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How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
• Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

• The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
• Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
• Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

• What is the wider context of your study?
• What research question were you trying to answer?
• How did you perform the experiment?
• What did your results show?
• How did you interpret your results?
• What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

• Start with the broad, general research topic
• Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
• End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

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A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

• any descriptive statistics
• statistical test results
• the significance of the test results
• estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

• Interpret your results
• Compare your findings with your expectations
• Identify any sources of experimental error
• Explain any unexpected results
• Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

• Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
• Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

• Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

• Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
• How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Assignment Design

The most updated lab writing instructional modules are available: engineeringlabwriting.org

Learning Objectives

Although all engineering instructors “know how to write”, they may struggle with assigning writing projects to students. Well-designed writing assignments lead directly to student learning. Traci Gardner from National Council of Teachers of English identifies three goals for a writing assignment:

• Define the writing task.
• Explore the expectations.
• Provide supporting materials and activities.

In the context of lab report writing, engineering instructors need to address the following to students as explicitly as possible when preparing lab report assignment:

• The audience (Specific people like instructors? engineers? peers? public?).
• The pedagogical purpose of the lab report (Why is the assignment given?).
• The “fictitious” professional purpose of the lab report (Why is the assignment given?).
• Specific requirements (if there are any).
• Checklists or Presentation Expectations (format, submission, deadline, etc.).
• Assessment rubrics (or any type of grading guidelines): The details of assessment rubric design and development are introduced in the Lab Report Assessment Rubric Module Assessment Rubric Design .
• Acceptable sample reports with or without addressing the standard conventions of finished and edited texts.
• Unacceptable sample reports with or without addressing the standard conventions of finished and edited texts.
• List of recommended reading resources.
• Other resources to assist students’ writing process.

Sample 1: Lab Report (as a Technical Report) Writing Assignment

• Overview: You (the writer of the report), a 2nd year engineering student, are assigned to write a technical report (the genre) to convey engineering and technical information, including the lab background, process, data, analysis results, and conclusion (the purpose of the report), to the instructor, the TA, and the peers (the audience of the report).
• Lab Report Audience: Assume you are submitting the lab report as a technical report to a peer in class. Therefore, your audience is familiar with the lab materials; however, you need to explain the engineering and technical information as precisely as possible. The executive summary of your report should be able to be read by a professional audience such as industry partners, or other professors in the program.
• Purpose of Lab Report: You are assigned to write a technical report on how your analytical analysis can be verified with the experimental results of the lab. Your report should include effective presentations of the lab data and thoughtful discussion based on the inspection, measurement, and test results. This lab requires conducting research with secondary sources (outside references available on the net and/or the library).
• Required Lab Report Writing Style and Format: The technical reports are typically written using third-person perspective and past tense, and in many situations, an active voice provides better clarity and succinctness. One of the unique features of “technical reports” is a clear and easily accessible format. Technical reports need to be divided into sections that allow different readers to access different levels of information. Technical reports mostly consist of executive summary, introduction, methods, results, discussion, conclusion, and reference sections. Use the Metric System of units for this lab report.
• Lab Report Submission: Please submit your completed lab report to the course website by the due date listed above. This allows you to have enough time to conduct data analysis and research with the secondary sources (references) as well as the primary sources (experimental data).

Sample 2: Lab Report (as a Research Paper) Writing Assignment

Assume you are an engineering intern working at the product design group of a company in the automotive industry, which may be similar to ABC Motors, City. Your boss, Ms. Boss, assigned you to conduct research on the mechanical properties and hardness of the materials used in a future project. Note that she is not asking you to pick the best material. All of these materials will be used for future vehicles because there are many parts and components. She will eventually share your report’s technical information with other engineers and/or people in the organization. For the project, three different material types such as 1018, 1045, and 4140 steels are considered. This means that you are assigned to write a lab report as a research paper primarily based on the testing results from the lab. This lab will provide you with the opportunities of reviewing knowledge on the mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms of engineering materials (textbook chapters 6 and 7), conducting additional uniaxial tensile tests as well as hardness tests, conducting a comparative analysis with the obtained experimental data, and discussing the analysis with the outside sources or references in order to advance your knowledge.

In this experimental research paper, you can conduct a comparative study to compare three different steel samples in many different ways (e.g. 1018 vs 1045 to see the effect of carbon contents). In order to write a good research paper, you need to have good research questions to discuss. Your engineering team and organization might have the following questions:

• Any technical questions from your own.
• What would the effect of the carbon and/or alloying element contents have on the mechanical properties (strengths, ductility, etc) of the samples?
• Does the fracture look ductile, brittle, or moderately ductile for each coupon?
• Which sample does have the highest yield strength and/or UTS, ductility, toughness, hardness, etc. values? Why?
• What are the average hardness and standard deviation values of each coupon? Is there a visible deviation in the measurement? What are the possible sources of errors?
• Textbook page 179 shows the relationship between the tensile strength and the hardness values in HB for most steels. Is this formula accurate?

In order to write a good report or earn high scores, you do not need to answer all of these questions and/or come up with difficult-to-answer questions. A good lab report possesses well-defined questions and well-developed answers supported by both your experimental data (primary sources) and further research results using the internet or reference books (secondary sources). A good report has a well-defined introduction, body, and conclusion. In the introduction section, write about what you want to discover in the report. The objectives provide guidance on what you are going to say to your audience (your boss and engineering team in this case) throughout the report. In the body section, you summarize the experimental methods so the audience can confirm your testing was sound. You present the experimental data clearly and discuss them to follow your objectives. In the conclusion section, you need to summarize the main points of the lab along with a very brief restatement of the objectives and lab procedure.

Please submit your completed lab report in PDF on the course website by the due.

Sample 3: Lab Report (Memorandum or Letter as a Format) Writing Assignment:

Prepare a technical memorandum for your submission. The content of most memoranda to the technical audience can be organized into four main parts: heading, introduction, body (methods, results, discussion), conclusions, and closing. Depending on the intent and length of the memo, each part can be as short as a single phrase or as long as several paragraphs. Most memos are less than two pages. The following elements should be included

• Letter/Memo Heading – TO: (readers’ names and job titles), FROM: (your name and job title), DATE: (complete and current date), SUBJECT: (subject of the lab).
• Introduction – Objective and overview. Within the first two sentences, the purpose of the letter or memo is clearly stated. Provides background context for the discussion and educates the reader so they can understand the discussion.
• Body – Methods, data presentation/analysis/interpretation. Include a brief description of the methodology, relevant findings, interpretation of data, and other significant items, including a brief explanation of significant errors.
• Conclusions and Recommendations – Should recapitulate results and conclusions and recommend future work or action.
• Courteous Closing (Includes your contact information).
• References – Should be of sufficient quantity and quality, and cited properly within the text. Bibliographic information is included as a footnote.

Additional information to the written text is often required. Typical attachments include:

• All figures and tables discussed in text, but self-explanatory.
• Numbered and properly titled, contain units, and axis labels.
• Referenced (if information not created by author).
• Appropriate to communicate effectively.
• Attachment 2* – Test Set-up: clear and self-explanatory, photos, sketches…
• Attachment 3* – Data: self-explanatory data sheet; proper symbols and units.
• Attachment 4* – Calculations: clear and self-explanatory, sources cited.
• Additional attachments as required

Submit the lab report to your TA by the due.

Sample 4: A technical memo as a lab report (a technical memorandum) writing assignment

Structural Materials Supply, Inc.  

3201 Campus Dr.  

Klamath Falls, OR 97601  

To:              Materials Testing Consultants  

From:          MJ  Johnson, Ph.D., P.E.  

Date: June 24, 2022  

Subject:        Creep deflection of bookshelves  

Structural Materials Supply, Inc. is developing a line of bookshelves for use by prominent commercial office suppliers. Creep of bookshelves is a well-recognized problem across the industry. While we recognize that elastic deflections can be significant for heavily loaded shelves, we would like your help estimating the creep behavior of the Douglas-Fir beams we intend to use. Please help us determine a mathematical model of creep that can be used to predict long-term creep deflections so that we can further refine our product to meet long-term performance goals.   

Specifically, we would like you to load a 1×6 Douglas Fir beam with enough weight to observe creep deflections. Please collect deflection versus time data, fit with an appropriate trendline, and predict long-term creep deflection at 100 years. Provide a description of creep behavior and let us know if we should be concerned about it in our products.   

Please present your response in the form of a technical memorandum employing the IMRADC format. Submit this memo as a pdf along with a copy of the Excel file you developed to analyze the data.  Thank you in advance for your attention to detail and professional work.   

Sample Lab Assignment

Below is a sample lab report assignment from a UW-Madison bacteriology course. We will be using a format for the lab reports which is similar (but modified) to formats for scientific papers. That is, you must include an abstract, introduction, materials and methods section, results section, discussion, and literature citations. Your grade on the reports will depend on completeness, scientific accuracy and insight, organization, and writing skills. We will discuss this more in lab. We expect lab reports to be prepared using modern word-processing programs.

The format is as follows — point totals for each section are for a 100 point report. For partial or 150 point reports they will be adjusted as needed.

1. Abstract of experiment. (10 points)

This is a summary of the basic content of the experiment. It should state the purpose of the experiment, mention the techniques used, report results obtained, and give conclusions. The point of the abstract is to give a concise summary of the whole report. The most common mistake that students make is not including summary data. Example:

Chromosomal DNA was successfully isolated from Bacillus subtilis strain 151 using a modification of the Marmur technique. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed some contamination with protein, but little RNA contamination. The pure DNA had a concentration of 1.05 mg/ml with a 10.3 mg total yield. The DNA was sterile, as judged by streaking onto penassay agar.

2. Introduction. (20 points)

An introduction gives focus to the report similar to the “Purpose” written in the lab notebook, but also should put the experiment into context and provide the reader with information necessary to understand the scientific basis of the experiment and the techniques used. In most cases, you should include background information on the organisms used and explain the theory behind the techniques. Much of the introductory material should be referenced and references have been put on reserve for you at Steenbock Library. You are encouraged to also search the library for other relevant references.

3. Materials and Methods. (30 points)

This is a section which will be a major deviation from scientific papers. Instead of asking you to tediously rewrite all your lab notes into a materials and methods format, we instead want you to include your lab notes in lieu of materials and methods. The lab notes should be complete, including all raw data, observations, calculations and appropriate graphs.

We do not expect (nor do we want) rewritten notes.

4. Results. (15 points)

Separate from the lab notes, include a section containing a summary of the final data, presented in a form that is most useful for interpreting the results. A short paragraph should be sufficient, along with any relevant charts and graphs labeled well. Remember to title and provide legends for all graphs and tables. The graphs and tables should be comprehenable independently of their association with the text.

5. Discussion. (25 points)

Discuss the experiment and the results obtained. This does not mean you simply report the results again, but rather interpret and discuss their significance. Results should also be compared with those in the literature, if possible. (Be sure to give proper citations). If problems were encountered during the course of the experiment, how might they be rectified in the future? Are there any other things we could do to make this a better experiment or to more specifically address the initial question posed? Are there any better techniques available that would allow one to more accurately generate data? Is there more than one way to explain the results? Your results may support your initial hypothesis, but there may be more than one conclusion that could be drawn from your results. Lastly, do not spend enormous amounts of time explaining data that cannot be explained!

6. Reference Citations

As required in all scientific literature, statements of fact, not considered “common” knowledge, must be properly referenced. Relevant articles for each of our experiments are on reserve in Steenbock Library.

Give complete citations of all literature cited in the report. What’s complete? Here are some examples:

Articles in Journals:

Marmur, J. 1961. A procedure for the isolation of deoxyribonucleic acid from

microorganisms. J. Mol. Biol. 3:208-218.

Articles in Books:

Coakley, W.T., A.J. Bates and D. Lloyd. 1977. Disruption of bacterial cells. p279-341. In A.H.

Rose and D.W. Tempest (ed.), Advances in Microbial Physiology, Vol. 16. Academic Press, London and New York.

Tim Paustian Department of Bacteriology University of Wisconsin-Madison

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Laboratory fundamentals in biological engineering, guidelines for writing a lab report.

A formal lab report is the principle way scientific data are conveyed to the rest of the scientific community and preserved for future examination. Each scientific journal has its own idiosyncrasies regarding particulars of the format, but the most common elements of a scientific report, in order of presentation, are:

• List of Authors

Introduction

Materials and methods.

• Results, including figures and tables

The requirements for each section are outlined below. This information is given in the order that you might actually write your report rather than the order in which the parts are presented in the final report. If you want more information, you can find parts of this text in an on-line collection of instructional materials used in the Purdue University Writing Lab . Other parts are inspired by Robert A. Day’s book, How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper from Oryx Press, a copy of which is available in the teaching lab.

This is often the subject of many heated discussions and hurt feelings when only one report can be submitted to describe many people work. Since each of you will submit your own report, questions about who the authors will be, in what order, and what responsibilities each will have are moot. However you should list the name of your partner on your report since she contributed to the work.

Figures and Tables

Some readers begin by scanning the figures first. The figures, with the legends, should provide a self-explanatory overview of your data. Decide what the data show, then create figures which highlight the most important points of your paper.

Tables are used to present repetitive data that is numerical. Graphs or illustrations, collectively called figures, are used to present numerical trends, raw data (like a picture of a gel), or a model that explains your work.

When you prepare your figures and tables, keep in mind that it is significantly more expensive for journals to publish figures and tables than text, so try to present the data in a way that is worthy of such added expense. The table below is an example of an ineffective table.

The information in Table 1 could be presented in one sentence, such as: “In ten experiments carried out at 24°C, ion flow was detected only in the presence of cortical cells.” This is a clearer and more concise way to present the information. In addition, all tables and figures must have numbers, titles and legends.

Figure and Table Legends

Legends to the figures and tables explain the elements that appear in the illustration. Conclusions about the data are NOT included in the legends. As you write your first draft, state in a short simple sentence, what the point of the figure or table is. In later drafts, make sure each element of the figure or table is explained. Your figure legends should be written in the present tense since you are explaining elements that still exist at the time that you are writing the paper.

To write the results section, use the figures and tables as a guide. Start by outlining, in point form, what you found, going slowly through each part of the figures. Then take the points and group them into paragraphs, and finally order the points within each paragraph. Present the data as fully as possible, including stuff that at the moment does not quite make sense.

Verbs in the results section are usually in the past tense. Only established scientific knowledge is written about in the present tense, “the world is round,” for example. You cannot presume that your own data are part of the body of established scientific knowledge, and so when you describe your own results, use the past tense, “a band of 1.3 KB was seen,” for example. There are, however, exceptions to this general rule. It is acceptable to say, “Table 3 shows the sizes of the DNA fragments in our preparation.” It is also acceptable to say, “In a 1991 paper, Ebright and coworkers used PCR to mutagenize DNA.”

This is like a cooking recipe. Include enough detail so that someone can repeat the experiment. It is important that the reader be able to interpret the results knowing the context in which they were obtained.

The Materials and Methods section should be written in the past tense, since your experiments are completed at the time you are writing your paper.

This is the section of the paper for you to show off your understanding of the data. You should summarize what you found. Explain how this relates to what others have found. Explain the implications.

Introduce what your question is. Explain why someone should find this interesting. Summarize what is currently known about the question. Introduce a little of what you found and how you found it. You should explain any ideas or techniques that are necessary for someone to understand your results section.

The abstract is a very short summary (usually around 150-250 words) of what the question is, what you found, and why it may be important.

The importance of abstracts is increasing as more scientists are using computers to keep up with the literature. Since computers can only search for words in a paper’s title and abstract, these may be the only parts that many people read. The abstract may also be the way a journal’s editor decides whether to send your paper out for peer review or reject it as uninteresting and not generally relevant. Consequently, a well written abstract is extraordinarily important.

The title should be short (about 10 words), interesting, and it should describe what you found.

Include only those references that pertain to the question at hand. Journals vary considerably in their preferred format for the reference list. For this class, you should list the references alphabetically by the first author’s last name. Include all the authors, the paper’s title, the name of the journal in which it was published, its year of publication, the volume number, and page numbers. Please carefully follow the punctuation and format requirements. A typical reference should look like

Pavletich N. P., C. O. Pabo. “Zinc Finger-DNA Recognition: Crystal Structure of a Zif268-DNA Complex at 2.1 A.” Science 252 (1991):809-817.

In the body of your report, this article would be cited as follows: “The crystal structure of the Zif268-DNA complex has been solved (Pavletich 1991).”

If two or more articles can be cited for this finding, then they are listed alphabetically, separated by a comma.

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15: Laboratory Project for Introduction to Engineering

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For laboratory students will team up in 4 or 5 person teams. Each team would be expected to choose their own experiment (with instructor approval within a set of criteria that will ensure substantial sophistication). The main objective here is for the students to learn how real engineers work. It is very likely only prototypes will be developed by the end of this section, but that does not mean analysis, lab notebooks, and lab reports cannot be done even if the project is incomplete. Lab work usually takes many years to accomplish a significant result and it is important that students understand the process at this stage of their academic career.

Each student is expected to have a laboratory journal for taking detailed notes during the experiment. All experiments expect a laboratory journal of some sort (professional lab books are the best, but for academia a simple non-spiral bound composition notebook). Each student is expected to write their own laboratory report. While writing group laboratory reports might be acceptable in the "real world" in academia the purpose is to learn and everyone must be involved by writing their own laboratory report and by so doing learn some laboratory techniques.

For a modern laboratory project it is suggested that a control system with actuators and sensors be used to develop project that is capable of being tested in an experimental way. For this type of experiment there would need to be an graph of the data which would require an "independent" variable and a "dependent" variable (an x-y plot). For error bars you would need to perform an experiment at least five times (preferably more) for each independent variable. There are other types of graphs and analysis but they are less engineering-based (still you will need to learn them, but not here).

The intent is for a group to choose their own project and present it to the instructor for approval. This is so the student have a full experience.

Keys to all the labs:

• Labs must have one or more actuators
• Labs must have one or more sensors
• Actuators and sensors are to be controlled by a control system software (LabView, SciLab, or Octave) or just a standard programming language like Fortran or C++.
• All notes, drawings, data, etc. are to be entered into a lab book following lab journal rules given herein. Each student should have a lab book and it will be graded for completeness and format. This is different from the final laboratory report which each student also must turn in but will have a different sense of completeness.

To assist with ideas as small sample of ideas from other classes are presented here:

Example lab projects (with important details missing – for student to figure out if they go for that lab):

• Releasing different diameter rolled paper and measuring the speed from one point to another point. One actuator to drop the paper and two sensors to register time start and time end.
• Catapult distance given different release angles. While this can be theoretically figured out that does not matter, the point is the process not the experiment per se.
• Rotational speed of an AC generator connected to a light bulb (incandescent won’t work with an LED light) versus the brightness.
• Length of string from fix point to bob versus period.
• Weight of load for a vehicle versus the time to travel a set distance.
• Coefficient of friction (of known surfaces) versus velocity of vehicle.
• Power of motor versus velocity of a vehicle. Note the equipment this group had could control the power of the motor by software.
• Cooling water by stirring and not stirring as a function of time (two graphs to compare).
• For a full tub of water the size of an opening versus rate of water flow. This had some technical problems that made the build of this very difficult but was doable.
• Water flow on a water wheel versus electrical output. Lots of water requires some work outside so don’t do this type of experiment in the winter as you will get wet (even the professor might get wet during observation).
• 15.1: Laboratory Journal Format Basic description of laboratory journal format. All students should have a laboratory journal.
• 15.2: Laboratory Report Format Basic description of laboratory report format.  All students should have a laboratory report regardless if they worked in a group, this deviates from "real life" but is necessary in an educational environment where the goal is learning.
• 15.3: Example of Laboratory Report This is a simplified example of a laboratory report to help students understand how to write a laboratory report.  It is NOT realistic and definitely not advanced enough for the actual lab.
• 15.4: Sketch of how to present data in laboratory (i.e. graph with errors) This is a collection of notes to help the student present their data.  It is in Octave but could easily be done in any other programming language. It is not meant as definitive but just some ideas that a student could use.

Virtual Labs Assessment

Connect ® Virtual Labs can be utilized in a variety of implementation models.  Click here  to learn from a few instructors how they have seen success with Virtual Labs!  

Instructors are using the simulations in Virtual Labs as pre-lab learning experiences, so students are better prepared and more efficient for the in-person lab experience. The lab simulations are also a great resource for integrating lecture and lab topics in order to allow students to apply what they have learned in lecture to the lab simulations. Finally, the simulations in Virtual Labs provide a complete lab experience for online courses. In all of these lab implementation scenarios, instructors need different types of assessment options. In this article, you will be introduced to the different types of assessment activities available to you in Connect that accompany the simulations in Virtual Labs. 

Adaptive Learning Assignment   

The Adaptive Learning Assignment in Connect has been designed to create a formative learning experience for students that will allow them to learn the foundational knowledge needed to be prepared and successful in the associated lab simulations.

If you have utilized the SmartBook 2.0 assignment type, you will recognize the user interface and platform used for the Adaptive Learning Assignment. Similar to SmartBook, all the learning content in the adaptive learning experience for Virtual Labs is aligned. Each concept (learning objective) has several assessment questions to assess the concept—and every concept has an available learning resource that covers this learning objective. This adaptive learning experience functions just like SmartBook 2.0, except instead of having an eBook as a learning resource, students have learning resources in the form of slides, videos, or interactives. 

The following screenshots will use the Virtual Lab simulations from the blood topics as an example. To create an Adaptive Leaning Assignment (see image below), first choose your assignment type (new or review), and in the content area select “Virtual Labs: Pre-Lab Foundational Knowledge” and click “Continue” at the bottom left of your screen.   

You will then see a heading for “Key Concepts” (see image below). This section has the concepts (learning objectives) that are related to all of the following blood lab simulations. This is the foundational knowledge a student should know about blood prior to starting any of these four simulations. By default, all these concepts will be selected, but you can easily deselect any of them.  

Under the Key Concepts heading will be individual headings for each of the related simulations. In the blood example, there are four available simulations that cover this topic, so you will see four headings (see below). These headings will match the name of an actual lab simulation you will find in Virtual Labs. In the image below, the heading for the Blood Typing simulation is expanded and once again all concepts are selected by default, but you can deselect any concepts you would not like in your assignment. 

The concepts nested under the individual names of the simulations are specific to that lab simulation. These are concepts a student should know prior to starting this simulation in order to better understand the basic science behind the topics covered in the simulation.   Note: It is a best practice to not select concepts located under the heading for a specific simulation if you are not assigning.  

When you have expanded the menus to select concepts, you can preview a sample question by clicking “Preview Sample Question”.  

Below is a sample question for the concept: Recall that blood is composed of plasma and the formed elements.  

You may also view the learning resources available for each concept by clicking on the link for “Resource”. These resources are available for students to examine when beginning their assignment or while asking questions related to this concept. Below is a resource related to the concept: Recall that blood is composed of plasma and the formed elements.  

When you have selected the content you wish to have included in your adaptive learning assignment, simply click “continue” in the bottom left corner and you’ll be directed to a page where you enter the assignment name, set start and due dates, and enter the number of points. Then, click “Assign”. 

Students complete these assignments as a formative learning experience. When they begin an assignment, they have the option to first start viewing the resources or simply jump in and begin answering questions.   

Students will see the tips below before they begin answering questions. Their goal is to get two questions per concept correct before the due date.  

When a student starts the assignment, they are asked questions (see image below). Notice when they answer the question, they will also need to rate their confidence in their answer (high, medium, or low). Students also have the option to review the related learning resource at the moment they are being asked the question. There is no penalty for an incorrect answer. Students will see the correct answer and have the opportunity to review related learning resources after an incorrect answer. The adaptive engine uses the learning sciences principles of interleaving, spaced practice, and retrieval practice to offer up questions from different concepts in the assignment to the student. When the student has correctly answered two questions for a concept, they will receive credit for this concept. In the example assignment below, 12 concepts have been assigned to the student. For a student to receive 100% on this assignment, they will need to correctly answer at least two questions per concept. If they do this for all of the 12 concepts before the due date, they will receive 100% of the points for this assignment regardless of how many questions they answered incorrectly. If they only answer two questions for 10 of the 12 concepts before the due date, they will receive 83% (10 out of 12) of the allotted points for this assignment.  

In summary, the Adaptive Learning Assignment for Virtual Labs can be used as an effective and efficient pre-lab learning assignment for students before they begin an in-person or virtual lab experience.

Recently, we made significant upgrades to reporting in McGraw Hill Virtual Labs.  Click here to learn more.  

Question Bank

The second available assessment type is a bank of questions that can be used by an instructor to create their own customized assignment that could be used for practice, homework, a quiz, or an exam. This utilizes the “Question Bank” assignment type in Connect.  

To find the question bank for Virtual Labs content, first, click “Add Assignment” and “Question Bank”. Then click on “Virtual Labs Question Bank” in the drop-down menu. (Note: If you are using Connect with a McGraw Hill textbook, the textbook will always be the default question bank.)  

Each set of Virtual Labs simulations is then listed by their major heading. Click on “Blood” and the question bank for all four blood simulations will display.  

As shown below, there is a wide range of question types for your assessments pictured here (i.e. check all that apply, fill in the blank, multiple-choice, etc.). Simply select the questions you want in your assignment and set the numerous policy settings to create an assignment that meets your assessment needs.

There are many available filters in drop-down menus on the left side of the page that allows you to search for different types of content. For example, there are filters for accessibility, learning outcomes, HAPS learning outcomes, sections, and subtopics. The filter under each section allows you to search for questions that could be used for a pre-lab assessment activity. The filter can be used to search for questions specific to each of the four simulations for blood offered in Virtual Labs. For example, filtering by “Blood Typing” will result in 32 questions tagged to this simulation. Note: All filters work with the reports in Connect. This allows you to run an item analysis report of questions that were tagged to learning outcomes, or any of the other filters.  

The two different types of assessment options offered in Connect that complement Virtual Lab simulations support various implementation models of how Virtual Labs is being used by instructors. They provide the needed flexibility, modularity, and customization that each of these different implementation scenarios requires. If you would like to learn more about how to implement McGraw Hill Virtual Labs or any other Connect product, please reach out to your implementation consultant by clicking here.  

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For educators.

• Educators' guide
• Understand the assignment task
• Introduction

It is important to understand what your assignment topic means before you start your research, otherwise it can lead to confusion, frustration and wasted time.

It is also one of the common causes of assignment failure.

Analysing the words used in the question is a good way to understand the assignment topic. The question is usually very specific and will refer to only part of the course content. There are three common types of words to look out for.

Content words

Content words identify concepts or ideas from your course that apply to the topic. To properly understand content words it is often necessary to do some research on the topic first. Think about the following:

• Which part of the course content does the question refer to?
• Which aspects of the topic are required?
• What broader context is this question part of?

Instructional words

A clear understanding of instructional words is vital for answering the question the way the lecturer expects. In an assignment, the lecturer is not only assessing what you know, but also your ability to respond to the content in a particular way. Assignments may require you to:

• Describe or give information about a topic or idea
• Show or explain the relationship between topics or ideas
• Describe or explain a process
• Argue a point of view
• Compare different ideas

View the meanings of instructional words list

Limiting words

Limiting words narrow down the topic. They tell you what aspects of the topic should be included and the limits of your discussion, such as time or location.

Sample assignment task

Compare team models in two contemporary organisations. Discuss the effectiveness of these models with reference to current management theories .

Content words Instructional words Limiting words

Next, test your understanding by clicking on the Activity tab above.

[instructional words]Compare[end instructional words] [start content words]team models[end content words] in [start limiting words]two contemporary[end limiting words] organisations. [instructional words]Discuss[end instructional words] the [start ontent words]effectiveness[end content words] of these models [start instructional words]with reference to[end instructional words] [start limiting words]current[end limiting words] [start content words]management theories[end content words].

Test your understanding by identifying the content, instructional and limiting words in the three following assignment topics.

Activity: Identifying content, instructional, and limiting words

Click on the yellow pen and highlight the content words, click on the blue pen for instructional words, and click on the green pen for limiting words. Incorrect labelling of words will flash red.

Sample assignment topic 1

Develop a marketing plan focused on one business unit of a selected company

• Content words: a marketing plan
• Instructional words: Develop
• Limiting words: one business unit of a selected company

Sample assignment topic 2

Discuss the implications of family members being present during emergency interventions involving children.

• Content words: family members being present during emergency interventions
• Instructional words: Discuss
• Limiting words: involving children

Sample assignment topic 3

Outline the key factors affecting the provision of aged care services in rural Australia.

• Content words: factors affecting the provision of aged care services
• Instructional words: Outline
• Limiting words: rural Australia
• The search process
• Understand your topic
• Develop your search strategy
• Meanings of instructional words

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Medicare Assignment: Everything You Need to Know

Medicare assignment.

• Providers Accepting Assignment
• Providers Who Do Not
• Billing Options
• Assignment of Benefits
• How to Choose

Frequently Asked Questions

Medicare assignment is an agreement between Medicare and medical providers (doctors, hospitals, medical equipment suppliers, etc.) in which the provider agrees to accept Medicare’s fee schedule as payment in full when Medicare patients are treated.

This article will explain how Medicare assignment works, and what you need to know in order to ensure that you won’t receive unexpected bills.

fizkes / Getty Images

There are 35 million Americans who have Original Medicare. Medicare is a federal program and most medical providers throughout the country accept assignment with Medicare. As a result, these enrollees have a lot more options for medical providers than most of the rest of the population.

They can see any provider who accepts assignment, anywhere in the country. They can be assured that they will only have to pay their expected Medicare cost-sharing (deductible and coinsurance, some or all of which may be paid by a Medigap plan , Medicaid, or supplemental coverage provided by an employer or former employer).

It’s important to note here that the rules are different for the 29 million Americans who have Medicare Advantage plans. These beneficiaries cannot simply use any medical provider who accepts Medicare assignment.

Instead, each Medicare Advantage plan has its own network of providers —much like the health insurance plans that many Americans are accustomed to obtaining from employers or purchasing in the exchange/marketplace .

A provider who accepts assignment with Medicare may or may not be in-network with some or all of the Medicare Advantage plans that offer coverage in a given area. Some Medicare Advantage plans— health maintenance organizations (HMOs) , in particular—will only cover an enrollee’s claims if they use providers who are in the plan's network.

Other Medicare Advantage plans— preferred provider organizations (PPOs) , in particular—will cover out-of-network care but the enrollee will pay more than they would have paid had they seen an in-network provider.

Original Medicare

The bottom line is that Medicare assignment only determines provider accessibility and costs for people who have Original Medicare. People with Medicare Advantage need to understand their own plan’s provider network and coverage rules.

When discussing Medicare assignment and access to providers in this article, keep in mind that it is referring to people who have Original Medicare.

How to Make Sure Your Provider Accepts Assignment

Most doctors, hospitals, and other medical providers in the United States do accept Medicare assignment.

Provider Participation Stats

According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 98% of providers participate in Medicare, which means they accept assignment.

You can ask the provider directly about their participation with Medicare. But Medicare also has a tool that you can use to find participating doctors, hospitals, home health care services, and other providers.

There’s a filter on that tool labeled “Medicare-approved payment.” If you turn on that filter, you will only see providers who accept Medicare assignment. Under each provider’s information, it will say “Charges the Medicare-approved amount (so you pay less out-of-pocket).”

What If Your Provider Doesn’t Accept Assignment?

If your medical provider or equipment supplier doesn’t accept assignment, it means they haven’t agreed to accept Medicare’s approved amounts as payment in full for all of the services.

These providers can still choose to accept assignment on a case-by-case basis. But because they haven’t agreed to accept Medicare assignment for all services, they are considered nonparticipating providers.

Note that "nonparticipating" does not mean that a provider has opted out of Medicare altogether. Medicare will still pay claims for services received from a nonparticipating provider (i.e., one who does not accept Medicare assignment), whereas Medicare does not cover any of the cost of services obtained from a provider who has officially opted out of Medicare.

If a Medicare beneficiary uses a provider who has opted out of Medicare, that person will pay the provider directly and Medicare will not be involved in any way.

Physicians Who Have Opted Out

Only about 1% of all non-pediatric physicians have opted out of Medicare.

For providers who have not opted out of Medicare but who also don’t accept assignment, Medicare will still pay nearly as much as it would have paid if you had used a provider who accepts assignment. Here’s how it works:

• Medicare will pay the provider 95% of the amount they would pay if the provider accepted assignment.
• The provider can charge the person receiving care more than the Medicare-approved amount, but only up to 15% more (some states limit this further). This extra amount, which the patient has to pay out-of-pocket, is known as the limiting charge . But the 15% cap does not apply to medical equipment suppliers; if they do not accept assignment with Medicare, there is no limit on how much they can charge the person receiving care. This is why it’s particularly important to make sure that the supplier accepts Medicare assignment if you need medical equipment.
• The nonparticipating provider may require the person receiving care to pay the entire bill up front and seek reimbursement from Medicare (using Form CMS 1490-S ). Alternatively, they may submit a claim to Medicare on behalf of the person receiving care (using Form CMS-1500 ).
• A nonparticipating provider can choose to accept assignment on a case-by-case basis. They can indicate this on Form CMS-1500 in box 27. The vast majority of nonparticipating providers who bill Medicare choose to accept assignment for the claim being billed.
• Nonparticipating providers do not have to bill your Medigap plan on your behalf.

Billing Options for Providers Who Accept Medicare

When a medical provider accepts assignment with Medicare, part of the agreement is that they will submit bills to Medicare on behalf of the person receiving care. So if you only see providers who accept assignment, you will never need to submit your own bills to Medicare for reimbursement.

If you have a Medigap plan that supplements your Original Medicare coverage, you should present the Medigap coverage information to the provider at the time of service. Medicare will forward the claim information to your Medigap insurer, reducing administrative work on your part.

Depending on the Medigap plan you have, the services that you receive, and the amount you’ve already spent in out-of-pocket costs, the Medigap plan may pay some or all of the out-of-pocket costs that you would otherwise have after Medicare pays its share.

(Note that if you have a type of Medigap plan called Medicare SELECT, you will have to stay within the plan’s network of providers in order to receive benefits. But this is not the case with other Medigap plans.)

After the claim is processed, you’ll be able to see details in your MyMedicare.gov account . Medicare will also send you a Medicare Summary Notice. This is Medicare’s version of an explanation of benefits (EOB) , which is sent out every three months.

If you have a Medigap plan, it should also send you an EOB or something similar, explaining the claim and whether the policy paid any part of it.

What Is Medicare Assignment of Benefits?

For Medicare beneficiaries, assignment of benefits means that the person receiving care agrees to allow a nonparticipating provider to bill Medicare directly (as opposed to having the person receiving care pay the bill up front and seek reimbursement from Medicare). Assignment of benefits is authorized by the person receiving care in Box 13 of Form CMS-1500 .

If the person receiving care refuses to assign benefits, Medicare can only reimburse the person receiving care instead of paying the nonparticipating provider directly.

Things to Consider Before Choosing a Provider

If you’re enrolled in Original Medicare, you have a wide range of options in terms of the providers you can use—far more than most other Americans. In most cases, your preferred doctor and other medical providers will accept assignment with Medicare, keeping your out-of-pocket costs lower than they would otherwise be, and reducing administrative hassle.

There may be circumstances, however, when the best option is a nonparticipating provider or even a provider who has opted out of Medicare altogether. If you choose one of these options, be sure you discuss the details with the provider before proceeding with the treatment.

You’ll want to understand how much is going to be billed and whether the provider will bill Medicare on your behalf if you agree to assign benefits (note that this is not possible if the provider has opted out of Medicare).

If you have supplemental coverage, you’ll also want to check with that plan to see whether it will still pick up some of the cost and, if so, how much you should expect to pay out of your own pocket.

A medical provider who accepts Medicare assignment is considered a participating provider. These providers have agreed to accept Medicare’s fee schedule as payment in full for services they provide to Medicare beneficiaries. Most doctors, hospitals, and other medical providers do accept Medicare assignment.

Nonparticipating providers are those who have not signed an agreement with Medicare to accept Medicare’s rates as payment in full. However, they can agree to accept assignment on a case-by-case basis, as long as they haven’t opted out of Medicare altogether. If they do not accept assignment, they can bill the patient up to 15% more than the Medicare-approved rate.

Providers who opt out of Medicare cannot bill Medicare and Medicare will not pay them or reimburse beneficiaries for their services. But there is no limit on how much they can bill for their services.

A Word From Verywell

It’s in your best interest to choose a provider who accepts Medicare assignment. This will keep your costs as low as possible, streamline the billing and claims process, and ensure that your Medigap plan picks up its share of the costs.

If you feel like you need help navigating the provider options or seeking care from a provider who doesn’t accept assignment, the Medicare State Health Insurance Assistance Program (SHIP) in your state may be able to help.

A doctor who does not accept Medicare assignment has not agreed to accept Medicare’s fee schedule as payment in full for their services. These doctors are considered nonparticipating with Medicare and can bill Medicare beneficiaries up to 15% more than the Medicare-approved amount.

They also have the option to accept assignment (i.e., accept Medicare’s rate as payment in full) on a case-by-case basis.

There are certain circumstances in which a provider is required by law to accept assignment. This includes situations in which the person receiving care has both Medicare and Medicaid. And it also applies to certain medical services, including lab tests, ambulance services, and drugs that are covered under Medicare Part B (as opposed to Part D).

In 2021, 98% of American physicians had participation agreements with Medicare, leaving only about 2% who did not accept assignment (either as a nonparticipating provider, or a provider who had opted out of Medicare altogether).

Accepting assignment is something that the medical provider does, whereas assignment of benefits is something that the patient (the Medicare beneficiary) does. To accept assignment means that the medical provider has agreed to accept Medicare’s approved fee as payment in full for services they provide.

Assignment of benefits means that the person receiving care agrees to allow a medical provider to bill Medicare directly, as opposed to having the person receiving care pay the provider and then seek reimbursement from Medicare.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Medicare monthly enrollment .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Annual Medicare participation announcement .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Lower costs with assignment .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Find providers who have opted out of Medicare .

Kaiser Family Foundation. How many physicians have opted-out of the Medicare program ?

Center for Medicare Advocacy. Durable medical equipment, prosthetics, orthotics, and supplies (DMEPOS) updates .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Check the status of a claim .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Medicare claims processing manual. Chapter 26 - completing and processing form CMS-1500 data set .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Ambulance fee schedule .

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Prescription drugs (outpatient) .

By Louise Norris Norris is a licensed health insurance agent, book author, and freelance writer. She graduated magna cum laude from Colorado State University.

W4A.1. Lab Assignment #1. Using Sample medical record #1 and Sample...

W4A.1. Lab Assignment #1. Using Sample medical record #1 and Sample Medical Record #2, identify the medical terms outlined in the diagnosis and procedure section, discharge summary and history, and physical report. 

For each term, need a flashcard table to 1) identify the term 2) provide a definition, and 3) document the suffix, root, and prefix to include the meaning of all three term parts. 

I provided two sample records so that will have many terms to choose from. Only one Flash Card Table Template is required to earn full credit. :> Enjoy this practical exercise! Please reference the attached grading rubric.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_iRIP89RX_1fpYtTRovxlLuUCiQAk4gD/view?usp=sharing

https://drive.google.com/file/d/13NSoLKARX3VyeLmRgvCUtnwBlNrBNb7o/view?usp=sharing

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KoNcvecG-UHaifnJz7bNjdvNvCqqO6Kh/view?usp=sharing

Answer & Explanation

Approach to solving the question: 

Detailed explanation:

Key references:

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