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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

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Types of Research – Tips and Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On May 8, 2024

“Research is an investigation conducted to seek knowledge and find solutions to scientific and social problems.”

It includes the collection of information from various sources. New research can contribute to existing knowledge.

The types of research can be categorised from the following perspectives;

• Application of the study
• Aim of the research
• Mode of Inquiry
• Research approach

Types of Research According to the Application Perspective

The different types of research, according to the application perspective, include the following.

Basic Research

Primary research is conducted to increase knowledge. It is also known as theoretical research, pure research, and fundamental research. It provides in-depth knowledge about the scientific and logical explanations and their conclusions.

The results of the primary research are used as the base of applied research. It is based on  experiments  and observation. The results of basic research are published in peer-reviewed journals.

• What is global warming?
• How did the Universe begin?
• What do humans get stress?

Applied Research

Applied research is conducted to find solutions for practical problems. It uses the outcomes of basic research as its base. The results of applied research are applied immediately. It includes case studies and experimental research.

Example: Finding the solution to control air pollution.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is carried out to describe current issues and programs and provides information about the issue through surveys and various fact-finding methods.

It includes co-relational and comparative methods of research. It follows the Ex post facto research, which predicts the possible reasons behind the situation that has already occurred.

A researcher cannot control its variables and can report only about the current situation and its occurring.

Example: The widespread contaminated diseases in a specific area of the town. An investigation revealed that there was no trash removal system in that area. A researcher can hypothesise that improper trash removal leads to widespread contaminated diseases.

Analytical Research

In analytical research, a researcher can use the existing data, facts, and knowledge and critically analyse and evaluate the sources and material. It attempts to describe why a specific situation exists.

Example: Impact of video games on teenagers.

Explanatory

Explanatory research is conducted to know why and how two or more variables are interrelated. Researchers usually conduct experiments to know the effect of specific changes among two or more variables.

Example: A study to identify the impact of a nutritious diet on pregnant women.

Exploratory

Exploratory research is conducted to understand the nature of the problem. It does not focus on finding evidence or a conclusion of the problem. It studies the problem to explore the research in-depth and covers topics that have not been studied before.

Example: An investigation into the growing crimes against women in India.

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Types of Research According to the Mode of Inquiry

Qualitative research.

Qualitative research  is based on quality, and it looks in-depth at non-numerical data. It enables us to understand the comprehensive details of the problem. The researcher prepares open-ended questions to gather as much information as possible.

• Stress level among men and women.
• The obesity rate among teenagers.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is associated with the aspects of measurement, quantity, and extent. It follows the statistical, mathematical, and computational techniques in the form of numerical data such as percentages and statistics. The type of research is conducted on a large population.

• Find out the weight of students of the fifth standard
• Studying in government schools.

Types of Research According to the Research Approach

Longitudinal research.

Researchers collect the information at multiple points in time. Usually, a specific group of participants is selected and examined numerous times at various periods.

Example: If a researcher experiments on a group of women to find out the impact of a low-carb diet within six months. The women’s weight and health check-ups will be done multiple times to get the evidence for the study.

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional research gathers and compares the information from various groups of the population at the same point. It may not provide the exact reason and relationship between the subjects, but it gives a broad picture of studying multiple groups at the same time.

Example: If a researcher wants to know the number of students studying in a school, he will get to know about the age groups, height, weight, and gender of the students at the same time.

Conceptual Research

It is associated with the concept and theory that describes the hypothesis being studied. It is based on  the inductive  approach of reasoning. It does not follow practical experiments. Philosophers, thinkers, logicians, and theorists use such research to discover new concepts and understand existing knowledge.

Example: Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein.

Empirical Research

It is also known as experimental research, which depends on observation and experience. It is based on the  deductive  approach of reasoning . A researcher focuses on gathering information about the facts and their sources and investigating the existing knowledge. Example: Is intermittent fasting the healthy weight loss option for women?

The researcher can come up with the result that a certain number of women lost weight, and it improved their health. On the other hand, a certain number of women suffering from low blood pressure and diabetes didn’t lose weight, and they faced the negative impacts of intermittent fasting on their health.

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Mixed Methods of Research

When you combine quantitative and qualitative methods of research, the resulting approach becomes mixed methods of research.

Over the last few decades, much of the research in the world of academia has been conducted using mixed methods. Due to its greater legitimacy, this particular technique has gained for several reasons, including the feeling that combining the two types of research can provide holistic and more dependable results.

Here is what mixed methods of research involve:

• Interpreting and investigating the information gathered through quantitative and qualitative techniques.
• There could be more than one stage of research. Depending on the topic of research, occasionally, it would be more appropriate to perform qualitative research in the first stage to figure out and investigate a problem to unveil key themes and conduct quantitative research in stage two of the process for measuring relationships between the themes.

 Tips for Choosing the Right Type of Research

Choosing the right type of research is essential for producing relevant and actionable insights. The choice depends on your objectives, available resources, and the nature of the problem. Here are some tips to help you make the right decision:

Define your Research Objectives Clearly

• Descriptive Research: To describe the characteristics of certain phenomena.
• Exploratory Research: To explore a problem that hasn’t been studied in depth.
• Explanatory (or Causal) Research: To explain patterns of cause and effect.
• Predictive Research: To forecast future outcomes based on patterns.

Understand the Research Methods

• Quantitative Research: Employs structured data collection (e.g., surveys) to generate statistical data.
• Qualitative Research: Uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection methods (e.g., interviews, observations) to understand behaviour, motivations, etc.

Consider the Time Dimension

• Cross-sectional Studies: Capture data at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal Studies: Collect data over extended periods to observe changes.

Evaluate Available Resources

• Budget: Some research methods, like experimental research, may require more funding.
• Time: Exploratory or ethnographic studies may take longer than surveys.
• Expertise: Ensure you or your team possess the skills needed for your chosen research method.

Consider the Nature of the Problem

Complex problems may require mixed-methods research (a combination of qualitative and quantitative).

Review Existing Literature

Review existing literature before settling on a type to see what methodologies were previously employed for similar questions.

Think about Data Collection

Consider the best method to gather data: surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc. Your choice affects the research type.

Ethical Considerations:

Ensure your chosen method abides by ethical standards, especially when human subjects are involved.

Generalisability Vs. Depth

Quantitative methods often allow for generalisability, while qualitative methods provide depth and detail.

Pilot Testing

If unsure, run a pilot study to test your chosen method’s feasibility and utility.

Stay Open to Adaptation

Sometimes, initial research can lead to unforeseen insights or complexities. Be prepared to adjust your approach if needed.

Seek Feedback

Discuss your research approach with colleagues, mentors, or experts in the field. They might offer valuable insights or identify potential pitfalls.

Stay Updated

Research methods evolve. Stay updated with the latest techniques, tools, and best practices in your field.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research.

Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising knowledge about specific phenomena. It involves formulating hypotheses, collecting data, and analysing results to generate new insights or validate existing theories. Conducted in various fields, research can be empirical, theoretical, or experimental and is fundamental for informed decision-making.

What are the different Types of Research?

Different types of research include:

• Descriptive: Describe and analyse phenomena.
• Experimental: Manipulate variables to establish causation.
• Correlational: Examine relationships between variables.
• Qualitative: Gather insights and understanding.
• Quantitative: Use numerical data for analysis.
• Case study, survey, ethnography, and more.

What is research design?

Research design is a structured blueprint for conducting a study, outlining how data will be collected, analysed, and interpreted. It determines the overall strategy and approach to obtain valid, accurate, and reliable results. Research design encompasses choices about type (e.g., experimental, observational), method (qualitative, quantitative), and data collection procedures.

What is survey?

A survey is a research method used to gather data from a predefined group by asking specific questions. Surveys can be conducted using various mediums, such as face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or online questionnaires. They are valuable for collecting descriptive, quantitative, or qualitative information and gauging public opinion or behaviours.

What is research method?

A research method is a systematic approach used by researchers to gather, analyse, and interpret data relevant to their study. It dictates how information is collected and evaluated to answer specific research questions. Methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed and include techniques like surveys, experiments, case studies, and interviews.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is an initial study designed to clarify and define the nature of a problem. It’s used when researchers have a limited understanding of the topic. Instead of seeking definitive answers, it aims to identify patterns, ideas, or hypotheses. Methods often include literature reviews, qualitative interviews, and observational studies.

What is the purpose of research?

The purpose of research is to discover, interpret, or revise knowledge on specific topics or phenomena. It seeks to answer questions, validate theories, or find solutions to problems. Research enhances understanding, informs decision-making, guides policies, drives innovation, and contributes to academic, scientific, and societal advancement. It’s fundamental for evidence-based practices.

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• Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Research Process: A Step-By-Step Guide: 1: Types of Information

• Getting Started
• 1a. Books and Ebooks
• 1b. Videos & Images
• 1c. Articles and Databases
• 1d. Internet Resources
• 1e. Periodical Publications
• 1f. Government and Corporate Information
• 1g. One Perfect Source?
• 2a. Know your information need
• 2b. Develop a Research Topic
• 2c. Refine a Topic
• 2d. Research Strategies: Keywords and Subject Headings
• 2e. Research Strategies: Search Strings
• 3a. The CRAAP Method
• 3b. Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• 4a. Incorporate Source Material
• 4b. Plagiarism
• 4c. Copyright, Fair Use, and Appropriation
• 4d. Writing Strategies
• 5a. MLA Formatting
• 5b. MLA Citation Examples
• 5c. APA Formatting
• 5d. APA Citation Examples
• 5e. Chicago Formatting
• 5f. Chicago Examples
• 5g. Annotated Bibliographies
• Visual Literacy

The Information Cycle

To begin your research it is essential that you define your information need. To do this you need to know what your research topic is about, what type of information you need to answer your research question, and how much information you will need to complete your research assignment.

Information follows a publication cycle; and it is often first published on the internet. Often, news breaks on social media sites and online news sites first. Then it appears on television and radio. It quickly moves on to printed newspapers, podcasts, and weekly magazines, such as Time and Newsweek. It then moves on to longer feature stories in monthly magazines. Finally, it is analyzed in scholarly journals and in books. 

In this section of the research process we will take a look at different types of information and how they differ from one another. Knowing what type of information source to use for the type of information you need is an essential skill to attain in order to become a competent researcher.

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• Last Updated: May 29, 2024 10:47 AM
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Literature Searching

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research to be undertaken.

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research and focus on discovering, explaining and exploring.  Types of qualitative questions include:

• Exploratory Questions, which seeks to understand without influencing the results.  The objective is to learn more about a topic without bias or preconceived notions.
• Predictive Questions, which seek to understand the intent or future outcome around a topic.
• Interpretive Questions, which tries to understand people’s behavior in a natural setting.  The objective is to understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena.

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a  researcher’s hypothesis and are constructed to express the relationship between variables  and whether this relationship is significant.  Types of quantitative questions include:

• Descriptive questions , which are the most basic type of quantitative research question and seeks to explain the when, where, why or how something occurred. 
• Comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables where one variable is compared with another.
• Relationship-based questions try to answer whether or not one variable has an influence on another.  These types of question are generally used in experimental research questions.

References/Additional Resources

Lipowski, E. E. (2008). Developing great research questions . American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65(17), 1667–1670.

Ratan, S. K., Anand, T., & Ratan, J. (2019). Formulation of Research Question - Stepwise Approach .  Journal of Indian Association of Pediatric Surgeons ,  24 (1), 15–20.

Fandino W.(2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls . I ndian J Anaesth. 63(8) :611-616. 

Beck, L. L. (2023). The question: types of research questions and how to develop them . In Translational Surgery: Handbook for Designing and Conducting Clinical and Translational Research (pp. 111-120). Academic Press. 

Doody, O., & Bailey, M. E. (2016). Setting a research question, aim and objective. Nurse Researcher, 23(4), 19–23.

Plano Clark, V., & Badiee, M. (2010). Research questions in mixed methods research . In: SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social &amp; Behavioral Research .  SAGE Publications, Inc.,

Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: A reflective process .  International journal of qualitative studies in education ,  22 (4), 431-447. 

Flemming, K., & Noyes, J. (2021). Qualitative Evidence Synthesis: Where Are We at? I nternational Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20.  

Research Question Frameworks

Research question frameworks have been designed to help structure research questions and clarify the main concepts. Not every question can fit perfectly into a framework, but using even just parts of a framework can help develop a well-defined research question. The framework to use depends on the type of question to be researched.   There are over 25 research question frameworks available.  The University of Maryland has a nice table listing out several of these research question frameworks, along with what the acronyms mean and what types of questions/disciplines that may be used for.

The process of developing a good research question involves taking your topic and breaking each aspect of it down into its component parts.

Booth, A., Noyes, J., Flemming, K., Moore, G., Tunçalp, Ö., & Shakibazadeh, E. (2019). Formulating questions to explore complex interventions within qualitative evidence synthesis.   BMJ global health ,  4 (Suppl 1), e001107. (See supplementary data#1)

The "Well-Built Clinical Question“: PICO(T)

One well-established framework that can be used both for refining questions and developing strategies is known as PICO(T). The PICO framework was designed primarily for questions that include interventions and comparisons, however other types of questions may also be able to follow its principles.  If the PICO(T) framework does not precisely fit your question, using its principles (see alternative component suggestions) can help you to think about what you want to explore even if you do not end up with a true PICO question.

A PICO(T) question has the following components:

• P : The patient’s disorder or disease or problem of interest / research object
• I: The intervention, exposure or finding under review / Application of a theory or method
• C: A comparison intervention or control (if applicable- not always present)/ Alternative theories or methods (or, in their absence, the null hypothesis)
• O : The outcome(s) (desired or of interest) / Knowledge generation
• T : (The time factor or period)

Keep in mind that solely using a tool will not enable you to design a good question. What is required is for you to think, carefully, about exactly what you want to study and precisely what you mean by each of the things that you think you want to study.

Rzany, & Bigby, M. (n.d.). Formulating Well-Built Clinical Questions. In Evidence-based dermatology / (pp. 27–30). Blackwell Pub/BMJ Books.  

Nishikawa-Pacher, A. (2022). Research questions with PICO: a universal mnemonic.   Publications ,  10 (3), 21.

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• Next: Choosing the Search Terms >>

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Academic Research

Types of information.

• Developing Keywords
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• Fact & Bias Checking
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It is important to know what kinds of resources exist, otherwise you may not know to look for certain kinds during your research. All information resources can be classified into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary. However, some resources can be placed in multiple categories. For example, a scholarly article that presents new, original research while discussing previous research, is both a primary and secondary resource. 

Primary Resources

Definition: original work. 

Examples: literature, poems, speeches, letters, memos, personal narratives, diaries, interviews, autobiographies, theses, dissertations, scholarly journal articles (research based), some government reports, and symposia and conference proceedings. 

Secondary Resources

Definition: work that analyzes, summarizes, interprets, reorganizes, or otherwise provides an added value to a primary source.

Examples: books and articles that interpret or review research works, histories, biographies, literary criticism and interpretation, reviews of law and legislation, political analyses and commentaries, textbooks (may also be tertiary), edited works, dictionaries/encyclopedias (more often tertiary), and bibliographies (more often tertiary).

Tertiary Resources

Definition: source that indexes, organizes, compiles, or digests other sources.

Examples: dictionaries/encyclopedias (may also be secondary), almanacs, fact books, bibliographies (may also be secondary), directories, guidebooks, manuals, handbooks, and textbooks (may be secondary), indexing and abstracting sources.

Video Overview

Check out this video reviewing primary, secondary, and tertiary resources

from the University of Maryland Libraries

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

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Research Basics: Types of Information

• Get Started
• Select a Topic
• Develop Research Questions
• Identify Keywords
• Find Background Information
• Refine a Topic

Types of Information

• Information Sources
• Examples of Information Sources
• Types of Periodicals
• Find Videos & Images
• How to Find Articles
• Website Searching Tips
• Search Strategies
• Help! My News is Fake!
• What can I do?
• Let's check a claim
• Check your own claim!
• Writing Reference eBooks This link opens in a new window
• Grammar and Figures of Speech This link opens in a new window
• Take Notes This link opens in a new window
• Outlines This link opens in a new window
• Avoid Plagiarism
• MLA Formatting
• APA Formatting
• APA Citation Examples
• Annotated Bibliographies and Literature Reviews
• Additional Citation Styles and Sources
• Copyright Basics
• Creating PowerPoint Presentations
• Library Instruction Videos and Handouts This link opens in a new window

Types of Information Resources

You will find information in different kinds of publications, places, and resources. Here are some of the main kinds of information sources you will use:

Books and eBooks

Provide broad, foundational coverage of a topic, usually with an in-depth analysis.This might include textbooks, more-detailed monographs.

Reference Sources, Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, and Handbooks

Offer introductory overviews. You can find background information to help you select a topic and place it in the broader context of the discipline.

These are periodicals regularly published

Scholarly Peer-Reviewed Articles

Contain articles written and reviewed by experts in the discipline. Topics are usually more narrowly focused.

Where you go for current information and topical comments, as well as for primary research information. Available in print and online and one of the first mediums to report on an event.

Popular Magazines

Are written for general audiences and are meant to entertain, inform, or present an opinion. Authors are usually employed by the magazine.

Video databases

Available through the library and provide scholarly coverage in a variety of disciplines. Users can create playlists and create clips that can be embedded into other documents.

Provide ready access to information of all kinds. They often provide valuable information, but you must carefully evaluate the credibility and reliability of web sources.

Conference proceedings

These are a collection of papers reporting on presentations or posters delivered at conferences, seminars or workshops.

Reports are produced by agencies and departments on specific topics or issues. These agencies can include Government departments, research establishments, charitable foundations and more.

Standards are consensus agreements drawn up by representative collections of people who have a particular interest in the subject. These might be manufacturers, users, research organizations, or government departments.

Manuscripts and Special Collections

Manuscripts and archives are unique items which were created or collected by a person or organization in the course of their ordinary business, and retained by them as evidence of their activities, or because of the information they contain.

Patents are legal documents which give the owner exclusive rights to profit from an invention, protecting it from exploitation by others unless they have the prior agreement of the patent owner.

Theses or Dissertations

These are documents submitted for doctoral degrees and often include some of the most current and original research on a given topic.

If you need... try this!

Popular verses Scholarly Resources

Most of the time you will be asked to use scholarly or academic resources for your class. Therefore, it is important that you can tell the difference between a scholarly resource and a popular one.

Scholarly resources provide:

• Information that has been evaluated by experts in the field
• Scholarly analysis, description or evaluation of events and ideas
• Primary sources of information about the views of a scholarly community
• Text is dense and looks serious
• Written for scholars, students, and the well-educated public
• Written by scholars, professional practitioners
• Content includes in depth analysis or extensive overview of a topic
• Content is only published after review by credible scholars in the discipline (peer review)
• There are many citations and use of technical language
• Examples include American Journal of Sociology, Philosophy and Literature, and Nursing Ethics

Popular resources provide:

• Primary information about culture and society
• General information and commentary about political, economic and cultural events
• Current statistical information of general interest
• Popular opinions and beliefs
• Will often have exciting pictures, many advertisements, glossy cover
• Will be written for a general audience
• Written by journalists, professional and amateur writers 
• Content will be simple discussions of news, entertainment or other popular subjects 
• Are reviewed by publications editors
• Have few or no citations
• Language is simple
• Titles include Time Magazine, Sports Illustrated, and Consumer Reports

Knowing what type of information you need will help you decide which sources to use.

There are four types of information:

Factual information is information that solely deals with facts. It is short and non-explanatory. The best place to find factual information is in reference books such as encyclopedias and almanacs. You can also find it in governmental statistics such as the U.S. Census.

Example: Mount Magazine is the highest point in Arkansas.

Analytical information is the interpretation of factual information. What does the factual information mean? What does it imply? This is the type of information that researchers generate in their studies. Analytical information is mostly found in books and journals.

Example: Based on crash statistics, Arkansas State Police designated the road as dangerous.

Subjective information is information from only one point of view. Opinions are subjective. You can find subjective information almost anywhere factual information isn't. It is in books, journals, websites and book reviews.

Example: I hate Arkansas' hot, humid summers!

Objective information is information that is understood from multiple viewpoints and presents all sides of an argument. Reference books are a good place to find objective information. Newspapers that have balanced and fair reporting are also objective. Opposing Viewpoints and Facts on File are both great objective databases.

Example: While many people don't like Arkansas summers, some look forward to the season so they can travel.

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How to Design Effective Research Questionnaires for Robust Findings

As a staple in data collection, questionnaires help uncover robust and reliable findings that can transform industries, shape policies, and revolutionize understanding. Whether you are exploring societal trends or delving into scientific phenomena, the effectiveness of your research questionnaire can make or break your findings.

In this article, we aim to understand the core purpose of questionnaires, exploring how they serve as essential tools for gathering systematic data, both qualitative and quantitative, from diverse respondents. Read on as we explore the key elements that make up a winning questionnaire, the art of framing questions which are both compelling and rigorous, and the careful balance between simplicity and depth.

Table of Contents

The Role of Questionnaires in Research

So, what is a questionnaire? A questionnaire is a structured set of questions designed to collect information, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors from respondents. It is one of the most commonly used data collection methods in research. Moreover, questionnaires can be used in various research fields, including social sciences, market research, healthcare, education, and psychology. Their adaptability makes them suitable for investigating diverse research questions.

Questionnaire and survey  are two terms often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings in the context of research. A survey refers to the broader process of data collection that may involve various methods. A survey can encompass different data collection techniques, such as interviews , focus groups, observations, and yes, questionnaires.

Pros and Cons of Using Questionnaires in Research:

While questionnaires offer numerous advantages in research, they also come with some disadvantages that researchers must be aware of and address appropriately. Careful questionnaire design, validation, and consideration of potential biases can help mitigate these disadvantages and enhance the effectiveness of using questionnaires as a data collection method.

Structured vs Unstructured Questionnaires

Structured questionnaire:.

A structured questionnaire consists of questions with predefined response options. Respondents are presented with a fixed set of choices and are required to select from those options. The questions in a structured questionnaire are designed to elicit specific and quantifiable responses. Structured questionnaires are particularly useful for collecting quantitative data and are often employed in surveys and studies where standardized and comparable data are necessary.

Advantages of Structured Questionnaires:

• Easy to analyze and interpret: The fixed response options facilitate straightforward data analysis and comparison across respondents.
• Efficient for large-scale data collection: Structured questionnaires are time-efficient, allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of respondents.
• Reduces response bias: The predefined response options minimize potential response bias and maintain consistency in data collection.

Limitations of Structured Questionnaires:

• Lack of depth: Structured questionnaires may not capture in-depth insights or nuances as respondents are limited to pre-defined response choices. Hence, they may not reveal the reasons behind respondents’ choices, limiting the understanding of their perspectives.
• Limited flexibility: The fixed response options may not cover all potential responses, therefore, potentially restricting respondents’ answers.

Unstructured Questionnaire:

An unstructured questionnaire consists of questions that allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses. Unlike structured questionnaires, there are no predefined response options, giving respondents the freedom to express their thoughts in their own words. Furthermore, unstructured questionnaires are valuable for collecting qualitative data and obtaining in-depth insights into respondents’ experiences, opinions, or feelings.

Advantages of Unstructured Questionnaires:

• Rich qualitative data: Unstructured questionnaires yield detailed and comprehensive qualitative data, providing valuable and novel insights into respondents’ perspectives.
• Flexibility in responses: Respondents have the freedom to express themselves in their own words. Hence, allowing for a wide range of responses.

Limitations of Unstructured Questionnaires:

• Time-consuming analysis: Analyzing open-ended responses can be time-consuming, since, each response requires careful reading and interpretation.
• Subjectivity in interpretation: The analysis of open-ended responses may be subjective, as researchers interpret and categorize responses based on their judgment.
• May require smaller sample size: Due to the depth of responses, researchers may need a smaller sample size for comprehensive analysis, making generalizations more challenging.

Types of Questions in a Questionnaire

In a questionnaire, researchers typically use the following most common types of questions to gather a variety of information from respondents:

1. Open-Ended Questions:

These questions allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses in their own words. Open-ended questions are valuable for gathering qualitative data and in-depth insights.

Example: What suggestions do you have for improving our product?

2. Multiple-Choice Questions

Respondents choose one answer from a list of provided options. This type of question is suitable for gathering categorical data or preferences.

Example: Which of the following social media/academic networking platforms do you use to promote your research?

• ResearchGate
• Academia.edu

3. Dichotomous Questions

Respondents choose between two options, typically “yes” or “no”, “true” or “false”, or “agree” or “disagree”.

Example: Have you ever published in open access journals before?

4. Scaling Questions

These questions, also known as rating scale questions, use a predefined scale that allows respondents to rate or rank their level of agreement, satisfaction, importance, or other subjective assessments. These scales help researchers quantify subjective data and make comparisons across respondents.

There are several types of scaling techniques used in scaling questions:

i. Likert Scale:

The Likert scale is one of the most common scaling techniques. It presents respondents with a series of statements and asks them to rate their level of agreement or disagreement using a range of options, typically from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.For example: Please indicate your level of agreement with the statement: “The content presented in the webinar was relevant and aligned with the advertised topic.”

• Strongly Agree
• Strongly Disagree

ii. Semantic Differential Scale:

The semantic differential scale measures respondents’ perceptions or attitudes towards an item using opposite adjectives or bipolar words. Respondents rate the item on a scale between the two opposites. For example:

• Easy —— Difficult
• Satisfied —— Unsatisfied
• Very likely —— Very unlikely

iii. Numerical Rating Scale:

This scale requires respondents to provide a numerical rating on a predefined scale. It can be a simple 1 to 5 or 1 to 10 scale, where higher numbers indicate higher agreement, satisfaction, or importance.

iv. Ranking Questions:

Respondents rank items in order of preference or importance. Ranking questions help identify preferences or priorities.

Example: Please rank the following features of our app in order of importance (1 = Most Important, 5 = Least Important):

• User Interface
• Functionality
• Customer Support

By using a mix of question types, researchers can gather both quantitative and qualitative data, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research topic and enabling meaningful analysis and interpretation of the results. The choice of question types depends on the research objectives , the desired depth of information, and the data analysis requirements.

Methods of Administering Questionnaires

There are several methods for administering questionnaires, and the choice of method depends on factors such as the target population, research objectives , convenience, and resources available. Here are some common methods of administering questionnaires:

Each method has its advantages and limitations. Online surveys offer convenience and a large reach, but they may be limited to individuals with internet access. Face-to-face interviews allow for in-depth responses but can be time-consuming and costly. Telephone surveys have broad reach but may be limited by declining response rates. Researchers should choose the method that best suits their research objectives, target population, and available resources to ensure successful data collection.

How to Design a Questionnaire

Designing a good questionnaire is crucial for gathering accurate and meaningful data that aligns with your research objectives. Here are essential steps and tips to create a well-designed questionnaire:

1. Define Your Research Objectives : Clearly outline the purpose and specific information you aim to gather through the questionnaire.

2. Identify Your Target Audience : Understand respondents’ characteristics and tailor the questionnaire accordingly.

3. Develop the Questions :

• Write Clear and Concise Questions
• Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
• Sequence Questions Logically
• Group Related Questions
• Include Demographic Questions

4. Provide Well-defined Response Options : Offer exhaustive response choices for closed-ended questions.

5. Consider Skip Logic and Branching : Customize the questionnaire based on previous answers.

6. Pilot Test the Questionnaire : Identify and address issues through a pilot study .

7. Seek Expert Feedback : Validate the questionnaire with subject matter experts.

8. Obtain Ethical Approval : Comply with ethical guidelines , obtain consent, and ensure confidentiality before administering the questionnaire.

9. Administer the Questionnaire : Choose the right mode and provide clear instructions.

10. Test the Survey Platform : Ensure compatibility and usability for online surveys.

By following these steps and paying attention to questionnaire design principles, you can create a well-structured and effective questionnaire that gathers reliable data and helps you achieve your research objectives.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

A good questionnaire possesses several essential elements that contribute to its effectiveness. Furthermore, these characteristics ensure that the questionnaire is well-designed, easy to understand, and capable of providing valuable insights. Here are some key characteristics of a good questionnaire:

1. Clarity and Simplicity : Questions should be clear, concise, and unambiguous. Avoid using complex language or technical terms that may confuse respondents. Simple and straightforward questions ensure that respondents interpret them consistently.

2. Relevance and Focus : Each question should directly relate to the research objectives and contribute to answering the research questions. Consequently, avoid including extraneous or irrelevant questions that could lead to data clutter.

3. Mix of Question Types : Utilize a mix of question types, including open-ended, Likert scale, and multiple-choice questions. This variety allows for both qualitative and quantitative data collections .

4. Validity and Reliability : Ensure the questionnaire measures what it intends to measure (validity) and produces consistent results upon repeated administration (reliability). Validation should be conducted through expert review and previous research.

5. Appropriate Length : Keep the questionnaire’s length appropriate and manageable to avoid respondent fatigue or dropouts. Long questionnaires may result in incomplete or rushed responses.

6. Clear Instructions : Include clear instructions at the beginning of the questionnaire to guide respondents on how to complete it. Explain any technical terms, formats, or concepts if necessary.

7. User-Friendly Format : Design the questionnaire to be visually appealing and user-friendly. Use consistent formatting, adequate spacing, and a logical page layout.

8. Data Validation and Cleaning : Incorporate validation checks to ensure data accuracy and reliability. Consider mechanisms to detect and correct inconsistent or missing responses during data cleaning.

By incorporating these characteristics, researchers can create a questionnaire that maximizes data quality, minimizes response bias, and provides valuable insights for their research.

In the pursuit of advancing research and gaining meaningful insights, investing time and effort into designing effective questionnaires is a crucial step. A well-designed questionnaire is more than a mere set of questions; it is a masterpiece of precision and ingenuity. Each question plays a vital role in shaping the narrative of our research, guiding us through the labyrinth of data to meaningful conclusions. Indeed, a well-designed questionnaire serves as a powerful tool for unlocking valuable insights and generating robust findings that impact society positively.

Have you ever designed a research questionnaire? Reflect on your experience and share your insights with researchers globally through Enago Academy’s Open Blogging Platform . Join our diverse community of 1000K+ researchers and authors to exchange ideas, strategies, and best practices, and together, let’s shape the future of data collection and maximize the impact of questionnaires in the ever-evolving landscape of research.

Frequently Asked Questions

A research questionnaire is a structured tool used to gather data from participants in a systematic manner. It consists of a series of carefully crafted questions designed to collect specific information related to a research study.

Questionnaires play a pivotal role in both quantitative and qualitative research, enabling researchers to collect insights, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors from respondents. This aids in hypothesis testing, understanding, and informed decision-making, ensuring consistency, efficiency, and facilitating comparisons.

Questionnaires are a versatile tool employed in various research designs to gather data efficiently and comprehensively. They find extensive use in both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, making them a fundamental component of research across disciplines. Some research designs that commonly utilize questionnaires include: a) Cross-Sectional Studies b) Longitudinal Studies c) Descriptive Research d) Correlational Studies e) Causal-Comparative Studies f) Experimental Research g) Survey Research h) Case Studies i) Exploratory Research

A survey is a comprehensive data collection method that can include various techniques like interviews and observations. A questionnaire is a specific set of structured questions within a survey designed to gather standardized responses. While a survey is a broader approach, a questionnaire is a focused tool for collecting specific data.

The choice of questionnaire type depends on the research objectives, the type of data required, and the preferences of respondents. Some common types include: • Structured Questionnaires: These questionnaires consist of predefined, closed-ended questions with fixed response options. They are easy to analyze and suitable for quantitative research. • Semi-Structured Questionnaires: These questionnaires combine closed-ended questions with open-ended ones. They offer more flexibility for respondents to provide detailed explanations. • Unstructured Questionnaires: These questionnaires contain open-ended questions only, allowing respondents to express their thoughts and opinions freely. They are commonly used in qualitative research.

Following these steps ensures effective questionnaire administration for reliable data collection: • Choose a Method: Decide on online, face-to-face, mail, or phone administration. • Online Surveys: Use platforms like SurveyMonkey • Pilot Test: Test on a small group before full deployment • Clear Instructions: Provide concise guidelines • Follow-Up: Send reminders if needed

Thank you, Riya. This is quite helpful. As discussed, response bias is one of the disadvantages in the use of questionnaires. One way to help limit this can be to use scenario based questions. These type of questions may help the respondents to be more reflective and active in the process.

Thank you, Dear Riya. This is quite helpful.

Great insights there Doc

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• v.23(12); 2021 Dec

Frequency of Online Health Information Seeking and Types of Information Sought Among the General Chinese Population: Cross-sectional Study

Zihui xiong.

1 School of Medicine and Health Management, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

2 Research Center for Rural Health Service, Key Research Institute of Humanities & Social Sciences of Hubei Provincial Department of Education, Wuhan, China

Liang Zhang

3 School of Political Science and Public Administration, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

4 School of Health Policy and Management, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China

The internet is one of the most popular health information resources, and the Chinese constitute one-fifth of the online users worldwide. As internet penetration continues to rise, more details on the Chinese population seeking online health information need to be known based on the current literature.

This study aims to explore the sociodemographic differences in online health information seeking (OHIS), including the frequency of OHIS and the types of online health information sought among the general Chinese population in mainland China.

A cross-sectional study for assessing the residents’ health care needs with self-administered questionnaires was implemented in 4 counties and districts in China from July 2018 to August 2018. Pearson’s chi-square test was used to identify the sociodemographic differences between infrequent and frequent online health information seekers. We also performed binary logistic regression for the 4 types of online health information as the dependent variables and the sociodemographic factors as the independent variables.

Compared with infrequent online health information seekers, frequent seekers were more likely to be female (infrequent: 1654/3318; 49.85%; frequent: 1015/1831, 55.43%), older (over 60 years old; infrequent: 454/3318, 13.68%; frequent: 282/1831, 15.40%), married (infrequent: 2649/3318, 79.84%; frequent: 1537/1831, 83.94%), and better educated (bachelor’s or above; infrequent: 834/3318, 25.14%; frequent: 566/1831, 30.91%). They were also more likely to earn a higher income (over RMB ¥50k [RMB ¥1=US $0.15641]; infrequent: 1139/3318, 34.33%; frequent: 710/1831, 34.78%), have commercial health insurance (infrequent: 628/3318, 18.93%; frequent: 470/1831, 25.67%), and have reported illness in the past 12 months (infrequent: 659/3318, 19.86%; frequent: 415/1831, 22.67%). Among the 4 health information types, health science popularization was the most searched for information by Chinese online health information seekers (3654/5149, 70.79%), followed by healthy behaviors (3567/5149, 69.28%), traditional Chinese medicine (1931/5149, 37.50%), and medical concerns (1703/5149, 33.07%). The binary logistic regression models showed that males were less likely to seek information on healthy behaviors (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.69, 95% CI 0.61-0.78) and traditional Chinese medicine (AOR 0.64, 95% CI 0.57-0.73), and respondents who had at least 1 chronic disease were more likely to seek information on medical concerns (AOR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.51) and traditional Chinese medicine (AOR 1.26, 95% CI 1.06-1.49).

Conclusions

Sociodemographic factors were associated with the frequency of OHIS and types of information sought among the general Chinese population. The results remind providers of online health information to consider the needs of specific population groups when tailoring and presenting health information to the target population.

Introduction

Given its rapid development, the internet has become an essential source of health information worldwide. According to Internet World Stats, the number of internet users has reached 5 billion, accounting for more than 60% of the world population [ 1 ]. The internet has the highest usage rate among health information sources [ 2 - 4 ]. Although certain groups still rely on traditional media for health information [ 5 ], the internet is increasingly growing in popularity as a source of health information.

The advantages of online health information seeking (OHIS) manifest in various aspects. Turning to the internet before seeking a professional diagnosis has the potential to improve the relationship between patients and their physicians, and patients are more inclined to trust in their physicians’ advice by discussing their findings online with these professionals [ 6 - 8 ]. The likelihood of individuals changing their health behavior rises as the frequency of using the internet to retrieve health information increases [ 9 ]. For people who live with chronic diseases, the internet may improve their skills in managing their condition [ 10 , 11 ]. However, seeking health information online can be a mixed blessing. Studies have shown that online health information can be inadequate and inaccurate [ 12 - 14 ]. The information may be of questionable quality, leading to hasty, ill-informed, and dangerous health choices [ 15 ]. Compared with that available in Western countries, the low-quality online health information seems to be particularly serious in Asian countries [ 16 ].

Previous studies have explored how sociodemographic factors influence OHIS behavior. The frequency of OHIS is higher among individuals who are female, younger, better educated, or have a higher household income [ 9 , 17 , 18 ]. A study that analyzed 2 Pew data sets collected in 2002 and 2012 showed that the sociodemographic factors of gender and education strongly predicted OHIS in both years; meanwhile, age and income were significant predictors in 2012 but not in 2002 [ 19 ]. Internet access and OHIS behavior have been shown to vary by race and ethnicity [ 20 - 24 ]. Other factors, such as health status [ 17 ] and employment status [ 24 ], were also found to be statistically significant in OHIS. A meta-analysis on OHIS revealed that age, gender, education, income, race, and experience were social determinants of OHIS [ 25 ]. In summary, most related studies indicate that the crucial characteristics of online health information seekers are age, level of education, income, and ethnicity [ 26 ]. Several studies have consistently focused on the predictors of OHIS; however, most of them aimed at identifying determinants that discriminate between online health information seekers and nonseekers [ 4 , 20 , 24 , 27 - 29 ], and elements associated with OHIS among those who have used the internet for health information should also be examined.

Seekers of online health information seek various health topics. Some studies reported information about disease to be the most common topic sought by online health information seekers [ 19 , 30 ]. Other frequently searched topics include symptoms, medication, treatment, exercise and fitness, and nutrition or diet [ 8 , 10 , 30 , 31 ]. However, there is no official or agreed upon classification for these common health topics. By reviewing previous studies, these topics can be mainly grouped into 2 types: (1) healthy behaviors, including information related to nutrition or diet, exercise, and body maintenance; (2) and medical concerns, including information related to disease, medications, and treatments [ 19 , 32 ]. Of these 2 types, information on medical concerns is more likely to be sought by people with more health risks [ 8 , 31 , 32 ]. For instance, compared with the population with no chronic disease, people with chronic conditions are more likely to search about medicines [ 10 ]. Overall, evidence shows that medical information seems to be the most popular health information on the internet. However, different population groups have different preferences for health information, and how individuals who seek this information may vary by their characteristics remains obscure.

According to the 47th Statistical Report on China’s internet Development [ 33 ], as of December 2020, 9.89 million Chinese had access to the internet, and the penetration rate in China reached 70.4%, a rate higher than the average level in Asia (62.6%) [ 1 ]. The Chinese population constitutes one-fifth of the world’s internet users, and easy access to specialized information, such as medical and health care information, accounts for 29.8% of the factors facilitating China’s nonnetizens’ access to the internet [ 33 ]. However, academic research on OHIS has mostly collected evidence from Western countries, especially the United States [ 5 , 10 , 21 ], or has focused on certain groups, such as women [ 23 , 34 ], adolescents [ 28 , 35 ], and patients with chronic disease [ 10 , 11 ]. Studies on the general Chinese population, particularly the Mainland population, are still limited.

According to the literature review, OHIS has not only positive but also negative influences on individuals. With the rise of the internet penetration rate, an increasing number of people will have access to online health information. New health information is difficult to effectively categorize when individuals are overwhelmed by diverse or mixed health information, and an overabundance of health information on the internet can make individuals feel confused and become more anxious about their conditions [ 36 , 37 ]. To ensure that online health information can be effectively used and to understand how individuals can best avoid the negative influence of OHIS, it is crucial to understand the characteristics and preferences of online health information seekers so that practical information can be tailored and presented to the target population. As a result, we aimed to answer 3 questions: (1) Which groups of people are frequent online health information seekers? (2) Which types of online health information do people usually search for? (3) What are the preferences for types of online health information among different population groups? Given that sociodemographic factors have provided an increasingly significant explanation of the variance in OHIS [ 19 ], our study aimed to explore sociodemographic differences in OHIS behavior among the general Chinese population, including frequency of OHIS and types of health information sought.

This study used the data of a household survey conducted in 4 counties and districts in Mainland China, which may additionally contribute to the current research. As inaccurate information and the inability to find information may discourage people from retrieving professional information [ 38 ], our findings may offer additional knowledge to online health information providers so that appropriate health information content can be tailored and presented. Therefore, we believe this study can significantly contribute to online health information management and promotion in China.

Study Design

From July 2018 to August 2018, the Research Center for Rural Health Services carried out a study to assess residents’ health care needs. Based on the assessment of socioeconomic development and geographic distribution and suggestions from experts [ 39 ], 4 counties and districts across China were purposely selected as the survey areas, including 2 districts in urban China (Xiling in central China, Futian in eastern China) and 2 counties in rural China (Dangyang in central China, Sinan in western China) [ 40 ].

A multistage stratified random sampling was implemented to select representative samples of the districts’ and counties’ populations. In the sample size calculation, the design effect was set at 2.5, and the allowable error at the significance level of .05; the chronic disease prevalence was 21.338% according to the 2013 National Health Service Survey [ 41 ], and thus the minimum sample size in each survey area was calculated to be 3584 individuals. Given that a family in China has an average of 2.9 members [ 41 ], at least 1235 families in every study site needed to be investigated. In the 2 counties (Dangyang and Sinan), 5 towns in each county were randomly selected according to the distance to the county hospitals. Meanwhile, 6 villages in each town were randomly selected according to the distance to the township hospitals. In the 2 districts (Xiling and Futian), 5 streets in each district were randomly selected according to the distance to the medical centers. To ensure that at least 248 families in each town or street were effectively interviewed, 1 other town or street in each county or district was selected as a backup in case of refusal, closed household, or removal of defective questionnaires. We resampled and surveyed until the final sample size met the estimated requirement. The surveyed families were systematically sampled in the rosters of residents from the village or street councils. Under the guidance of well-trained interviewers, face-to-face interviews were conducted, and self-administrated questionnaires were used on all the members of the sampled families. Finally, data from 15,126 respondents in 5547 families were collected in total: 3310 individuals in 1360 families in 30 villages in Dangyang, 3983 individuals in 1355 families in 30 villages in Sinan, 4386 individuals in 1513 families in 6 streets in Futian, and 3447 individuals in 1319 families in 5 streets in Xiling. A total of 12,646 individuals above 15 years of age needed to answer the questions related to OHIS, and 5354 respondents (5354/12,646, 42.34%) reported using the internet to seek health information. Among the online health information seekers, those who failed to provide information for all variables queried in this study were excluded, and 5149 individuals were finally included in the analysis.

Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (#IORG0003571).

Sociodemographic Factors

The survey questionnaires were divided into several parts, including basic family information, individual information, health status, health care use, and health promotion need. Sociodemographic factors, including gender, age, marital status, area of residence, education level, annual household income per capita, employment, health insurance, having at least 1 chronic disease, and reported illness in the past 12 months, were considered to be independent variables. The coding of independent variables is shown in Table 1 .

Coding of independent variables.

a Marital status was divided into 2 categories: single (unmarried, divorced, or widowed) and married (married).

b RMB ¥1=US $0.15641.

c Employment was recoded as 2 groups: unemployed (unemployed, students, and retired) and employed (employed).

d Others included no primary health insurance and health insurance outside mainland China.

Frequency of OHIS

Most frequency response scales use subjective terms as scale labels, such as the 3-point frequency scale (usually, sometimes or partially, never) and 4-point frequency scale (never, seldom/hardly ever, sometimes, often) [ 9 , 42 , 43 ]. In this study, the measurement of the frequency of OHIS was adapted from previous studies, which were based on respondents’ subjective ratings. Respondents were asked to rate the frequency of OHIS on a 3-point frequency scale (frequent, infrequent, never), and those who selected “Frequent” and “Infrequent” were classified as frequent and infrequent online health information seekers, respectively. Given that our study participants were those who had used online health information, respondents who selected “Never” were excluded.

Types of Online Health Information

In the original survey, respondents were asked whether they had searched for the following health-related contents: sports and fitness, health science popularization, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), women’s health, nutrition and diet, medication guidance, disease consultation, health status monitoring, and others. In this study, 6 items were selected and then grouped into 4 types to be analyzed: (1) healthy behaviors, including sport and fitness, and nutrition and diet; (2) medical concerns, including medication guidance and disease consulting; (3) TCM, which may particularly be sought by Chinese users [ 31 , 44 ]; and (4) health science popularization, an emerging type of health information that aims at improving people’s health literacy, which the National Health Commission of China has strongly supported in recent years. According to the National Health Commission of China, information on health science popularization mainly includes scientific knowledge about health technologies, ideas, methods, and skills, which is particularly disseminated in a way that is easy to understand, accept, and participate in [ 45 ]. Of the 4 types of online health information, the first 2 contain the common health topics frequently sought by the general population worldwide, and the analysis of the latter 2 may be helpful to better understanding the OHIS behavior of the general population in the setting of Mainland China. Each type as a dependent variable was dichotomized (yes or no).

Statistical Analysis

First, Pearson’s chi-square test was used to compare sociodemographic differences between infrequent and frequent online health information seekers. Second, descriptive analysis was applied to show the prevalence of different types of online health information. Finally, binary logistic regression was conducted on each type of online health information to identify the sociodemographic differences in searches for health information types, and the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) and 95% CI were reported. The significance level was set at a P value of .05.

Sociodemographic Information of the Respondents

Table 2 shows an overview of the main sociodemographic characteristics of the study population and differences in the frequency of OHIS. Online health information seekers comprised more females (2669/5149, 51.84), and most of them lived in urban China (3993/5149, 77.55%). Almost two-thirds (3318/5149, 64.44%) of respondents reported infrequently using the internet to seek health information. Among people who were frequent seekers of online health information, more than half (1015/1831, 55.43%) were female. The comparison between the 2 groups revealed that differences in terms of gender ( P <.001), age ( P =.01), marital status ( P <.001), education level ( P <.001), annual household income per capita ( P <.001), possession of commercial insurance ( P <.001), and reported illness in the past 12 months ( P =.02) were statistically significant. In contrast, area ( P =.12), employment ( P =.79), types of primary health insurance ( P =.57), and having at least 1 chronic disease ( P =.14) were not significantly different. Compared with infrequent online health information seekers, frequent seekers were more likely to be females (infrequent: 1654/3318, 49.85%; frequent: 1015/1831, 55.43%), were older (over 60 years old; infrequent: 454/3318, 13.68%; frequent: 282/1831, 15.40%), were more likely to be married (infrequent: 2649/3318, 79.84%; frequent: 1537/1831, 83.94%), were better educated (bachelor’s or above; infrequent: 834/3318, 25.14%; frequent: 566/1831, 30.91%), earned a higher income (over RMB ¥50k [RMB ¥1=US $0.15641; frequent: 1139/3318, 34.33%; frequent: 710/1831, 34.78%), were more likely to have commercial health insurance (infrequent: 628/3318, 18.93%; frequent: 470/1831, 25.67%), and were more likely to have reported illness in the past 12 months (infrequent: 659/3318, 19.86%; frequent: 415/1831, 22.67%).

Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents by frequency of OHIS (online health information seeking).

a Income is reported in renminbi ¥. RMB ¥1=US $0.15641.

b UEBMI: urban employee basic medical insurance.

c URBMI: urban-rural resident basic medical insurance.

Types of Online Health Information Searched

Respondents reported 1 or more different types of health information they sought online. A majority of the respondents (3654/5149, 70.79%) had used the internet to seek health science popularization information, which was followed in popularity by healthy behaviors (3567/5149, 69.28%), TCM, and medical concerns (1703/5149, 33.07%). The prevalence of the searches for the 4 types of online health information is shown in Table 3 .

Prevalence of types of online health information sought by the study participants.

Sociodemographic Factors Associated With the Types of OHIS

The results of the binary logistic regression models illustrated sociodemographic differences in seeking the 4 types of online health information ( Table 4 ). Being male was significantly associated with a lower possibility of seeking healthy behaviors (AOR 0.69, 95% CI 0.61-0.78) and TCM (AOR 0.64, 95% CI 0.57-0.73). Compared with individuals aged between 15 and 45 years, middle-aged individuals were more likely to seek TCM (AOR 1.86, 95% CI 1.61-2.15) and health science popularization (AOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.02-1.40), while older adults were more likely to seek information for medical concerns (AOR 1.40, 95% CI 1.12-1.76) and TCM (AOR 2.16, 95% CI 1.72-2.70). Compared with single respondents, married respondents were more likely to seek TCM (AOR 1.22, 95% CI 1.03-1.44) and health science popularization (AOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.02-1.41) but were less likely to seek healthy behaviors (AOR 0.67, 95% CI 0.56-0.80). Living in urban China was associated with increased odds of seeking TCM (AOR 1.23, 95% CI 1.01-1.52). Higher education attainment was correlated with a higher possibility of seeking healthy behaviors (3-year college: AOR 1.56, 95% CI 1.26-1.95; bachelor’s or above: AOR 1.33, 95% CI 1.10-1.62), medical concerns (senior high school: AOR 1.19, 95% CI 1.01-1.39; bachelor’s or above: AOR 1.46, 95% CI 1.20-1.77), and health science popularization (bachelor’s or above: AOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.23-1.83). Lower annual household income per capita was associated with increased odds of seeking healthy behaviors (RMB ¥10k-30: AOR 1.21, 95% CI 1.02-1.44) but decreased odds of seeking TCM (<RMB ¥10k: AOR 0.70, 95% CI 0.54-0.91; RMB ¥10k-30k: AOR 0.76, 95% CI 0.64-0.89). Respondents with urban-rural resident basic medical insurance were less likely to seek health science popularization than those with urban employee basic medical insurance (AOR 0.86, 95% CI 0.74-1.00). Having commercial health insurance was associated with a higher possibility to seek healthy behaviors (AOR 1.55, 95% CI 1.32-1.83) and TCM (AOR 1.27, 95% CI 1.10-1.47) but a lower possibility to seek medical concerns (AOR 0.82, 95% CI 0.70-0.95) and health science popularization (AOR 0.83, 95% CI 0.71-0.96). Individuals who had at least 1 chronic disease were more likely to seek medical concerns (AOR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.51) and TCM (AOR 1.26, 95% CI 1.06-1.49). Similarly, those who reported illness during the past 12 months were also more likely to seek medical concerns (AOR 1.41, 95% CI 1.21-1.65) and TCM (AOR 1.17, 95% CI 1.00-1.38).

Binary logistic regression models for AORs and 95% CIs of reporting the search for each type of online health information.

a AOR: adjusted odds ratio.

b Ref: reference group.

c Income is reported in renminbi ¥. RMB ¥1=US $0.15641.

d URBMI: urban-rural resident basic medical insurance.

* P <.05; ** P <.01.

Principal Findings and Comparison With Prior Work

In this population-based study, we examined the sociodemographic differences in frequency of OHIS and types of online health information sought among the general population in China. This study corroborated the findings of a great deal of previous work in that individuals who were female, better educated, and had a higher household income were positively associated with OHIS [ 17 , 18 , 20 , 23 ]. The differences in frequency of OHIS among socioeconomically defined groups implied that inequality in health communication might also exist in China, which was consistent with findings of a previous study from Hong Kong [ 29 ]. We also found that living areas had no significant difference between infrequent and frequent online health information seekers, while this difference might exist between seekers and nonseekers [ 20 ]. In addition, the sociodemographic characteristics included in the analysis were not consistently associated with the types of online health information sought among the Chinese population.

One unanticipated finding is that respondents who frequently sought online health information were more likely to be middle-aged or older adults. This result deviated from the bulk of previous studies, which showed that younger age groups preferred the internet as a source of health information [ 17 , 20 , 23 ]. Regardless of sources, however, individuals with older age are more likely to search for health information [ 4 , 29 ]. Moreover, a study from Hong Kong found that older adults were more frequently exposed to health information from instant messaging such as WeChat [ 42 ]. Given that our study participants were those who had already searched on the internet for health information, a possible reason for this discrepancy is that once older adults have obtained access to online health information, they are likely to seek it more frequently than are younger individuals, thus suggesting the strong demand for health information among middle-aged or older adults in China. However, additional research effort is needed to verify this hypothesis further. As the population ages in China, the health department of the government and other health organizations should take the internet into account as an effective resource to intervene with the older adults’ health behaviors. Given that digital health is not reaching all seniors equally and that this disparity probably results in differences in health outcomes [ 23 ], the skills and knowledge of older adults should be reinforced so that more of them can use and benefit from online health information. We also found that the married group had a higher proportion of frequent seekers of online health information, suggesting that married respondents might also seek health information for their family members. A study among German older adults found that internet users were more likely to be married or with a partner [ 46 ]. Another study revealed that middle-aged adults were most likely to use the internet to search for information about a condition of a loved one [ 47 ]. The association between marital status and the frequency of OHIS may coincide with the association between age and the frequency of OHIS, which may also mean that older people seek out health information for themselves as well as for their partners [ 47 ]. Therefore, meeting the health information needs of older adults (eg, information on medical concerns and TCM) is beneficial not only for themselves but also for their partners.

Health science popularization was the most searched for type of online health information among Chinese respondents, and medical concerns was the least searched for type of information. Conversely, earlier literature mostly reported that medical information was the most searched for type of online information [ 19 , 30 ]. This discrepancy may have several causes. On the one hand, the cultural differences between China and other countries, especially Western countries, might have played a role. In recent years, the National Health Commission of China has encouraged the dissemination of health science popularization information in various ways [ 45 ]. The increasing popularity of social media and the ever-growing number of official accounts of health science popularization might have attracted many Chinese netizens to follow such information. For instance, by comparing Americans and Hong Kongers, one study revealed that the latter were more likely to trust and use information from social websites [ 48 ]. On the other hand, only a minority of respondents in our study had a chronic disease (995/5149, 19.32%) or reported illness in the past 12 months (1074/5149, 20.86%), but they were found more likely to seek information about medical concerns. In addition, the results also showed that respondents over 60 years of age were more likely to seek information about medical concerns, but only 14.29% (736/5149) of the study participants were over 60 years old.

Consistent with previous studies, our study confirmed that people facing health challenges preferred medical information rather than information on healthy behaviors [ 10 , 32 ], which indicated that individuals with more health risks were more eager to improve their current health status. Therefore, people’s preferences for health information may be influenced by distinct motivations [ 49 ]. More research needs to be conducted to understand Chinese people’s motivation in searching for OHIS. Information on healthy behaviors was found to be more likely to be sought by female or better-educated respondents, which was broadly in line with previous studies [ 50 - 52 ]. Our study also found that single respondents were more likely to seek information on healthy behaviors. The sociodemographic differences in preferences for online health information highlight the importance of distinguishing online health information seekers when tailoring and presenting needed information to targeted users.

Information on TCM was more likely to attract attention from older adults, especially older women with chronic diseases. A cross-sectional study focused on older adults in Shanghai indicated that females were more likely to trust and use TCM [ 53 ]. Another study showed that having chronic lung disease was significantly associated with higher TCM practitioner utilization [ 54 ]. Indeed, having a chronic condition was identified as one of the main factors that induced people to use TCM in China [ 55 ]. As the significant factors found in our study were consistent with those in several previous studies, the preference for online health information about TCM might partly reflect the preference for the use of TCM. Our findings also showed that 37.5% of the respondents had sought TCM information, while a study investigating OHIS behavior of Chinese college students reported that only 15.6% sought TCM information online [ 44 ]. Given that TCM is widely accepted and used among the middle-aged and older Chinese population [ 55 ], along with the advantages of online health information mentioned before, we believe the provision of TCM-related information on the internet may promote the use of TCM and improve the management of chronic disease in China.

Limitations

Our study has several limitations. First, the content about the motivation for OHIS (eg, for self-care, treating families, and improving lifestyles) and health information sources on the internet (eg, social media and professional websites) were not surveyed, thus resulting in fewer details on the OHIS behavior of Chinese internet users. Second, differences in online health information type classification made our results difficult to compare with those of previous studies. Finally, the research from which this study originated was implemented in 2018. The degree and diversity of internet use has grown since the beginning of the COVID-19 epidemic in 2020. As internet hospitals [ 56 , 57 ], health quick response codes, and antiepidemic science popularization online have been developed and used during the pandemic, the penetration rate of online health information users, especially online medical service users, continues to increase [ 33 ]. In addition, the status quo of OHIS in China needs to be further investigated in future research.

This study enriches the current research on the OHIS behavior of the Chinese population. Furthermore, it presents additional knowledge that providers of online health information, government health departments, and other organizations can use. The significant factors found in our study highlight the necessity of identifying the characteristics of the typical online health information users in China, especially age, gender, education level, marital status, and health status, when targeting and developing health interventions by offering health information on the internet. Those who provide health information online should be aware of the needs of specific population groups so that targeted strategies to promote health are presented appropriately.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (#71734003 and #72074087). The funder had no role in the study design; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing of the manuscript; decision to publish; or preparation of the paper.

Abbreviations

Authors' Contributions: ZHX, YT, and ZL designed this study; ZL coordinated with the local government and organized the process of data collection; LZ assisted ZL to complete the data entry and quality control; ZHX analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript; YT, ZY, and WCX helped to interpret the results and modified the manuscript, LZ critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest: None declared.

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Once you find a potential topic, you will want to determine the types of information required to meet your research needs. Do you need primary or secondary sources, or a combination of both? What are popular resources and are they appropriate to use in academic research? Are you required to have peer-reviewed journal articles, or are scholarly articles sufficient? Where is the best place to look for different types of information, from clinical studies to statistics? How can ‘grey literature be useful?’ When should you consider searching outside the library’s databases for research resources?

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Home » Research Methodology » The Basic Types of Research

The Basic Types of Research

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford woody research companies defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions ; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.

Research may be classified into different types for the sake of better understanding of the concept. Several bases can be adopted for classification such as nature of data, branch of knowledge, extent of coverage, place of investigation, method employed, time frame and so on. The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may effect a particular institution or copy research or the marketing research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problems. Whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior, we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research, i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies an experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data based research, coming up with conclusions which arc capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research, in such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

5. Some Other Types of Research

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research , or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

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