critical essay psychology

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

Make your P oint.
E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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How to Write an Article Critique

Tips for Writing a Psychology Critique Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Cultura RM / Gu Cultura / Getty Images

Steps for Writing a Critique

Evaluating the Article

How to Write It
Helpful Tips

An article critique involves critically analyzing a written work to assess its strengths and flaws. If you need to write an article critique, you will need to describe the article, analyze its contents, interpret its meaning, and make an overall assessment of the importance of the work.

Critique papers require students to conduct a critical analysis of another piece of writing, often a book, journal article, or essay . No matter your major, you will probably be expected to write a critique paper at some point.

For psychology students, critiquing a professional paper is a great way to learn more about psychology articles, writing, and the research process itself. Students will analyze how researchers conduct experiments, interpret results, and discuss the impact of the results.

At a Glance

An article critique involves making a critical assessment of a single work. This is often an article, but it might also be a book or other written source. It summarizes the contents of the article and then evaluates both the strengths and weaknesses of the piece. Knowing how to write an article critique can help you learn how to evaluate sources with a discerning eye.

Steps for Writing an Effective Article Critique

While these tips are designed to help students write a psychology critique paper, many of the same principles apply to writing article critiques in other subject areas.

Your first step should always be a thorough read-through of the material you will be analyzing and critiquing. It needs to be more than just a casual skim read. It should be in-depth with an eye toward key elements.

To write an article critique, you should:

Read the article , noting your first impressions, questions, thoughts, and observations
Describe the contents of the article in your own words, focusing on the main themes or ideas
Interpret the meaning of the article and its overall importance
Critically evaluate the contents of the article, including any strong points as well as potential weaknesses

The following guidelines can help you assess the article you are reading and make better sense of the material.

Read the Introduction Section of the Article

Start by reading the introduction . Think about how this part of the article sets up the main body and how it helps you get a background on the topic.

Is the hypothesis clearly stated?
Is the necessary background information and previous research described in the introduction?

In addition to answering these basic questions, note other information provided in the introduction and any questions you have.

Read the Methods Section of the Article

Is the study procedure clearly outlined in the methods section ? Can you determine which variables the researchers are measuring?

Remember to jot down questions and thoughts that come to mind as you are reading. Once you have finished reading the paper, you can then refer back to your initial questions and see which ones remain unanswered.

Read the Results Section of the Article

Are all tables and graphs clearly labeled in the results section ? Do researchers provide enough statistical information? Did the researchers collect all of the data needed to measure the variables in question?

Make a note of any questions or information that does not seem to make sense. You can refer back to these questions later as you are writing your final critique.

Read the Discussion Section of the Article

Experts suggest that it is helpful to take notes while reading through sections of the paper you are evaluating. Ask yourself key questions:

How do the researchers interpret the results of the study?
Did the results support their hypothesis?
Do the conclusions drawn by the researchers seem reasonable?

The discussion section offers students an excellent opportunity to take a position. If you agree with the researcher's conclusions, explain why. If you feel the researchers are incorrect or off-base, point out problems with the conclusions and suggest alternative explanations.

Another alternative is to point out questions the researchers failed to answer in the discussion section.

Begin Writing Your Own Critique of the Paper

Once you have read the article, compile your notes and develop an outline that you can follow as you write your psychology critique paper. Here's a guide that will walk you through how to structure your critique paper.

Introduction

Begin your paper by describing the journal article and authors you are critiquing. Provide the main hypothesis (or thesis) of the paper. Explain why you think the information is relevant.

Thesis Statement

The final part of your introduction should include your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the main idea of your critique. Your thesis should briefly sum up the main points of your critique.

Article Summary

Provide a brief summary of the article. Outline the main points, results, and discussion.

When describing the study or paper, experts suggest that you include a summary of the questions being addressed, study participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design.

Don't get bogged down by your summary. This section should highlight the main points of the article you are critiquing. Don't feel obligated to summarize each little detail of the main paper. Focus on giving the reader an overall idea of the article's content.

Your Analysis

In this section, you will provide your critique of the article. Describe any problems you had with the author's premise, methods, or conclusions. You might focus your critique on problems with the author's argument, presentation, information, and alternatives that have been overlooked.

When evaluating a study, summarize the main findings—including the strength of evidence for each main outcome—and consider their relevance to key demographic groups.

Organize your paper carefully. Be careful not to jump around from one argument to the next. Arguing one point at a time ensures that your paper flows well and is easy to read.

Your critique paper should end with an overview of the article's argument, your conclusions, and your reactions.

What This Means For You

Being able to write a solid article critique is a useful academic skill. While it can be challenging, start by breaking down the sections of the paper, noting your initial thoughts and questions. Then structure your own critique so that you present a summary followed by your evaluation. In your critique, include the strengths and the weaknesses of the article.

Archibald D, Martimianakis MA. Writing, reading, and critiquing reviews . Can Med Educ J . 2021;12(3):1-7. doi:10.36834/cmej.72945

Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review . PLoS Comput Biol . 2013;9(7):e1003149. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003149

Gülpınar Ö, Güçlü AG. How to write a review article? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):44–48. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.054

Erol A. Basics of writing review articles . Noro Psikiyatr Ars . 2022;59(1):1-2. doi:10.29399/npa.28093

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2019.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to demonstrate critical evaluation in your psychology assignments

Thinking critically about psychology research

Critical thinking is often taught in undergraduate psychology degrees, and is a key marking criteria for higher marks in many assignments. But getting your head around how to write critically can sometimes be difficult. It can take practice. The aim of this short blog is to provide an introduction to critical evaluation, and how to start including evidence of critical evaluation in your psychology assignments.

So what does “critical evaluation” really mean?

Broadly speaking, critical evaluation is the process of thinking and writing critically about the quality of the sources of evidence used to support or refute an argument. By “ evidence “, I mean the literature you cite (e.g., a journal article or book chapter). By “ quality of the evidence “, I mean thinking about whether this topic has been tested is in a robust way. If the quality of the sources is poor, then this could suggest poor support for your argument, and vice versa. Even if the quality is poor, this is important to discuss in your assignments as evidence of critical thinking in this way!

In the rest of this blog, I outline a few different ways you can start to implement critical thinking into your work and reading of psychology. I talk about the quality of the evidence, a few pointers for critiquing the methods, theoretical and practical critical evaluation too. This is not an exhaustive list, but hopefully it’ll help you to start getting those higher-level marks in psychology. I also include an example write-up at the end to illustrate how to write all of this up!

The quality of the evidence

There are different types of study designs in psychology research, but some are of higher quality than others. The higher the quality of the evidence, the stronger the support for your argument the research offers, because the idea has been tested more rigorously. The pyramid image below can really help to explain what we mean by “quality of evidence”, by showing different study designs in the order of their quality.

Not every area of psychology is going to be full of high quality studies, and even the strongest sources of evidence (i.e., systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses) can have limitations! Because no study is perfect, it can be a good habit to tell the reader, in your report, (i) what the design of the study is that you’re citing, AND, (ii) how this affects your argument. Doing so would be evidence of critical thought. (See an example write-up below for implementing this, but do not copy and paste it!)

But first, what do I mean by “design”? The design of the study refers to how the study was carried out. There are sometimes broad categories of design that you’ll have heard of, like a ‘survey design’, ‘a review paper’, or an ‘experimental design’. Within these categories, though, there can be more specific types of design (e.g. a cross-sectional survey design, or a longitudinal survey design; a randomised controlled experiment or a simple pre-post experiment). Knowing these specific types of design is a good place to start when thinking about how to critique the evidence when citing your sources, and the image below can help with that.

hierarchy of scientific evidence, randomized controlled study, case, cohort, research design

Image source: https://thelogicofscience.com/2016/01/12/the-hierarchy-of-evidence-is-the-studys-design-robust/

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would highly suggest doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, you could do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use any published papers as further support as a limitation.

Methodological critical evaluation

Internal validity: Are the findings or the measures used in the study reliable (e.g., have they been replicated by another study, and is the reliability high)?
External validity: Are there any biases in the study that might affect generalisability(e.g., gender bias, where one gender may be overrepresented for the population in the sample recruited)? Lack of generalisability is a common limitation that undergraduates tend to use by default as a limitation in their reports. It’s a perfectly valid limitation, but it can usually be made much more impactful by explaining exactly how it’s a problem for the topic of study. In some cases, this limitation may not be all that warranted; for example, a female bias may be expected in a sample of psychology students, because undergraduate courses tend to be filled mostly with females!
What is the design of the study, and how it a good or bad quality design (randomised control trial, cross-sectional study)?

Theoretical critical evaluation

Do the findings in the literature support the relevant psychological theories?
Have the findings been replicated in another study? (If so, say so and add a reference!)

Practical critical evaluation

In the real world, how easy would it be to implement these findings?
Have these findings been implemented? (If so, you could find out if this has been done well!)

Summary points

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would highly suggest doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, I would do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use these papers as further support as a limitation.

You don’t have to use all of these points in your writing, these are just examples of how you can demonstrate critical thinking in your work. Try to use at least a couple in any assignment. Here is an example of how to write these up:

An example write-up

“Depression and anxiety are generally associated with each other (see the meta-analysis by [reference here]). For example, one of these studies was a cross-sectional study [reference here] with 500 undergraduate psychology students. The researchers found that depression and anxiety (measured using the DASS-21 measure) were correlated at r = .76, indicating a strong effect. However, this one study is limited in that it used a cross-sectional design, which do not tell us whether depression causes anxiety or whether anxiety causes depression; it just tells us that they are correlated. It’s also limited in that the participants are not a clinical sample, which does not tell us about whether these are clinically co-morbid constructs. Finally, a strength of this study is that it used the DASS-21 which is generally found to be a reliable measure. Future studies would therefore benefit from using a longitudinal design to gain an idea as to how these variables are causally related to one another, and use more clinical samples to understand the implications for clinical practice. Overall, however, the research generally suggests that depression and anxiety are associated. That there is a meta-analysis on this topic [reference here], showing that there is lots of evidence, suggests that this finding is generally well-accepted.”

Notice how I first found a review paper on the topic to broadly tell the reader how much evidence there is in the first place. I set the scene of the paragraph with the first sentence, and then the last sentence I brought it back, rounding the paragraph off.
Notice how I then described one study from this paper in more detail. Specifically, I mentioned the participants, the design of the study and the measure the researchers used to assess these variables. Critically, I then described how each of these pieces of the method are disadvantages/strengths of the study. Sometimes, it’s enough to just say “the study was limited in that it was a cross-sectional study”, but it can really show that you are thinking critically, if you also add “… because it does not tell us….”.
Notice how I added a statistic there to further illustrate my point (in this case, it was the correlation coefficient), showing that I didn’t just read the abstract of the paper. Doing this for the effect sizes in a study can also help demonstrate to a reader that you understand statistics (a higher-level marking criteria).

Are these points you can include in your own work?

Thanks for reading,

What is critical analysis, and why is it important?

Critical analysis involves thinking about the merits and drawbacks of what you're reading. It doesn't necessarily mean tearing apart what you've read-it could also involve highlighting what an author or researcher has done well, and thinking through the implications of a study on the broader research area.

Critical analysis is extremely important in evaluating published research: Psychology studies often build on the limitations of others, and it's important to assess the merits of a study before accepting its conclusions. Furthermore, as a student, your critical analysis of the literature is a way of showing your marker that you've engaged with the field.

What makes critical analysis in psychology different, and how do I critically analyse the literature?

In psychology, critical analysis typically involves evaluating both theory and empirical research (i.e., scientific studies). When critically analysing theory , relevant questions include:

Does the theory make sense (i.e., is it logical)?
Can the theory explain psychological phenomena (i.e., what we actually observe in terms of people's behaviour), or does it leave some things unexplained?
Have any studies been conducted to specifically test this theory, and if so, what did they find? Can we believe this study's conclusions?

In terms of evaluating empirical research , relevant questions include:

Does the study's research question come logically from the literature the authors have reviewed?
Are there any issues with the participant sample (e.g., not representative of the population being studied)?
Do the measures (e.g., questionnaires) actually assess the process of interest?
Have the appropriate statistical analyses been conducted?
Do the authors make appropriate conclusions based on their findings, or do they go beyond their findings (i.e., overstate their conclusions)?

Before you critically analyse research, it's important to make sure that you understand what is being argued. We have some resources that can help you get the most out of your reading ( R eading strategies ), as well as some note-taking strategies ( N ote-taking ). The Cornell method might be especially useful, since it involves jotting down your own thoughts/opinions as you're reading, rather than simply summarising information.

As you get more practise critically analysing the literature, you'll find that it starts to feel more natural, and becomes something that you engage in automatically. However, as you're starting out, deliberately thinking through some of the questions in the previous section can help add structure to this process.

What does critical analysis look like?

After you've had a think about the merits and drawbacks of a published piece of work, how do you actually show that you've engaged in critical analysis? Below are some examples of sentences where critical analysis has been demonstrated:

"Although Brown's (1995) theory can account for [abc], it cannot explain [xyz]."
"This study is a seminal one in the area, given that it was the first to investigate...".
"In order to clarify the role of [abc], the study could have controlled for...".
"This study was a significant improvement over earlier efforts to investigate this topic because...".

What these statements have in common is that they are evaluative : They show that you're making a judgment about the theory or empirical study you're discussing. In general, your marker will be able to tell whether you have engaged in critical analysis by seeing if you've made such statements throughout your work.

Critical analysis in psychology: Some common pitfalls

"The sample size of the study was too small."

Your critiques need to have evidence behind them. Making statements such as this is fine, as long as you follow them up with your reasoning (in this case, on what basis have you decided that the study didn't have enough participants?).

" The study didn't look at participants of [this age/this gender/this ethnic group]."

Traditionally, the area of psychology has tended to focus on WEIRD (white, educated, industrialised, rich, and democratic) individuals. This is certainly an issue for the generalisability of research findings. However, if you make this type of statement, you can further demonstrate your critical-thinking skills by talking about why you think this is an issue for the particular topic you're researching: For example, how might the results of a study differ if a non-WEIRD participant sample had been recruited instead?

Being too critical.

Chances are that if a study is a highly cited one in your area, it probably has some merits (even if it's just that it drew attention to an important topic). You should always be on the lookout for strengths as well as limitations, be they theoretical (i.e., a cohesive, well-elaborated theory) or experimental (i.e., a clever study design).

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Writing in Psychology Overview

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

33 Critical Analysis Examples

critical analysis examples and definition, explained below

Critical analysis refers to the ability to examine something in detail in preparation to make an evaluation or judgment.

It will involve exploring underlying assumptions, theories, arguments, evidence, logic, biases, contextual factors, and so forth, that could help shed more light on the topic.

In essay writing, a critical analysis essay will involve using a range of analytical skills to explore a topic, such as:

Evaluating sources
Exploring strengths and weaknesses
Exploring pros and cons
Questioning and challenging ideas
Comparing and contrasting ideas

If you’re writing an essay, you could also watch my guide on how to write a critical analysis essay below, and don’t forget to grab your worksheets and critical analysis essay plan to save yourself a ton of time:

Grab your Critical Analysis Worksheets and Essay Plan Here

Critical Analysis Examples

1. exploring strengths and weaknesses.

Perhaps the first and most straightforward method of critical analysis is to create a simple strengths-vs-weaknesses comparison.

Most things have both strengths and weaknesses – you could even do this for yourself! What are your strengths? Maybe you’re kind or good at sports or good with children. What are your weaknesses? Maybe you struggle with essay writing or concentration.

If you can analyze your own strengths and weaknesses, then you understand the concept. What might be the strengths and weaknesses of the idea you’re hoping to critically analyze?

Strengths and weaknesses could include:

Does it seem highly ethical (strength) or could it be more ethical (weakness)?
Is it clearly explained (strength) or complex and lacking logical structure (weakness)?
Does it seem balanced (strength) or biased (weakness)?

You may consider using a SWOT analysis for this step. I’ve provided a SWOT analysis guide here .

2. Evaluating Sources

Evaluation of sources refers to looking at whether a source is reliable or unreliable.

This is a fundamental media literacy skill .

Steps involved in evaluating sources include asking questions like:

Who is the author and are they trustworthy?
Is this written by an expert?
Is this sufficiently reviewed by an expert?
Is this published in a trustworthy publication?
Are the arguments sound or common sense?

For more on this topic, I’d recommend my detailed guide on digital literacy .

3. Identifying Similarities

Identifying similarities encompasses the act of drawing parallels between elements, concepts, or issues.

In critical analysis, it’s common to compare a given article, idea, or theory to another one. In this way, you can identify areas in which they are alike.

Determining similarities can be a challenge, but it’s an intellectual exercise that fosters a greater understanding of the aspects you’re studying. This step often calls for a careful reading and note-taking to highlight matching information, points of view, arguments or even suggested solutions.

Similarities might be found in:

The key themes or topics discussed
The theories or principles used
The demographic the work is written for or about
The solutions or recommendations proposed

Remember, the intention of identifying similarities is not to prove one right or wrong. Rather, it sets the foundation for understanding the larger context of your analysis, anchoring your arguments in a broader spectrum of ideas.

Your critical analysis strengthens when you can see the patterns and connections across different works or topics. It fosters a more comprehensive, insightful perspective. And importantly, it is a stepping stone in your analysis journey towards evaluating differences, which is equally imperative and insightful in any analysis.

4. Identifying Differences

Identifying differences involves pinpointing the unique aspects, viewpoints or solutions introduced by the text you’re analyzing. How does it stand out as different from other texts?

To do this, you’ll need to compare this text to another text.

Differences can be revealed in:

The potential applications of each idea
The time, context, or place in which the elements were conceived or implemented
The available evidence each element uses to support its ideas
The perspectives of authors
The conclusions reached

Identifying differences helps to reveal the multiplicity of perspectives and approaches on a given topic. Doing so provides a more in-depth, nuanced understanding of the field or issue you’re exploring.

This deeper understanding can greatly enhance your overall critique of the text you’re looking at. As such, learning to identify both similarities and differences is an essential skill for effective critical analysis.

My favorite tool for identifying similarities and differences is a Venn Diagram:

To use a venn diagram, title each circle for two different texts. Then, place similarities in the overlapping area of the circles, while unique characteristics (differences) of each text in the non-overlapping parts.

6. Identifying Oversights

Identifying oversights entails pointing out what the author missed, overlooked, or neglected in their work.

Almost every written work, no matter the expertise or meticulousness of the author, contains oversights. These omissions can be absent-minded mistakes or gaps in the argument, stemming from a lack of knowledge, foresight, or attentiveness.

Such gaps can be found in:

Missed opportunities to counter or address opposing views
Failure to consider certain relevant aspects or perspectives
Incomplete or insufficient data that leaves the argument weak
Failing to address potential criticism or counter-arguments

By shining a light on these weaknesses, you increase the depth and breadth of your critical analysis. It helps you to estimate the full worth of the text, understand its limitations, and contextualize it within the broader landscape of related work. Ultimately, noticing these oversights helps to make your analysis more balanced and considerate of the full complexity of the topic at hand.

You may notice here that identifying oversights requires you to already have a broad understanding and knowledge of the topic in the first place – so, study up!

7. Fact Checking

Fact-checking refers to the process of meticulously verifying the truth and accuracy of the data, statements, or claims put forward in a text.

Fact-checking serves as the bulwark against misinformation, bias, and unsubstantiated claims. It demands thorough research, resourcefulness, and a keen eye for detail.

Fact-checking goes beyond surface-level assertions:

Examining the validity of the data given
Cross-referencing information with other reliable sources
Scrutinizing references, citations, and sources utilized in the article
Distinguishing between opinion and objectively verifiable truths
Checking for outdated, biased, or unbalanced information

If you identify factual errors, it’s vital to highlight them when critically analyzing the text. But remember, you could also (after careful scrutiny) also highlight that the text appears to be factually correct – that, too, is critical analysis.

8. Exploring Counterexamples

Exploring counterexamples involves searching and presenting instances or cases which contradict the arguments or conclusions presented in a text.

Counterexamples are an effective way to challenge the generalizations, assumptions or conclusions made in an article or theory. They can reveal weaknesses or oversights in the logic or validity of the author’s perspective.

Considerations in counterexample analysis are:

Identifying generalizations made in the text
Seeking examples in academic literature or real-world instances that contradict these generalizations
Assessing the impact of these counterexamples on the validity of the text’s argument or conclusion

Exploring counterexamples enriches your critical analysis by injecting an extra layer of scrutiny, and even doubt, in the text.

By presenting counterexamples, you not only test the resilience and validity of the text but also open up new avenues of discussion and investigation that can further your understanding of the topic.

9. Assessing Methodologies

Assessing methodologies entails examining the techniques, tools, or procedures employed by the author to collect, analyze and present their information.

The accuracy and validity of a text’s conclusions often depend on the credibility and appropriateness of the methodologies used.

Aspects to inspect include:

The appropriateness of the research method for the research question
The adequacy of the sample size
The validity and reliability of data collection instruments
The application of statistical tests and evaluations
The implementation of controls to prevent bias or mitigate its impact

One strategy you could implement here is to consider a range of other methodologies the author could have used. If the author conducted interviews, consider questioning why they didn’t use broad surveys that could have presented more quantitative findings. If they only interviewed people with one perspective, consider questioning why they didn’t interview a wider variety of people, etc.

See Also: A List of Research Methodologies

10. Exploring Alternative Explanations

Exploring alternative explanations refers to the practice of proposing differing or opposing ideas to those put forward in the text.

An underlying assumption in any analysis is that there may be multiple valid perspectives on a single topic. The text you’re analyzing might provide one perspective, but your job is to bring into the light other reasonable explanations or interpretations.

Cultivating alternative explanations often involves:

Formulating hypotheses or theories that differ from those presented in the text
Referring to other established ideas or models that offer a differing viewpoint
Suggesting a new or unique angle to interpret the data or phenomenon discussed in the text

Searching for alternative explanations challenges the authority of a singular narrative or perspective, fostering an environment ripe for intellectual discourse and critical thinking . It nudges you to examine the topic from multiple angles, enhancing your understanding and appreciation of the complexity inherent in the field.

A Full List of Critical Analysis Skills

Exploring Strengths and Weaknesses
Evaluating Sources
Identifying Similarities
Identifying Differences
Identifying Biases
Hypothesis Testing
Fact-Checking
Exploring Counterexamples
Assessing Methodologies
Exploring Alternative Explanations
Pointing Out Contradictions
Challenging the Significance
Cause-And-Effect Analysis
Assessing Generalizability
Highlighting Inconsistencies
Reductio ad Absurdum
Comparing to Expert Testimony
Comparing to Precedent
Reframing the Argument
Pointing Out Fallacies
Questioning the Ethics
Clarifying Definitions
Challenging Assumptions
Exposing Oversimplifications
Highlighting Missing Information
Demonstrating Irrelevance
Assessing Effectiveness
Assessing Trustworthiness
Recognizing Patterns
Differentiating Facts from Opinions
Analyzing Perspectives
Prioritization
Making Predictions
Conducting a SWOT Analysis
PESTLE Analysis
Asking the Five Whys
Correlating Data Points
Finding Anomalies Or Outliers
Comparing to Expert Literature
Drawing Inferences
Assessing Validity & Reliability

Analysis and Bloom’s Taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom placed analysis as the third-highest form of thinking on his ladder of cognitive skills called Bloom’s Taxonomy .

This taxonomy starts with the lowest levels of thinking – remembering and understanding. The further we go up the ladder, the more we reach higher-order thinking skills that demonstrate depth of understanding and knowledge, as outlined below:

Here’s a full outline of the taxonomy in a table format:

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THANK YOU, THANK YOU, THANK YOU! – I cannot even being to explain how hard it has been to find a simple but in-depth understanding of what ‘Critical Analysis’ is. I have looked at over 10 different pages and went down so many rabbit holes but this is brilliant! I only skimmed through the article but it was already promising, I then went back and read it more in-depth, it just all clicked into place. So thank you again!

You’re welcome – so glad it was helpful.

CHAPTER 2 Critical Psychology, Well-Being, and Work

Isaac Prilleltensky, School of Education and Human Development, Department of Educational and Psychological Studies, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL

Graham B. Stead, College of Education, Cleveland State University

Published: 05 September 2013
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Critical psychology emerged as a reaction to (a) the oppressive turn in individualism, (b) the negative repercussions of the status quo on large sectors of the population, and (c) psychology's witting or unwitting complicity in upholding the societal status quo. The critical psychology movement questions psychology, and society, on the basis of moral, epistemic, and professional shortcomings. This chapter reviews critical psychology's reservations about dominant assumptions in these three domains, and offers an alternative set of principles designed to advance well-being in persons, communities, psychological science, and professional practice. Following an alternative conception of well-being, this chapter applies it to the world of work. It reviews problematic assumptions pertaining to the moral, epistemic, and professional values impacting the world of work, and offers theoretical and practical recommendations for advancing the well-being of workers, organizations, and communities. Humanitarian work psychology and critical management studies offer valuable avenues for merging critical psychology with the world of work.

Mens Sana in Corporation Sano— such was the title of a recent article in The Economist describing the growing presence of psychologists and mental health counselors in corporations. The piece raises fundamental questions about the role of psychologists in corporations: “Should companies pry into people’s emotional lives? Can they be trusted with the information they gather? And should psychologically frail workers put their faith in people who work primarily for their employers rather than in their personal doctors?” ( Schumpeter, 2010 , p. 65). Good intentions notwithstanding, history shows that psychologists have not always enhanced worker well-being, but rather productivity and managerial control; and while productivity and managerial control do not have to come at the expense of worker well-being, they often do ( Baritz, 1974 ; Islam & Zyphur, 2009 ; Ralph, 1983 ). This is where critical psychologists come in.

Critical psychologists do not take for granted that psychologists’ presence in industry is a good thing, even when corporations pay well. Critical psychologists question sacred cows, which does not make us very popular, but which allows us to look in depth at psychological values, assumptions, and practices ( Prilleltensky, 1997 ). This sort of examination leads to three fundamental questions in critical psychology: Whose well-being are we talking about? Whose values and assumptions are being upheld? And who benefits from the status quo? ( Fox, Prilleltensky, & Austin, 2009 ). In tackling these questions, critical psychologists do not just seek answers, but also alternatives ( Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002 ).

By pretending to talk universally for everybody, psychology often confuses the well-being of management with the well-being of the workforce. By neglecting power differentials, psychology promotes the values and assumptions of dominant groups. And by failing to challenge injustice and the status quo, psychology benefits the privileged. These are no mere provocations or ideological pronouncements ( Parker, 2007 ; Prilleltensky, 1994 ; Teo, 2005 , 2009 ). The record shows that psychology has sided with the powerful, and has often inflicted pain in vulnerable populations, including children, women, immigrants, Aboriginal peoples, and mental health patients ( Chamberlin, 1978 , 1984 , Clarke & Braun, 2009 ; Everett, 1994 ; Fox, Prilleltensky, & Austin, 2009 ; Huygens, 2009 ; Olfman, 2006 ; Parker, 2007 ; Ussher & Nicolson, 1992 ).

Critical psychology is concerned with the well-being of four primary entities: persons, communities, the science of psychology, and the profession of psychology. The well-being of individuals and communities is greatly affected by the availability of decent employment ( Clark, 2010 ), the occupational environment ( Fullan, 2008 ; Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007 ), and the world of work in general ( Blustein, 2006 ; Rath & Harter, 2010 ). Consequently, the world of work is very fertile ground for critical psychologists, which is why this chapter addresses the intersection among critical psychology, well-being, and work.

The critical psychology movement questions psychology, and society, on the basis of moral, epistemic, and professional shortcomings ( Teo, 2005 , 2009 ). In this chapter we review critical psychology’s reservations about dominant assumptions in these three domains, and offer an alternative set of principles designed to advance well-being in persons, communities, psychological science, and professional practice. Following an alternative conception of well-being, we apply it to the world of work. We review problematic assumptions pertaining to the moral, epistemic, and professional values impacting the world of work, and offer theoretical and practical recommendations for advancing the well-being of workers, organizations, and communities.

Work encompasses many sectors. Most of our practical and research experience derives from the not-for-profit world. Prior to becoming academics, both of us worked in counseling and mental health services in communities and schools. In our current research, we study not-for- profit organizations and have come to appreciate the struggle of workers in this much unappreciated and undervalued field ( Chetkovich & Kunreuther, 2006 ; Evans, Hanlin, & Prilleltensky, 2007 ). We have also come into contact with the teaching workforce, another trying sector ( Darling-Hammond, 2010 ; Farber & Azar, 1999 ; Hargreaves & Shirley, 2009 ; Ravitch, 2010 ). Both human service workers and educators struggle to gain respect from government and the business community, who largely fund them and control their boards ( Payne, 2008 ). In this chapter we are especially sensitive to their plight.

Critical Psychology

Critical psychology emerged in response to twin concerns about the state of society and the state of psychology ( Fox, Prilleltensky, & Austin, 2009 ). While several strands of critical psychology exist, most of them converge in a critique of the moral, epistemic, and professional values of the profession, and their unwitting support for social structures in need of transformation ( Teo, 2005 , 2009 ). This section presents the problems. The next presents solutions.

Moral Values

Morality refers to the study and practice of doing what is right ( Facione, Scherer, & Attig, 1978 ). Values, in turn, refer to a set of principles that can guide moral reasoning and action. Values have to be justified by a set of criteria ( Kane, 1994 , 1998 ). In our case, a key criterion is the impact of said value or principle on the well-being of the individual, the community, the profession, and the science of psychology. There are different ways to construct a set of morally justifiable values. One way is to witness the outcome of existing values on various segments of the population. Another is to imagine an ideal society and derive from such scenario corresponding values. Critical psychologists have embraced mostly the former, although it is hard to move forward without the latter. In witnessing the deleterious effects of individualism on people, communities, and the world of work, critical psychologists began questioning this Western principle.

Individualism. Historically, individualism was meant to protect the individual from the tight grip of religion and oppressive norms. Organized religion and its normative derivations were used to control, among others, women, peasants, and children. Individual desires were suppressed and conformity reigned supreme. The Freudian revolution greatly enhanced our understanding of repression and its psychological and social sequelae. This sort of individualism was liberating, freeing people from the tyranny of religion, conformity, and oppressive traditions ( Taylor, 1991 ).

Unfortunately, this type of cultural individualism became conflated with economic individualism and capitalism, which thrive on consumerism. The quest for personal elevation, driven by ubiquitous advertising and the allure of fame, often results in disconnection from community and meaninglessness ( Sloan, 1997 ). The relentless pursuit of economic gain, synergistically, leads to exploitation of workers and unprecedented gains for the captains of industry ( Chomsky, 1999 ). Perversely, the cultural individualism that was meant to liberate people from one type of conformity, such as Victorian rigidity, is handmaiden for another type, mindless consumerism to become the best, most admired, talked about, and coveted person ( Cushman, 1990 ).

In North American culture, individualism was not bolstered by capitalism alone, but also by the Protestant ethic of self-reliance and independence. Many British settlers escaped religious persecution in Europe and thrived on the opportunities presented to them by the United States. Their contextually and historically appropriate response — self-reliance and independence from government institutions — would contribute greatly to the prevailing idea in many Western nations that people are solely responsible for their own well-being. If people succeed in life it is due to their own hard work, and if they fail it is due to their own shortcomings ( Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985 ). This is a wonderfully simplistic and seductive narrative on which many books were written, movies made, and political speeches given. “Victim-blaming” was soon to follow as an apologia for the capitalist system. Never mind if children grow up in poverty in communities infested by drug and crime; if they work hard enough, anybody can rise above adversity. This mantra penetrates invisibly every stratum and discourse in society. Blaming the victim became one of the main occupational hazards for medicine, social work, education, social services, counseling, and psychology. Instead of looking at problems holistically, contextually, and ecologically, the gaze focused on the person in front of you ( Ryan, 1971 ).

Thus, the Protestant ethic, capitalism, and the medical model conspired to turn an originally liberating notion—individualism—into an oppressive one, not just for the poor and the marginalized, but for the many consumed with consumerism ( Cushman, 1990 ). It has become abundantly clear since 2008 that individualism, with its attendant qualities of greed and hubris, nearly destroyed the economy. Capitalism, in its present unregulated form, greatly facilitated the financial collapse that took place.

This ever-brief analysis touched only on religion, the economy, and the helping professions, but the impact of individualism can be felt also in educational policies, the media, and popular culture as well. In fact, in North America, and in the United States in particular, it is a form of life ( Bellah et al., 1985 ). Critical psychologists responded to the fact that individualism was becoming noxious for the individual and communities alike. The social and professional obsession with the self, disconnected from social context, turned self-liberation into self-adulation. Self-determination, unrestrained by social justice, easily degenerates into self-absorption. The self supreme, unperturbed by the need to share resources and obligations with others, became the greed monster that now graces our TV screens: Madoff, Lehman Brothers, AIG, Bank of America, Goldman Sachs, Conrad Black, and Silvio Berlusconi.

In its multifarious manifestations, individualism did become a monster. The singular pursuit of the profit motive created handy justifications for what the world witnessed in 2008. Not only was individualism devoid of restraining justice motives, it was bereft of caring, compassion, and any sense of community. Critical psychologists mounted compelling critiques of individualism and the way psychology was unwittingly supporting it by theories and practices that reinforced blame-the-victim discourses ( Albee, 1990 ; Prilleltensky, 1994 ). Individualism became, in short, bad for the person and bad for the community, which is not to say that many in positions of privilege did not take advantage of it. On the contrary, the gap between rich and poor grew exponentially since the 1960s, with the top 1% of the population becoming enormously rich and the inequality gap growing enormously large ( Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009 ). Critical psychologists aligned themselves with the rest of the population for which quality of life had diminished. To answer the three fundamental questions of critical psychology (whose values, whose well-being, and who benefits): the individualism of the well-to-do benefited primarily their own well-being, though we hasten to add that these are short-term and superficial benefits. For the privileged are not immune to isolation, competition, and the hedonic treadmill that propels them to achieve more and more, never quite achieving a sense of satisfaction ( Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008 ).

The status quo. The hegemony of individualism prevails through cultural, political, economic, and military power. At times, the status quo is softly maintained by stories of heroes who overcome adversity — “proving” that anybody can make it in “America” — or by derisive portrayals of the poor through victim-blaming definitions. Other times, as in dictatorial regimes, the status quo is harshly upheld by brute force. In either its soft or harsh variety, power is omnipresent in society. Even in the most democratic of societies, money can buy influence and powerful lawyers, lobbyists, and politicians. Corruption for the preservation of the status quo is not the sole province of what we call Third World countries: there is plenty to go around in First World countries as well. But the mere invocation of democracy serves to silence critics, who are portrayed as eternally ungrateful at best or as enemies of the public good at worst ( Chesney, 1998 ). Against legal, economic, and political forces that perpetuate the status quo, critical psychologists hold up a mirror to society, and the picture is not pretty. Whereas in Northern and Western countries critical psychologists can afford to voice discontent, in other places, like El Salvador, critical psychologists are portrayed as subversives and killed by paramilitary troops. That was the fate of Ignacio Martín-Baró (1994) , a Spanish psychologist and Jesuit priest who was killed with other colleagues in 1989 at his university. Martín Baró is credited with founding and fostering liberation psychology in Latin America ( Quiñones Rosado, 2007 ; Watkins & Shulman, 2008 ). He claimed psychologists should work to develop a psychology of emancipation to assist the poor to overcome conditions of oppression. Today, the vision of liberation and critical psychology is advanced in the Southern continent through the work, among many others, of Maritza Montero (2007 , 2009) in Venezuela and Ignacio Dobles Oropeza and his colleagues in Costa Rica ( Dobles Oropeza, 2009 ; Dobles Oropeza, Arróliga, & Zúñiga, 2007 ).

It is no coincidence that critical and liberation theories of psychology have emerged in colonial contexts. In Africa, Frantz Fanon documented the psychological scars of colonization. Originally from the Caribbean isle of Martinique, he lived in Algeria and experienced French domination, with its deleterious effects on the local Black population. Fanon became an early exponent of anticolonial theory ( Bulhan, 1985 ; Fanon, 1965 ; Hook, 2004 ; Parker, 2007 ). Critical psychology is very active today in South Africa and other parts of the continent ( Hook, 2004 ). But the rebellion against the status quo in psychology did not happen just in colonial contexts.

German intellectuals in the late 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s created the Frankfurt school of critical theory, which sought to blend Marxism with social science. The blend of Marxism and social science became very influential in academic circles for decades to come. The fundamental insight that the means of communication reflect the views of the dominant class originated much critical research in sociology, political science, and psychology ( Held, 1980 ). Erich Fromm, among others, used extensive psychoanalytic theory in his critique of the societal status quo, documenting the pernicious impact of social competition and the drive to have and to own instead of the drive to become ( Fromm, 1965 ). After the Second World War, Klaus Holzkamp developed in Berlin a psychology of emancipation and subjectivity that assumed the official label of critical psychology in Germany ( Tolman, 1994 ).

In other parts of Europe, especially in Great Britain, feminist and anticolonial psychologists in the 1970s and 1980s contributed to discursive critiques of the status quo, revealing the cultural codes that perpetuated racism and the oppression of women. An influential book edited by Henriques, Hollway, Urwin, Venn, and Walkerdine, Changing the Subject (1984), did much to advance discursive critical psychology. Ian Parker (2007) and his colleagues in the Discourse Unit at Manchester Metropolitan University continue to explore the ways in which psychology is an accomplice in the perpetuation of injustice.

In an effort to consolidate the various strands of critique of the status quo in psychology, Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky co-founded the Radical Psychology Network in 1993 and published in 1997 the first edition of Critical Psychology: An Introduction ( Fox & Prilleltensky, 1997 ). The book gave voice to voices of discontent within psychology. The second edition, vastly revised, and with a new co-editor, came out in 2009 ( Fox, Prilleltensky, & Austin, 2009 ). Both editions were meant to make critical psychology accessible and applicable to many psychologists who needed a framework to articulate their inchoate dissatisfaction with the societal state of affairs, and with psychology’s role in it.

Psychology’s role in individualism and the societal status quo. In The Morals and Politics of Psychology: Psychological Discourse and the Status Quo (1994), Prilleltensky analyzed how the major theories and fields of applied psychology actually reproduced individualism and maintained the dominant state of affairs. In the preface to the book, George Albee (1994) wrote that psychologists “have accepted uncritically the assignment to preserve the status quo…[through] our identification with management in industrial psychology, or our acceptance of the belief that school failures result from the child’s individual defect rather than from problems in the school’s social environment” (1994, pp. ix–x). The book detailed the conservative tendencies within psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, and cognitivism, as well as in the practice of therapy, school, and industrial/organizational psychology.

For different reasons, all these fields supported more than they challenged the status quo. Prilleltensky identified four central mechanisms for doing so. In the first instance, “values that benefit dominant segments of society are portrayed as benefiting society as a whole” ( Prilleltensky, 1994 , p. 35). This is evident in the history of industrial/organizational psychology, in which practices aimed at improving managerial control are propagated as equally beneficial to workers ( Baritz, 1974 ; Islam & Zyphur, 2009 ; Ralph, 1983 ; Wells, 1987 ). Secondly, “social problems that originate in the structure of the socioeconomic system are discussed in terms of psychological maladjustment” ( Prilleltensky, 1994 , p. 35). This ideological tactic was captured in the title of Ryan’s (1971) seminal book Blaming the Victim . Misfortune is to be traced back to the individual’s maladaptive behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. In a classic study by Caplan and Nelson (1973) , 80% of psychological studies dealing with African Americans ascribed their challenges to intrapersonal inadequacies as opposed to socioeconomic circumstances. A vast lexicon of deficiencies was developed in psychology to describe personal ineptitude: weak-ego, maladaptive coping mechanisms, maladjusted personality, cognitive deficiencies, and on and on ( Gergen, 1990 ).

A related and third mechanism for the promotion of the status quo is the abstraction of human realities from their sociohistorical context, attributing socially created phenomena to “human nature” or “genetic predispositions.” Thus, gender roles are reified in nature and the intellectual performance of African Americans fixed in genetic makeup. “What has been mediated by sociohistorical process,” Sampson (1981) claimed, “is treated as though it were an ‘in-itself’, a reality independent of these very origins” (p. 738).

A fourth way in which psychology props up the current state of affairs is through dislocation , a term suggested by Sullivan as a “process whereby something new is brought into a cultural system and has the ability to mute the partial critical insight of that cultural system” ( Sullivan, 1984 , p. 165). Family therapy, for example, addressed the lack of context in individual therapy, but it did not go far enough in introducing a truly holistic and contextual approach to mental health. Similarly, forensic psychology was introduced to deal with deviant behavior in ways that prevent the system from looking at the social roots of crime. In the 1960s, a Washington D.C. judge, Bazelon, put it well in an address to forensic psychologists:

In considering our motives for offering you a role, I think you would do well to consider how much less expensive it is to hire a thousand psychologists than to make even a miniscule change in the social and economic structure. ( Caplan & Nelson, 1973 , p. 210)

Reform is not to be confused with transformation. For the social system to endure, change is inevitable. As Gross observed, “if the establishment were a mere defender of the status quo, it would be much weaker. While some of its members may resist many changes…the dominant leaders know that change is essential to preserve, let alone, expand power” (1980, p. 58). This was well captured in Lampedusa’s The Leopard , where the young nephew said to his uncle, the prince, “if we want things to stay as they are, things have got to change” ( Gross, 1980 , p. 58).

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a cacophony of voices protesting psychology’s support for the system. Sullivan’s analysis of behaviorism and psychometric psychology concluded that they function as “legitimators of the status quo, that is, they render interpretations which back up or legitimate a certain socio-political constellation of power” (1984, p. 26). “Because mainstream psychology is embedded in the dominant political, economic, and religious ideologies, professional psychologists have upheld these ideologies rather than examining their impact upon the lives of others” (Braginsky, 1985, p. 881). “Because psychology seems to be unique among the social sciences in its inability to reflect on its place in the social order, it will, in this unreflective stance, function as an apologist for the status quo” ( Sullivan, 1984 , pp. 131–132). Ingleby claimed in no uncertain terms that psychologists’ “unwritten contract is to maintain the status quo” (1974, p. 317).

From traditional victim-blaming ideologies ( Prilleltensky, 1994 ) to the new positive psychology ( Ehrenreich, 2009 ), psychology still engages in context minimization ( Shinn & Toohey, 2003 ): the neglect of context in accounting for psychosocial problems. The most recent incarnation of that proclivity is positive psychology, which minimizes the role of circumstances (such as social injustice) in people’s happiness (see, for example, Lyubomirsky, 2007 , or Seligman, 2002 ). “The real conservatism of positive psychology,” writes Barbara Ehrenreich, “lies in its attachment to the status quo with all its inequalities and abuses of power” (2009, p. 170). She rightly assumes that the benefits of positive psychology may be accessible to middle-class people who are not overly bothered by inequality and injustice:

Like pop positive thinking, positive psychology attends almost solely to the changes a person can make internally by adjusting his or her own outlook ….Positive psychologists’ more important contribution to the defense of the status quo has been to assert or “find” that circumstances play only a minor role in determining a person’s happiness ….Why advocate for better jobs and schools, safer neighborhoods, universal health insurance, or any other liberal desideratum if these measures will do little to make people happy? Social reformers, political activists, and change-oriented elected officials can all take a much-needed rest….In the great centuries-long quest for a better world, the baton has passed to the practitioners of “optimism training,” the positive psychologists, and the purveyors of pop positive thinking. ( Ehrenreich, 2009 , pp. 171–172)

Indeed, Seligman (2002) and Lyubomirsky (2007) , among others, claim that social circumstances account for only a very small fraction of people’s happiness. Most of success or failure in life may be attributed to genetic makeup or motivational factors, as if motivational factors may be solidly detached from the environment in which people grow up. Positive psychologists claim that happiness is determined largely by genetics (50%) and volitional factors (40%) and only moderately by circumstances (10%) ( Lyubomirsky, 2007 ; Seligman, 2002 ). Although positive psychologists claim that circumstantial factors account for about only 10% of happiness and volitional factors for about 40%, we should keep in mind that the psychological and behavioral variables said to account for the 40% cannot be easily disentangled from the circumstances of people’s lives ( McGue & Bouchard, 1998 ; Turkheimer, 1998 ).

In summary, critical psychology emerged as a reaction to (a) the oppressive turn in individualism, (b) the negative repercussions of the status quo on large sectors of the population, and (c) psychology’s witting or unwitting complicity in upholding the societal status quo. We saw that critical psychology scholars and activists started working in earnest in Latin America, Africa, Australia, Europe, and North America in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Today, critical psychology is a scholarly and social movement dedicated to advance justice and well-being for the people most negatively affected by the dominant social order.

Epistemic Values

Epistemology concerns the study of knowledge. As such, epistemic values are criteria we use to elicit the most reliable portrayal of the object of study. We need to employ methods suitable to the unique nature of phenomena. Giving a career interest inventory written in English to an immigrant newly arrived from a non-English-speaking country would be rather inappropriate. We calibrate our methods to the nature of the experience we wish to explore.

Critical psychology has been concerned mainly with three shortcomings of mainstream psychology’s ways of study. According to critics, the main discipline has often engaged in mechanistic, reductionist, and ethnocentric approaches. We describe these problematic assumptions in this section. Alternatives will be offered in the next segment of the chapter.

Mechanistic approaches. Assuming a physics model of causation, psychology diminished the role of self-determination and agency. “It is criticized that the human subject is wrongly conceptualized as a passive and reactive machine, driven by causes, with components that can be added up (such as nature and nurture)” ( Teo, 2005 , p. 36). The machine metaphor is primordial in behaviorism, which studies human behavior in terms of stimulus and response, largely obviating the mediating effects of subjectivity, reflexivity, and agency ( Teo, 2009 ). Critical psychologists object to this mechanistic approach, claiming that natural science models do not do justice to the subject of study, a much more complicated organism than others studied in laboratory and controlled environments.

Reductionist approaches . Related to the first concern, critical psychologists object to the atomistic approach of mainstream psychology. The totality of the human experience can be ill described by studying isolated pieces of it. Borrowing heavily from the natural sciences, psychology sought to emulate models that could isolate centers of behavior, emotions, or thoughts. This defies the complexity of the human subject, who behaves differently in different contexts, and who makes sense of complex phenomena before responding. As Teo observed,

It is reductionist to assume that the parts sufficiently explain the complexity of human subjectivity….The idea that studying the parts of a whole is sufficient and that the parts will fit together into a meaningful whole through additive processes is based on a limited worldview. Parts do not add up when it comes to human mental life. Critics have argued that a psychology that does justice to human subjectivity should begin with the nexus of human experience in order to understand the parts and not vice versa. (2009, p. 39)

Mechanistic and reductionist approaches are heavily influenced by methodologism, or methodolatry: the determination of the object of study based on existing measurement techniques ( Parker, 2007 ; Teo, 2005 , 2009 ). We study what we have tools for. Instead of creating tools suitable to the subject of study, we create research questions that suit the tools we have, such as surveys, questionnaires, and contrived social situations ( Pancer, 1997 ).

Ethnocentric approaches. Much of mainstream psychology and career psychology in the last century came to reflect its dominant groups: European White males. Women and people from other cultures had to be measured according to this yardstick. Immigrants to the United States were evaluated, and deemed intellectually incompetent, based on ethnocentric measures ( Kamin, 1974 ). Similar biased procedures were used to assess the “deficient” mental state of women, African Americans, and various colonized groups, like Aboriginal peoples ( Prilleltensky, 1994 ). Examples of male, Euro, White-centric assessments and interventions abound in the history of psychology ( Hook, 2004 ; Moane, 2011 ; Oliver, 2004 ). Feminist and anticolonial psychologists describe the pathologization of women and Aboriginal peoples by mental health professionals and the establishment ( Durrheim, Hook, & Riggs, 2009 ; Fox, Austin & Prilleltensky, 2009 ; Watkins & Shulman, 2008 ). You cannot universalize the standard of male, White, European psychology, yet this is exactly what happened over the last century ( Teo, 2005 ).

Professional Values

Moral and epistemic values inform professional practice. The moral and epistemological assumptions of psychologists get translated into action and codified in diagnostic rubrics, assessment tools, therapy manuals, and psychological reports. Individualistic, reactive, and alienating approaches developed in the mechanistic and reductionist context described above. Critical psychologists objected to these three applications in psychology.

Individualistic approaches. It follows from individualistic cultures and reductionist approaches that assessments and interventions would be focused mainly on individuals. This is particularly the case in trait-and-factor and related approaches in career psychology. The majority of career psychology theories draw on aspects of trait-and-factor theory, notably Holland’s (1997) career theory, Gottfredson’s (2002) theory, and work adjustment theory ( Dawis, 2005 ). Few psychologists prior to the arrival of community psychology would venture outside their offices to engage in multilevel interventions; even school and industrial psychologists would work in their own offices within schools or plants. Infused with Protestant notions of self-reliance, conservative invocations of victim blaming, and epistemic legacies of reductionism, it was only too easy for psychologists to focus diagnosis and treatment on the individual, to the exclusion of environmental factors in the workplace, school, church, and community ( Fox, Austin, & Prilleltensky, 2009 ; Gergen, 2009 ).

Reactive approaches. If physics was the idealized parent of psychological science, then medicine was the desired object of psychological practice. And much of medicine, as we know it, is reactive. The health system, which is probably better called the illness system, operates in wait-and-see mode. Experts wait for patients to knock on their doors, asking for assistance. Preventive and public health approaches, which look at social determinants of health, threaten the medical model, and consequently received limited support among health systems across the world ( Albee, 1982 , 1996 ). Psychology followed the medical model, and it also engaged primarily in reactive models.

Alienating approaches . Professional arrogance, especially in psychiatric institutions, came to characterize the mental health system. Horrific cases of abuse in mental institutions told the story of professionals becoming more and more dehumanized. Psychiatric patients became objects of control, as opposed to partners in health ( Chamberlin, 1984 ; McCubbin, 2009 ). Similar arrogance was practiced with “refrigerator” mothers whose children became autistic ( Kanner, 1949 ), with children who had to be subdued ( Olfman, 2006 ), and with Aboriginal peoples who had to be Westernized ( Glover, Dudgeon, & Huygens, 2010 ). Children, women, psychiatric patients, and minorities in general became the subject of control and domination.

All in all, shortcomings in moral, epistemic, and professional values did not paint a pretty picture of psychology. Critical psychologists looked into these practices and rebelled: they did not want to be part of an oppressive system. And while critique is usually ahead of emancipatory practices, we offer in the next section some concrete alternatives to the dispiriting image.

A Critical Approach to Well-Being

To create a useful, effective, and liberating psychology of work, we offer a set of recommendations corresponding to the concerns of the previous section: moral, epistemic, and professional values.

Critical Approach to Moral Values

We counter the problems of individualism, injustice in the status quo, and psychology’s tacit support for the system with interdependence, justice, and solidarity, respectively.

Interdependence. The value proposition of interdependence lies precisely in balancing competing values. The problem is not just with individualism, but with any value, such as collectivism, that is promulgated in extreme form. Pushed to their extremes, self-determination becomes selfishness and collectivism turns into oppression ( Prilleltensky, 1997 , 2001 ). We maintain that personal, relational, organizational, and community well-being rely on a set of well-balanced and integrated values ( Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2006 ).

Our first proposition is that the well-being of a person relies on the well-being of his or her relationships, of the organizations with which he or she comes into contact, and of the community at large ( Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2006 ; Rath & Harter, 2010 ). In turn, the well-being of organizations depends on the well-being of the people who populate it, of the relationships within it, and of the community at large ( Fullan, 2008 ; Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007 ). The same can be said for the well-being of the community at large. It is hard to imagine community wellness in a place where organizations are dysfunctional and relationships acrimonious ( Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010 ). As Robert Putnam (2000 , 2002 ) has shown, communities with low levels of social capital, or relational networks, suffer from poor education, health, and welfare and have high crime rates. Similarly, communities with high levels of inequality experience more psychosocial problems such as addictions, teen pregnancy, school dropouts, and child abuse ( Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009 ). Recent research has also drawn connections between levels of economic inequality within states and differences in rates of mortgage delinquency ( Brescia, 2010 ). Going from the macro to the micro level, we can see that people who live in communities with high levels of unemployment experience less satisfaction with life than people in communities with higher levels of employment ( Clark, 2010 ). Children who grow up in poor communities experience more stress in the family and less success in school and are exposed to more risk factors in their neighborhoods ( Evans, 2004 ). Indeed, beyond social capital, unemployment, and child poverty, there are many cases that illustrate the interdependence between personal, relational, organizational, and community well-being. Children who grow up in abusive families develop certain defensive behavioral patterns that predispose them to engage in poor relationships as adults. Lack of trust may lead to interpersonal conflict at work and in the community ( Prilleltensky, Nelson, & Peirson, 2001 ). Lack of control at work may lead to stress that gets manifested in anger at home. Crime in the community leads to isolation, which affects mental health and well-being ( Prilleltensky, 2012 ).

To promote the well-being of each entity (people, relationships, organizations, and communities) as well as their synergistic effects, we need to articulate a set of values. To advance individual well-being, we need to foster self-determination, meaningful engagement in life, optimism, positive relationships, and opportunities for growth ( Diener & Biswas Diener, 2008 ; Lyubomirsky, 2007 ; Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2006 ). Relational well-being, in turn, relies on caring, compassion, and mutual support ( Blustein, Schultheiss, & Flum, 2004 ; Gergen, 2009 ). Organizational well-being rests on values of effectiveness, reflection, and support ( Fullan, 2008 ; Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007 ). Finally, community well-being requires support for public institutions, respect for diversity, social capital, and most of all, social justice ( Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010 ). These values must be in balance to achieve the synergy required to foster harmonious relationships, personal growth, and thriving communities ( Watkins & Shulman, 2008 ).

Political geography shows us that countries with totalitarian regimes, such as the former Soviet Union, oppressed their citizens in their quest for collectivism, whereas Western nations, like the United States, foster isolation among its citizens. In their quest for success, citizens of the latter experience loneliness ( Putnam, 2000 , 2002 ). In their quest for obedience, the former impose state will. In either case citizens lose. To balance the need for personal emancipation with the need to support other groups and the community at large, we espouse emancipatory communitarianism, or the belief that the well-being of the private citizen must be balanced against the well-being of other entities ( Prilleltensky, 1997 ). Without a well community, or healthy relationships, the well-being of the very individual is in jeopardy. Ours is not a call to abandon personhood or creative individualism. On the contrary, ours is a call to create communities and workplaces where no individual achieves so much that others are left with little. Communitarianism without the emancipation of the individual is oppressive, and emancipation without controls reverts to individualism.

If we think of the person and the community as two poles of an ecological continuum, relationships and organizations serve as mediating mechanisms through which people support each other and foster dialogical bonds for the solution of common problems ( Gergen, 2009 ). It is impossible to look after the community in the abstract if you do not start with relationships and organizations of concern. Workplaces need to embrace the individuality of workers and foster collective responsibility.

Justice. This concept is defined as the fair and equitable allocation of resources, obligations, and bargaining powers ( Miller, 1999 ). Critical psychologists reject the status quo because it fails millions of people, because it is unjust and unfair. The economic and political edifice of unregulated capitalism rests on inequality and injustice. The more unregulated and extreme capitalism becomes, the more the inequality gap widens ( Chomsky, 1999 ).

The main argument for the just nature of the system is that it affords equal opportunities to all. This is patently false: poor children growing up in dilapidated communities with poorly resourced schools have far fewer opportunities to go to a good college, let alone finish high school, than children from well-endowed backgrounds ( Darling-Hammond, 2010 ; Evans, 2004 ; Ravitch, 2010 ). Faced with this inconvenient truth, defenders of the status quo point fingers to parents, accusing them of not taking advantage of the opportunities presented to them ( Farber & Azar, 1999 ). But wait a minute, you say, these parents were once children who grew up in drug-infested neighborhoods with teen parents who had no clue how to raise children. At this point you can engage in an infinite regress blaming the parents of the parents of the parents, or you can stop and say: children who grow up in conditions of disadvantage can hardly be blamed for the circumstances of their lives, for they had no control over them.

Injustice fails not only the education of poor children, but also their health. Adler and Stewart (2009) coined the term “behavioral injustice” to address the health consequences of growing up in disadvantage. Addressing the obesity epidemic, they demonstrate that many poor people grow up in “obesogenic” environments that perpetuate the consumption of high-fat foods and limit fitness opportunities. As they note,

Although some individuals are able to make and maintain change, the medical model largely ignores the forces contributing to the development and maintenance of obesity. Patients walk out of the health care provider’s office only to reenter the same environment that led to their weight gain in the first place. The commercial and structural forces in their environment still are powerful. These people thus may be caught in “vicious cycles” of “accelerators” of the obesity epidemic….resulting from the interaction of an increasingly obese individual with an “obesogenic environment” that encourages an overconsumption of food and discourages physical activity. ( Adler & Stewart, 2009 , p. 55)

Critical psychologists question the notion that people can improve their health or work opportunities at any time “because they are free to do so.” This is to ignore the vast inequities in access to resources that define one’s opportunities in life. This is not to say that people are devoid of agency to struggle for social justice. Rather, to ignite that agency, we need to acknowledge first that the environment does not present similar opportunities to all. We agree with Adler and Stewart that it is “unjust to hold people accountable for things over which they have little control …. This places the primary responsibility on society to provide equal opportunities for all people to be able to make the healthier choices, and it reframes the discussion as one of justice rather than blame” (2009, p. 61). Nations and communities that distribute resources more equitably and make access to healthier environments easier achieve better levels of psychosocial health and well-being ( Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009 ).

Stead and Perry (2012a) argued that to assist people with their career choices, there should be less emphasis on individualist and reductionist perspectives and more emphasis on multicultural, multicontextual, and community perspectives to work. In so doing, ethically based social justice perspectives can be employed, such as that of Ali, Liu, Mahmood, and Arguello (2008) .

Psychology’s role in solidarity and social change. Contrary to mainstream psychology’s tacit support for the status quo, critical psychologists actively support solidarity with marginalized groups and foster social change ( Huygens, 2007 , 2009 ; Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010 ; Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002 ). Critical psychologists engage with the poor and marginalized in participatory, collaborative, and emancipatory ways.

Prilleltensky and Nelson (2002) describe in detail how the values of self-determination, empowerment, caring, compassion, respect for diversity, and social justice inform practice in educational, clinical, organizational, health, and community settings. In all cases, critical psychologists honor the process of empowerment and justice as much as the outcome. This means giving voice and choice to the partners with whom we work, respecting their dignity by acknowledging their strengths and power differentials, and seeking avenues to gain control of their lives in ways that enhance reciprocal empowerment and not personal aggrandizement. Two examples illustrate these principles.

Brinton Lykes ( Lykes, 1997 , 1999 ; Lykes & Coquillon, 2009 ), for example, has been working in Guatemala with indigenous women for many years, gaining their trust and finding ways to empower them to gain control of their lives despite great trauma caused by mass killings by paramilitary troops. Many projects have sprung from their work together, including photo voice exhibitions and recovery efforts. In authentic partnerships of solidarity, the women transform their psychosocial reality while gaining recognition of past atrocities and injustice.

Ingrid Huygens (2007) , in Aotearoa, New Zealand, studied processes of Pakeha (White inhabitants) change in response to the Treaty of Waitangi. The treaty, signed in 1840 between the British crown and the Maori people, granted the Maori population rights and privileges that were never quite honored by the White colonizers. Huygens documents the process of unlearning colonization and building bonds of solidarity with Maori communities. Her research offers many lessons about the transformation of dominant groups: questioning the legitimacy of White privilege, openness to the challenges of oppressed groups, pursuit of counter-hegemonic accounts of colonization, responsibility for the outcomes of domination, and fair relationships based on recognition of past injustices (2007, p. 247).

Critical Approach to Epistemic Values

To counter mechanistic, reductionist, and ethnocentric approaches to the study of lives, organizations, and communities, we espouse holistic, agentic, and culturally appropriate methods.

Holistic and agentic approaches. Critical psychologists embrace the challenge of studying people in their context, through quantitative and qualitative means that capture their lived experience. They acknowledge that despite great social forces, people exercise autonomy and self-determination. They balance the respect for agency with respect for social forces. Choices are influenced by cultural and social messages and opportunities. As Nussbaum (2006) explains,

People adjust their preferences to what they think they can achieve, and also to what their society tells them a suitable achievement is for someone like them. Women and other deprived people frequently exhibit such “adaptive preferences,” formed under unjust background conditions. These preferences will typically validate the status quo. (p. 73)

Therefore, critical psychologists pay attention to the exercise of self-determination, but in due recognition of the social determinants of health and well-being ( Commission on Social Determinants of Health, 2008 ; Marmot, 2004 ).

Culturally appropriate approaches. Multiple cultures exist within any particular community: the culture of people with disabilities, the culture of people from Morocco, the culture of LGBT folk. Instead of searching for universals, critical psychologists search for specifics, and attune their modes of help accordingly. There is profound disrespect in expecting your clients to play by your rules and follow your hegemonic notions of decorum, wellness, and happiness. This requires sincere humility and a listening stance. Critical psychologists working with poor people, for example, have developed authentic mechanisms to bridge across cultures ( Smith, 2010 ).

Critical Approach to Professional Values

To counter individualistic, reactive, and alienating orientations, critical psychologists devise interventions that are multilevel, strength-based, empowering, and proactive.

Multilevel culture and community change. Personal well-being is a multilevel phenomenon that requires not just personal adjustments, but also environmental ones ( Rath & Harter, 2010 ). The well-being of a worker in a factory depends not simply on his or her attitude, but also on the climate, level of compensation, fair policies, emotional support, challenging opportunities, and the like ( Blustein, 2006 ). A healthy working environment reflects effective, reflective, and supportive policies and practices that take into account the differential level of power of workers within the organization. While an ecological approach is better than one focusing strictly on the attitudes of the single workers, we should remember that it is possible to devise multilevel interventions that are aimed at enhancing managerial control at the expense of worker well-being.

Strength-based and empowering change. Critical psychology interventions are not just multilevel, they are also empowering. The goal is to provide voice and choice to workers, to recognize their strengths, and to create a working environment where there is mutual respect for the needs of everybody in the enterprise. Instead of defect-finding expeditions, critical psychologists venture to find assets in people, institutions, and communities. This is reflected in the questions we ask our partners and in the interventions we co-create with them. Appreciative inquiry is one example of action research based on strengths ( Cooperrider & Srivastva, 1987 ). Asset Building Community Development (ABCD) is another ( Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993 ). Narrative approaches to therapy ( Morgan, 2000 ) and resilience building in youth ( Liebenberg & Ungar, 2008 ) also work on strengths as opposed to deficits. These approaches acknowledge people’s strengths and afford them voice and choice. Strength-based practitioners create partnerships with citizens to build on their assets. They do so by asking questions such as: What have you done to cope well with adversity? How did you achieve what you have? What are some of your strengths and virtues?

Proactive change. Instead of waiting for workers and organizations to develop signs of problems, we espouse a proactive approach based on analyses of risk and protective factors. It is far more humane, and cost-effective, to prevent problems than to cure them. Effective strategies exist for improving organizational climate and worker well-being. Similarly, a great deal is known about policies and practices that optimize satisfaction and fairness in the workplace ( Fullan, 2008 ; Marmot & Feeney, 1996 ; Maton, 2008 ; Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007 ). For the most part, these interventions engage the workforce in visioning and devising a better place, build vertical and horizontal partnerships across the organization, minimize competition, and create a sense of shared responsibility. Proactive interventions do not just seek positive outcomes, but also meaningful processes. A collaborative, inclusive, and effective process can be a powerful outcome in itself, as it builds trust and ownership. In the case of effective school improvement, teachers collaborate with administration, better schools help struggling schools, senior teachers mentor junior teachers, everybody shares data, and parents are invited to be part of the solution ( Hargreaves & Shirley, 2009 ).

Overall, effective preventive interventions are comprehensive, use varied teaching methods, provide sufficient dosage, are theory-driven, promote positive relationships, are appropriately timed, are culturally relevant, use outcome evaluation, and have well-trained staff ( Nation et al., 2003 ). These features should inform school, worksite, and community-level interventions.

Critical Approaches to Work and Career Psychology

To examine critical psychology and the world of work, we need to consider the extent of its application to career psychology. Career psychology is different from the psychology of working in that the former largely employs mainstream approaches to research and counseling, without challenging the prevalent status quo. Furthermore, career psychologists largely study work as hierarchical and as a series of occupational choices (e.g., Brown & Associates, 2002 ; Brown & Lent, 2005 ). The focus is primarily on the individual, with some attention to context. The psychology of working, in turn, focuses on work as a central human activity that is both sociocultural in nature and embedded in all domains of life. All aspects of work, including paid and nonpaid work, are studied in the psychology of working. Moreover, the psychology of working focuses on oppression and social barriers to work ( Blustein, 2006 ).

Theories in career psychology include, among others, person–environment fit (e.g., Dawis, 2005 ; Holland, 1997 ), social cognitive career theory ( Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002 ), developmental and lifespan perspectives (e.g., Savickas, 2002 ; Super et al., 1996 ), sociological approaches (e.g., Johnson & Mortimer, 2002 ), systems theory ( Patton & McMahon, 1999 ), action theory ( Young, Valach, & Collin, 2002 ), and most recently Blustein’s (2011) relational theory of working. Many, but not all, career theories have focused on a logical positivist approach to resolving career problems, in which the emphasis has been on examining the individual’s personality and inner thought processes, and aligning these with jobs that suit such characteristics. This is also an essentialist perspective, as the core inner traits of individuals are to be discovered and described. Essentialism focuses on core characteristics of the individual and largely separates the individual from contexts, hence the danger of blaming the victim and minimizing contexts ( Burr, 2003 ). Essentialism is part of every career theory, traditional and recent, with the possible exception of the sociological perspective ( Johnson & Mortimer, 2002 ). This separation is of concern to critical psychologists. There is also an emphasis on work adjustment in career psychology, as evinced in Dawis’s (2005) career theory, and there is little focus in career theories on how the world of work, instead of the worker, might be adjusted. Some of the more recent career theories have focused on the importance of context, for example Young, Valach, and Collin’s (2002) contextualist career theory, and how micro and macro systems affect individual lives, for example Patton and McMahon’s (1999) systems theory of career development. There has been increased reference to career issues of women, culturally diverse people, minorities, people with low socioeconomic status, immigrants, and the disabled in career theories, but little on the importance of social justice and work.

Career and Work Literature

There have been implicit but no explicit references to critical psychology in career theories. Variables such as motivation, self-efficacy, self-concept, career aspirations, career maturity, emotion and cognition (almost all as inner processes), career interventions, and counseling techniques are researched in relation to the career choice process, sometimes within various contexts, such as socioeconomic status, language, race, and country ( Brown & Lent, 2005 ). The focus is on assisting the individual from an individualist perspective.

However, despite these limitations, there has been some critical commentary from within the career literature. The importance of social justice and work has been highlighted by several authors, such as Ali et al. (2008) , Blustein, McWhirter, and Perry (2005) , Stead and Perry (2012a) , and Watson and Stead (2002) . For example, McWhirter, Blustein, and Perry (2005) , argued for integrating the emancipatory communitarian approach into the psychology of work as useful in assisting people with few or no occupational choices. Watson and Stead queried what the role of practitioners is and who their clients are, arguing for mutual collaboration and power sharing in research and counseling for all people.

McIlveen and Patton (2006) provided a critical review of objective assessment and psychometrics in career development, with special reference to the work of Foucault (1977) . Their argument is that through logical positivism, traditional career approaches have resulted in career constructs becoming reified (i.e., terms constructed through language are assumed to be objective and concrete), without consideration that such constructs have been constructed. Furthermore, they stated that career psychologists, through corporate sanction, “become legitimized as the controllers of individuality” (p. 23). This is reminiscent of the research of Savage (1998) and McKinlay (2002) showing how employees’ selves are managed and controlled in corporate environments, resulting in what McKinlay referred to as “dead selves” (p. 595). McIlveen and Patton believed that counselors should acknowledge their power in the counseling relationship and become critically and reflexively aware of their discourses in the career field.

While career counselors assist many clients, it is through career counseling discourse, in association with psychological discourse, that people become categorized, diagnosed, and documented. Following Foucault (1977) , they become “normalized,” and these are some of the powerful discourses to which McIlveen and Patton (2006) refer to. What is important to note here is that the traditional, so-called “objective” discourses in the career psychology literature are not the only ones available. There are many other discourses. However, alternative discourses often get marginalized. This is why Foucault (1977) referred to power and knowledge as intimately connected. It is through discourses that knowledge gets accepted, often through respected authors, organizations, and institutions. These are not necessarily the most useful or even most desirable discourses available, and they are not universally factual and objective. They are only deemed so within the regime of truth purveyed within a particular discourse. This is one reason why critical psychologists view knowledge as local and contextualized.

An explicit statement of critical psychology in relation to the psychology of work-based transitions will be published as a special issue of the Journal of Career Development. In the special issue, the editors, Stead and Perry (2012b) , stated that there has been a paucity of distributive justice and equity in the resources provided to people in work transitions. Furthermore, they claim that the focus in career psychology has been less on structural and societal problems and more on adjustment of personal problems. Prilleltensky and Stead (2012) reflect on the adjust/challenge dilemma in which the following choices are present in the counseling process: (a) adjust and challenge the system, (b) focus on adjustment but do not challenge the system, (c) challenge the system and do not adjust to it, or (d) neither challenge nor adjust to the system. The consequences of each choice are discussed in relation to the well-being of people and communities. Blustein, Medvide, and Wan (2012) argued that traditional discourses in career psychology have served not only to marginalize the unemployed but also to reinforce oppressive practices in public policy, research, and practice in relation to unemployment. They believed that career psychologists have seldom critically examined research on the individual in relation to unemployment or located unemployment within a combination of political, social, and psychological domains. Using a case study methodology, Ali, Yang, Button, and McCoy (2012) conducted a career education program among ninth-grade high school students in rural Iowa. The program was informed by critical psychology approaches in emphasizing collaboration involving the researchers, school personnel, and students in the research process. The program focused on personal and environmental barriers to academic and career planning facing the students. Finally, McWhirter and McWhirter (2012) provided an informative analysis of career guidance in Chile, not only offering a critique but also suggesting ways in which vocational guidance could be transformed to the benefit of Chilean youth living in difficult economic conditions. Additional examples of commentary on political factors in relation to work on a national level may also be found in studies in Portugal ( Santos & Ferreira, 1998 ) and South Africa ( Nicholas, Naidoo, & Pretorius, 2006 ).

Although career psychology is an inherently cultural enterprise, it marginalizes cultural and cross-cultural psychology in its literature ( Stead, 2004 , 2007 ). As Stead and Bakker (2010a) argue, theorists need to acknowledge the role cultural beliefs play in their theories’ construction and applicability to a diverse range of cultures within and outside the United States. Closely related to social constructionism is discourse analysis, which is emerging as an alternative way to conceptualize career psychology and the psychology of work. Discourse analysis comprises a variety of perspectives, with its critical variant (e.g., Foucault, 1977 ; Hook, 2004 ) being anti-essentialist and anti-humanist and focusing on language and power, which are seen as two sides of the same coin, in constructing meaning and realities. The Foucauldian perspective focuses on who is being served and why various people or groups benefit at the expense of others. It is interested in how discourses can be taken for granted and accepted in some contexts but can be oppressive in other contexts ( Stead & Bakker, 2010a ). Blustein, Schultheiss, and Flum (2004) provided a relational perspective of career and work using social constructionism. They stated that a goal of the relational approach to the psychology of work would be to “construct generative discourses that challenge existing traditions of knowledge and suggest new possibilities for practice and policy” (p. 435). The relationship approach highlights the narrative approach. They claimed that the relational approach would be more integrative of people’s diverse life domains than current research on career. The relational approach moves from intrapsychic processes to relationally embedded contextual domains.

Stead and Bakker (2010a , 2010b ) argued for discourse analysis as an approach to critically evaluate the epistemological and ontological assumptions in career psychology. Discourse analysis, they argue, can be employed to analyze individual and institutional ways of communicating, and how some bodies of knowledge become marginalized. The emphasis is on how discourses are socially constructed, who benefits from such discourses, and whose approaches are marginalized. One example is the marginalization of qualitative research in favor of quantitative research in the career psychology literature. For example, Stead et al. (2012) content analyzed 3,279 articles from 1990 to 2009 in 11 major international and U.S. journals that published articles on careers and work. They reported that 55.9% of articles provided quantitative methods, 35.5% were theoretical/conceptual, and only 6.3% employed qualitative or mixed-methods research.

The data showed from 1990 to 2009 the number of quantitative empirical articles continued to increase relative to qualitative and mixed-method empirical articles. This is an example of how methodologism is prevalent in career psychology. Discourse analysis can provide the tools to critically evaluate the literature on work and career and provide new alternatives to existing practices in research, counseling, and policy.

Humanitarian Work Psychology

While career psychology concerns itself with the individual in relation to occupations, it has seldom turned its gaze on unemployment and researched how unemployment and poverty can be ameliorated. Humanitarian Work Psychology (HWP) is an international nonpartisan organization that applies the principles of organizational psychology to humanitarianism, especially in relation to poverty reduction and promotion of decent work that includes local stakeholders’ needs (see http://www.humworkpsy.org ). The focus is on collaboration with communities to develop plans for fostering well-being and work. Berry et al. (2011) argued that poverty reduction is not a subject only for economists, but that organizational psychologists have the skills and social obligation to address this crucial issue. Such activities include data gathering, data analysis and synthesis, conflict resolution, training, partnership building, communication, policy development, implementation of programs, and other skills. The purpose is to turn “what is” to “what might be” by utilizing organizational research in innovative, practical, and effective ways to reduce poverty. There are many excellent resources in this field, including Smith (2010) , Blustein (2006) , Carr and Sloan (2003) , and Owusu-Bempah and Howitt (2000) , among many others. Harper (2003) believed that in relation to poverty, psychological research has been largely methodologically inadequate, as a result of experimental designs and response-format questionnaires, and also politically unaware. Poverty and employment are intimately connected, and a critical approach to the psychology of work is well positioned to address these global concerns.

Critical Psychology and Critical Management Studies

In addition to its emancipatory potential in career psychology and the psychology of work, a critical approach can influence management strategies. In fact, the marriage of critical approaches with management studies gave birth to the field of Critical Management Studies (CMS). This field of study applies to management many of the same insights that critical psychology applies to mainstream psychology ( Adler, Forbes, & Willmot, 2008 ). While recognizing the potential of collaborative enterprises in fostering human flourishing, CMS deals with the barriers that contemporary organizations and the theories that support them erect in frustrating human potential.

What CMS addresses is the needless frustration of this potential that occurs when, instead of enabling human flourishing, organizations incubate and normalize stress and bad health, naturalize subordination and exploitation, demand conformism, inhibit free communication, erode morality, create and reinforce ethnic and gender inequalities, and so on. Instead of being progressive forces for emancipatory change, mainstream theory, as well as the everyday practice of organization and management, become reactionary means of conserving forms of exploitation and oppression institutionalized in the status quo. There is, in this sense, good reason to introduce, develop, and apply critical perspectives on management and organizations. ( Alvesson, Bridgman, & Willmott, 2009 , p. 8)

Like critical psychology, CMS questions taken- for-granted assumptions in management. Three of these unquestioned assumptions are the naturalization of dominance, the paragon of productivity, and the lack of reflexivity. The first one concerns the unquestioned acceptance of White male-dominated work environments. The second deals with the presumption that all human interaction in the workplace ought to be evaluated on the basis of the bottom line. Relationships are worth it only insofar as they generate money. This instrumental approach to human relations perpetuates the objectification of human beings in the workplace. The final critique, concerning the lack of reflexivity, feeds the previous two: it is precisely the lack of self-reflection that enables dominant groups to proceed with oppressive approaches without guilt or self-recrimination ( Alvesson, Bridgman, & Willmott, 2009 ).

In a series of telling case studies, Wolfram Cox, LeTrent-Jones, Voronov, and Wier (2009) apply critical theory to organizational conflicts and dilemmas. Their collection of case studies demonstrates the usefulness of narrative, discourse, and power analyses in dissecting the often-diverging sets of interests that plague workplaces. The growing literature on CMS promises to open new avenues for studying organizational development and human flourishing.

Critical psychology and critical approaches in general have much to offer to the psychology of work. The main contributions may be divided into deconstruction and reconstruction. The former entails the dismantling of oppressive practices through methodic questioning of assumptions. The latter pertains to building relationships and structures within the workplace and society that foster the values of self-determination, cooperation, respect for diversity, and social justice. To achieve the goals of deconstruction and reconstruction, we need to challenge psychology and allied professions to challenge the societal status quo. The psychology-of-work approach and critical management studies are aligning with emancipatory approaches that put people ahead of profit. Humanistic work psychology promotes the principles of collaboration, service, and social justice. Career psychology, while closely attached with mainstream psychology, is also beginning to question some of its assumptions.

A critical psychology approach to work reminds us that the well-being of employees and community members, not just management and corporate leaders, is important. Furthermore, it brings attention to the values and aspirations of all people, not just dominant groups. If the entire community is to benefit from a psychology of work, we had better make sure that all the voices are heard, that rights and obligations in the world of work are fairly distributed, and that the well-being of workers is not devoid of justice. No wellness without fairness.

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Stead, G. B. , & Perry, J. C. ( 2012 b). Toward critical psychology perspectives of work-based transitions. Journal of Career Development , 39, 315–320.

Stead, G. B. , Perry, J. C. , Munka, L. M. , Bonnett, H. R. , Shiban, A. P. , & Care, E. ( 2012 ). Qualitative research in career development: Content analysis from 1990 to 2009. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance , 12, 105–122.

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What Is a Critical Analysis Essay: Definition

Have you ever had to read a book or watch a movie for school and then write an essay about it? Well, a critical analysis essay is a type of essay where you do just that! So, when wondering what is a critical analysis essay, know that it's a fancy way of saying that you're going to take a closer look at something and analyze it.

So, let's say you're assigned to read a novel for your literature class. A critical analysis essay would require you to examine the characters, plot, themes, and writing style of the book. You would need to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses and provide your own thoughts and opinions on the text.

Similarly, if you're tasked with writing a critical analysis essay on a scientific article, you would need to analyze the methodology, results, and conclusions presented in the article and evaluate its significance and potential impact on the field.

The key to a successful critical analysis essay is to approach the subject matter with an open mind and a willingness to engage with it on a deeper level. By doing so, you can gain a greater appreciation and understanding of the subject matter and develop your own informed opinions and perspectives. Considering this, we bet you want to learn how to write critical analysis essay easily and efficiently, so keep on reading to find out more!

Meanwhile, if you'd rather have your own sample critical analysis essay crafted by professionals from our custom writings , contact us to buy essays online .

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Critical Analysis Essay Topics by Category

If you're looking for an interesting and thought-provoking topic for your critical analysis essay, you've come to the right place! Critical analysis essays can cover many subjects and topics, with endless possibilities. To help you get started, we've compiled a list of critical analysis essay topics by category. We've got you covered whether you're interested in literature, science, social issues, or something else. So, grab a notebook and pen, and get ready to dive deep into your chosen topic. In the following sections, we will provide you with various good critical analysis paper topics to choose from, each with its unique angle and approach.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Mass Media

From television and radio to social media and advertising, mass media is everywhere, shaping our perceptions of the world around us. As a result, it's no surprise that critical analysis essays on mass media are a popular choice for students and scholars alike. To help you get started, here are ten critical essay example topics on mass media:

The Influence of Viral Memes on Pop Culture: An In-Depth Analysis.
The Portrayal of Mental Health in Television: Examining Stigmatization and Advocacy.
The Power of Satirical News Shows: Analyzing the Impact of Political Commentary.
Mass Media and Consumer Behavior: Investigating Advertising and Persuasion Techniques.
The Ethics of Deepfake Technology: Implications for Trust and Authenticity in Media.
Media Framing and Public Perception: A Critical Analysis of News Coverage.
The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Discourse and Activism.
Fake News in the Digital Age: Identifying Disinformation and Its Effects.
The Representation of Gender and Diversity in Hollywood Films: A Critical Examination.
Media Ownership and Its Impact on Journalism and News Reporting: A Comprehensive Study.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Sports

Sports are a ubiquitous aspect of our culture, and they have the power to unite and inspire people from all walks of life. Whether you're an athlete, a fan, or just someone who appreciates the beauty of competition, there's no denying the significance of sports in our society. If you're looking for an engaging and thought-provoking topic for your critical analysis essay, sports offer a wealth of possibilities:

The Role of Sports in Diplomacy: Examining International Relations Through Athletic Events.
Sports and Identity: How Athletic Success Shapes National and Cultural Pride.
The Business of Sports: Analyzing the Economics and Commercialization of Athletics.
Athlete Activism: Exploring the Impact of Athletes' Social and Political Engagement.
Sports Fandom and Online Communities: The Impact of Social Media on Fan Engagement.
The Representation of Athletes in the Media: Gender, Race, and Stereotypes.
The Psychology of Sports: Exploring Mental Toughness, Motivation, and Peak Performance.
The Evolution of Sports Equipment and Technology: From Innovation to Regulation.
The Legacy of Sports Legends: Analyzing Their Impact Beyond Athletic Achievement.
Sports and Social Change: How Athletic Movements Shape Societal Attitudes and Policies.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Literature and Arts

Literature and arts can inspire, challenge, and transform our perceptions of the world around us. From classic novels to contemporary art, the realm of literature and arts offers many possibilities for critical analysis essays. Here are ten original critic essay example topics on literature and arts:

The Use of Symbolism in Contemporary Poetry: Analyzing Hidden Meanings and Significance.
The Intersection of Art and Identity: How Self-Expression Shapes Artists' Works.
The Role of Nonlinear Narrative in Postmodern Novels: Techniques and Interpretation.
The Influence of Jazz on African American Literature: A Comparative Study.
The Complexity of Visual Storytelling: Graphic Novels and Their Narrative Power.
The Art of Literary Translation: Challenges, Impact, and Interpretation.
The Evolution of Music Videos: From Promotional Tools to a Unique Art Form.
The Literary Techniques of Magical Realism: Exploring Reality and Fantasy.
The Impact of Visual Arts in Advertising: Analyzing the Connection Between Art and Commerce.
Art in Times of Crisis: How Artists Respond to Societal and Political Challenges.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Culture

Culture is a dynamic and multifaceted aspect of our society, encompassing everything from language and religion to art and music. As a result, there are countless possibilities for critical analysis essays on culture. Whether you're interested in exploring the complexities of globalization or delving into the nuances of cultural identity, there's a wealth of topics to choose from:

The Influence of K-Pop on Global Youth Culture: A Comparative Study.
Cultural Significance of Street Art in Urban Spaces: Beyond Vandalism.
The Role of Mythology in Shaping Indigenous Cultures and Belief Systems.
Nollywood: Analyzing the Cultural Impact of Nigerian Cinema on the African Diaspora.
The Language of Hip-Hop Lyrics: A Semiotic Analysis of Cultural Expression.
Digital Nomads and Cultural Adaptation: Examining the Subculture of Remote Work.
The Cultural Significance of Tattooing Among Indigenous Tribes in Oceania.
The Art of Culinary Fusion: Analyzing Cross-Cultural Food Trends and Innovation.
The Impact of Cultural Festivals on Local Identity and Economy.
The Influence of Internet Memes on Language and Cultural Evolution.

How to Write a Critical Analysis: Easy Steps

When wondering how to write a critical analysis essay, remember that it can be a challenging but rewarding process. Crafting a critical analysis example requires a careful and thoughtful examination of a text or artwork to assess its strengths and weaknesses and broader implications. The key to success is to approach the task in a systematic and organized manner, breaking it down into two distinct steps: critical reading and critical writing. Here are some tips for each step of the process to help you write a critical essay.

Step 1: Critical Reading

Here are some tips for critical reading that can help you with your critical analysis paper:

Read actively : Don't just read the text passively, but actively engage with it by highlighting or underlining important points, taking notes, and asking questions.
Identify the author's main argument: Figure out what the author is trying to say and what evidence they use to support their argument.
Evaluate the evidence: Determine whether the evidence is reliable, relevant, and sufficient to support the author's argument.
Analyze the author's tone and style: Consider the author's tone and style and how it affects the reader's interpretation of the text.
Identify assumptions: Identify any underlying assumptions the author makes and consider whether they are valid or questionable.
Consider alternative perspectives: Consider alternative perspectives or interpretations of the text and consider how they might affect the author's argument.
Assess the author's credibility : Evaluate the author's credibility by considering their expertise, biases, and motivations.
Consider the context: Consider the historical, social, cultural, and political context in which the text was written and how it affects its meaning.
Pay attention to language: Pay attention to the author's language, including metaphors, symbolism, and other literary devices.
Synthesize your analysis: Use your analysis of the text to develop a well-supported argument in your critical analysis essay.

Step 2: Critical Analysis Writing

Here are some tips for critical analysis writing, with examples:

Start with a strong thesis statement: A strong critical analysis thesis is the foundation of any critical analysis essay. It should clearly state your argument or interpretation of the text. You can also consult us on how to write a thesis statement . Meanwhile, here is a clear example:
Weak thesis statement: 'The author of this article is wrong.'
Strong thesis statement: 'In this article, the author's argument fails to consider the socio-economic factors that contributed to the issue, rendering their analysis incomplete.'
Use evidence to support your argument: Use evidence from the text to support your thesis statement, and make sure to explain how the evidence supports your argument. For example:
Weak argument: 'The author of this article is biased.'
Strong argument: 'The author's use of emotional language and selective evidence suggests a bias towards one particular viewpoint, as they fail to consider counterarguments and present a balanced analysis.'
Analyze the evidence : Analyze the evidence you use by considering its relevance, reliability, and sufficiency. For example:
Weak analysis: 'The author mentions statistics in their argument.'
Strong analysis: 'The author uses statistics to support their argument, but it is important to note that these statistics are outdated and do not take into account recent developments in the field.'
Use quotes and paraphrases effectively: Use quotes and paraphrases to support your argument and properly cite your sources. For example:
Weak use of quotes: 'The author said, 'This is important.'
Strong use of quotes: 'As the author points out, 'This issue is of utmost importance in shaping our understanding of the problem' (p. 25).'
Use clear and concise language: Use clear and concise language to make your argument easy to understand, and avoid jargon or overly complicated language. For example:
Weak language: 'The author's rhetorical devices obfuscate the issue.'
Strong language: 'The author's use of rhetorical devices such as metaphor and hyperbole obscures the key issues at play.'
Address counterarguments: Address potential counterarguments to your argument and explain why your interpretation is more convincing. For example:
Weak argument: 'The author is wrong because they did not consider X.'
Strong argument: 'While the author's analysis is thorough, it overlooks the role of X in shaping the issue. However, by considering this factor, a more nuanced understanding of the problem emerges.'
Consider the audience: Consider your audience during your writing process. Your language and tone should be appropriate for your audience and should reflect the level of knowledge they have about the topic. For example:
Weak language: 'As any knowledgeable reader can see, the author's argument is flawed.'
Strong language: 'Through a critical analysis of the author's argument, it becomes clear that there are gaps in their analysis that require further consideration.'

Master the art of critical analysis with EssayPro . Our team is ready to guide you in dissecting texts, theories, or artworks with depth and sophistication. Let us help you deliver a critical analysis essay that showcases your analytical prowess.

Creating a Detailed Critical Analysis Essay Outline

Creating a detailed outline is essential when writing a critical analysis essay. It helps you organize your thoughts and arguments, ensuring your essay flows logically and coherently. Here is a detailed critical analysis outline from our dissertation writers :

I. Introduction

A. Background information about the text and its author

B. Brief summary of the text

C. Thesis statement that clearly states your argument

II. Analysis of the Text

A. Overview of the text's main themes and ideas

B. Examination of the author's writing style and techniques

C. Analysis of the text's structure and organization

III. Evaluation of the Text

A. Evaluation of the author's argument and evidence

B. Analysis of the author's use of language and rhetorical strategies

C. Assessment of the text's effectiveness and relevance to the topic

IV. Discussion of the Context

A. Exploration of the historical, cultural, and social context of the text

B. Examination of the text's influence on its audience and society

C. Analysis of the text's significance and relevance to the present day

V. Counter Arguments and Responses

A. Identification of potential counterarguments to your argument

B. Refutation of counterarguments and defense of your position

C. Acknowledgement of the limitations and weaknesses of your argument

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of your argument and main points

B. Evaluation of the text's significance and relevance

C. Final thoughts and recommendations for further research or analysis.

This outline can be adjusted to fit the specific requirements of your essay. Still, it should give you a solid foundation for creating a detailed and well-organized critical analysis essay.

Useful Techniques Used in Literary Criticism

There are several techniques used in literary criticism to analyze and evaluate a work of literature. Here are some of the most common techniques:

Close reading: This technique involves carefully analyzing a text to identify its literary devices, themes, and meanings.
Historical and cultural context: This technique involves examining the historical and cultural context of a work of literature to understand the social, political, and cultural influences that shaped it.
Structural analysis: This technique involves analyzing the structure of a text, including its plot, characters, and narrative techniques, to identify patterns and themes.
Formalism: This technique focuses on the literary elements of a text, such as its language, imagery, and symbolism, to analyze its meaning and significance.
Psychological analysis: This technique examines the psychological and emotional aspects of a text, including the motivations and desires of its characters, to understand the deeper meanings and themes.
Feminist and gender analysis: This technique focuses on the representation of gender and sexuality in a text, including how gender roles and stereotypes are reinforced or challenged.
Marxist and social analysis: This technique examines the social and economic structures portrayed in a text, including issues of class, power, and inequality.

By using these and other techniques, literary critics can offer insightful and nuanced analyses of works of literature, helping readers to understand and appreciate the complexity and richness of the texts.

Sample Critical Analysis Essay

Now that you know how to write a critical analysis, take a look at the critical analysis essay sample provided by our research paper writers and better understand this kind of paper!

Final Words

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How to Write a Critical Evaluation Essay in Psychology?

If you worry about writing a critical evaluation essay in psychology, you are in the right place. Writing it is not as easy as posting an angry comment online of a biased article though it is also a critical evaluation. Moreover, it requires a lot of critical reading as many authors gain trust by using rhetorical techniques. Hence only with critical thinking of the thoroughly read subject and with the right approach you can craft an excellent critical evaluation essay. But with the evaluating content being a complicated literature article, or a work of art or a nonfiction piece, it is challenging to analyze it. Hence, check the critical evaluation essay psychology’s characteristics, importance, and many tips to write it effectively to get good grades.

Get Help With Your Critical Evaluation in Psychology

If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing helper is here to help!

What Is a Critical Evaluation Essay in Psychology?

Critical evaluating essay in psychology is a form of academic writing for analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating psychology literature, film, or any text. You should claim the specific ideas or themes conveyed in the text and support it with evidence from primary or secondary sources. Hence getting help from professional essay writing services for the right critical evaluation essay template is advisable.

What Are the Characteristics of a Critical Evaluating Essay in Psychology?

Though the word critical in casual conversation means taking a negative point of view, it is mere discerning and analytical in academic writing . An essay becomes critical only when its topic takes the form of a thesis to include the claim about the text’s themes and the ideas the author conveys, and the techniques used to communicate it. Moreover, the thesis may be either supportive or disputable by taking evidence only from the text. Hence it becomes the powerful central claim of the text itself. Hence the following are the characteristics of critical evaluating essay psychology.

The central claim is one of the important characteristics in all the critical evaluating essays. Hence there should be a central claim about text, and the argument should get typically expressed at the start of the essay as a thesis statement.
Evidence supporting the central claim taken from the text itself should support the thesis statement in all the essay body paragraphs.
The conclusion should summarize the essay argument’s trajectory and emphasize the essay’s most critical insights.

Hence to write a critical evaluation essay in psychology with all the above characteristics, it is best to have the right critical evaluation essay format from professional essay writing services.

Read More: Research Topics in Psychology for College Students

Importance of Critical Evaluating Essay in Psychology:

The critical evaluating essay’s significant purpose is to inform the reader about a subject with an explanation of its meaning and its objective. Hence you need to present your personal point of view by critically analyzing the subject. The subject topics may range from analyzing a psychological film, historical event, book, or complex social and political issues. Since it is a form of observation and evaluation of subjective analysis, it helps the reader better understand the subject. It also helps the reader analyze the various controversial points of view on the subject’s significance rather than judging its quality. Hence the importance of the critical evaluating essay is increasing because of the rising need for literature reviews.

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Tips for Writing Critical Evaluating Essay Psychology:

Knowing what a critical evaluation essay in psychology is, its characteristics and its importance, it is time to know how to write it effectively. In the UK, many universities prefer the “PROMPT” system to write it. It is a structured approach that includes Provenance, Relevance, Objectivity, Presentation and Timeliness. However, many ways to write it require a meticulous argument building process and vigorous analysis. Hence the following tips will help you do it easily and quickly.

Also Read: How To Write An Excellent Psychology Case Study Report?

It is pertinent to avoid common mistakes while writing a critical evaluating essay, As it is subjective and uses only the right critical evaluation essay phrases.

The most important thing to remember while writing is to keep the tone formal and academic and not use any slang or familiarities from the critical evaluation essay introduction to the conclusion.
Since the essay is significantly about your point of view supported by others’ work, do not base the entire essay on their work.
Ensure the matter of interest in the essay is only your point of view of the subject rather than the subject itself.
It is best to reference the work of others while using it as supporting evidence for your point of view to avoid plagiarism.
Focus only on the analysis of the subject and avoid any description of it in the essay.
Confirm that you are writing the essay following a good structure and make sure you support your point of view with enough evidence.
Always double check to present the essay perfectly with a logical sequence of arguments for easy understanding of the reader.
Though having a solid point of view on the subject, please read it carefully to view it from multiple perspectives to be more open-minded and aim.
By carefully thinking about your reaction and response to the subject, make sure that your opinions are never offensive to anyone.
Start writing the essay by drafting it to include an overview of the subject, its key points and grab the reader’s attention to your thesis statement.
Write a new point of view for the analysis in each paragraph avoiding extreme bias, and be fair to any varying needs to support your arguments.
Write a critical evaluation essay outline in the following critical evaluation essay format.

Also Read: Tips To Write An Excellent Case Study Report In Psychology

Background information
Information about publication
Topic & purpose
Thesis statement
Critical evaluation

Case Study Help’s critical evaluation essay psychology and the tips will surely help you write it effectively to get good grades. But if you need more information or a critical evaluation essay example, contact the best essay writing services. We will guide you to write in the right critical evaluation essay format with expert guidance and support. Tap on the link Casestudyhelp.com for more information!

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38 Student Essay Example: Psychological Criticism

The grieving mind.

By Rachel Rees

Literature gives us an insight into the human mind through the characters and the messages that the author has written. Raymond Carver’s “A Small, Good Thing” is one of those literature pieces that has many elements that help readers grasp and understand the emotions that people go through with dealing when lives are disrupted through injury and grief. The characters, husband and wife Howard and Ann, experience an assortment of emotions at varying times that correlate with Kubler-Ross’s five stages of grief as well as perhaps other set emotions and moments outside of those five stages.

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross investigated human grief and narrowed it down to five denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. This is a set-up that we fall back on to help us understand the emotions we feel during an intense time in our lives. In “A Small, Good Thing” these stages don’t start when Ann and Howard’s son, Scotty, dies. Now the characters show these signs when Scotty has been admitted to the hospital and shows no signs in the tests why he doesn’t wake up. In Bolden’s review of Kubler- Ross’s On Grief and Grieving: Finding the Meaning of Grief Through the Five Stages of Loss denial is defined as “symbolic in that they cannot believe that their friend or family member will not, for example, be calling to say hello or returning from work at a certain time.” We see this in the mother’s thoughts as she leaves the hospital to go home for a while. “She wished she were that woman and somebody, anybody, was driving her away from here to somewhere else, a place where she would find Scotty waiting for her when she stepped out of the car, ready to say Mom and let her gather him in her arms.” (Carver, 7) This wish is a moment where Ann wants to deny what is happening. The reader of course can easily sympathize with the sentiment, no one wants to imagine the pain these parents are going through with the unknown. I believe that, in a way the father shows his own Denial when he also takes a moment to stop by at home to shower off. There are moments where he seems to be denying what is happening by his son by focus on himself.

The two cycle through these emotions at different rates, and then have to face denial once more when their son dies and isn’t merely in a coma-like state. This comes out in the same moment, when they are leaving the hospital. For the mother it starts right off “She began shaking her head. “No, no,” she said. “I can’t leave him here, no.” She heard herself say that and thought how unfair it was that the only words that came out were the sort of words used on TV shows where people were stunned by violent or sudden deaths.” (Carver 12) On the same page its mere seconds later when it appears that the father starts on this same denial “An autopsy,” Howard said. Dr. Francis nodded. “I understand,” Howard said. Then he said, “Oh, Jesus. No, I don’t understand, doctor. I can’t, I can’t. I just can’t.” His lack of understanding is part of that denial. The logic is likely there but the comprehending that its happening to his son, is too much. These two respond with the dysphoria that most would in this position.

The next stage in the five-stages model is Anger. This can be narrowed down to “A person’s anger is directed at the person who died or at oneself for being unable to prevent his or her loved one’s death. The authors contend that once individuals are in this stage, they recognize their ability to get through this difficult time.” (Bolden) It is clear that these parents don’t blame their son. No, they place blame on the driver who didn’t even stop to take any sense of responsibility for harming Scotty. We first see this anger come out when the dad gets home and the phone rings. As a reader we can make the connection that it is the baker calling, as the cake was supposed to be picked up today. To the father it seems like a mean and crude joke and thus his reaction is anger (Carver, 3). The anger also comes out when the mother goes home and answers the phone, also forgetting about the baker and the order and seeing it as the same cruel joke that her husband warned her of. “Your Scotty, I got him ready for you,” the man’s voice said. “Did you forget him?” “You evil bastard!” she shouted into the receiver. “How can you do this, you evil son of a bitch?” / “It was him,” she said. “That bastard. I’d like to kill him,” she said. “I’d like to shoot him and watch him kick,” she said.” (Carver, 13) Here she takes the assumption that the caller is the driver who had hit their son. This can also be seen as a step outside of the model.

They aren’t really past denial and Ann and Howard can’t really see past their grief on how to carry on and live past this trauma. The parents reach anger once again, after their son’s death when once again the baker calls. Even as Ann recognizes it as the baker her anger doesn’t recede, nor does the father’s but hers is expressed more potently “There was a deep burning inside her, an anger that made her feel larger than herself, larger than either of these men.” (Carver, 14). Their anger is a driving force to their actions, it is what is keeping them going in the face of their sons’ death. They don’t want to hurt alone and thus intend to bring a type of hurt on another. I feel like this is also a moment when the couple is trying to show the other that they aren’t weak, however this has a possible backfiring effect towards the grieving process as “Grieving parents who try to protect their partner by “staying strong” and not discussing the child’s death may actually prolong their grieving” (Myers & DeWall, 102). It is possible that by not communicating with one another the parents will be extending their grief even more. Especially as the story itself seems to circle through the stages more than just the once going from when Scotty was merely ill to his actual passing.

Bargaining isn’t really a stage that is easy to detect in this story. “Kubler-Ross and Kessler talk about the “what if” and “if only” mind-set wherein individuals who are grieving believe that they may have been able to control and thus prevent the loss of their family member or friend.” (Bolden) It could be seen that when Scotty is still alive the mother is considering that her being at his bedside, never leaving, is a sort of bargaining. That if she remains, he’ll wake up and everything will be alright. This same sentiment also feels like a sense of denial. Ann then comes to think the opposite,

She tried to think about it, but she was too tired. She closed her eyes and tried to think about it again. After a time, she said, “Maybe I will go home for a few minutes. Maybe if I’m not just sitting right here watching him every second, he’ll wake up and be all right. You know? Maybe he’ll wake up if I’m not here. I’ll go home and take a bath and put on clean clothes. I’ll feed Slug. Then I’ll come back.” (Carver, 8)

The father doesn’t seem to negotiate or bargain so much, and if the character is going through this Carver has left it out to the reader’s imagination. Perhaps it is because this moment is more important to see from the mother. For the reader to better understand and sympathize the mother’s reluctant feelings and what she forces herself to think of just so that she leaves.

Our fourth stage following the model is Depression. “In this stage, the authors discuss the normalcy of feeling depressed and affirm the idea that such feelings are necessary for the healing process to begin.” (Bolden) We can see that this depressed state also isn’t entirely easy to define when Scotty is merely in bed. Once more we get a better sense of this through the character’s just going through the motions. “They waited all day, but still the boy did not wake up. Occasionally, one of them would leave the room to go downstairs to the cafeteria to drink coffee and then, as if suddenly remembering and feeling guilty, get up from the table and hurry back to the room.” (Carver, 6) I believe that Carver expresses that ‘depression’ through the guilt of the parent being away from their child. That just in that moment to go to get a drink of coffee the feel as if it’ll be their fault should Scotty wake up and they not be at his bedside waiting.

The stage of depression becomes more distinct for the mother as the wait for Scotty to wake continued. “She felt she was in some obscure way responsible for what had happened to the child.” (Carver, 10) In this moment it feels like she feels that guilt despite the fact that she personally had no part in the car incident. Then things take on a shift towards after Scotty’s death, when the parents have left the hospital and are at home. It becomes clear in the father’s actions on page 13, “In a little while, Howard got up and began moving aimlessly around the room with the box, not putting anything into it, but collecting some things together on the floor at one end of the sofa.” He reaches this state before the mother.

When the mother finally seems to reach that depressed state it is when they have confronted the baker. After the anger that had driven them to the bakery. “Just as suddenly as it had welled in her, the anger dwindled, gave way to something else, a dizzy feeling of nausea. She leaned against the wooden table that was sprinkled with flour, put her hands over her face, and began to cry, her shoulders rocking back and forth. “It isn’t fair,” she said. “It isn’t, isn’t fair.” (Carver, 15) In this sense the father hadn’t followed the set stage as he had gone from his depression to his anger of the baker calling them, as if the baker was mocking them. It is also a show of how people move through grief at different rates and that Ann seems to process emotions further then the father.

The fifth stage in Kubler-Ross’s model is Acceptance. Bolden goes over how “At this stage, individuals are at a point where they recognize the current state of their lives, without their loved one, as the reality and can live with that understanding.” Now it is clear that neither Ann nor Howard reaches this state by the end of the story. But there are moments of a sort of pseudo-acceptance set. “Over his sobs, she could hear the coffee-maker hissing in the kitchen. “There, there,” she said tenderly. “Howard, he’s gone. He’s gone and now we’ll have to get used to that. To being alone.” (Carver Page 13) This is important how Ann acknowledges that her son is gone. It is a start towards acceptance. The true path towards acceptance is shown to the couple through the Baker. He acknowledges their grief and understands it even as if he never personally experienced this. “You probably need to eat something,” the baker said. “I hope you’ll eat some of my hot rolls. You have to eat and keep going. Eating is a small, good thing in a time like this,” he said.” (Carver 16) I think this really sets apart from the five-stage model, as instead of a counselor or the parents themselves we have a baker giving them those steps on how to keep on living even after a hard time such as losing a child.

Raymond Carver has written a story that has character’s going through a trying time. He has written a story that goes over grieving in a way that seems to follow Kubler-Ross’s five stage model and also doesn’t. People grieve and process at different rates, this is also shown with Ann and Howard. If the story continued on it would be more likely that the characters would cycle through the five-stage model as much as they would also fall outside of it. Still the story itself is a great study of what the human mind deals with when suffering through an unexpected loss.

Works Cited

Bolden, Lori A. “A Review of On Grief and Grieving: Finding the Meaning of Grief Through the Five Stages of Loss.” Counseling & Values, vol. 51, no. 3, Apr. 2007, pp. 235–237. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1002/j.2161-007X.2007.tb00081.x.

Carver, Raymond. “A Small, Good Thing.” Ploughshares, vol. 8, no. 2/3, 1982, pp. 213–240. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40348924. Accessed 5 May 2021 .

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2020). Psychology in Everyday Life (Fifth ed.). Holland, Michigan: Worth.

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Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology

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Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology First Edition

Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology is a thought-provoking collection of 16 essays discussing the field’s traditions, research models, and practices. The editors have brought together a team of internationally recognized sport psychologists with backgrounds in various disciplines to offer insights into sport cultures ranging from youth sport to professional sport. The authors of these cutting-edge essays ask challenging questions about the current state of applied sport psychology, addressing the priorities of the field, its research methods, and its effectiveness in preparing students for research and consulting.

With ideas that will interest those in the applied sport psychology field as well as psychologists, psychotherapists, and research psychologists, Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology offers students and practitioners an opportunity to reflect on their own approaches to and assumptions grounding their current or future professional practice. Each essay offers a distinct perspective on applied sport psychology practice that challenges current applied training requirements and practices, with discussion questions at the conclusion of each essay to stimulate in-class discussion and individual reflection. Readers may also use these essays as springboards for pursuing new areas of research.

Part I of the text begins with six essays discussing the possibilities afforded by the use of research and inquiry within applied practice. The authors of these essays explore how stories of self and of others can facilitate an increased appreciation of the complexity of people’s lives both inside and outside of sport. The essays in part II concern issues in professional service delivery with special emphasis on alternative ways to conceptualize and practice applied sport psychology. In part III, three essays explore specific topics in sport psychology practice dealing with both sport-specific and general sociocultural contexts.

Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology offers valuable perspectives not only for sport psychology professionals, students, and researchers but also for those who work alongside, manage, or employ applied psychology professionals. By looking beyond the traditional psychological skills training model, Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology offers new ways of uncovering and representing knowledge that will stimulate debate and open discussion on current research, methodologies, practices, and training requirements in applied sport psychology.

ISBN-10 0736078851
ISBN-13 978-0736078856
Edition First Edition
Publisher Human Kinetics
Publication date May 19, 2011
Language English
Dimensions 7.5 x 0.75 x 10.5 inches
Print length 320 pages
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Editorial Reviews

“Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology is refreshingly and excitingly different from the usual applied sport psychology text. There is much to interest and inform in this book, and it provides valuable, and sometimes unusual and challenging perspectives. I thoroughly recommend Critical Essays in Applied Sport Psychology to all colleagues and students in sport psychology.”

--International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

About the Author

David Gilbourne, PhD , is a professor of qualitative research in sport at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff and teaches in the Cardiff School of Sport. He cofounded and codirected the first and second International Conferences on Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise (2004 and 2006) and acted as external advisor to the third conference at Roehampton University, UK, in 2009. Gilbourne also cofounded Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, the first peer-reviewed journal dedicated to disseminating qualitative research from all sport-based disciplines.

Gilbourne speaks internationally on the topic of sport-oriented social science qualitative research, and in 2010 he acted as visiting professor at Copenhagen University. His writing focuses on issues of qualitative methodology. Alongside colleagues, he has commented frequently on the topic of action research and reflective practice in applied sport psychology. His current work explores a range of autoethnographic communications with particular emphasis on storytelling through creative writing, drama, and poetry.

Mark B. Andersen, PhD , is a professor in the School of Sport and Exercise Science and the Institute for Sport, Exercise, and Active Living at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia. He also coordinates the master and doctoral degrees in applied psychology in the School of Social Science and Psychology. He received his PhD in psychology with a doctoral minor in exercise and sport sciences from the University of Arizona at Tucson in 1988.

In 1994 Andersen received the Dorothy V. Harris Memorial Award for excellence as a young scholar and practitioner in applied sport psychology from the Association for Applied Sport Psychology. He has been a keynote speaker at 10 international and national conferences and has published more than 60 articles in refereed journals and more than 75 book chapters and proceedings. He has edited three other Human Kinetics books: Doing Sport Psychology, Sport Psychology in Practice , and Overtraining Athletes: Personal Journeys in Sport . Andersen is a member of the Australian Psychological Society (APS) and APS College of Sport and Exercise Psychology. In addition to his academic duties, he maintains a small psychotherapy practice in Melbourne.

Product details

Publisher ‏ : ‎ Human Kinetics; First Edition (May 19, 2011)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 320 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0736078851
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0736078856
Reading age ‏ : ‎ 18 years and up
Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.85 pounds
Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 7.5 x 0.75 x 10.5 inches
#1,406 in Sports Psychology (Books)
#11,100 in Education (Books)
#15,832 in Instruction Methods

About the authors

David gilbourne.

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Mark B. Andersen

Mark B. Andersen retired (mostly) from academia in 2014, but he is still an adjunct professor of psychology at both the School of Health and Welfare at Halmstad University in Sweden and the Institute for Social Neuroscience in Melbourne, Australia. His areas of research and practice interests include: the psychology of injury and rehabilitation; the role of exercise in mental health and quality of life; the training and supervision of graduate students; interpersonal mindfulness; Buddhist psychology; and psychodynamic applications in sport and performance psychology. He has published 9 books and more than 200 journal articles and book chapters, and has made over 100 national and international conference presentations, including 15 invited keynote addresses on four continents. He currently works as a clinical psychologist in a group practice in Hobart, Tasmania and supervises psychologists in nine countries around the world over Skype. Some of the institutions he values most are the restaurants where he lives in the Battery Point, Hobart.

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