( Page et al., 1976 ). Chlorinated byproducts from the use of chlorine in water treatment are associated with an increased risk of bladder and rectal cancer, with perhaps 5,000 cases of bladder and 8,000 cases of rectal cancer occurring each year in the United States (Morris, 1995).

The impact of drinking water pollutants on cancer is complex. Epidemiological studies have shown that drinking water contaminants, such as chlorinated by-products, nitrates, arsenic, and radionuclides, are associated with cancer in humans ( Cantor, 1997 ). Pb, U, F- and no3- are the main groundwater pollutants and one of the potential causes of cancer ( Kaur et al., 2021 ). In addition, many other water pollutants are also considered carcinogenic, including herbicides and pesticides, and fertilizers that contain and release nitrates ( Marmot et al., 2007 ). A case from Hebei, China showed that the contamination of nitrogen compounds in well water was closely related to the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture, and the levels of three nitrogen compounds in well water were significantly positively correlated with esophageal cancer mortality ( Zhang et al., 2003 ).

In addition, due to the time-lag effect, the impact of watershed water pollution on cancer is spatially heterogeneous. The mortality rate of esophageal cancer caused by water pollution is significantly higher downstream than in other regions due to the impact of historical water pollution ( Xu et al., 2019 ). A study based on changes in water quality in the watershed showed that a grade 6 deterioration in water quality resulted in a 9.3% increase in deaths from digestive cancer. ( Ebenstein, 2012 ).

Water Pollution and Child Health

Diarrhea is a common disease in children. Diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera) kill 1.8 million people each year, 90 per cent of them children under the age of five, mostly in developing countries. 88% of diarrhoeal diseases are caused by inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene (Team, 2004). A large proportion of these are caused by exposure to microbially infected water and food, and diarrhea in infants and young children can lead to malnutrition and reduced immune resistance, thereby increasing the likelihood of prolonged and recurrent diarrhea ( Marino, 2007 ). Pollution exposure experienced by children during critical periods of development is associated with height loss in adulthood ( Zaveri et al., 2020 ). Diseases directly related to water and sanitation, combined with malnutrition, also lead to other causes of death, such as measles and pneumonia. Child malnutrition and stunting due to inadequate water and sanitation will continue to affect more than one-third of children in the world ( Bartlett, 2003 ). A study from rural India showed that children living in households with tap water had significantly lower disease prevalence and duration ( Jalan and Ravallion, 2003 ).

In conclusion, water pollution is a significant cause of childhood diseases. Air, water, and soil pollution together killed 940,000 children worldwide in 2016, two-thirds of whom were under the age of 5, and the vast majority occurred in low- and middle-income countries ( Landrigan et al., 2018 ). The intensity of industrial organic water pollution is positively correlated with infant mortality and child mortality in less developed countries, and industrial water pollution is an important cause of infant and child mortality in less developed countries ( Jorgenson, 2009 ). In addition, arsenic in drinking water is a potential carcinogenic risk in children (García-Rico et al., 2018). Nitrate contamination in drinking water may cause goiter in children ( Vladeva et al.., 2000 ).

Discussions

This paper reviews the environmental science, health, and medical literature, with a particular focus on epidemiological studies linking water quality, water pollution, and human disease, as well as studies on water-related disease morbidity and mortality. At the same time, special attention is paid to publications from the United Nations and the World Health Organization on water and sanitation health research. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between water pollution and human health, including: The relationship between water pollution and diarrhea, the mechanism of action, and the research situation of meta-analysis; The relationship between water pollution and skin diseases, pathogenic factors, and meta-analysis research; The relationship between water pollution and cancer, carcinogenic factors, and types of cancer; The relationship between water pollution and Child health, and the major childhood diseases caused.

A study of more than 100 literatures found that although factors such as country, region, age, and gender may have different influences, in general, water pollution has a huge impact on human health. Water pollution is the cause of many human diseases, mainly diarrhoea, skin diseases, cancer and various childhood diseases. The impact of water pollution on different diseases is mainly reflected in the following aspects. Firstly, diarrhea is the most easily caused disease by water pollution, mainly transmitted by enterovirus existing in the aquatic environment. The transmission environment of enterovirus depends on includes groundwater, river, seawater, sewage, drinking water, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent the transmission of enterovirus from the environment to people through drinking water intervention. Secondly, exposure to or use of heavily polluted water is associated with a risk of skin diseases. Excessive bacteria in seawater and heavy metals in drinking water are the main pathogenic factors of skin diseases. Thirdly, water pollution can pose health risks to humans through any of the three links: the source of water, the treatment of water, and the delivery of water. Arsenic, nitrate, chromium, and trihalomethane are major carcinogens in water sources. Carcinogens may be introduced during chlorine treatment from water treatment. The effects of drinking water pollution on cancer are complex, including chlorinated by-products, heavy metals, radionuclides, herbicides and pesticides left in water, etc., Finally, water pollution is an important cause of children’s diseases. Contact with microbiologically infected water can cause diarrhoeal disease in children. Malnutrition and weakened immunity from diarrhoeal diseases can lead to other diseases.

This study systematically analyzed the impact of water pollution on human health and the heterogeneity of diseases from the perspective of different diseases, focusing on a detailed review of the relationship, mechanism and influencing factors of water pollution and diseases. From the point of view of limitations, this paper mainly focuses on the research of environmental science and environmental management, and the research on pathology is less involved. Based on this, future research can strengthen research at medical and pathological levels.

In response to the above research conclusions, countries, especially developing countries, need to adopt corresponding water management policies to reduce the harm caused by water pollution to human health. Firstly, there is a focus on water quality at the point of use, with interventions to improve water quality, including chlorination and safe storage ( Gundry et al., 2004 ), and provision of treated and clean water ( Khan et al., 2013 ). Secondly, in order to reduce the impact of water pollution on skin diseases, countries should conduct epidemiological studies on their own in order to formulate health-friendly bathing water quality standards suitable for their specific conditions ( Cheung et al., 1990 ). Thirdly, in order to reduce the cancer caused by water pollution, the whole-process supervision of water quality should be strengthened, that is, the purity of water sources, the scientific nature of water treatment and the effectiveness of drinking water monitoring. Fourthly, each society should prevent and control source pollution from production, consumption, and transportation ( Landrigan et al., 2018 ). Fifthly, health education is widely carried out. Introduce environmental education, educate residents on sanitary water through newspapers, magazines, television, Internet and other media, and enhance public health awareness. Train farmers to avoid overuse of agricultural chemicals that contaminate drinking water.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, XX|; methodology, LL; data curation, HY; writing and editing, LL; project administration, XX|.

This article is a phased achievement of The National Social Science Fund of China: Research on the blocking mechanism of the critical poor households returning to poverty due to illness, No: 20BJY057.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: water pollution, human health, disease heterogeneity, water intervention, health cost

Citation: Lin L, Yang H and Xu X (2022) Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease Heterogeneity: A Review. Front. Environ. Sci. 10:880246. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2022.880246

Received: 21 February 2022; Accepted: 09 June 2022; Published: 30 June 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Lin, Yang and Xu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Xiaocang Xu, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Bioaerosol Emission Characteristics and the Epidemiological, Occupational, and Public Health Risk Assessment of Waste and Wastewater Management

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Water strategies and water–food Nexus: challenges and opportunities towards sustainable development in various regions of the World

Hilmi s. salem.

1 Sustainable Development Research Institute, Bethlehem, West Bank Palestine

Musa Yahaya Pudza

2 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia

Yohannes Yihdego

3 Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, College of Science, Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086 Australia

4 Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (SMEC), Sydney, NSW 2060 Australia

Associated Data

All the data and material used for the purpose of the work presented in this paper are provided in the paper.

The twenty-first century is witnessing an explosion in global population, environmental changes, agricultural land disintegration, hunger, and geopolitical instabilities. It is difficult to manage these conditions or standardize improvement systems without thinking of the three main elements or subsystems that are necessary for any meaningful development—namely water (W), energy (E), and food (F). These key elements form what is globally agreed upon as the “WEF Nexus.” While considering them, one should think about the other key factors that influence WEF Nexus, including population’s growth, impacts of environmental changes (including climate change), moderation and adaptation regimes to climate change and climate resilience, loss of biodiversity, and sustainable nature. Together, the WEF Nexus subsystems represent a framework to ensure environmental protection that should be seen as an ethical and socioeconomic obligation. Issues, such as protection of water resources, and strategies and management tools or mechanisms for the use of water assets and agricultural innovations under the obligations of sustainable use, are investigated in this paper. Attention is paid to the relationship between water and food (WF Nexus) or water for food security in various world regions, including the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Central Asia countries and the Caucasus, China, Africa, and Canada. This paper also presents analyses of a great number of up-to-date publications regarding the “Nexus” perspective and its applications and limitations. This paper suggests that the Nexus’ approach, in its different concepts (WEF, WE, WF and EF), can promote sustainable development and improve the quality of life of communities, while preserving natural, human, and social capital, addressing sustainability challenges, and protecting natural resources and the environment for long-term use.

Introduction

Managing the water assets of many countries around the world is a challenge due to immense difficulties and vulnerabilities, rapid industrialization and urbanization processes, and the effects of environmental changes, including global warming and climate change, as well as population’s growth and geopolitical instabilities. The increase in water stress and shortages facing many countries worldwide is one of the main difficulties confronting practical progress globally (Yuan and Lo 2022 ). According to FAO’s Director-General—José Graziano da Silva—this challenge will increase as the global population swells and as environmental changes continue to rise (FAO 2017 ).

According to the World Health Organization (WHO 2019 ), one in three people globally (or one-third of the world’s population) does not have access to safe drinking water. Also, regarding inequalities in access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), more than half of the world does not have access to safe sanitation services. Some 2.2 billion people around the world do not have safely managed drinking water services, 4.2 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation services, and 3 billion people lack basic hand-washing facilities. “Children and their families in poor and rural communities are most at risk of being left behind. Governments must invest in their communities if we are going to bridge these economic and geographic divides and deliver this essential human right,” said Kelly Ann Naylor, Associate Director of WASH, UNICEF (WHO 2019 ). Every year, approximately 300,000 children, who are less than 5 years old, die due to diarrhea linked to inadequate WASH. Poor sanitation and contaminated water are also linked to transmission of diseases, such as cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and so forth. “Closing inequality gaps in the accessibility, quality, and availability of water, sanitation and hygiene should be at the heart of government funding and planning strategies. To relent on investment plans for universal coverage is to undermine decades’ worth of progress at the expense of coming generations,” said K.A. Naylor (WHO 2019 ).

Competition for water will escalate more than ever, as the world’s total population is projected to reach 8.6 billion by 2030 and 9.8 billion by 2050 (Islam and Karim 2019 ). It means that an additional 2.4 billion people are projected to be added to the global population between 2015 and 2050, whereas Africa will be the major contributor. On the other hand, the global water demand is projected to increase by 55% between 2000 and 2050 (Day 2019 ; Islam and Karim 2019 ). Effectively, many farmers in developing countries are suffering and will continue to suffer the ill-effects of the lack of access to freshwater, while clashes revolve regarding water resources arise around the world, especially in the presence of various scenarios related to the impacts of climate change (Salem 2009 , 2011 ; Islam and Karim 2019 ; Avgoustaki and Xydis 2020 ; Do et al. 2020 ; Zhang et al. 2020 ; Salem et al. 2021 ; ZamanZad-Ghavidel et al. 2021 ). An example of the old–new conflicts over water resources is that amongst Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt, which share the Nile River waters in the African continent. Conflict amongst the three countries has been escalating recently, especially after Ethiopia had completed construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) and finished the second filling of the Dam in July 2021, and recently started producing electricity (Yihdego et al. 2017a ; Aljazeera 2020 ; Mbaku 2020 ; Colton 2021 ; El-Gundy 2021 ; Tadesse 2022 ; Tesfamichael 2022 ).

While there are clear indications of approaching water emergencies around the world, as confirmed by more ongoing events, including dry seasons and droughts, long-term pollution of water resources, and climate change impacts, policy- and strategy-makers have yet to deal with the resulting consequences (Zhang et al. 2020 ; ZamanZad-Ghavidel et al. 2021 ). The full range of difficulties, resulting from water scarcity in the short and long terms, will have heavy impacts on many countries worldwide, politically, socially, financially, and economically (Yihdego et al. 2019 )—and these may lead in some regions, to military confrontations.

When focusing on changes and advances in strategies and management of water resources in the presence of extraordinary challenges, there is the need to overcome the latter. Regli and Heissermanb ( 2013 ) summarized such challenges into three basic elements—namely water (W), energy (E), and food (F), or WEF; and, in general, health and education, which can be explained in more detail as follows: (1) WEF will be major requirements for the human race’s ability to supply the global population, where the three WEF elements or subsystems are deeply interlinked and, thus, defined as “Nexus.” An example: energy and fertilizers are used to produce food and feedstock; water and feedstock are used to deliver meat (for example, it takes about 10 kg of feed and 15 L of water to deliver 1 kg of meat); and different food and non-food crops are used to provide biofuels (Ruel et al. 2018 ); (2) public welfare will continue to be a test and will be further affected by the provision of clean water and proper nutrition, the spread of diseases, and the transfer of medical services, such as the breakout of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic since December 2019 and ongoing (Worldometer 2022a ); and (3) Education will be of increased importance, as it can lead to socioeconomic changes that can impact population’s development (Regli and Heissermanb 2013 ; Grant 2017 ; Yihdego and Salem 2017 ; Salem 2020 ).

The relationship between water, energy, and food (WEF Nexus) is fundamental to sustainable development. The WEF Nexus is a concurrent global assessment solution for developing and implementing different approaches focusing on the security and adequacy of the three resources or subsystems (water, energy, and food). The WEF Nexus’ approach aims to promote sustainable development and improve the quality of life of communities, while preserving natural, human, and social capital, addressing long-term sustainability challenges, and protecting natural resources and the environment. WEF Nexus is a holistic vision of sustainability that strives to balance the various goals, interests, and needs of people, as well as the well-being of the environment, by assessing water, energy, and food inter-relationships, inter-linkages, and inter-dependences through qualitative and quantitative modeling, as well as developing research and resource management to deliver important strategies for sustainable development in today’s dynamic and complex world.

This paper investigates the relationship between water and food (WF Nexus) in several regions across the globe, as they are presently facing water problems related to stress, shortages, pollution, distribution, and climate change, as well as inequity in water distribution, representing a violation of the “water right” as being a basic human right. Several water issues, including the WF Nexus, are investigated in this paper, focusing on five regions of the world, including the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Central Asia countries and the Caucasus, China, Africa, and Canada. These regions and the WF Nexus, in particular, are investigated in this paper for the following reasons:

(1) The authors are knowledgeable and have work experience about the five investigated regions, regarding various issues, such as population’s growth, socio-economic and environmental vulnerabilities, water resources’ mismanagement, inequalities, and so forth; (2) Some of the investigated regions are extensively considered as water-stressed areas, such as the Arab countries in the Gulf region (GCC countries); others have plenty of water, such as Canada, but suffer from water distribution inequity regarding the Canadian Native (Indigenous) population, and also from water pollution to some extent; while some other regions, like China and Africa, have enough water but suffer from the high population—a fact that considerably affects water resources. In addition, the countries of the GCC and Africa suffer from poor management or better saying mismanagement of their water resources. These criteria are negatively reflected, quantitatively and qualitatively, on the food security in the WF Nexus in these regions. Indeed, there are some other geographical regions around the world—such as northeastern Brazil, India, and others—that are suffering from acute water stress, shortages, drought, and other problems which, hopefully, will be investigated by another research paper and compared with the regions investigated by this one; 3) Several studies cited in this paper also focused on the water–food Nexus (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) without giving attention to the energy element. Meanwhile, some other studies focused on the water–energy Nexus (WE Nexus) without giving attention to the food element, the energy–food Nexus (EF Nexus) without giving attention to the water element, and other studies focused on the three elements together, in terms of the WEF Nexus (Table ​ (Table1); 1 ); (4) The paper also investigates other issues referring to the water and food sectors, particularly when not directly related to the energy sector; and (5) Many regions around the world have no access to energy sources to generate electricity, meaning that they can live without energy—but they absolutely cannot live without water and food, despite the importance and necessity of energy for living.

Various studies of the Nexus’ concepts (WEF, WE, WF, and EF), regarding countries and regions worldwide for the 2008–2022 period

Methodology

To compare the different water-food challenges experienced in different regions of the world—which have different climatic and socio-economic conditions, this paper investigates water and food challenges in five different regions. It is based on a literature review and on data analysis, combined with the authors’ ample experience of the water situation in these regions. For this approach, quantitative and qualitative data were utilized and analyzed for the five regions investigated. Furthermore, several valuable, up-to-date articles were studied, analyzed, and provided in Table ​ Table1 1 to present a better and deeper understanding of the conditions and challenges facing the WF Nexus, as well as the WE Nexus, the EF Nexus, and the WEF Nexus in various regions of the world.

Results and discussion

Wef nexus, we nexus, wf nexus, and ef nexus, globally.

The water–energy–food Nexus (WEF Nexus), the water–energy Nexus (WE Nexus), the water–food Nexus (WF Nexus), and the energy–food Nexus (EF Nexus) guarantee access to safe and enough water, national food security and availability (in terms of quality and quantity), and national energy security, in an economically and environmentally sustainable manner. Recently (i.e., for the period 2008–2022), many researchers have studied the Nexus (WEF, WF, WE, EF), as well as other related issues mentioned above, regarding different countries and regions around the world (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Based on the studies provided in Table ​ Table1, 1 , the Nexus’ approach (in terms of WEF, WE, WF, and EF) can promote sustainable development and improve the quality of life of communities, while preserving natural, human, and social capital, addressing sustainability challenges, and protecting the environment and natural resources for long-term use. Table ​ Table1 1 shows that the Nexus’ approach can help create effective commercial programs and synergies amongst the three subsystems (water, energy, and food) or two of them, taking into account cross-sectoral, environmental, social, political, and geopolitical dimensions, as well as social justice and equity. Thus, the Nexus’ concept is greatly relevant, especially in the presence of the impacts of climate change, population’s growth, and many other influencing factors (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

The Nexus amongst water, energy, and food (WEF Nexus) and how their complex interactions can be defined are essential approaches to understanding such a complex relationship amongst the three elements or subsystems. Such a Nexus can be defined as the very close links amongst the three elements (WEF) and how changes in one of them can have impacts on the other two (individually or both together) (Fig.  1 ). For countries worldwide, the WEF Nexus affects national water, energy, and food security and, thus, enabling socioeconomic developments.

Summary of the water–energy–food (WEF) Nexus (after Hoff ( 2011 ) and Albrecht et al. ( 2018 ) (left), and after Mahlknecht et al. ( 2020 ) (right))

Water–food (WF) Nexus in five different regions of the world

The WF Nexus’ thinking is approached in this paper from the perspective of equitable and sustainable growth and the multi- and inter-disciplinary relationship amongst population’s growth, environment, climate change, society, economy (including green economy), finance, governance, innovation, urbanization, infrastructure, green cities, policy, synergies, trade-offs, governability, and, to some extent, water as a basic human right, international law, and regional geopolitics (Fig.  1 ).

To understand the interlinkages between the water and food subsystems (or elements), the following five regions were investigated in the present work, considering the variations amongst the different regions, concerning, for instance, climate, population, culture, socioeconomic conditions, and so forth.

a. Gulf Cooperation Council’s (GCC) Countries: The six Gulf Cooperation Council’s (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—UAE) constitute together an area of approximately 2.6 million km 2 (more than a million square miles). The population estimates indicate that more than 60 million people live in all GCC countries, and their total GDP is USD 3.464 trillion (WPR 2022a , b ).

More money will come to the coffers of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries as a result of the recent war between Russia and Ukraine. This is due to oil and gas prices that have skyrocketed to over USD 100. If this war would continue for an extended period of time, it will have dire implications and consequences for the global economy, stability, and security (see, for instance, Jones 2022 ; Power 2022 ; Whalen and Bogage 2022 ).

The GCC countries are considered some of the driest and most freshwater-stressed countries globally. Accordingly, reasonable water management has become a challenge to the GCC countries, separately and collectively, as being considered one of the most difficult assignments confronting them. Water in the GCC countries is made available through three resources: (1) Groundwater, which is usually replenished by seasonal rains that are decreasing year after year due to climate change impacts and large, ungoverned water consumption; (2) Desalinated seawater, which is supplied via modern, high-tech desalination plants; and (3) Wastewater treatment and reuse, which has been introduced relatively recently, and is obtained via wastewater and sewage treatment plants that supply water for agricultural purposes at limited scales only (Saif et al. 2014 ; Aleisa and Al-Zubari 2017 ; Yihdego and Salem 2017 ; Qureshi 2020 ; Salem 2021 ).

By expanding the areas used for agriculture and, thus, the water consumption to satisfy irrigation and population’s growth needs, the groundwater resources will dry out in the Gulf countries (Novo 2019 ; Al-Saidi and Hussein 2021 ). Estimates of the groundwater resources below the Saudi deserts have a range between 252 and 870 billion cubic meters (BCM) of “fossil groundwater” (NASA EO 2012a ). On average, the Saudi deserts sit atop 500 BCM of fossil groundwater.

By 2008, 21 BCM of fossil groundwater were extracted annually to support modern intensive agriculture in Saudi Arabia (FAO 2008 ), whereas 87% of the water resources in Saudi Arabia go to the agriculture sector (Napoli et al. 2016 ; Ghanim 2019 ). By 2012, the consumption for human, industrial, and agricultural usages was 23.7 BCM/year (NASA EO 2012a ). This fossil groundwater is used much faster than it can regenerate or replenish itself. The enormous imbalance between the current (as for 2020) groundwater discharge or consumption (currently 27.8 BCM/year) and fossil groundwater recharge (currently 5.3 BCM/year) causes the excessive lowering of groundwater levels in the aquifer systems in Saudi Arabia (Qureshi 2020 ). Accordingly, the discharge is approximately 5.25 (i.e., 27.8/5.3) times the replenishment rate of renewable groundwater resources. Other GCC countries have already reached a drawdown ratio of around 3:1, except for the UAE, where this ratio is much higher. Experts, accordingly, have estimated that 80% of the Saudi fossil groundwater has been gone (National Geographic 2012 ; DeNicola et al. 2015 ; Chandrasekharam 2018 ; Sultan et al. 2019 ; Bafarasat and Oliveira 2021 ). Over the past three decades (1990–2020), Saudi Arabia has been exploring and exploiting groundwater (fossil and replenished) at extremely severe rates, which is considered a resource that is more precious than hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas), especially Saudi Arabia and the other GCC countries have enormous sources of renewable energy, particularly solar energy (Basha et al. 2021 ).

Engineers and farmers have tapped into hidden water reserves to grow grains, fruits, and vegetables in the extremely hot deserts of Saudi Arabia. Figure  2 shows satellite images illustrating the evolution of agricultural operations in the Wadi As-Sirhan Basin, Saudi Arabia (NASA EO 2012b ), as viewed by satellites over a period of a quarter a century (i.e., in 1987, 1991, 2000, and 2012).

Irrigation in Saudi Arabian deserts as seen from space (Image ID: DW64EE) for years—from left to right—1987, 1991, 2000, and 2012 (modified after Grist 2012 )

The average precipitation is only 100–200 mm/year, and it usually does not recharge the aquifer systems in Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries. On the other hand, about 17,300 km 2 of irrigated areas will shrink in the foreseeable future due to water shortages; thus, resulting in a sharp reduction in the GDP contribution below 3%, which ascertains the groundwater as a non-renewable resource (Aboud et al. 2014 ; Chandrasekharam 2018 ; Pester and Zimmermann 2022 ). As for 2006, Saudi Arabia had 2.4 BCM of renewable freshwater resources on the surface, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (FAO 2008 ). Fossil groundwater in Saudi Arabia gave the nation hope of achieving its long-awaited goal of feeding itself rather than importing food from other countries. Saudi Arabia increased wheat imports from 1.92 million tons (MT) in 2013 to 3.03 MT in mid-2014, which was a short-term solution to circumvent water scarcity (Chandrasekharam 2018 ). In 2019/2020, Saudi Arabia imported 3.7 MT of wheat; 93.1% of the latter was imported from the European Union (EU) (Mousa 2021 ). However, as the war between Russia and Ukraine is currently going on, many countries worldwide, including Arab countries, will be badly affected regarding the wheat, corn, and cooking oils imported from Russia and Ukraine. This is due to the fact that Russia and Ukraine are primary exporters of these food products, worldwide (see, for instance, Arab News 2022 ; Quinn and Durisin 2022 ; TAW 2022 ).

Water management’s efficiency or good governance of water resources in the GCC countries, on the supply–demand side, is very low. On the supply side, the fraction of the physical spillage of non-revenue generating water in urban systems ranges from 30% to over 40% (Al-Saidi and Saliba 2019 ). This contrasts with the expense of desalinated water, which is somewhere in the range of USD 0.5–1.0 per cubic meter (Ghaffour et al. 2013 ; Al-Saidi and Saliba 2019 ). Currently, 439 desalination plants produce 5.75 BCM/year of desalinated water in the GCC countries (Qureshi 2020 ). The WF Nexus indicates how important seawater desalination is in the GCC countries and how it plays a major role in increasing drinking water supply and meeting water demands in the food and agricultural sectors—considering that the GCC countries collectively bear about 60% of the global production of desalinated water (Al-Farra 2015 ; Qureshi 2020 ).

b. Central Asia Countries and the Caucasus : The Central Asia and Caucasus region comprises five Central Asia countries—Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan—lying east of the Caspian Sea, and their three neighbors to the west of the Caspian sea, namely Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia. The region is located near the center of the Eurasian continent, and its close proximity to Russia, China, the Middle East, Afghanistan, and Pakistan makes it vulnerable to geopolitical unstable regional conditions (Fig.  3 ). All countries in the region gained their independence after the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991. While they all seek to follow market economy systems, there are significant disparities in economic development due to each country’s natural resources and other factors such as pace of reforms (JICA 2010 ).

Map of the Central Asia Countries and the Caucasus (modified after Maps Owje 2022 )

In recent years, many Central Asian countries are striving to use water to generate hydropower from the Rogun Dam on the Vakhsh River, which is a branch of the Amu Darya River Basin (ADRB), representing Afghanistan’s northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan (Fig.  3 ). The Dam will provide hydropower to the upstream country—Tajikistan, while the downstream countries fear the opposite effect when flooding of the River will affect their horticulture in a very negative way. Despite some recent evaluations of the water assets’ management in ADRB, nothing to date tends to adversely negate the framework of the WF Nexus in the region of the Rogun Dam. To this connection, two basic methods of servicing the Dam were examined: (1) The energy situation, which ensures the hydropower needs of Tajikistan (WE Nexus); and (2) The deluge method, which guarantees water for agriculture for the downstream countries of the River (WF Nexus).

The outcomes that address the Rogun Dam (as aforementioned) show that the lifestyle can ensure a doubled vitality to Tajikistan, yet it will reduce access to water during the developing period, resulting in a 37% natural reduction in rural advantages in the downstream countries (Jalilov et al. 2016 ). In Central Asia, specifically, natural sciences and engineering professionals do not hold a prominent function in water assets’ management. Moreover, Georgia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (Fig.  3 ) are the central notable countries that did not agree to the Espoo Conference. Armenia only confirmed the Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA Protocol), while Georgia and Moldova have marked the SEA Protocol but have not yet approved it (UNECE 2013 ).

In Moldova and Turkmenistan, national techniques for modifying environmental changes include water issues. An adjustment procedure for water supply and sanitation has also been drawn up in Moldova with the help of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU). Kyrgyzstan has already built up a national methodology to adjust water assets’ management to face the impacts of environmental changes (UN OECD 2014 ).

c. China: In China, the total annual preserved water assets are around 2800–2841 BCM (Xie et al. 2009 ; MWR 2011 ). Even though the full water preserved has increased, making it the sixth-largest proportion of other nations on the Earth, the per-capita water assets were 2040 m 3 /ca/year in 2008, forming about a quarter of the global average (Liu et al. 2012 ). It is, in any case, an extraordinary share of water (2040 m 3 /ca/year) compared with other nations in different regions of the world. For example, in the Occupied Palestinian Territories—OPT), the per-capita water supply per year reaches, in some localities of the OPT, as low as 7.3 m 3 /ca/year (about 20 l/ca/day) (Salem and Isaac 2007 ; Isaac and Salem 2007 ; B’Tselem 2014 ; Hass 2014 ; Corradin 2016 ; Salem et al. 2021 ). However, this is not a result of water shortage but rather the geopolitics dominating the region. Israel (the occupation authority) is in almost total control of the Palestinian water assets (Corradin 2016 ; Salem et al. 2021 ).

Other than the generally few per-capita water assets in China, space allocation of water exacerbates the water shortage problem (Fig.  4 ). Ruled by the mainland rainstorm climate, 60–70% of annual rainfall in many regions of China is collected in summer times, whereas this rate is much higher in the northern parts of China (Cheng et al. 2009 ; Fang et al. 2021 ; Kondash et al. 2021 ; Yuan et al. 2021 ). Annual precipitation in China decreases little by little from the largest scale, over 2000 mm/year, to the lowest scale below 100 mm/year (Zhai et al. 2005 ; Ding et al. 2021 ). Also, the decrease in the annual precipitation in China has resulted in a clear increase of soil loss with precipitation up to mean annual precipitation of approximately 700 mm/year (Zhao et al. 2022 ). Water accessibility demonstrates a greater variation of space, whereas access to water assets is lower in northern China than in other regions of the country.

Spatial dissemination of the Chinese water and arable land assets: A spatial example of water usage assets. All information depends on heave normal run-away evaluation and populace for the time of the year 2000 (CIESIN 2010 ) with a spatial goal of 30 circular segments; B the number of people below the various amount of water pressure; C portion of developed terra territory. Developed land information is from Fischer et al. ( 2008 ) with spatial goals of 5 circular segment minutes; and D portion of viable land with water shortages (modified after Liu et al. 2013 )

The Huaihe, Haihe, and Huanghe (3H) waterways’ basins (ponds), mainly located in the North China Plain, account for 33% of China’s water, 35% of the water yield, 40% of the developed land in China, and 50% of the general grain production. However, this area forms only 7.6% of the country’s water assets (Guoyuan and Jiongxin 1987 ; FAO 2011 ; Liu et al. 2013 ; Yu and Wu 2018 ). The 3H-ponds are amongst the Chinese regions with severe water shortages. In contrast, the management of water assets is of critical importance to maintain water and sustenance provision, societal resilience, financial development, and natural well-being at the provincial and federal levels to a large extent. This is because of the uneven distribution of water assets and population, and due to the fact that 44% of China’s population lives in areas with severe water shortage (< 500 m 3 /ca/year) and 16% of the population lives in areas suffering from water shortages (500–1700 m 3 /ca/year) (Fig.  4 A) (Liu et al. 2013 ).

Significant irregularities between water assets and arable land increase the water shortage problem. Arable land in China was only 0.08 ha/ca in 2008 and is still almost the same until recently (World Bank 2021 ), less than 40% of the average global level (FAO/WHO 2001 ; FAO 2021 ). The largest fertile land offerings are located in the North China Plain, the Northeast Plain, and the Sichuan Basin (Fig.  4 C), yet these areas often suffer from real water shortages (Fig.  4 A). Most of the developed arable land is located in deserted areas (Fig.  4 D), including, for example, the North China Plain, which is known as “China’s Bread Box” or Bin. Rainfall is insufficient to help generate expanded yields; however, the well-managed water system is expected to achieve a highly efficient yield, or in other words, to accomplish high harvest efficiency (Liu et al. 2013 ), representing a good achievement towards the WF Nexus in China.

d. Africa : Africa is a unique mainland, but it harbors several traits and problems regarding societal structures, monetary systems, and common assets, among others. Africa’s multi-faceted ecology and natural resources require effective official responses to some formative measures (such as quality practices and their impacts on regional development), national assets, and security issues (Yihdego and Kwadwo 2017 ). Because of the mismanagement and high levels of corruption in many African countries, their governments are losing the financial revenues of their natural resources, including, for instance, the large revenues of energy (fossil and renewable) sources, considerably (Yihdego et al. 2017b , 2018a , b ). Africa enjoys several renewable energy sources, including solar power, wind power, and hydro-power, which all have considerable values of the capacity factor (CF). The CF of a power plant is defined as the ratio of the actual energy produced in a given period to the hypothetical maximum possible (Yihdego et al. 2017b ).

This also applies to issues related to water which, apart from its more considerable natural resources (surface and underground), are the heterogeneity of African landscapes and surroundings. Despite the efforts made by some African countries and the global network to advance, including, for instance, the achievements of the UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs), many countries in Africa have missed the targets, particularly concerning integrating water supply and sanitation (Daniel et al. 2014 ; EABW News 2019 ). This is despite the fact that Africa, in general, enjoys considerable amounts of annual precipitation, recharging the surface water and groundwater bodies in the continent (Fig.  5 ).

Map of the mean annual precipitation in Africa (modified after Al-Gamal and Hamed 2014 )

Settlements in Africa, either urban or semi-urban, have contradicting access to water assets and use and management. These contradictions must be evaluated and taken into account when determining specific strategies for water advancement and management (Yihdego et al. 2017a ). For example, the Africa Water Vision 2025 (AWV 2025) promotes that Africa, where an unbiased and maintainable use and management of water assets exist, should alleviate poverty, improve financial revenues, encourage regional participation, and preserve nature (UN Water/Africa 2004 ).

Rapid population’s growth, improper water management, insufficient institutional plans, high rates of water consumption, pollution of water assets, climate change impacts, environmental degradation, deforestation, and low and unsustainable financing of interests in water supply and sanitation are all part of the significant risks that pose difficulties to manage water assets on the mainland Africa (Anelich 2014 ; Daniel et al. 2014 ).

Population’s growth is one of the major problems Africa has been facing. By 2020, Africa had over 1.36 billion inhabitants with a population’s growth rate of 2.49%, and the continent’s population will continue to increase significantly in the coming years, reaching nearly 2.5 billion people by 2050 (Saleh 2022 ). It is generally envisioned that risks cannot be dealt with effectively by adhering to the same age-old things in water assets’ management at the local, national, and regional levels. Attention to risk calls for appropriating good governance, community agreement and involvement, creative progress, and all the structures created for beneficial activities, guided by the AWV 2025, the UN’s MDGs, and the UN’s SDGs, urge African governments to deal with all water improvement issues, plus vitality improvement issues (Yihdego and Salem 2017 ).

One of the most severe difficulties that must be addressed if the AWV 2025 and the UN’s MDGs and the UN’s SDGs are to be achieved is the lack of trained personnel (specialized and administrative) and monetary and material assets. It is specifically important with what has been identified concerning the management and implementation of water and sanitation administrative issues and projects (Pietersen et al. 2006 ; Yihdego and Kwadwo 2017 ). Other than the labor shortage in the water assets’ management, there is a need for more qualified personnel in parts of water laws and regulations and financial matters for quantitative water assets. The low rate of retention of qualified staff, the lack of adequate preparation and underfunding, and generally the lack of research institutions affect, primarily, the water assets in Africa, though they are plenty. Likewise, there is a need to set a societal limit about WASH (USAID’s Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene projects) and the assets to be effectively used through instructions, institutional good management, and data correctness and availability.

There is primarily a lack of technical know-how and institutional quality, especially in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), where delivery of good management of water assets is limited (Pietersen et al. 2006 ). Strengthening indicative boundaries, preparing limits at all levels, advancing harmonization, and enhancing information collection and sharing are all advantageous elements for IWRM in Africa (Daniel et al. 2014 ). The good news is that the United Nations has recently indicated that there is some progress taking place regarding IWRM in Africa (UNEP 2021 ).

e. Canada: It is easy for Canadians to assume that they have an almost endless supply of clean freshwater, as Canada harbors 7% of the world’s renewable freshwater (GoC 2018 ) (Fig.  6 ), with a total population of approximately 38.4 million as of July 2022—equivalent to only 0.48% of the total world population (Worldometer 2022b ). In addition, Canada is the second-largest country in the area after Russia. Russia occupies 17.1 million km 2 and Canada, 9.985 million km 2 —followed by the USA (9.857 million km 2 ) and China (9.597 million km 2 ) (CoW 2022 ).

Canada’s waterways map (modified after Maps Canada 2022 )

Approximately 60% of Canada’s freshwater drains to the north, while 85% of the total population lives close to Canada’s southern borders with the USA. This makes harnessing and managing the Canadian water resources a considerable challenge, both nationally and within individual provinces and territories. In 2013, 37 BCM of freshwater was withdrawn from Canada’s lakes, rivers, and underground aquifers (Pope 2019 ). Most of this water was used for industrial purposes, especially power generation, manufacturing, and agriculture (OMECC 2010 ; Loomer and Cooke 2011 ; McPhie and Post 2014 ; Roth and de Loë 2017 ).

Canada displays the following water characteristics (Fig.  6 ): Approximately 9% (891,163 km 2 ) of Canada’s total area is covered by fresh surface water (rivers, lakes, and wetlands); Canada’s rivers drain 105,000 m 3 /s; The Mackenzie River is the longest river in Canada, with a total length of 4241 km; Canada has 563 lakes, covering an area of more than 100 km 2 ; Wetlands in Canada cover an area of more than 1.2 million km 2 (14% of the size of Canada’s land), forming approximately 25% of the world’s wetlands, and making Canada the largest wetland’s area in the world; Glacial ice, over 100,000 years old, has been found at the base of several ice caps in the Canadian Arctic; Glacial erosion created a number of lakes on the Canadian Shield, including the Great Lakes; It is estimated that about 2% (200,000 km 2 ) of Canada’s area is covered by glaciers and icefields; There are currently 2921 active water level and stream flow stations, operating in Canada; and Canada’s longest inland waterway runs 3700 km from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior (AWPS 2012 ; Freeman 2016 ; Pomeroy et al. 2019 ).

To face the escalating water problems in Canada, including those naturally caused or manufactured (man-made), the following strategies are recommended to be taken by the Canadian Federal Government: (1) Creating a “Canada Water Security Centre” that measures, investigates, monitors, predicts, stores, and disseminates comprehensive data and information about all water resources in the country. Such data would enable the center to respond to all water problems that are resulted naturally and anthropogenic, including floods, droughts, pollution, shortages, etc.; (2) Establishing a “National Water Committee” that promotes transboundary water management, prioritizes the protection of intact basins of the lakes and rivers, and directs water management and climate change mitigation and adaptation measures and strategies; (3) Improving cooperative planning of lakes and rivers’ basins, by building enduring partnerships for water management and decision-making with provinces, territories, and Indigenous governments. It is to be with a clear outcome for building resilience in the face of extreme events, identifying priority areas for restoration of lakes and rivers’ basins, and ensuring that ecosystem requirements are met across levels of jurisdiction and authority; and (4) Promoting reconciliation with the First Nations’ Indigenous (FNI) communities, by ensuring that the Canadian Water Law is consistent with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN DESA IP 2007 ; HRW 2016 ), and adopting a consent-based, co-drafting approach to law renewal in partnership with local Indigenous governments (Schraeder 2009 ; OMAFRA 2016 ; Roth and de Loë 2017 ; Pomeroy et al. 2019 ; TCC 2021 ).

The access to sufficient, affordable, and safe drinking water and adequate sanitation is easy for most Canadians. However, this is not the case for many First Nations Indigenous communities. In stark contrast, the water supplied to many FNI’s communities on the lands, known as “Reserves,” is polluted, difficult to access, and endangered due to defective treatment systems. The Canadian Federal Government regulates water quality for Canadian communities, but has no binding water regulations on the Canadian FNI’s Reserves. A recent investigation carried out by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) revealed that 180 homes in Garden Hill First Nation, Manitoba, Canada, lack running water and indoor plumbing, and some residents do not have central heating or electricity (CBC 2019 ; Palmater 2019 ). “We found that the Canadian government has violated its international human rights obligations toward First Nations persons and communities by failing to remedy the severe water crisis” (HRW 2016 , 2019 ). According to Palmater ( 2019 ), “The First Nations water problems [are] a crisis of Canada’s own making. How many Canadians would settle for water infected with fecal matter, sewers backing up into their bathtubs or being able to bathe only once a week due to lack of access to water? In all likelihood, if this were happening in any Canadian municipality on the same scale as in First Nations, a state of emergency would be declared and all resources would be brought to bear to address the crisis.”

The quality of drinking water’s supplies in rural and FNI’s communities has dramatically deteriorated in recent decades, resulting in more than 100 drinking water’s warnings for Reserves in Canada as of 2015, which have enforced some FNI’ Reserves to boil water, and pay for water delivery and transportation costs. Accordingly, since 2015, the Canadian Federal Government has spent CD (Canadian Dollar) 2 billion to improve access to safe, clean drinking water in FNI’s communities (Pomeroy et al. 2019 ). This laudable goal is to address the symptoms, but not the basic water problems that are facing the Indigenous population in Canada, according to Pomeroy et al. ( 2019 ). The inherent rights, laws, and jurisdiction of the Canadian Indigenous population in waters, as well as negotiated treaties, land claims, and governance agreements, all point to their role as full partners in decision-making, regarding water and other natural resources, as well as land use.

On another point regarding water in Canada, the big fear for groups like the “Council of Canadians” is that it will end up treating water as a commodity and that huge quantities of water will be funneled south to dry regions like California in the USA, through wholesales or water diversion projects. Successive Canadian governments, however, have pledged to never allow such sales and no deals have yet been struck. For instance, attempts to sell large quantities of water from Lake Superior and Newfoundland were only banned due to public pressures (Freeman 2016 ). Nevertheless, the Canadian Federal Government has firmly expressed that it will not allow exports of water to foreign countries (AWPS 2012 ).

Water conservation modeling and development strategies

In the twenty-first century, modern water management modeling provides an excellent opportunity for an astonishing scale to investigate and manage water utilization. Water management modeling mitigates the continuous financial wastes resulting from development in the water sector. Traditional water conservation projects aimed to boost financial attributes, such as GDP. Future water conservation modeling needs to be emphasized by amplifying the overall estimates of economic, social, agricultural, and environmental benefits.

A system should be built that includes both financial and ordinary capital (i.e., estimates of biological system’s administrations in nature) (Carpenter et al. 2011 ) to assess biological community administrations of the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other water bodies; competition uses of conserved water; and actions that support the whole conserved water security bargains.

Water conservation in China, for instance, has put great attention to the foundations and primary goals of restricting waterways. The benefits of putting resources into premium protection are largely overlooked. For example, only about 3.3% of concerns in conserving water safety will be devoted to ensuring soils and waters’ well-being and extending natural recovery in 2010. Hence, water conservation in the future needs to revitalize environmentally friendly projects (Tortajada 2001 ; Shucheng 2006 ; Jiao 2009 ; WBDG 2021 ), whereas many of the projects carried out nowadays use various strategies, including smart growth, compact development, green building, green economy, and green infrastructure that all aim at water and environmental sustainability (EPA 2021 ).

Likewise, it is important to move from mere “boom repulsion” to “give the increase method” (Yin and Li 2001 ; Opperman et al. 2009 ). To this end, giving water bodies (rivers, lakes, etc.) a chance to recover, introduced by former Chinese President Hu Jintao in mid-2008, can be an option. However, future water conservation projects need to look unambiguously at moving examples of environmental evolution. Water bodies in China were regulated and largely operated without thinking of environmental changes. Such a firm plan of projects is flawed at the elementary level (Milly et al. 2008 ; Matthews et al. 2011 ; Pittock and Hartmann 2011 ). Environmental changes in previous years have just caused noteworthy adjustments in water assets in China (Piao et al. 2010 ; Xie 2020 ; Xia et al. 2021 ).

One model is a strong evidence of the drying pattern in the Hanjiang River Basin (which is a tributary of the Yangzte River), China. If such a pattern continued, the Hanjiang River would have no additional waters to occupy unless it gets water from elsewhere first. Therefore, the Chinse Government built the South-to-North Water Transfer Project (SNWTP)—also known as the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWDP) (Liu and Zheng 2002 ; Chen et al. 2007 ; News & Focus 2016 ; Zhang and Donnellon-May 2021 ) (Fig.  7 ).

South-to-North Water Transfer (Diversion) Project (SNWTP or SNWDP), China (modified after Zhang and Donnellon-May 2021 )

The SNWTP comprises three water transfer or diversion routes in the Eastern, Central, and Western China, diverting water from the lower, middle, and upper reaches of the Yangtze River, respectively (Fig.  7 ). It also connects four major rivers—the Yangtze River, Huai River, Yellow River, and Hai River. Thus, the SNWTP establishes a pattern of water resources’ allocation in China that regulates three south–north water routes and connects four west–east rivers. The SNWTP will supply a total of 6.15 BCM/year of water to the Jingjinji region in 2020 through the Middle Route (Phase I) and the East Route (Phase II), and also 8.58 BCM/year in 2030 through the Middle Route (Phases I and II) and the East Route (Phases II and III) (Fig.  7 ). The total water diversion’s capacities of the SNWTP have already reached, just recently, 7.4 MCM/year, and are expected to reach 12 BCM/year soon (Falkenmark and Rockström 2006 ; Liu et al. 2009 ; Kobayashi and Porter 2012 ; Li et al. 2019 ; Yuan et al. 2021 ).

In view of the above, the SNWTP is a mega project, representing a key strategic infrastructure, aiming at improving the allocation of water resources in China. It plays a vital role in alleviating the severe water shortage in northern China, ensuring water supply, promoting sustainable social and economic development, and improving the ecological environment. Given the importance of green water projects, such as the SNWTP in China, the future focal point for water conservation should be shifted from the viewpoint of the blue-water projects towards considering water security as “reasonable,” including green-water streams (Falkenmark and Rockström 2006 ).

Challenges of carrying water conservation goal

Water management and water use should be collaborative between the communities and respective governments. In northern China, for example, with the ultimate goal of relieving water shortage, the SNWTP (mentioned above) has been activated with a planned total exchanged volume of 12–43 BCM/year in the next few decades (Ma et al. 2006 ; Liu and Savenije 2008 ; Li et al. 2019 ). Along these lines, the scarce-water regions in northern China provide much sustenance to the water-rich areas of southern China each season. Thus, the effective water movement installed by a reciprocal vessel is identical to 52 BCM/year (Ma et al. 2006 ; Liu and Savenije 2008 ), which is greater than the real level of the exchange project (Shao et al. 2003 ).

In the same manner, leaders and policy-makers must be highly conscious and environmentally knowledgeable regarding the building of water-exchange projects. In water-scarce regions, the effectiveness of water-exchange projects is generally restricted by adjacent water uses and water-saving incentives between different water-customer divisions. For example, water disturbances of the Tarim River in China reduced the distance of the far-stream path from about 850 km in 2001 to about 400 km in 2002 and 2003, meaning a more than 47% reduction of the length of the far-stream way (Liu et al. 2013 ). It also shortened the water-scarce season from 185 days in 2001 to 46 days in 2003, meaning more than 75% shortening of the water-scarce season only within three years (Liu et al. 2013 ). However, in 2009 the distance expanded to about 1200 km, while the period that had become visibly scarce grew to 302 days. Being preoccupied with water scarcity would not be beneficial for reducing the distance and time over the entire range. One crucial reason is that neighborhood residents use more water than currently for residential, industrial, and agricultural purposes. With no change in monetary composition and first-ranked water use, the water preoccupation alone cannot address the water shortage problems (Salem 2011 , 2019a ; NAE 2017 ; Stephenson 2018 ; PSE 2017 ; Salem et al. 2021 ).

Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable water conservation and applications for food

One of the direct advantages of the water reorientation or redirection projects, such as the cases of many projects in China, including, for instance, the SNWTP (mentioned above), is the exchange of water from areas of surplus water to areas of water shortages, to alleviate water shortages in certain regions. This water preoccupation extends to larger sizes and is expected to provide water for domestic and other uses, especially those areas that have lower amounts of water or those that suffer from water shortages, such as the Tianjin city (Fig.  7 , above), which has the most insufficient per-capita water assets in China (180 m 3 /ca/year). The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei district—Jingjinji—is China’s most densely populated region. Problems arise from the acute shortages of water resources, with the emergence of water issues for landowners, such as establishing water diversion projects, regional synergies development, and the impacts of climate change (Li et al. 2019 ). Water shortages in some regions of China, such as the North China Plain, particularly due to climate change, have led to extreme droughts affecting wheat production (Yang et al. 2020 ). Therefore, water transfer or diversion projects in China are of particular importance.

The Yin Luan Ru Jin water project began in 1982 to relieve the water shortage in Tianjin. By 2009, this project had redirected 19.2 BCM of water to Tianjin, primarily residential and industrial. Another example is the Yin Huang Ru Jin project in China, which aimed to deliver water from the Yellow River to Shanxi province (Fig.  7 , above), which possesses a quarter of the total coal preserved in the country. Each year, the project offers 0.56 BCM to the cities of Datong and Shuozhou and 0.64 BCM to the city of Taiyuan, as well as to three noteworthy coal mines in that region of China.

The Yin Jiang Ji Tai project aimed to improve the water transport from the Yangtze River to Taihu Lake. As the third-largest freshwater lake in China, Taihu Lake is a noteworthy water hotspot for drinking, aquaculture, and industrial needs and is a popular vacation destination. The region of the Taihu Lake represents 0.4% of the total area of China, 2.9% of the world’s population, and 14% of China’s real GDP (Yang and Liu 2010 ; Hu et al. 2022 ).

Sustainable water conservation achievements models

At present, China, for example, has more than 20 noteworthy projects amongst the waterways with a total length of more than 7200 km. The main feature of allocating space for those projects is mainly in northern China. As indicated in China Vision 2006, the projects to redirect water between various water bodies represent 2.5% of the Chinese total surface water assets. This proportion may increase to 10% upon completion of the SNWTP (mentioned above) in 2050 (Cheng et al. 2009 ). The SNWTP, with a total length of 3187 km, is the most extended water running project on the planet Earth. This project, the largest of its kind globally, has benefited over 100 million people in the country’s parched north by transferring water from the water-rich Yangtze River basins in the south (CISION 2019 ). The SNWTP, began in 2002, consists of three lines or routs (as mentioned above): Western, Central, and Eastern (Fig.  7 , above). The water on the Central Route traverses more than 1400 km in its 15-day trip, starting from Danjiangkou Reservoir in the Hubei province, travels across the Henan and Hebei provinces before arriving in Beijing and Tianjin. The Eastern Route starts from Yangzhou in the Jiangsu province and ends in Shandong province and Tianjin. Estimates of the project’s cost differ enormously (Lin 2017 ). Approximately USD 43 billion (equivalent to around Chinese Yuan 288.15 billion, as of July 2022) were invested in this mega project by the Central Government of China, and over 400,000 people living in water-source areas along the three routes have been resettled (CISION 2019 ). The areas fed by the project produce 1/3 of China’s GDP. So far, with its three routes, the SNWTP project has transferred approximately 60 BCM since it was launched in 2013 (CISION 2019 ).

Challenges of securing water for food (water-food Nexus)

The water-for-nutrition challenge (in terms of WF Nexus) is a showcase for moving forward with a promise to reinvigorate science, innovation, development, and commercial enterprise (Table ​ (Table1, 1 , above). By understanding the WF Nexus, distinct factors accelerate the advancement of science, innovation, synergies, trade-offs, and market-driven methodologies (Table ​ (Table1, 1 , above). These factors are essential for reducing water shortages in the food-assessment chain and enhancing water management to support food security and alleviate and ease destitution, especially with the consideration of global warming and climate change impacts. These factors are:

(1) Improving water efficiency and wastewater reuse: These two goals can fundamentally expand the profitability of restricted water assets, especially in the food supply chain, where water assets can have multiplier impacts at different levels of the economy; (2) Effective water capture and storage systems: These two procedures are essential for expanding rapid access to water supply in areas where rainfall is regular. With projected increases in rainfall variability, due to environmental changes and climate change impacts, as well as due to expanded food generation demands, capacity frameworks at different levels are expected to anchor water supplies and build strength for droughts consistently; and (3) Salinity of the water supply: Increasing water salinity is a considerable risk to water resources, mainly due to climate change impacts and other causes. Thus, increased water salinity poses an induced risk to food production. For instance, in groundwater aquifers and coastal areas, over-pumping and rising sea levels cause a considerable increase in freshwater salt content (Salem 2011 ; Liu and Liu 2014 ; Llovel et al. 2019 ; Said et al. 2021 ). However, in many regions around the world, people are witnessing sea-water rise due to climate change. There are some reasons for long-term sea-level changes, including, among others, astronomical, meteorological, and steric, such as water salinity and temperature (Boateng 2010 ; IPCC 2019 ).

Future needs for securing water for food (water–food Nexus)

Water shortages across the globe represent one of the most difficult challenges facing development in the twenty-first century; nearly 3 billion people, over 38% of the world’s total population (7.96 billion as of July 2022) (Worldometer 2022c ), live in watercourse regions affected by water shortages as well as water pollution and geopolitical instabilities. These 3 billion of the world’s population can be divided into almost two halves. The first half (≈ 1.5 billion) lives in areas significantly affected by severe water shortages, where demand is more prominent than supply. The other half (≈ 1.5 billion) faces cash shortages of water and restrictions in access to water, despite its availability and, in some cases, its abundance. The second kind of water shortage is attributed to institutional, budget, human, and geopolitical variables and conditions, at the expense of locations affected by wars or under military occupation, similar to the conditions in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (Salem 2011 ; Salem et al. 2021 ). Water shortages in the second case are defined by physical, financial, political, and geopolitical effects, such as water control and hegemony by powerful governments (Zeitoun and Allan 2008 ; Wessels 2015 ; al-Shalalfeh et al. 2017 ; Salem 2019b ; Gebrehiwet 2020 ; Putra et al. 2020 ; Salem et al. 2021 ).

However, both kinds of water shortages can lead to specific negative consequences in terms of welfare, the profitability of agriculture, military confrontation, terrorism, environmental degradation, business deterioration, and lack of sectoral and socioeconomic development. Between 2000 and 2050, overall water demand is expected to increase by 55%, as indicated above. Three activities will contribute to the overall 55% increase in water demand: (1) Manufacturing, with a 400% increase; (2) Thermal electricity generation, with a 140% increase; and (3) Domestic use, with a 130% increase (UN OECD 2012 ; Day 2019 ). Accordingly, the rapidly growing water demand for several purposes, such as urbanization, industrialization, energization, and development, in general, will be a great challenge facing the water supply for irrigation by 2050. It is particularly important if we are aware that more than 70% of the water use worldwide occurs in the Food Value Chain (FVC) (Fig.  8 ). Therefore, the number of individuals affected by water shortages and water stress will continue to rise, especially amongst poor people in developing countries worldwide.

Food value chain (FVC) from farm to fork (modified after, and adapted from, SWF 2017 )

Securing water-for-food systems (water–food Nexus)

As already mentioned, countries across the globe are presently facing water shortage problems, some of which are severe and others are moderate. Such problems will be even more complicated in the presence of climate change impacts and population’s growth. Thus, the countries will constantly be confronting such problems, given the way to 2050. Accordingly, country researchers, approach builders, system builders, policy- and strategy-makers, and so forth must move away from discovering short- and long-term measures to efficiently manage the water shortage issues (SWF 2017 ). Therefore, understanding the conditions for enabling neighborhoods for innovation and commercial advancement is a crucial issue to explain the social, environmental, institutional, legal, and administrative difficulties facing development and how to overcome those barriers, considering nearby economic conditions. The proximity of the “establishing water for food” program (WF Nexus) in developing countries is essential. It is also essential to identify the neighborhood with which it cooperates to establish the projects needed.

Conclusion and recommendations

While there are clear indications that water and food emergencies are approaching worldwide, as confirmed by more current events and challenges, including dry seasons and resulting droughts, long-term pollution of water resources, and the impacts of climate change, as well as geopolitical instabilities and military conformations, it is noteworthy to mention that strategy- and policy-makers have not made enough efforts to deal with such events and challenges and the consequences resulting from. With the focus on changes and advances in water and food resources’ strategies and management, in the presence of these extraordinary challenges and frequently happening events, it is needed to surmount these events and challenges—one of the mechanisms to deal with them in implementing the Nexus’ approach or framework.

Demands on water (W), energy (E), and food (F) are growing worldwide, driven by a growing global population, rapid urbanization, changing diets, and economic growth. Agriculture is the world’s largest consumer of freshwater resources, and more than a quarter of the energy used globally is consumed during food production and supply. Accordingly, this paper can help managers effectively manage water resources and conceptualize a comprehensive WEF Nexus’ policy or just a WF Nexus’ policy, considering that the energy subsystem is not investigated in this work for the reasons mentioned above.

The present evaluation’s results could be used as tools to strengthen the WF Nexus management and governance. Each country has unique economic and social characteristics that directly or indirectly affect the WF Nexus. Therefore, it is almost sure that the stewardship of water assets will be a vital issue in building an efficient WF Nexus’ framework that will enable socioeconomic development and progress. It is suggested that socioeconomic indicators and their interactions with the WF Nexus (or WEF Nexus) are analyzed regarding the various regions investigated.

The outcomes of this work can guide managers and decision-makers to develop possible solutions, ensuring water-management tools are applied successfully according to the visions of multiple perspectives, which can help the relevant ministries and institutions improve plans and policy- and strategy-making related to WF Nexus. This means that before essentially ‘giving more water’ (i.e., the supply–demand management’s approach), which often refers to developing new and costly foundations and infrastructures, the first and wisest things to do are the enhancement of water effectiveness within the framework of water–food Nexus’ management, and also paying attention to issues at the exciting side. Such approach should be undertaken without seriously harming or altering the well-being of humans and the environment.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their sincere thanks to friends and colleagues who critically reviewed the paper. They also express their gratitude to the team of the Journal ( Sustainable Water Resources Management , Springer), including Prof. Jim LaMoreaux (Editor-in-Chief) and the reviewers (anonymous) for their valuable comments and improvements suggested. Special thanks go also to the Journal’s Production team for their kind cooperation during the submission and production processes of the paper.

Abbreviations

Authors’ contributions.

All the authors contributed generously to this research paper, with everyone’s ability, knowledge, experience, time, and effort.

The research presented in this paper did not receive any funding from any individuals or organizations.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

There is no potential of conflict of interest of any kind (financial or otherwise).

This paper was not published before and is not considered for publication anywhere else.

The research presented herein does not involve human participants and/or animals.

No individual participants or material were involved in this study and, thus, there is no need to obtain informed consent.

All material presented herein does not need consent to publish.

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102 Water Pollution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Water pollution essays are an excellent way to demonstrate your awareness of the topic and your position on the solutions to the issue. To help you ease the writing process, we prepared some tips, essay topics, and research questions about water pollution.

🌎 Air and Water pollution: Essay Writing Tips

🏆 best water pollution essay topics & examples, 📌 remarkable air and water pollution research topics, 👍 good research topics about water pollution, ❓ research questions about water pollution.

Water’s ready availability in many locations makes it an easy choice for a variety of purposes, from cleaning to manufacturing to nuclear reactor cooling. However, many companies will then dump water, now mixed with waste, back into rivers or lakes without adequate cleaning, leading to significant environmental pollution.

However, there are other types of harm, such as noise pollution, which are less obvious but also dangerous to sea life. It is critical that you understand what you should and should not do during your writing process.

The stance that big manufacturing industries are the sole culprits of the damage done to the world’s rivers and oceans is a popular one. However, do not neglect the effects of other water pollution essay topics such as microorganisms.

Microbes can spread dangerous illnesses, making them a danger for both water inhabitants and the people who then use that water. Furthermore, they can eat up oxygen if left unchecked, starving fish and other water organisms and eventually making them die out.

Such situations usually result from agricultural practices, which can lead to powerful nutrients entering the water and enabling algae and other microorganisms to grow excessively. An overly lively environment can be as harmful as one where everything is threatened.

With that said, industrial manufacturers deserve much of the attention and blame they receive from various communities. Construction of dedicated waste-cleaning facilities is usually possible, but companies avoid doing so because the process will increase their costs.

You should advocate for green practices, but be mindful of the potential impact of a significant price increase on the global economy. Also, be sure to mention more exotic pollution variations in your types of water pollution essay.

Provide examples of noise pollution or suspended matter pollution to expand on the topic of the complexity of the harm humanity causes to the ecosphere.

You should show your understanding that there are many causes, and we should work on addressing all of them, a notion you should repeat in your water pollution essay conclusions.

However, you should try to avoid being sidetracked too much and focus on the titles of pollution and its immediate causes.

If you stretch far enough, you may connect the matter to topics such as the status of a woman in Islam. However, doing so contributes little to nothing to your point and deviates from the topic of ecology into social and religious studies.

Leave the search for connections to dedicated researchers and concentrate on discussing the major causes that are known nowadays. By doing this, you will be able to create an excellent and powerful work that will demonstrate your understanding of the topic.

Here are some tips for your writing:

• Be sure to discuss the different types of pollution that is caused by the same source separately. Surface and groundwater pollution are different in their effects and deserve separate discussions.
• Focus on the issues and not on solutions, as an essay does not provide enough space to discuss the latter in detail.
• Be sure to discuss the effects of pollution on people and other land inhabitants as well as on water creatures.

Check IvyPanda to get more water pollution essay titles, paper ideas, and other useful samples!

• Air and Water Pollution in the Modern World The high number of vehicles in the city has greatly promoted air pollution in the area. Poor sewerage system, high pollution from industries and automobiles are among the major causes of air and water pollutions […]
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions This is why clean water is required in all the places to make sure the people and all the living creatures in the planet live a good and healthy life.
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Farmers should be encouraged to embrace this kind of farming which ensures that the manure used is biodegradable and do not end up accumulating in the water bodies once they are washed off by floods.
• Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and […]
• Coca-Cola India and Water Pollution Issues The first difficulty that the representatives of the Coca-Cola Company happened to face due to their campaign in the territory of India was caused by the concerns of the local government.
• Cashion Water Quality: Spatial Distribution of Water Pollution Incidents This essay discusses the quality of water as per the report of 2021 obtained from the municipality, the quality issue and the source of pollution, and how the pollution impacts human health and the environment […]
• Water Pollution: OIL Spills Aspects The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds.
• Importance of Mercury Water Pollution Problem Solutions The severity of the mercury contamination consequences depends on the age of the person exposed to the contamination, the way of contamination, the health condition, and many other factors.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Newark Water Crisis: Water Pollution Problem The main problem was rooted in the fact that lead levels in the drinking water were highly elevated, which is dangerous and detrimental to the population’s health.
• Water Pollution in a Community: Mitigation Plan Though for the fact that planet earth is abundant with water and almost two-thirds of the planet is made up of water still it is viewed that in future years, a shortage of water may […]
• Food Distribution and Water Pollution Therefore, food distribution is one of the central reasons for water pollution. According to Greenpeace, one of the ways to improve the ecology of the planet is by creating healthy food markets.
• Water Pollution and Associated Health Risks The results of plenty of studies indicate the existence of the relation between the contamination of water by hazardous chemicals and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthma, allergies, as well as reproductive […]
• Lake Erie Water Pollution There are worries among the members of the community that the lake could be facing another episode of high toxicity, and they have called for the authorities to investigate the main causes of the pollution […]
• Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan All players need to be trained in significant areas of business so as they can handle them with care and beware of the potential they have in causing damage.
• Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of […]
• Water Pollution and Management in the UAE The groundwater in UAE meets the needs of 51% of users in terms of quantity mainly for irrigation. Surface water is the source of groundwater and plays a major role in groundwater renewal.
• Water Pollution and Its Challenges Water pollution refers to a situation where impurities find way into water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and ground water. This is a form of pollution where impurities enter water bodies through distinct sources such […]
• Water Pollution Sources, Effects and Control Unfortunately, not all the users of water are responsible to ensure that proper disposal or treatment of the used water is done before the water is returned to the water bodies.
• Water in Crisis: Public Health Concerns in Africa In the 21st century, the world faces a crisis of contaminated water, which is the result of industrialization and is a major problem in developing countries.
• Air and Water Pollution Thus, it is classified as a primary pollutant because it is the most common pollutants in the environment. In the environment, the impact of carbon monoxide is felt overtime, since it leads to respiratory problems.
• Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution Prolonged pollution of water has even caused some plants to grow in the water, which pose danger to the living entities that have their inhabitants in the water.
• Water Pollution & Diseases (Undeveloped Nations) Restriction on movement and access to the affected area affects trade and the loss of human life and deteriorated health is a major blow on the economy and on the quality of human life.
• Water and Water Pollution in Point of Economics’ View This research tries to explain the importance of water especially in an economist’s perspective by explaining the uses of water in various fields, pollution of water and the agents of pollution.
• Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution Water pollution in the 1960s occurred due to poor sewage systems in the urban and rural areas. Unlike in the 1960s, there are reduced cases of water pollution today.
• Water Pollution and Wind Energy Chemical pollution of water is one of the leading causes of death of aquatic life. It is thus evident that chemical pollution of water not only has negative effects on health, but it also substantially […]
• Air and Water Pollution in Los Angeles One of the major problems facing major cities and towns in the world is pollution; wastes from firms and households are the major causes of pollution.
• Water Pollution Causes and Climate Impacts The biggest percentage of sewage waste consists of water, treating the wastes for recycling would help in maintaining a constant supply of water.
• Water Pollution Origins and Ways of Resolving The evidence provided by environmental agencies indicates that industrial agriculture is one of the factors that significantly contribute to the deterioration of water quality.
• Mud Lick Creek Project – Fresh Water Pollution This potential source of pollutants poses significant risks to the quality of water at the creek in terms altering the temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and the turbidity of the water.
• Water Pollution in the Jamaican Society
• Water Pollution and Abstraction and Economic Instruments
• Water Pollution and Individual Effects of Water Pollution
• Understanding What Causes Water Pollution
• An Analysis of Water Pollution as a Global Plague That Affects the People, Animals and Plants
• Water Pollution Through Urban and Rural Land Use and Freshwater Allocation in New Zealand
• Water Pollution: Globalization, One of the Causes and Part of the Solution
• Voluntary Incentives for Reducing Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution
• The Impact of Water Pollution on Public Health in Flint, Michigan
• Understanding Water Pollution and Its Causes
• The Promises and Pitfalls of Devolution: Water Pollution Policies in the American States
• We Must Fight Against Water Pollution
• Transaction Costs and Agricultural Nonpoint-Source Water Pollution Control Policies
• Water Pollution and Drinking Water Quality
• Water Pollution: An Insight into the Greatest Environmental Risk
• US Water Pollution Regulation over the Past Half Century: Burning Waters to Crystal Springs
• Environmental Impact and Health Risks of Water Pollution to a Child
• Water Pollution Environment Effects Chemicals
• The Negative Effects of Water Pollution on Fish Numbers in America
• The Problem of Oil Spills and Water Pollution in Alaska
• Water Pollution in the United State: The Causes and Effects
• California Water Pollution Act Clean Laws
• The Need to Immediately Stop Water Pollution in the United States
• Water Pollution, Causes, Effects and Prevention
• The Water Pollution Prevention in Oceanic Areas
• Water Pollution and the Biggest Environmental Issues Today
• Fresh Water Pollution Assignment
• Water pollution in Southeast Asia and China
• Water Pollution Caused by Industrial Equipment
• The Impacts of Water Pollution on Economic Development in Sudan
• The Importance of Recycling to Prevent Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Its Effects on The Environment
• The Sources, Environmental Impact, and Control of Water Pollution
• Water Quality and Contamination of Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and the World’s Worst Forms of Pollution
• The Problem of Water Pollution and the Solutions
• Comparing Contrast Legislative Approach Controlling Water Pollution Industrial
• An Analysis of the Water Pollution and it’s Effects on the Environment
• Water Pollution and The Natural Environment
• The Importance of Clean Drinking Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Arsenic Pollution
• The Issue of Water Pollution in the Drinking Water in Brisbane
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution?
• What Is the Effect of Water Pollution on Humanity?
• How Can Leaders Tackle with Water Pollution in China?
• What Is the Drinking Water Pollution Control Act?
• What Was the Social Water Pollution?
• How Non-Point Is Water Pollution Controlled in Agriculture?
• What Is Canada’s Water Pollution Dilemma?
• Water Pollution: Why Is There Trash in the Ocean?
• What Are the Problems Associated with Water Pollution?
• What Is the Connection Between Air and Water Pollution?
• How Water Pollution Effects Marine Life?
• What Are the Leading Factors of Water Pollution Around the World?
• Why Is Water Pollution an Important Issue Environmental Sciences?
• What Are the Factors That Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects on the World Today?
• What Are There Inorganic Chemicals Cause Water Pollution?
• How Does Drinking Water Pollution Impact the World Environmental Sciences?
• Is There a Connection Between Drinking Water Quality and Water Pollution?
• How to Deal with the Big Problem of Deforestation and Water Pollution in Brazil and the Colombian Amazon?
• Why Is China’s Water Pollution Challenge?
• What Is the Ground Water Pollution Assignment?
• How to Deal the Big Problem of Water Pollution in the World?
• How to Reduce Air and Water Pollution?
• What Is the Harmonizing Model with Transfer Tax on Water Pollution Across Regional Boundaries in China’s Lake Basin?
• Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution Determined in Lake Huron?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• What Are the Kinds of Water Pollution Environmental Sciences?
• What Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects?
• What Effect Does Water Pollution Have on KZN Citizens?
• How Is Water Pollution Managed in Viet Nam’s Craft Villages?
• What Should You Know About Water Pollution?
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Research proposal on water pollution.

March 17, 2014 UsefulResearchPapers Research Proposals 0

Water pollution is the contamination of water resources with the wastes and results of the human activity and natural environment. The problem of water pollution is quite urgent nowadays, because the humanity suffers the shortage of the pure drinking water. It is extremely important to protect water resources in order to maintain people with the opportunity to live a healthy life.

There are areas in the world where there is no drinking water and it is transported from other parts of the world to protect these people from death. Water is the most valuable resource and it is important to work hard in order to protect it. Water is contaminated by numerous pollutants. They are divided into the pollutants of the natural and anthropogenic activity. The natural pollutants are the rocks, minerals, natural litter which gets into the water with floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruption, etc.

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Generally, this kind of water pollution is not too dangerous and the human activity is much more serious. The anthropogenic impact is caused by the heavy industry, transport, power stations, littering, etc. Every factory and plant and nuclear power station requires pure water for the productive activity.

When the water is used, it is poured back into the rivers and lakes with pollutants. In addition, the industrial wastes are poured into the seas, river and oceans. Furthermore, the wastes contaminate also the underground water which is the most favorable for drinking. Various means of transport also contaminate water with the wastes of their activity. The most serious impact is made by ships and automobiles. The problem of littering is also quite serious because it also affects badly the fauna of the rivers and seas and makes the water impossible for drinking.

Water pollution is the most dangerous kind of pollution because there is no a more valuable resource than water. The student is able to pay attention to the problem and try to understand the cause and effect of water pollution, present the methodology of the efficient solution of the problem, etc. The proposal should be informative and reflect the student’s level of education, the purpose of the research, the student’s expectations about the investigation and contain the evaluation of the topic on water pollution and the effective means of water purification.

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