higher order thinking music education

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Learning about the world: higher order thinking in music education

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The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa (Jul 2012)

Learning about the world: developing higher order thinking in music education

• Jaco Kruger,
• Liesl van Merwe

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Innovative thinking is an innate human capacity geared towards adaptation and survival. Theories of education accordingly aim at developing teaching-learning strategies that promote creative, problem-solving reasoning referred to as higher order thinking. This essay briefly explains some of the assumptions underlying this concept, and then suggests how they may be reconfigured in a strategy suitable for education in and through music. The strategy involves a basic process of analysis, evaluation and creativity related to actual social experience. Higher order thinking therefore aims to equip learners with the capacity to synthesise relationships in and beyond particular fields of study so that their thinking may expand into the concreteness of the world. Keywords: social challenges, higher order thinking, education, music education, culture contact, Frère Jacques Disciplines: Disciplines: education, music education, musicology, history, anthropology, folklore studies, philosophy of art

• social challenges
• higher order thinking
• music education
• culture contact
• Frère Jacques

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Teaching Strategies, Knowledge, Higher-Order Thinking Skills and Creative Musical Product in Music Improvisation

• First Online: 18 December 2018

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• Ku Wing Cheong 5  

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Improvisation has a prevalent role in music performance practice throughout the development of Western classical music and has a significant role in the performance practice of the Baroque and Classical periods. Great composers such as J. S. Bach , Mozart and Beethoven were highly skilled accomplished master improvisers and teachers of improvisation .

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Acknowledgements

The author drew the contents of this chapter from her Ph.D. dissertation. She made reference to an article she co-published with her dissertation supervisors (see Cheong, Chua & Pan, 2014 ).

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Cheong, K.W. (2019). Teaching Strategies, Knowledge, Higher-Order Thinking Skills and Creative Musical Product in Music Improvisation. In: Tsubonou, Y., Tan, AG., Oie, M. (eds) Creativity in Music Education. Creativity in the Twenty First Century. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2749-0_15

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Effective Questioning in the Arts

3 Min Read  •  Arts Integration

Effective Questioning in The Arts

It’s back-to-school time! If you’re anything like me, this is always a time of New School Year’s Resolutions. What do I want to do differently this year? How can I increase student engagement? Am I doing everything I can to give my students the music education they deserve?

One of my biggest struggles in the music classroom was accomplishing everything I wanted to in a limited amount of time.  As well as, trying to do so in a way that encouraged deep thinking. One of my constant New Year’s Resolutions has always been to provide more opportunity for higher order thinking skills. However, this can be a challenge when you have a 20-minute class period. The types of questions we ask in the classroom, and the opportunities we allow for our students to come to the answers of those questions can make or break our effectiveness at achieving that goal. So today, let’s look at some tips for effective questioning in the arts classroom .

Identify your essential question

First, we must identify the “big idea.” What is the larger question around the piece of art your students are engaging with? It’s time to think beyond your lesson plan! Is the true, essential objective of your lesson that students demonstrate that they know that Georges Seurat painted “A Sunday on La Grande Jette” using a technique called pointillism through identification and the development of a matching product. Or, is there something bigger? The essential questions for National Core Visual Arts Standard 1.2 read:

“How does knowing the context histories, and traditions of art forms help us create works of art and design? Why do artists follow or break from established tradition? How do artists determine what resources are needed to formulate artistic investigation?”

Outline some big ideas and essential questions for your content area that encourage creative, artful thinking can serve to guide you this year.

Build an effective questioning toolkit.

This is a great time to look at the essential questions built right into the National Core Arts Standards.  And, begin developing some lines of effective questioning helping students meet those standards. What kinds of questions will you ask to encourage inquiry around a piece of art, music, theatre, or dance? How will you guide students to the big idea with smaller questions? Check out this article on question starters for each level of Bloom’s taxonomy, and develop some guiding questions for your content area.

Give wait time.

When time is at a premium, it’s easy to forget to do this. However, giving students moments of thoughtful silence to formulate their own observation, ideas, hypotheses, and opinions is crucial to developing artistic minds. Every student should have time to think individually before discussion, so that they all have something to share. Challenge yourself to give your students just a little bit longer this year!

Allow opportunities for all students to engage.

This might mean giving students time to turn and talk with a partner. It might mean instituting a “no hands up” policy allowing you to choose, who will respond. This gives students the opportunity to continue thinking while responses are made. Encouraging discussion among all students is difficult to do within time constraints, but it is vitally important to ensure that every child is thinking critically and artfully.

Dig deeper.

Follow up to student responses in a way that encourages deeper thinking. Ask students to explain their thinking using support and evidence from the piece of art. This is a standard and a skill that crosses all curricular lines, so encouraging this, we are achieving standards in every content area. What better use of time is there than this?

Learn how to successfully integrate the arts in any classroom.

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• DOI: 10.4102/TD.V8I1.6
• Corpus ID: 55916527

Learning about the world : developing higher order thinking in music education

• J. Kruger , L. V. D. Merwe
• Published 31 July 2012
• The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa

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Time and space – the context of hans roosenschoon ’ s music, an exposition of musical arts education in malawi, 27 references, comparisons of higher-order thinking skills among prospective freshmen and upper-level preservice music education majors, the new bloom's taxonomy: implications for music education.

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Music as a Teaching Tool

Incorporating music into almost any class can be a great way to teach content—and it doesn’t take special training or expensive resources.

Many teachers shy away from including music in their classrooms because they presume they need musical training to use music as a teaching tool. However, there are multiple ways to implement music in the classroom that don’t require any training.

Classroom Strategies

In the early grades, transitions are a little harder to set because the students are still learning what the concept of a minute is and what one feels like. A song can improve transitions because it becomes a behavior cue: Students grow accustomed to the length of the song or part of a song and internalize the time they have to move on to the next task, which helps them begin to take responsibility for their own learning.

Many of us know that music will get you up and moving. Using songs for movement is a great method to provide students with a brain break, especially in the younger grades. There are many resources already available to help create educational brain breaks that don’t disturb classroom management, such as GoNoodle .

Students with physical impairments can benefit from listening to music because doing so helps with concentration and/or influences their movements. Smooth music will result in movements with a flow, while fast dance music may cause jerky movements.

Social and emotional skills are learned everyday by students as new scenarios present themselves. Try teaching them skills through songs. An example is taking the tune of “Hokey Pokey,” which is familiar to most children, and adapting the lyrics to talk about how to calm down from a stressful situation, as in this version adapted from Margie La Bella’s Music Therapy & Education :

You take a big breath in, You take a big breath out, You take a big breath in, And again you let it all out. You can focus on your breath. You can learn to calm down. That’s what it’s all about.

As educators, we want to appropriately challenge each student—encouraging higher-order thinking while meeting state standards. Music is one tool to engage each student and provide a pathway for connections and deeper understanding. Songs are essentially poems, and have a lot of meaning packed into few words. Questions arise as to what the author means, students’ own experiences are considered from the perspective of that meaning, and this helps create an environment where students will want to share what they are thinking and why. This leads into a personal drive to do research to understand what the author is referring to in the lyrics.

Here are just a few examples of ways to incorporate music into your classes:

History is a subject that benefits greatly from having music as a lens to teach about cultural traditions and historical events. For example, the Dust Bowl can be taught through songs by Woody Guthrie and/or Benny Goodman, with students analyzing the conditions people lived in at the time.

Mathematics can be challenging for students to understand because the concepts are abstract, which is the main reason it’s important to provide visuals and manipulatives to students when first teaching a concept. Musical notes can help teach fractions, changing instruments but playing the same song can help teach patterns, and using pitch can help with frequency and ratios.

Science can benefit from songs that teach about the skeletal system or incorporate mnemonics to help students remember the food chain. Music can be the content for teaching about sound waves and having children experience frequency with relation to pitch.

Literacy improves when a student is able to pick up on the patterns in the structure of language and is able to differentiate between pitches in words that sound similar but have different meanings. Music can be utilized as a metaphor to explain elements of a story such as character, setting, conflict, and resolution, using the melodies, instruments, tempos, and dynamics as the teaching lens.

Working With Limited Resources

You don’t need a lot of expensive supplies to incorporate music into your class. Here are a few ways to bring music into your class at little or no cost:

• Create a CD or playlist of songs to use for motor skills, academic, or relaxation time.
• Make instruments out of recycled materials. A guitar can be made from a cereal box, drums from cans and plastic bottles. KinderArt provides simple yet creative ways to make instruments that can also be used to discuss cultures. And Music in Motion provides a great list of instruments that you can make from recycled materials or buy from the website.
• Clapping, snapping, tapping, whistling, humming, and stomping are great ways to make music. For ideas on how to start music simply by using your body, check out the musical Stomp —for example, the part of the show in which clapping is the main instrument .
• Post anchor charts to refer to for specific dancing songs or yoga positions.

Critical Thinking: Practical Music Teaching Strategies

Incorporating the socratic method and critical thinking in music education in schools involves creativity and a break from traditional classroom teaching strategies., what are the benefits of critical thinking.

Critical thinking also known as the Socratic Method is based on the question-and-answer style of teaching accredited to the philosopher Socrates. Critical thinking in music education takes the basic premise of debate and inquiry and applies it to music education in schools. This teaching strategy encourages students to question each other, and removes the instructor from all-knowing professor to a fellow seeker of knowledge.

From the University of Phoenix to California’s public school system, educators and students alike have found the benefits of critical thinking strategies in the classroom. As one student at California’s KIPP High School mentioned, “[Critical Thinking is] thinking beyond what you hear, what you know in your brain, in your heart, in your soul.” Critical thinking puts the power of influence in the hands of the student, giving students the tools they need to function in college and in society (Edutopia, Geert ten Dam).

Critical thinking strategies extend from private lessons to the public university setting. In the United States, where an emphasis on standardised testing has changed the music teacher’s role in music education in schools, critical thinking strategies aid music classrooms by providing a framework that incorporates reading and writing requirements within an artistic scope.

Music Critique Circle (Secondary)

A key component of critical thinking and the Socratic method involves students learning how to critique each other in a constructive way. In the Music Critique Circle, students present a music project (ex. a simple composition, music performance, or paper presentation) to the class. After the presentation, students take turns responding to the performance or project with thoughtful questions. For example, a student may ask a piano student, “Is there a reason why you performed the Moonlight Sonata in a sad way?” or “What would happen if you played Beethoven’s piece allegro?”

The key here is to emphasize critical thinking, engaging discussion, and constructive debate.

Music Listening Exercise (Primary & Secondary)

Music educators can encourage age appropriate discussions at both the primary and secondary levels using music listening activities. The music educator selects several recordings in different styles and moods. After playing an excerpt, the music instructor engages students in a discussion using critical thinking questions.

Some sample questions include: “Why do you think this song makes you happy?” “If the musician played a drum instead of a flute, what would happen?” “Does this type of music always have strings?” “What do the lyrics mean to you?”

As a variation to these music teaching strategies for older students, the instructor can divide students into several small groups and give each group a series of critical thinking questions. After fifteen minutes, each group shares their responses to the questions. The music educator follows up with challenging questions that encourage students to view their discussion from alternate viewpoints. Questions like “Why do you think that?” and “Group A stated the opposite view. How can you support your viewpoint?”

To learn more about how to create K-6 lessons including critical thinking questions, check out our video blog here : Fun Music Company Curriculum Video  Series  for Grade 6

Exit Tickets (Primary & Secondary)

Writer and educator Maria Stefanova encourages the use of “Exit Tickets” in her article “Developing Critical Thinking and Assessment in Music Classrooms”. The “Exit Ticket” teaching strategy requires every child to answer a critical thinking question before leaving the class. This strategy encourages the concept of “Asking a question instead of giving the answer,” a key component in another popular teaching method – the Suzuki Method (Stefanova, pg 30).

Incorporating Critical Thinking Strategies in The Music Classroom

Incorporating critical thinking strategies in the music classroom promotes higher order thinking and engaging discussion and by involving your students in the discussion process, you will prepare students for future success. This article outlines some beginning ideas for the music classroom, at the Fun Music Company we aim to include critical thinking questions and discussions in every step of our approach from playing instruments to through to connecting with cultural music and composition. In fact, you can start implementing some of these strategies into your lessons TODAY. 

You can get started with seven FREE k-6 music teaching ideas , one for each grade delivered to your email inbox over the next 7 days here:

SOURCES: Edutopia. (2011, August 17). Critical Thinking Wins the Day at a KIPP High School [Video file]. Retrieved from YouTube.com website: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dazO9o2aJU4 Stefanova, M. (2011). Developing Critical Thinking and Assessment in the Music Classrooms. American String Teacher, 61(2), 29-31. Nobori, M. (2011). Ten Takeaway Tips for Teaching Critical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/stw-kipp-critical-thinking-10-tips-for-teaching Fisher, C. (2008). The Socratic Medthod. Socratic Method–Research Startes Education, 1. Geert ten Dam, (., & Monique, V. (2004). Critical Thinking as a citizenship competence: teaching strategies. Learning and Instruction, 14 359-379.doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.01.005

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Thank you very much!!! Please continue with these questions and maybe even teacher lessons! Gail

So basically, instead of asking “How does this piece make you feel?” we could ask “Why does this piece make you feel…?” This makes then makes sense of the rather dry, technical question in the ABRSM aural tests “What in the music gives the piece it’s character?”

I have done this masterclass type setting where I have students perform for each other and then we would critique each other.

It was not negative at all. In fact, I found it to be very exciting for the students involved!

Been wanting something for a more engaging experience for my violin students, to get them enthused & thinking. Need to revise often with them…maybe this will encourage the information to stay in their heads…LOL.

I like it!!! I’ve always been a proponent of open discussion, Q &A, and the like as opposed to the conventional method of teacher talks all the time – even when I was in high school. The initial effect on students, I believe, is that it makes them feel special instead of feeling like they’re being talked down to. I am a one on one teacher, but seeing this article and video has inspired me to take this approach even further with each student. Thanks for turning me on to this!!!

Nathan Smith

I also enjoyed this article. After each lesson I have the student tell me what I want them to work on and why. I will now begin to ask questions about the actual songs with which they are choosing work.

I am a performer and educator. Very happy to read this news. Thanks for sharing !

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70 Higher-Order Thinking Questions To Challenge Your Students (Free Printable)

Plus 45 lower-order thinking questions too.

Want to help your students make strong connections with subject material? Ensure you’re using all six levels of cognitive thinking. This means asking lower-order thinking questions as well as higher-order thinking questions. Learn more about them here, and find plenty of examples for each.

Plus get a printable sheet featuring all the higher-order and lower-order thinking questions featured below.

Lower-Order Thinking Skills Questions

Higher-order thinking skills questions, what are lower-order and higher-order thinking questions.

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a way of classifying cognitive thinking skills. The six main categories—remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create—are broken into lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). LOTS includes remember, understand, and apply. HOTS covers analyze, evaluate, and create.

While both LOTS and HOTS have value, higher-order thinking questions urge students to develop deeper connections with information. They also encourage kids to think critically and develop problem-solving skills. That’s why teachers like to emphasize them in the classroom.

New to higher-order thinking? Learn all about it here. Then use these lower-order and higher-order thinking questions to inspire your students to examine subject material on a variety of levels.

Remember (LOTS)

• Who are the main characters?
• When did the event take place?
• What is the setting of the story?

• Where would you find _________?
• How do you __________?
• What is __________?
• How do you define _________?
• How do you spell ________?
• What are the characteristics of _______?
• List the _________ in proper order.
• Name all the ____________.
• Describe the __________.
• Who was involved in the event or situation?

• How many _________ are there?
• What happened first? Next? Last?

Understand (LOTS)

• Can you explain why ___________?
• What is the difference between _________ and __________?
• How would you rephrase __________?
• What is the main idea?
• Why did the character/person ____________?

• What’s happening in this illustration?
• Retell the story in your own words.
• Describe an event from start to finish.
• What is the climax of the story?
• Who are the protagonists and antagonists?

• What does ___________ mean?
• What is the relationship between __________ and ___________?
• Provide more information about ____________.
• Why does __________ equal ___________?
• Explain why _________ causes __________.

Apply (LOTS)

• How do you solve ___________?
• What method can you use to __________?
• What methods or approaches won’t work?

• Provide examples of _____________.
• How can you demonstrate your ability to __________.
• How would you use ___________?
• Use what you know to __________.
• How many ways are there to solve this problem?
• What can you learn from ___________?
• How can you use ________ in daily life?
• Provide facts to prove that __________.
• Organize the information to show __________.

• How would this person/character react if ________?
• Predict what would happen if __________.
• How would you find out _________?

Analyze (HOTS)

• What facts does the author offer to support their opinion?
• What are some problems with the author’s point of view?
• How does the author use symbolism in this text?
• What common features do these characters share?
• How does the setting affect the characters and plot?
• What was a character’s motivation for a specific action?

• Compare and contrast two main characters or points of view.
• Discuss the pros and cons of _________.
• How would you classify or sort ___________?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of _______?
• How is _______ connected to __________?
• What caused __________?
• What are the effects of ___________?
• How would you prioritize these facts or tasks?
• How do you explain _______?
• What patterns can you identify in the data, and what might they mean?
• Which method of solving this equation is most efficient?
• Using the information in a chart/graph, what conclusions can you draw?
• What does the data show or fail to show?
• What is the theme of _________?
• Why do you think _______?
• What is the purpose of _________?
• What was the turning point?

Evaluate (HOTS)

• Is _________ better or worse than _________?
• What are the best parts of __________?
• How will you know if __________ is successful?
• Are the stated facts proven by evidence?
• What are the potential drawbacks?
• Was ______________ justified in their actions and choices?
• How does historical context affect your view of the person’s actions?
• Is the source reliable?

• What makes a point of view valid?
• Are any perspectives or points of view missing?
• Did the character/person make a good decision? Why or why not?
• Which _______ is the best and why?
• What biases can you identify in this text?
• How effective are/were the laws or policies in achieving their goals?
• What are the biases or assumptions in an argument?
• What is the value of _________?
• Is _________ morally or ethically acceptable?
• Does __________ apply to all people equally?
• How can you disprove __________?
• Does __________ meet the specified criteria?

• What could be improved about _________?
• Do you agree with ___________?
• Does the conclusion include all pertinent data?
• Does ________ really mean ___________?

Create (HOTS)

• How can you verify ____________?
• Design an experiment to __________.
• Defend your opinion on ___________.
• How can you solve this problem?
• Create a new character for the story, then describe their background and impact.
• How would you turn this story into a movie? What changes would you make to the plot and why?
• Rewrite a story with a better ending.

• How can you persuade someone to __________?
• Make a plan to complete a task or project.
• How would you improve __________?
• What changes would you make to ___________ and why?
• How would you teach someone to _________?
• What would happen if _________?
• What alternative can you suggest for _________?
• Write a new policy to solve a societal problem.
• How would you handle an emergency situation like ____________?
• What solutions do you recommend?
• How would you do things differently?

• What are the next steps?
• How can you improve the efficiency of this process?
• What factors would need to change in order for __________?
• Invent a _________ to __________.
• What is your theory about __________?

Get your free printable with higher-order and lower-order thinking skills questions

Just enter your email address on the form on this landing page to grab a copy of our printable sheet featuring all of the higher-order and lower-order thinking questions featured above. It’s perfect to keep on hand for use during lesson planning and instruction.

What are your favorite higher-order thinking questions? Come share in the We Are Teachers HELPLINE group on Facebook.

Plus, 100+ critical thinking questions for students to ask about anything ., you might also like.

100+ Critical Thinking Questions for Students To Ask About Anything

Critical thinkers question everything. Continue Reading

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Th`k: Music as a Catalyst for Higher Order Thinking

Music as a Catalyst for Higher Order Thinking

Music has long been part of the human experience, bringing joy and comfort to people from all walks of life. And the benefits go beyond just feel-good entertainment, according research in music psychology and neuroscience.

Higher order thinking involves the ability to think critically, make connections between ideas, and come up with new solutions. Let's explore the science behind why practicing music can be a generative force for emotional and creative growth.

Musical training broadens and builds cognitive flexibility

The Broaden and Build theory in positive psychology 1 suggests that positive emotions, such as those elicited by music and art, can broaden and build our individual capabilities and skills, leading to more creative problem-solving. In fact, a growing body of work supports the link between musical training and cognitive flexibility, a key component of creativity. One study 2 found that individuals with musical training have enhanced cognitive flexibility, generating more unique ideas and performing better in tasks that require non-linear thinking. Even if you don't have formal musical training, you can still reap the benefits of music as a creative catalyst: simply listening to music can improve cognitive flexibility. For those with more musical experience, the effects are even greater, with musically-trained individuals showing the greatest improvement after listening to music.

Another study published in the Journal of Creative Behavior 3 examined the link between musical training and neuroplasticity. The authors found evidence that enhanced neural connectivity helps musicians excel at non-linear thinking in tasks that require using both sides of the brain. The study also suggests that musical training may have a neuroprotective effect by increasing gray matter in the brain, which may have implications for using music as a therapeutic tool in neurological disorders.

More Eureka! Insights

Musicians excel at non-linear thinking with both sides of the brain

Neuroscience shows that musicians have unique brain structures and neural pathways compared to non-musicians. One difference is in the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Because music engages the whole brain, requiring the integration of language, memory, and emotion, it enhances musicians' ability to approach problems in a non-linear fashion and make connections between ideas that don't normally go together.

One study 4 explored higher order thinking, which involves complex mental activities such as problem-solving, decision-making, and creativity. Researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the brain activity of musicians and non-musicians while they performed a musical task. The results showed that musicians had greater functional connectivity between the left and right hemispheres of the brain compared to non-musicians, particularly in brain regions involved in higher order brain functioning.

Collectively, the research suggests that musical training can enhance cognitive abilities beyond music. This phenomenon, known as the Mozart Effect, has been observed in numerous studies, including one that found listening to Mozart's music temporarily improved spatial reasoning abilities 5 . While the exact mechanisms behind the Mozart Effect are still unclear and require further investigation, it's clear that music can help us tap into our "zone of genius." Albert Einstein was an accomplished violinist and believed that playing music was essential to his scientific work. His contributions are testament to the value of lateral thinking - blending intuition with analytical thinking - thanks to his training as a musician and scientist.

The theory of relativity occurred to me by intuition, and music is the driving force behind this intuition.

Albert Einstein

Music builds our empathy muscles, breaking down barriers between "us" and "them"

Susan Rogers and Daniel Levitin, both professors, authors, and pioneering researchers in the field of music perception and cognition, have conducted neurobiological research showing that music activates feelings of social connections and empathy. Their research shows that music can foster authentic connections between people, making it a powerful tool for creative collaborations within a team.

One of Rogers' studies 6 demonstrated that individuals with musical training are better at identifying emotions in music, and this ability is linked to differences in brain activity. The findings imply that musical training can enhance emotional intelligence and empathy, which are essential traits for creative work.

Additional research has highlighted the relationship between music and empathy, with a meta-analysis conducted in 2019 providing particularly compelling evidence 7 . The study analyzed a vast array of research on music-induced emotions and empathy for music, and concluded that music can enhance emotional awareness and social cognition. The authors found that music can help people to better understand and identify emotions in others, and can also increase feelings of empathy and interpersonal connection.

Music is one of the most powerful means we have for connecting with others, bridging gaps of language, culture, and background. In a time when division and polarization are all too common, music can serve as a unifying force, reminding us of our shared humanity and fostering greater empathy and understanding.

Daniel Levitin (2020)

Coda: Thinking inside the music box can amplify higher order thinking

Learning and practicing music is a cognitively-demanding activity that engages multiple brain regions, which may explain why musical training has a wide range of effects on cognition and mood. Engaging with music can raise emotional intelligence and encourage higher order thinking, even if you're not a musician. Music fosters social connections, promoting a sense of community among individuals from diverse backgrounds and cultures, even at a neurological level. This is particularly important in light of the current loneliness epidemic.

Whether through learning an instrument, singing, or simply listening, there are many ways to incorporate music into your life to enhance your well-being. As researchers continue to delve into the relationship between music and the brain, it's clear that music has the power to elevate our thinking. So the next time you need inspiration, consider "brainstorming with Pink" and see where the music takes you.

Jana Rosewarne, PhD

As a creative 'thnk-er' and research analyst, Jana is passionate about exploring the influence of music on creative thinking. This intersection infuses a unique note into her professional journey as a market researcher in understanding how brands can grow closer to their customers.   Jana's expertise is grounded in her education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and PhD in Social Psychology from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, where she studied the science of consumer behavior and the impact of relationships on our well-being.

Through her writing, Jana aims to highlight how music can serve as a catalyst for truly original thinking and foster meaningful human connection.

1 Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300-319.

2 Tortella-Feliu, M., Morillas-Romero, A., Ballester-Arnal, R., & Baños, R. M. (2015). The impact of music on cognitive flexibility. Journal of Creative Behavior, 49(2), 97-109.

3 Gruhn, W., & Rauscher, F. H. (2014). Neurobiological evidence for musical training as a potential neuroplasticity agent in the human brain. Journal of Creative Behavior, 48(2), 165-180.

4 Nieminen, S., Istók, E., Brattico, E., & Tervaniemi, M. (2018). Musicians’ and non-musicians’ neural responses to complex auditory rhythms: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychology of Music, 46(6), 738-753.

5 Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365(6447), 611.

6 Rogers, S., D'Eath, R., & Gardner, B. (2019). Musical training enhances the perception of emotions in speech prosody. Emotion, 19(3), 478-486.

7 Egermann, H., Kopiez, R., & Altenmüller, E. (2019). The influence of music on mental and physical stimulation: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 13, 331.

8 Hatfield, M., & Luce, S. C. (2012). Using music to support the affective needs of people with intellectual disabilities: A guide for training and practice. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56(10), 1019-1031.

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https://educationhub.blog.gov.uk/2024/08/20/gcse-results-day-2024-number-grading-system/

GCSE results day 2024: Everything you need to know including the number grading system

Thousands of students across the country will soon be finding out their GCSE results and thinking about the next steps in their education.   

Here we explain everything you need to know about the big day, from when results day is, to the current 9-1 grading scale, to what your options are if your results aren’t what you’re expecting.  

When is GCSE results day 2024?  

GCSE results day will be taking place on Thursday the 22 August.     

The results will be made available to schools on Wednesday and available to pick up from your school by 8am on Thursday morning.  

Schools will issue their own instructions on how and when to collect your results.   

When did we change to a number grading scale?  

The shift to the numerical grading system was introduced in England in 2017 firstly in English language, English literature, and maths.  

By 2020 all subjects were shifted to number grades. This means anyone with GCSE results from 2017-2020 will have a combination of both letters and numbers.  

The numerical grading system was to signal more challenging GCSEs and to better differentiate between students’ abilities - particularly at higher grades between the A *-C grades. There only used to be 4 grades between A* and C, now with the numerical grading scale there are 6.  

What do the number grades mean?  

The grades are ranked from 1, the lowest, to 9, the highest.  

The grades don’t exactly translate, but the two grading scales meet at three points as illustrated below.  

The bottom of grade 7 is aligned with the bottom of grade A, while the bottom of grade 4 is aligned to the bottom of grade C.    

Meanwhile, the bottom of grade 1 is aligned to the bottom of grade G.  

What to do if your results weren’t what you were expecting?  

If your results weren’t what you were expecting, firstly don’t panic. You have options.  

First things first, speak to your school or college – they could be flexible on entry requirements if you’ve just missed your grades.   

They’ll also be able to give you the best tailored advice on whether re-sitting while studying for your next qualifications is a possibility.   

If you’re really unhappy with your results you can enter to resit all GCSE subjects in summer 2025. You can also take autumn exams in GCSE English language and maths.  

Speak to your sixth form or college to decide when it’s the best time for you to resit a GCSE exam.  

Look for other courses with different grade requirements     

Entry requirements vary depending on the college and course. Ask your school for advice, and call your college or another one in your area to see if there’s a space on a course you’re interested in.    

Consider an apprenticeship    

Apprenticeships combine a practical training job with study too. They’re open to you if you’re 16 or over, living in England, and not in full time education.  

As an apprentice you’ll be a paid employee, have the opportunity to work alongside experienced staff, gain job-specific skills, and get time set aside for training and study related to your role.   

You can find out more about how to apply here .  

Talk to a National Careers Service (NCS) adviser    

The National Career Service is a free resource that can help you with your career planning. Give them a call to discuss potential routes into higher education, further education, or the workplace.   

Whatever your results, if you want to find out more about all your education and training options, as well as get practical advice about your exam results, visit the  National Careers Service page  and Skills for Careers to explore your study and work choices.   

You may also be interested in:

• Results day 2024: What's next after picking up your A level, T level and VTQ results?
• When is results day 2024? GCSEs, A levels, T Levels and VTQs

Tags: GCSE grade equivalent , gcse number grades , GCSE results , gcse results day 2024 , gsce grades old and new , new gcse grades

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What We Know About Kamala Harris’s $5 Trillion Tax Plan So Far

The vice president supports the tax increases proposed by the Biden White House, according to her campaign.

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By Andrew Duehren

Reporting from Washington

In a campaign otherwise light on policy specifics, Vice President Kamala Harris this week quietly rolled out her most detailed, far-ranging proposal yet: nearly $5 trillion in tax increases over a decade.

That’s how much more revenue the federal government would raise if it adopted a number of tax increases that President Biden proposed in the spring . Ms. Harris’s campaign said this week that she supported those tax hikes, which were thoroughly laid out in the most recent federal budget plan prepared by the Biden administration.

No one making less than $400,000 a year would see their taxes go up under the plan. Instead, Ms. Harris is seeking to significantly raise taxes on the wealthiest Americans and large corporations. Congress has previously rejected many of these tax ideas, even when Democrats controlled both chambers.

While tax policy is right now a subplot in a turbulent presidential campaign, it will be a primary policy issue in Washington next year. The next president will have to work with Congress to address the tax cuts Donald J. Trump signed into law in 2017. Many of those tax cuts expire after 2025, meaning millions of Americans will see their taxes go up if lawmakers don’t reach a deal next year.

Here’s an overview of what we now know — and still don’t know — about the Democratic nominee’s views on taxes.

Higher taxes on corporations

The most recent White House budget includes several proposals that would raise taxes on large corporations . Chief among them is raising the corporate tax rate to 28 percent from 21 percent, a step that the Treasury Department estimated could bring in $1.3 trillion in revenue over the next 10 years.

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