research questions for social psychology

61 intriguing psychology research topics to explore

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

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Psychology is an incredibly diverse, critical, and ever-changing area of study in the medical and health industries. Because of this, it’s a common area of study for students and healthcare professionals.

We’re walking you through picking the perfect topic for your upcoming paper or study. Keep reading for plenty of example topics to pique your interest and curiosity.

• How to choose a psychology research topic

Exploring a psychology-based topic for your research project? You need to pick a specific area of interest to collect compelling data. 

Use these tips to help you narrow down which psychology topics to research:

Focus on a particular area of psychology

The most effective psychological research focuses on a smaller, niche concept or disorder within the scope of a study. 

Psychology is a broad and fascinating area of science, including everything from diagnosed mental health disorders to sports performance mindset assessments. 

This gives you plenty of different avenues to explore. Having a hard time choosing? Check out our list of 61 ideas further down in this article to get started.

Read the latest clinical studies

Once you’ve picked a more niche topic to explore, you need to do your due diligence and explore other research projects on the same topic. 

This practice will help you learn more about your chosen topic, ask more specific questions, and avoid covering existing projects. 

For the best results, we recommend creating a research folder of associated published papers to reference throughout your project. This makes it much easier to cite direct references and find inspiration down the line.

Find a topic you enjoy and ask questions

Once you’ve spent time researching and collecting references for your study, you finally get to explore. 

Whether this research project is for work, school, or just for fun, having a passion for your research will make the project much more enjoyable. (Trust us, there will be times when that is the only thing that keeps you going.) 

Now you’ve decided on the topic, ask more nuanced questions you might want to explore. 

If you can, pick the direction that interests you the most to make the research process much more enjoyable.

• 61 psychology topics to research in 2024

Need some extra help starting your psychology research project on the right foot? Explore our list of 61 cutting-edge, in-demand psychology research topics to use as a starting point for your research journey.

• Psychology research topics for university students

As a university student, it can be hard to pick a research topic that fits the scope of your classes and is still compelling and unique. 

Here are a few exciting topics we recommend exploring for your next assigned research project:

Mental health in post-secondary students

Seeking post-secondary education is a stressful and overwhelming experience for most students, making this topic a great choice to explore for your in-class research paper. 

Examples of post-secondary mental health research topics include:

Student mental health status during exam season

Mental health disorder prevalence based on study major

The impact of chronic school stress on overall quality of life

The impacts of cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can occur at all ages, starting as early as elementary school and carrying through into professional workplaces. 

Examples of cyberbullying-based research topics you can study include:

The impact of cyberbullying on self-esteem

Common reasons people engage in cyberbullying 

Cyberbullying themes and commonly used terms

Cyberbullying habits in children vs. adults

The long-term effects of cyberbullying

• Clinical psychology research topics

If you’re looking to take a more clinical approach to your next project, here are a few topics that involve direct patient assessment for you to consider:

Chronic pain and mental health

Living with chronic pain dramatically impacts every aspect of a person’s life, including their mental and emotional health. 

Here are a few examples of in-demand pain-related psychology research topics:

The connection between diabetic neuropathy and depression

Neurological pain and its connection to mental health disorders

Efficacy of meditation and mindfulness for pain management

The long-term effects of insomnia

Insomnia is where you have difficulty falling or staying asleep. It’s a common health concern that impacts millions of people worldwide. 

This is an excellent topic because insomnia can have a variety of causes, offering many research possibilities. 

Here are a few compelling psychology research topics about insomnia you could investigate:

The prevalence of insomnia based on age, gender, and ethnicity

Insomnia and its impact on workplace productivity

The connection between insomnia and mental health disorders

Efficacy and use of melatonin supplements for insomnia

The risks and benefits of prescription insomnia medications

Lifestyle options for managing insomnia symptoms

The efficacy of mental health treatment options

Management and treatment of mental health conditions is an ever-changing area of study. If you can witness or participate in mental health therapies, this can make a great research project. 

Examples of mental health treatment-related psychology research topics include:

The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for patients with severe anxiety

The benefits and drawbacks of group vs. individual therapy sessions

Music therapy for mental health disorders

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for patients with depression 

• Controversial psychology research paper topics

If you are looking to explore a more cutting-edge or modern psychology topic, you can delve into a variety of controversial and topical options:

The impact of social media and digital platforms

Ever since access to internet forums and video games became more commonplace, there’s been growing concern about the impact these digital platforms have on mental health. 

Examples of social media and video game-related psychology research topics include:

The effect of edited images on self-confidence

How social media platforms impact social behavior

Video games and their impact on teenage anger and violence

Digital communication and the rapid spread of misinformation

The development of digital friendships

Psychotropic medications for mental health

In recent years, the interest in using psychoactive medications to treat and manage health conditions has increased despite their inherently controversial nature. 

Examples of psychotropic medication-related research topics include:

The risks and benefits of using psilocybin mushrooms for managing anxiety

The impact of marijuana on early-onset psychosis

Childhood marijuana use and related prevalence of mental health conditions

Ketamine and its use for complex PTSD (C-PTSD) symptom management

The effect of long-term psychedelic use and mental health conditions

• Mental health disorder research topics

As one of the most popular subsections of psychology, studying mental health disorders and how they impact quality of life is an essential and impactful area of research. 

While studies in these areas are common, there’s always room for additional exploration, including the following hot-button topics:

Anxiety and depression disorders

Anxiety and depression are well-known and heavily researched mental health disorders. 

Despite this, we still don’t know many things about these conditions, making them great candidates for psychology research projects:

Social anxiety and its connection to chronic loneliness

C-PTSD symptoms and causes

The development of phobias

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors and symptoms

Depression triggers and causes

Self-care tools and resources for depression

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in particular age groups or geographic areas

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multi-faceted area of psychology research. 

Use your research skills to learn more about this condition and its impact by choosing any of the following topics:

Early signs of bipolar disorder

The incidence of bipolar disorder in young adults

The efficacy of existing bipolar treatment options

Bipolar medication side effects

Cognitive behavioral therapy for people with bipolar 

Schizoaffective disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is often stigmatized, and less common mental health disorders are a hotbed for new and exciting research. 

Here are a few examples of interesting research topics related to this mental health disorder:

The prevalence of schizoaffective disorder by certain age groups or geographic locations

Risk factors for developing schizoaffective disorder

The prevalence and content of auditory and visual hallucinations

Alternative therapies for schizoaffective disorder

• Societal and systematic psychology research topics

Modern society’s impact is deeply enmeshed in our mental and emotional health on a personal and community level. 

Here are a few examples of societal and systemic psychology research topics to explore in more detail:

Access to mental health services

While mental health awareness has risen over the past few decades, access to quality mental health treatment and resources is still not equitable. 

This can significantly impact the severity of a person’s mental health symptoms, which can result in worse health outcomes if left untreated. 

Explore this crucial issue and provide information about the need for improved mental health resource access by studying any of the following topics:

Rural vs. urban access to mental health resources

Access to crisis lines by location

Wait times for emergency mental health services

Inequities in mental health access based on income and location

Insurance coverage for mental health services

Systemic racism and mental health

Societal systems and the prevalence of systemic racism heavily impact every aspect of a person’s overall health.

Researching these topics draws attention to existing problems and contributes valuable insights into ways to improve access to care moving forward.

Examples of systemic racism-related psychology research topics include: 

Access to mental health resources based on race

The prevalence of BIPOC mental health therapists in a chosen area

The impact of systemic racism on mental health and self-worth

Racism training for mental health workers

The prevalence of mental health disorders in discriminated groups

LGBTQIA+ mental health concerns

Research about LGBTQIA+ people and their mental health needs is a unique area of study to explore for your next research project. It’s a commonly overlooked and underserved community.

Examples of LGBTQIA+ psychology research topics to consider include:

Mental health supports for queer teens and children

The impact of queer safe spaces on mental health

The prevalence of mental health disorders in the LGBTQIA+ community

The benefits of queer mentorship and found family

Substance misuse in LQBTQIA+ youth and adults

• Collect data and identify trends with Dovetail

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Take the headache out of analyzing your data and instantly access the insights you need to complete your next psychology research project by teaming up with Dovetail today.

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Psychology Unlocked

The free online psychology textbook, social psychology research topics.

January 24, 2017 Daniel Edward Blog , Social Psychology 0

Whether you’re looking for social psychology research topics for your A-Level or AP Psychology class, or considering a research question to explore for your Psychology PhD, the Psychology Unlocked list of social psychology research topics provides you with a strong list of possible avenues to explore.

Where possible we include links to university departments seeking PhD applications for certain projects. Even if you are not yet considering PhD options, these links may prove useful to you in developing your undergraduate or masters dissertation.

Lots of university psychology departments provide contact details on their websites.

If you read a psychologist’s paper and have questions that you would like to learn more about, drop them an email.

Lots of psychologists are very happy to receive emails from genuinely interested students and are often generous with their time and expertise… and those who aren’t will just overlook the email, so no harm done either way!

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What social factors are involved with the development of aggressive thoughts and behaviours? Is aggression socially-defined? Do different societies have differing definitions of aggression?

There has recently been a significant amount of research conducted on the influence of video games and television on aggression and violent behaviour.

Some research has been based on high-profile case studies, such as the aggressive murder of Jamie Bulger in 1993 by two children (Robert Thompson and Jon Venables). There is also a significant body  of experimental research.

Attachment and Relationships

This is a huge area of research with lots of crossover into developmental psychology. What draws people together? How do people connect emotionally? What is love? What is friendship? What happens if someone doesn’t form an attachment with a parental figure?

This area includes research on attachment styles (at various stages of life), theories of love, friendship and attraction.

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Attitudes are a relatively enduring and general evaluation of something. Individuals hold attitudes on everything in life, from other people to inanimate objects, groups to ideologies.

Attitudes are thought to involve three components: (1) affective (to do with emotions), (2) behavioural, and (3) cognitive (to do with thoughts).

Research on attitudes can be closely linked to Prejudice (see below).

Authority and Leadership

Perhaps the most famous study of authority is Milgram’s (1961) Obedience to Authority . This research area has grown into a far-reaching and influential topic.

Research considers both positive and negative elements of authority, and applied psychology studies consider the role of authority in a particular social setting, such as advertising, in the workplace, or in a classroom.

The Psychology of Crowds (Le Bon, 1895) paved a path for a fascinating area of social psychology that considers the social group as an active player.

Groups tend to act differently from individuals, and specific individuals will act differently depending on the group they are in.

Social psychology research topics about groups consider group dynamics, leadership (see above), group-think and decision-making, intra-group and inter-group conflict, identities (see below) and prejudices (see below).

Gordon Allport’s (1979) ‘The Nature of Prejudice’ is a seminal piece on group stereotyping and discrimination.

Social psychologists consider what leads to the formation of stereotypes and prejudices. How and why are prejudices used? Why do we maintain inaccurate stereotypes? What are the benefits and costs of prejudice?

This interesting blog post on the BPS Digest Blog may provide some inspiration for research into prejudice and political uncertainty.

Pro- and Anti-Social Behaviour

Behaviours are only pro- or anti-social because of social norms that suggest so. Social Psychologists therefore investigate the roots of these behaviours as well as considering what happens when social norms are ignored.

Within this area of social psychology, researchers may consider why people help others (strangers as well as well as known others). Another interesting question regards the factors that might deter an individual from acting pro-socially, even if they are aware that a behaviour is ‘the right thing to do’.

The bystander effect is one such example of social inaction.

Self and Social Identity

Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed Social Identity Theory and a large body of research has developed out of the concepts of self and social identity (or identities).

Questions in this area include: what is identity? What is the self? Does a social identity remain the same across time and space? What are the contributory factors to an individual’s social identity?

Zimbardo’s (1972)  Stanford Prison Experiment famously considered the role of social identities.

Research in this area also links with work on groups (see above), social cognition (see below), and prejudices (see above).

Social Cognition

Social cognition regards the way we think and use information. It is the cross-over point between the fields of social and cognitive psychology.

Perhaps the most famous concept in this area is that of schemas – general ideas about the world, which allow us to make sense of new (and old) information quickly.

Social cognition also includes those considering heuristics (mental shortcuts) and some cognitive biases.

Social Influence

This is one of the first areas of social psychology that most students learn. Remember the social conformity work by Asch (1951) on the length of lines?

Other social psychology research topics within this area include persuasion and peer-pressure.

Social Representations

Social Representations (Moscovici, 1961) ‘make something unfamiliar, or unfamiliarity itself, familiar’ (Moscovici, 1984). This is a theory with its academic roots in Durkheim’s theory of collective representations.

Researchers working within this framework consider the social role of knowledge. How does information translate from the scientific realm of expert knowledge to the socially accessible realm of the layperson? How do we make sense of new information? How do we organise separate and distinct facts in a way that make sense to our needs?

One of the most famous studies using Social Representations Theory is Jodelet’s (1991) study of madness.

• Social Article
• Social Psychology

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Current Research in Social Psychology

Editors: michael lovaglia, university of iowa; shane soboroff, st. ambrose university.

Current Research in Social Psychology  ( CRISP ) is a peer reviewed, electronic journal publishing theoretically driven, empirical research in major areas of social psychology. Publication is sponsored by the  Center for the Study of Group Processes  at the  University of Iowa,  which provides free access to its contents. Authors retain copyright for their work. CRISP is permanently archived at the Library of the University of Iowa and at the Library of Congress. Beginning in April, 2000,  Sociological Abstracts  publishes the abstracts of CRISP articles.

Citation Format:  Lastname ,  Firstname . 1996. "Title of Article."  Current Research in Social Psychology  2:15-22 https://crisp.org.uiowa.edu

RECENT ISSUES

Finding Positives in the Pandemic: The Role of Relationship Status, Self-Esteem, Mental Health, and Personality.

Examining Public Attitudes And Ideological Divides Through Media Engagement: An Empirical Analysis of Moral Foundations Theory Amidst the Covid-19 Pandemic.

When Race is Not Enough: Lessons Learned Using Racially Tagged Names.

Formation of a Positive Social Identity: How Significant are Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Similarity Concerning Group Identification?

Passive Social Network Usage and Hedonic Well-Being Among Vietnamese University Students: A Moderated Mediation Model Involving Self-Esteem and Sense of Self.

Cognitive Dissonance and Depression: A Qualitative Exploration of a Close Relationship.

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Hard Feelings? Predicting Attitudes Toward Former Romantic Partners.

Perceived Control in Multiple Option Scenarios: Choice, Control, and the Make-a-Difference Metric.

Drivers of Prosocial Behavior: Exploring the Role of Mindset and Perceived Cost.

Malleability of Laïcité: People with High Social Dominance Orientation Use Laïcité to Legitimize Public Prayer by Catholics but not by Muslims.

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A Novel Approach for Measuring Self-Affirmation.

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Perceptions of Case Complexity and Pre-Trial Publicity Through the Lens of Information Processing.

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"Perceived Control and Intergroup Discrimination."  

"Leadership, Gender, and Vocal Dynamics in Small Groups."

Taking Responsibility for an Offense: Being Forgiven Encourages More Personal Responsibility, More Empathy for the Victim, and Less Victim Blame.

Potential Factors Influencing Attitudes Toward Veterans Who Commit Crimes: An Experimental Investigation of PTSD in the Legal System.

"Is that Discrimination? I'd Better Report it!" Self-presentation Concerns Moderate the Prototype Effect.

Relation Between Attitudinal Trust and Behavioral Trust: An Exploratory Study

Comparing Groups' Affective Sentiments to Group Perceptions.

Perceived Autonomous Help and Recipients' Well-Being: Is Autonomous Help Good for Everyone.

S tudying Gay and Straight Males' Implicit Gender Attitudes to Understand Previously Found Gender Differences in Implicit In-Group Bias.

Nepotistic Preferences in a Computerized Trolley Problem.

Telecommuting, Primary Caregiving, and Gender as Status .

You're Either With Us or Against Us: In-Group Favoritism and Threat .

 Impact of the Anticipation of Membership Change on Transactive Memory and Group Performance.

Mindfulness Increases Analytical Thought and Decreases Just World Beliefs .

Status, Performance Expectations, and Affective Impressions: An Experimental Replication.

The Effects of African-American Stereotype Fluency on Prejudicial Evaluation of Targets .

Status Characteristics and Self-Categoriation: A Bridge Across theoretical Traditions.

Why do Extraverts Feel More Positive Affect and Life Satisfaction? The Indirect Effects of Social Contribution and Sense of Power.

In-group Attachment and Glorification, Perceptions of Cognition-Based Ambivalence as Contributing to the Group, and Positive Affect.

Mentoring to Improve a Child's Self-Concept: Longitudinal Effects of Social Intervention on Identity and Negative Outcomes.

Affect, Emotion, and Cross-Cultural Differences in Moral Attributions.

The Effects of Counterfactual Thinking on College Students' Intentions to Quit Smoking Cigarettes .

Self-Enhancement, Self-Protection and Ingroup Bias.

The Moderating Effect of Socio-emotional Factors on the Relationship Between Status and Influence in Status Characteristics Theory.

What We Know About People Shapes the Inferences We Make About Their Personalities.

The Pros and Cons of Ingroup Ambivalence: The Moderating Roles of Attitudinal Basis and Individual Differences in Ingroup Attachment and Glorification.

Effects of Social Anxiety and Group Membership of Potential Affiliates on Social Reconnection After Ostracism.

"Yes, I Decide You Will Recieve Your Choice": Effects of Authoritative Agreement on Perceptions of Control.

Being Generous to Look Good: Perceived Stigma Increases Prosocial Behavior in Smokers.

Acting White? Black Young Adults Devalue Same-Race Targets for Demonstrating Positive-but-Stereotypically White Traits

Looking Up for Answers: Upward Gaze Increases Receptivity to Advice

Which Judgement Do Women Expect from a Female Observer When They Claim to be a Victim of Sexism?

Neighborhood Deterioration and Perceptions of Race

The Use of Covert and Overt Jealousy Tactics in Romantic Relationships: The Moderating Role of Relationship Satisfaction

The Impact of Status Differences on Gatekeeping: A Theoretical Bridge and Bases for Investigation

Reducing Prejudice with (Elaborated) Imagined and Physical Intergroup Contact Interverventions

Are Depressed Individuals More Susceptible to Cognitive Dissonance?

Gender Differences in the Need to Belong: Different Cognitive Representations of the Same Social Groups

Fight The Power: Comparing and Evaluating Two Measures of French and Raven's (1959) Bases of Social Power

Mother Knows Best So Mother Fails Most: Benevolent Stereotypes and the Punishment of Parenting Mistakes

Blame Attributions about Disloyalty

Attitudes Towards Muslims are More Favorable on a Survery than on an Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure

Attributions to Low Group Effort can Make You Feel Better: The Distinct Roles of In-group Identification, Legitimacy of Intergroup Status, and Controllability Perceptions

The Role of Collective and Personal Self-Esteem in a Military Context

On Bended Knee: Embodiment and Religious Judgments

Identity Salience and Identity Importance in Identity Theory

Sexist Humor and Beliefs that Justify Societal Sexism

Future-Oriented People Show Stronger Moral Concerns

Further Examining the Buffering Effect of Self-Esteem and Mastery on Emotions

Group-Based Resiliency: Contrasting the Negative Effects of Threat to the In-Group

You Validate Me, You Like Me, You're Fun, You Expand Me: "I'm Yours!"

Pleading Innocents: Laboratory Evidence of Plea Bargaining's Innocence Problem

The Moral Identity and Group Affiliation

Threat, Prejudice, and Stereotyping in the Context of Japanese, North Korean, and South Korean Intergroup Relations

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To View Archived CRISP Issues Click here

To View the Notice for Contributors Click here . Includes formatting and citation guidelines.

To View the Editorial Board Click here

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• Who Identifies as Queer? A Study Looks at the Partnering Patterns of Sexual Minority Populations from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity February 24, 2020
• Current Evolutionary Perspectives on Women from Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences February 14, 2020
• Perceived Underemployment Among African American Parents: What Are the Implications for Couples’ Relationships? from Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology February 6, 2020
• Should Seeing Be Believing? Evidence-Based Recommendations by Psychologists May Reduce Mistaken Eyewitness Identifications from Law and Human Behavior January 27, 2020
• Patterns of Alcohol Use Among Minority Populations in the U.S. from American Journal of Orthopsychiatry December 17, 2019
• Was Everything Better in the Good Old Days? from Psychology and Aging December 13, 2019
• Does Cultural Revitalization Impact Academic Attainment and Healthy Living? from Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology November 27, 2019
• What’s Next for Graduate Training in Psychology in Canada? from Canadian Psychology November 13, 2019
• How Should We Decide Whom to Imprison? The Use of Risk Assessment Instruments in Sentencing Decisions from Law and Human Behavior October 23, 2019
• Are Two Heads Better Than One? The Effects of Interviewer Familiarity and Supportiveness on Children’s Testimony In Repeated Interviews from Law and Human Behavior October 9, 2019
• Basic Statistical Errors Are Common in Canadian Psychology Journals...But the Computer Programs That Detect Them Are Far From Perfect from Canadian Psychology September 24, 2019
• Connecting the Dots: Identifying Suspected Serial Sexual Offenders Through Forensic DNA Evidence from Psychology of Violence September 18, 2019
• Racial / Ethnic Differences in Caregivers' Perceptions of the Need for and Utilization of Adolescent Psychological Counseling and Support Services from Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology August 27, 2019
• New Directions in the Study of Human Emotional Development from Developmental Psychology August 23, 2019
• Can Moral Judgment, Critical Thinking, and Islamic Fundamentalism Explain ISIS and Al-Qaeda's Armed Political Violence from Psychology of Violence August 9, 2019
• Drawing Legal Age Boundaries: A Tale of Two Maturities from Law and Human Behavior July 3, 2019
• Tabling, Discussing, and Giving In: Meeting Dissent in Three Workgroups from Group Dynamics May 30, 2019
• Microaggressions: What They Are, And How They Are Associated With Adjustment Outcomes from Psychological Bulletin April 10, 2019
• Updating Maps for a Changing Territory: Redefining Youth Marginalization from American Psychologist October 12, 2018
• From Exotic to Invisible: Asian American Women's Experiences of Discrimination from Asian American Journal of Psychology July 26, 2018
• Taking A Closer Look at Social Comparison Theory from Psychological Bulletin April 19, 2018
• Age-Related Differences in Associative Memory: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Perspectives from Psychology and Aging March 21, 2018
• Secure or Insecure? A Culturally Sensitive Tool to Assess the Emotional Components of Attachment from International Perspectives in Psychology December 15, 2017
• How Writers Create Engaging Characters: Exploring the Role of Personality, Empathy, and Experience from Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts November 29, 2017
• Learning, Interrupted: Cell Phone Calls Sidetrack Toddlers' Word Learning from Developmental Psychology November 21, 2017
• The Stories We Tell: Exploring the Professional Narratives of Latino/a Psychologists from Journal of Latina/o Psychology November 7, 2017
• Gratitude and Capacity for Prosociality: Findings from a Meta-Analytic Review from Psychological Bulletin August 16, 2017
• Does Research Support Classroom Trigger Warnings? from Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology July 27, 2017
• Campus Threat Management from Journal of Threat Assessment and Management May 5, 2017
• Is There Such a Thing as Asian Culture? Unveiling Asian American Achievement from Asian American Journal of Psychology April 12, 2017
• The Experiences of Chinese American Young Adults Who Have Gay and Lesbian Siblings from Asian American Journal of Psychology September 6, 2016
• Neural Evidence for Growth in Pure Altruism Across the Adult Life Span from Journal of Experimental Psychology: General September 1, 2016
• Are Violent Video Games Associated With More Civic Behaviors Among Youth? from Psychology of Popular Media Culture August 9, 2016
• A Sex Difference in Sports Interest: What Does Evolution Say? from Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences May 4, 2016
• What's the Relational Toll of Living in a Sexist and Heterosexist Context? from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity March 23, 2016
• Dealing With the Past: Survivors of Severe Human Rights Abuses and Their Perspectives on Economic Reparations in Argentina from International Perspectives in Psychology January 28, 2016
• Is Suicide a Tragic Variant of an Evolutionarily Adaptive Set of Behaviors? from Psychological Review January 12, 2016
• Special Issue on Collective Harmdoing from Peace and Conflict December 8, 2015
• Evaluators, Not Just Those They Evaluate, Influence Personality Test Results from Law and Human Behavior December 2, 2015
• The New Normal? Addressing Gun Violence in America from American Journal of Orthopsychiatry May 28, 2015
• Gay and Poor: The Intersection of Sexual Orientation and Socioeconomic Status from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity March 17, 2015
• You're So Gay: Homophobic Name Calling as Bullying Behavior from American Journal of Orthopsychiatry February 24, 2015
• The Behavioral Immune System: Taking Stock and Charting New Directions from Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences December 2, 2014
• Gay and Married, or Single and Straight? from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity November 12, 2014
• Heaven, Help Us from Journal of Family Psychology October 22, 2014
• It Gets Better, Right? from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Sexual Diversity September 16, 2014
• Does Children's Biological Functioning Predict Parenting Behavior? from Developmental Psychology September 10, 2014
• We're in This Together from Journal of Family Psychology August 12, 2014
• The Chief Diversity Officer from Journal of Diversity in Higher Education July 24, 2014
• There's No Place Like Home from American Journal of Orthopsychiatry June 11, 2014
• Sexual Orientation and Custody Disputes: How Research Can Influence Policy and Practice from Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity April 28, 2014
• Replication from Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts March 24, 2014
• What a Piece of Work Is a Man from Psychology of Men and Masculinity October 23, 2013
• Predicting and Preventing Sexual Aggression by College Men from Psychology of Violence September 12, 2013
• When Two Wrongs Make a Third Wrong from Law and Human Behavior September 10, 2013
• Fighting Fire With Fire from Psychology of Violence August 13, 2013

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Psychology Research Guide

Social psychology.

Social psychologists study the influence of social perception and interaction on individual and group behavior. The following resources can help you narrow your topic, learn about the language used to describe psychology topics, and get you up to speed on the major advancements in this field.

• Social Psychology search results on the American Psychological Association's website This link opens in a ne

Social Psychology Databases

Research in social psychology utilizes core psychology resources, as well as resources in communication and sociology. You may find it helpful to search the following databases for your social psychology topics or research questions, in addition to the core resources listed on the home page.

Social Psychology Subject Headings

You may find it helpful to take advantage of predefined subjects or subject headings in Shapiro Databases. These subjects are applied to articles and books by expert catalogers to help you find materials on your topic. Learn more about subject searching:

• Subject Searching

Consider using databases to perform subject searches, or incorporating words from applicable subjects into your keyword searches. Here are some social psychology subjects to consider:

• personality
• social psychology
• social anxiety
• social influence

Social Psychology Example Search

Not sure what you want to research exactly, but want to get a feel for the resources available? Try the following search in any of the databases listed above:

(behavioral OR social) AND Psych*

There isn't just one accepted word for this area of psychology, so we use OR boolean operators to tell the database any of the listed terms are relevant to our search. We use parenthesis to organize our search, and we stem or truncate the word psychology with the asterisk to tell the database that any ending of the word, as long as the letters psych are at the beginning of the word, will do. This way, the word psychological and other related terms will also be included.

• Learn more about Boolean Operators/Boolean Searching

Social Psychology Organization Websites

• Association for Research in Personality This link opens in a new window The Association for Research in Personality is a scientific organization devoted to bringing together scholars whose research contributes to the understanding of personality structure, development, and dynamics.
• Personality Pedagogy This link opens in a new window
• Personality Project This link opens in a new window
• Society for Personality and Social Psychology This link opens in a new window The Society for Personality and Social Psychology, founded in 1974, is the world’s largest organization of social and personality psychologists. With over 7,500 members, SPSP strives to advance the science, teaching, and application of social and personality psychology. The mission of SPSP is to advance the science, teaching, and application of social and personality psychology. SPSP members aspire to understand individuals in their social contexts for the benefit of all people.
• Society of Experimental Social Psychology This link opens in a new window The Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP) is a scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychology.
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How Social Psychologists Conduct Their Research

Surveys, observations, and case studies provide necessary data

Why Study Social Behavior?

Descriptive research, correlational research, experimental research.

Social psychology research methods allow psychologists a window into the causes for human behavior. They rely on a few well-established methods to research  social psychology topics. These methods allow researchers to test hypotheses and theories as they look for relationships among different variables.

Why do people do the things they do? And why do they sometimes behave differently in groups? These questions are of interest not only to social psychologists, but to teachers, public policy-makers, healthcare administrators, or anyone who has ever watched a news story about a world event and wondered, “Why do people act that way?”

Which type of research is best? This depends largely on the subject the researcher is exploring, the resources available, and the theory or hypothesis being investigated.

Why study social behavior? Since so many "common sense" explanations exist for so many human actions, people sometimes fail to see the value in scientifically studying social behavior. However, it is important to remember that folk wisdom can often be surprisingly inaccurate and that the scientific explanations behind a behavior can be quite shocking.

Stanley Milgram's infamous obedience experiments are examples of how the results of an experiment can defy conventional wisdom.

If you asked most people if they would obey an authority figure even if it meant going against their moral code or harming another individual, they would probably emphatically deny that they would ever do such a thing. Yet Milgram's results revealed that all participants hurt another person simply because they were told to do so by an authority figure, with 65% delivering the highest voltage possible.

The scientific method is essential in studying psychological phenomena in an objective, empirical, analytical way. By employing the scientific method, researchers can see cause-and-effect relationships, uncover associations among factors, and generalize the results of their experiments to larger populations.

While common sense might tell us that opposites attract, that birds of a feather flock together, or that absence makes the heart grow fonder, psychologists can put such ideas to the test using various research methods to determine if there is any real truth to such folk wisdom.

The goal of descriptive research is to portray what already exists in a group or population.

One example of this type of research would be an opinion poll to find which political candidate people plan to vote for in an upcoming election. Unlike causal and relational studies, descriptive studies cannot determine if there is a relationship between two variables. They can only describe what exists within a given population.

An example of descriptive research is a survey of people's attitudes toward a particular social issue such as divorce, capital punishment, or gambling laws.

Types of Descriptive Research

Some of the most commonly used forms of descriptive research utilized by social psychologists include the following.

Surveys are probably one of the most frequently used types of descriptive research. Surveys usually rely on self-report inventories in which people fill out questionnaires about their own behaviors or opinions.

The advantage of the survey method is that it allows social psychology researchers to gather a large amount of data relatively quickly, easily, and cheaply.

The Observational Method

The observational method involves watching people and describing their behavior. Sometimes referred to as field observation, this method can involve creating a scenario in a lab and then watching how people respond or performing naturalistic observation in the subject's own environment.

Each type of observation has its own strengths and weaknesses. Researchers might prefer using observational methods in a lab in order to gain greater control over possible extraneous variables, while others might prefer using naturalistic observation in order to obtain greater ecological validity . However, lab observations tend to be more costly and difficult to implement than naturalistic observations.

Case Studies

A case study involves the in-depth observation of a single individual or group. Case studies can allow researchers to gain insight into things that are very rare or even impossible to reproduce in experimental settings.

The case study of Genie , a young girl who was horrifically abused and deprived of learning language during a critical developmental period, is one example of how a case study can allow social scientists to study phenomena that they otherwise could not reproduce in a lab.

Social psychologists use correlational research to look for relationships between variables. For example, social psychologists might carry out a correlational study looking at the relationship between media violence and aggression . They might collect data on how many hours of aggressive or violent television programs children watch each week and then gather data how on aggressively the children act in lab situations or in naturalistic settings.

Conducting surveys, directly observing behaviors, or compiling research from earlier studies are some of the methods used to gather data for correlational research. While this type of study can help determine if two variables have a relationship, it does not allow researchers to determine if one variable causes changes in another variable.

While the researcher in the previous example on media aggression and violence can use the results of their study to determine if there might be a relationship between the two variables, they cannot say definitively that watching television violence causes aggressive behavior.

Experimental research is the key to uncovering causal relationships between variables . In experimental research, the experimenter randomly assigns participants to one of two groups:

• The control group : The control group receives no treatment and serves as a baseline.
• The experimental group : Researchers manipulate the levels of some independent variable in the experimental group and then measure the effects.

Because researchers are able to control the independent variables, experimental research can be used to find causal relationships between variables.

So if psychologists wanted to establish a causal relationship between media violence and aggressive behavior, they would want to design an experiment to test this hypothesis. If the hypothesis was that playing violent video games causes players to respond more aggressively in social situations, they would want to randomly assign participants to two groups.

The control group would play a non-violent video game for a predetermined period of time while the experimental group would play a violent game for the same period of time.

Afterward, the participants would be placed in a situation where they would play a game against another opponent. In this game, they could either respond aggressively or non-aggressively. The researchers would then collect data on how often people utilized aggressive responses in this situation and then compare this information with whether these individuals were in the control or experimental group.

By using the scientific method, designing an experiment, collecting data, and analyzing the results, researchers can then determine if there is a causal relationship between media violence and violent behavior.

Why Social Research Methods Are Important

The study of human behavior is as complex as the behaviors themselves, which is why it is so important for social scientists to utilize empirical methods of selecting participants, collecting data, analyzing their findings, and reporting their results.

Haslam N, Loughnan S, Perry G. Meta-milgram: An empirical synthesis of the obedience experiments . Voracek M, ed.  PLoS ONE . 2014;9(4):e93927. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093927

Milgram S. Behavioral study of obedience .  The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology . 1963;67(4):371-378. doi:10.1037/h0040525

Curtiss S, Fromkin V, Krashen S, Rigler D, Rigler M. The linguistic development of genie .  Language . 1974;50(3):528.

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35 Best Social Psychology Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On August 11, 2023

A dissertation or a thesis paper is the fundamental prerequisite to the degree programme, irrespective of your academic discipline. The field of social psychology is not different.

When working on the dissertation, the students must demonstrate what they wish to accomplish with their study. They must be authentic with their ideas and solutions to achieve the highest possible academic grade.

A dissertation in social psychology should examine the influence others have on people’s behaviour. This is because the interaction of people in different groups is the main focus of the discipline. Social connections in person are the main focus of social psychology and therefore your chosen social psychology topic should be based on a real-life social experience or phenomenon.

Also read: Sociology dissertation topics

We have compiled a list of the top social psychology dissertation topics to help you get started.

List of Social Psychology Dissertation Topics

• What impact do priming’s automatic effects have on complex behaviour in everyday life?
• The social intuitionist model examines the role that emotion and reason play in moral decision-making.
• Examine the lasting effects of cognitive dissonance.
• What psychological consequences does spanking have on kids?
• Describe the consequences and root causes of childhood attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
• Explain the causes of antisocial behaviour in young people.
• Discuss infants’ early warning symptoms of mental disease.
• List the main factors that young adults most commonly experience; increased stress and depression.
• Describe several forms of torture in detail, emphasising how they affect children’s minds and adult lives.
• Describe the impact of violent video games and music on a child’s development.
• Talk about how the family influences early non-verbal communication in infants.
• Examine the scope and persistence of the variables influencing the impact of automatic priming on social behaviour.
• What does this mean for upholding one’s integrity and comprehending interpersonal relationships?
• Examine the connection between loneliness and enduring health issues.
• Identify several approaches to measuring older people’s social networks.
• Compare and contrast the types of social networks, housing, and elderly people’s health across time.
• The primary causes of young people’s moral decline are social influences. Discuss.
• Discuss what has improved our understanding of social psychology using examples from social psychology theories.
• What are the socio-psychological reasons and consequences of drinking alcohol?
• What makes some persons more attractive in social situations?
• Discuss how culture affects a society’s ability to be cohesive and united.
• Discuss how a person’s career affects their social standing in society.
• What psychological effects might long-term caregiving have?
• How ddoesa leader’s relationship and followers change under charismatic leadership?
• Discuss the tactics that support and thwart interpersonal harmony using the group identity theory as your foundation.
• Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of intimate cross-cultural relationships.
• Examine and clarify the socio-psychological components of cults using examples.
• Discuss how sociocultural perceptions have an impact on socio-psychology.
• How has technology affected communication and interpersonal relationships?
• What part does religion play in bringing people together?
• Describe the socio-psychological impacts of dense population and crowded living.
• What are the effects of a child’s introverted personality on others?
• Explain how carelessness on the part of parents and childhood obesity are related.
• Study the psychological, moral, and legal ramifications of adoption.
• What are the corrective and preventative steps that can stop child abuse?

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IResearchNet

Social Psychology Research Methods

Social psychology research methods encompass the intricate strategies and techniques employed by investigators to assess and investigate various variables while formulating and examining hypotheses. The central objective of social psychology research is typically to develop and assess causal theories. The emphasis on causation lies at the heart of the field’s overarching mission: to elucidate phenomena by placing them under the purview of general causal principles and to elucidate how adverse societal circumstances can be transformed by modifying their causal precursors. Naturally, there are instances in individual research endeavors where the primary aim is simply to describe existing states of affairs or to create and refine measurement instruments, and these may not directly engage with causal inquiries. Nevertheless, it is prudent to view such studies as integral components of an overarching research endeavor devoted to the construction and refinement of causal theories.

Expanding upon this, it’s worth emphasizing that social psychology research methods encompass a wide array of tools and techniques. These include experimental designs, surveys, field studies, and observational methods, among others. Each approach has its unique strengths and limitations, making it essential for researchers to choose the most appropriate method depending on the research question and objectives.

Furthermore, the pursuit of causal explanations is a cornerstone of social psychology. Researchers seek to unravel the intricate web of factors that contribute to various social phenomena, aiming to discern the cause-and-effect relationships that underlie human behavior, attitudes, and interactions. By doing so, social psychologists strive to offer insights into the fundamental processes that govern our social world and, crucially, to propose interventions that can ameliorate societal challenges by targeting their causal roots.

In essence, social psychology is a dynamic field where rigorous research methods are harnessed to uncover the intricate causal dynamics that shape our social reality. Whether investigating the impact of social media on well-being, the origins of prejudice and discrimination, or the determinants of pro-social behavior, social psychologists are united by their commitment to understanding the causal forces that drive human social behavior and the potential for positive change through this understanding.

• Autobiographical Narratives
• Bogus Pipeline
• Content Analysis
• Control Condition
• Cross-Lagged Panel Correlation
• Demand Characteristics
• Ecological Validity
• Falsification
• Forced Compliance Technique
• Implicit Association Test
• Lost Letter Technique
• Meta-Analysis
• Mundane Realism
• Nonexperimental Designs
• Operationalization
• Order Effects
• Path Analysis
• Placebo Effect
• Quasi-Experimental Design
• Semantic Differential
• Social Relations Model
• Sociometric Status
• Structural Equation Modeling
• Twin Studies

In assessing the effectiveness of various research approaches in advancing causal theories, Cook and Campbell (1979) introduced four critical criteria, or forms of validity, to guide researchers. These criteria are pivotal in ensuring the rigor and reliability of empirical investigations. It’s essential to recognize that while statistical conclusion validity is somewhat independent of research methods, the remaining three forms of validity are intricately intertwined with the choice of research methodologies.

• Statistical Conclusion Validity: Statistical conclusion validity hinges on the judicious application of appropriate statistical tests and the use of sufficiently robust sample sizes. This aspect of validity is less contingent on the specific research method chosen and more on the soundness of statistical analysis. It ensures that the results of a study accurately reflect the underlying data and statistical relationships.
• Internal Validity: Internal validity pertains to the degree of confidence one can have in asserting that the independent variable (referred to as ‘x’) indeed exerted a causal influence on the dependent variable (‘y’) within a particular study. It assesses the extent to which the research design effectively isolates the variable of interest and minimizes the impact of extraneous factors that could confound the results.
• Construct Validity: Construct validity assesses the extent to which concrete variables (‘x’ and ‘y’) in a study align with the abstract theoretical constructs (‘X’ and ‘Y’) they are intended to represent. In essence, it measures the confidence with which a causal relationship can be inferred between these abstract constructs. Establishing construct validity is crucial for ensuring that the empirical measures accurately capture the theoretical concepts under investigation.
• External Validity: External validity manifests in two distinct forms, contingent on the research’s intended application. In particularistic research, designed to apply directly to specific settings and populations (e.g., public opinion surveys targeting a particular state or country’s voting-age population), external validity assesses the extent to which the findings can be generalized from the sample to the broader population. In universalistic research, conducted to test general causal theories, external validity raises broader questions about the generalizability of effects across diverse groups, settings, or cultures.

The methodology employed in research is shaped by numerous factors, including the research setting, the studied population, the research design, and the data collection techniques utilized. Social psychology highly values methodological diversity, recognizing that theoretical predictions corroborated by multiple methods hold greater strength. Despite this emphasis on diversity, laboratory experiments remain the predominant and defining research method in the field. This method, employed in a substantial majority of published research, provides a controlled environment that allows researchers to manipulate variables systematically and investigate causal relationships with precision.

Laboratory Research Methods

The laboratory, as a research setting in social psychology, is distinguished by its remarkable flexibility. It serves as a canvas upon which researchers can meticulously craft and orchestrate a sequence of events tailored to their specific study objectives. The inherent advantage of conducting research in a controlled laboratory environment lies in the substantial degree of control afforded to the investigator. This control facilitates the seamless implementation of experimental designs, which necessitate precise manipulation and regulation of the experiences encountered by each participant.

In theory, the choice of research setting and the composition of the studied population are independent considerations. However, in practice, laboratory studies in social psychology often employ college students as their primary participants. This tendency stems from practical considerations, such as accessibility, convenience, and resource constraints. College students are readily available, more inclined to participate in research studies, and often represent a convenient sample for academic researchers.

Nevertheless, this predilection for utilizing well-educated and generally attentive young adults in laboratory research does introduce potential limitations, particularly concerning external validity. External validity pertains to the extent to which research findings can be generalized beyond the specific sample and settings employed in a study. Relying primarily on college students may limit the generalizability of findings, as this group may not be representative of the broader population in terms of age, education, socio-economic status, and cultural diversity.

It is important to note, however, that these limitations are not inherent to the laboratory setting itself but are more closely linked to the demographic characteristics of the participants. Social psychologists are increasingly cognizant of these limitations and are actively working to address them by diversifying their participant pools. By conducting studies with a more varied range of individuals from different age groups, backgrounds, and cultural contexts, researchers aim to enhance the external validity of their findings. This ongoing effort underscores the field’s commitment to ensuring that the insights derived from laboratory research are applicable and relevant to a broader spectrum of society.

Laboratory Experiments

Laboratory experiments represent the cornerstone of social psychology research, offering a controlled environment for rigorous investigations (Aronson, Ellsworth, Carlsmith, & Gonzalez, 1990). These experiments employ an experimental design in which the independent variable is systematically manipulated, resulting in the random assignment of participants to different groups. This approach ensures a high level of internal validity, as it effectively isolates the variable of interest and minimizes potential confounding factors. However, lab experimentation has faced criticism primarily related to construct validity, particularly concerning the authenticity of the experimental context.

Laboratory experiments in social psychology can be categorized into three main types (Judd, Smith, & Kidder, 1991):

• Scenario or Impact Studies: These studies often feature classic social psychology experiments. Researchers orchestrate scenarios where confederates, posing as fellow participants, deliberately make inaccurate judgments or simulate emergencies to explore hypotheses about social influence on participants’ responses. When executed effectively, scenario studies immerse participants in realistic experiences, blurring the line between experimental and real-life situations. Nevertheless, questions about construct validity may arise, as participants may question the authenticity of the scenarios, suspecting they are contrived as part of the experiment. The use of deception in such studies raises ethical and practical considerations that require careful consideration (T. D. Cook, in Judd, Smith, & Kidder, 1991).
• Judgment Studies: In these experiments, participants evaluate complex stimuli, often involving individuals or social groups, and report their judgments, evaluations, inferences, or other reactions. A common focus of judgment studies is the examination of stereotyping and prejudice, where participants assess information about an individual belonging to different social groups. The construct validity of judgment studies can vary. When participants perceive the task as meaningful and realistic, it can effectively capture their genuine reactions to individuals from different groups. However, if participants discern the research’s underlying purpose and react to it, construct validity may be compromised.
• Performance Studies: Performance studies involve tasks where participants’ performance reveals underlying thoughts or emotions being studied. These studies often do not require explicit judgments but may involve tasks such as recalling information or rapidly categorizing words as positive or negative. Social cognition research frequently employs performance studies. In these experiments, hypotheses and expected responses are often less transparent to participants. Construct validity relies more on the rigorous validation of the data collection method itself, rather than participants’ perceptions of the study’s intentions.

In summary, laboratory experiments in social psychology provide a controlled platform for exploring causal relationships and psychological phenomena. While they offer a high degree of internal validity, concerns about construct validity, stemming from the artificiality of some experimental setups and participants’ awareness of the research context, are essential considerations. Researchers continually strive to strike a balance between experimental control and ecological validity to enhance the robustness and applicability of their findings in real-world contexts.

Laboratory Nonexperimental Studies

Laboratory nonexperimental studies represent another facet of social psychology research, leveraging the controlled environment of the laboratory to observe and analyze social phenomena without employing traditional experimental designs. While experimental research is often lauded for its capacity to enhance internal validity through systematic manipulation, nonexperimental studies conducted in the laboratory serve valuable purposes as well.

In these nonexperimental laboratory studies, researchers utilize the laboratory setting to establish specific conditions that allow participants to engage in experiences or facilitate detailed observations. Here are a few examples of how the laboratory environment can be harnessed for nonexperimental research:

• Observational Studies: The laboratory can be configured to facilitate unobtrusive observations of social interactions. For instance, researchers may videotape two participants engaging in an informal get-acquainted conversation. Later, these videotapes can be meticulously coded to analyze verbal and nonverbal behaviors, shedding light on patterns of communication, social dynamics, or the emergence of specific behaviors in naturalistic settings.
• Interaction and Group Studies: Small groups of participants can be brought into the laboratory to engage in various activities, such as problem-solving tasks or group discussions. Researchers can then closely observe and code these interactions to explore topics like leadership dynamics, decision-making processes, or the emergence of social norms within informal groups.

In these scenarios, the laboratory’s inherent flexibility and control are effectively employed to create specific conditions conducive to systematic observation and analysis. While no experimental manipulations are introduced, these studies yield valuable insights into the intricacies of human behavior and social interactions in controlled yet ecologically relevant settings.

Moreover, nonexperimental laboratory studies offer a bridge between the controlled conditions of the laboratory and the complexities of real-world social interactions. They provide an avenue for researchers to explore social phenomena and generate hypotheses that can later be tested through experimental research or extended to field studies for further validation. Consequently, nonexperimental laboratory studies enrich the toolkit of social psychologists, enabling a comprehensive understanding of human behavior and social dynamics across a spectrum of research methods and settings.

Nonlaboratory Research Methods

Nonlaboratory research methods, often referred to as field research, offer a distinct approach in the realm of social psychology, where the researcher’s ability to exert control over events is notably reduced compared to laboratory settings. While experimental designs in nonlaboratory settings may be challenging to implement, these methods provide opportunities to explore a wide range of independent and dependent variables, allowing for the investigation of critical and meaningful social phenomena. However, they also come with their own set of challenges related to construct validity and the complexity of real-life contexts.

Here are some key considerations and characteristics of nonlaboratory research in social psychology:

• Construct Validity: In nonlaboratory settings, researchers can investigate important psychological variables, such as the influence of role models on behavior, the impact of bystander numbers on helping behavior, or the relationship between self-concept and psychological adjustment to a diagnosis of cancer. These studies can yield valuable insights into real-world behaviors and experiences. However, construct validity may vary depending on the specific research context, and researchers must take care to ensure that their measures accurately capture the intended theoretical constructs.
• Complexity of Real Life: Nonlaboratory research is conducted within the intricacies of real-life environments, which are inherently complex and subject to a multitude of potentially confounding variables. Researchers must grapple with the unpredictability and diversity of human behavior and social interactions in these settings.
• External Validity: While nonlaboratory research is often assumed to possess higher external validity or generalizability than laboratory research, this is not necessarily the case. Nonlaboratory settings themselves can vary significantly, from a street corner to an industrial lunchroom to a hospital emergency room, each with its unique characteristics and populations. The external validity of a study’s findings in one nonlaboratory setting does not automatically extend to other nonlaboratory contexts. Replication across diverse settings is the ultimate test of external validity, similar to laboratory findings.

In summary, nonlaboratory research methods in social psychology provide a valuable complement to laboratory research by offering insights into real-world behavior and experiences. These methods enable the exploration of crucial social phenomena but come with the challenge of navigating the complexity and unpredictability of noncontrolled settings. Researchers must be diligent in addressing construct validity and recognize that the generalizability of findings is contingent on replication across a variety of nonlaboratory contexts. Through a combination of laboratory and nonlaboratory research, social psychologists aim to develop a comprehensive understanding of human behavior and its societal implications.

Field Experiments

Field experiments represent a powerful approach to experimental research in social psychology conducted outside the controlled confines of the laboratory. While they present logistical challenges, they offer numerous advantages and insights into real-world behaviors and social phenomena. Here are key points about field experiments:

• Realistic Context: Field experiments are designed to investigate social phenomena in natural, real-life settings. Researchers construct situations that mimic genuine circumstances, allowing for the examination of behaviors and reactions as they naturally occur. For instance, a study on bystanders offering help to a person in need may involve simulating a roadside breakdown to assess the impact of interventions, such as community responsibility billboards, on the frequency of assistance offers.
• Experimental Design: Field experiments maintain a high degree of internal validity through the use of experimental designs. This entails systematically manipulating variables of interest and randomly assigning participants (or in this case, bystanders) to different experimental conditions. Randomization ensures that groups exposed to various manipulations are equivalent, reducing the influence of confounding factors.
• Construct Validity: Field experiments benefit from construct validity because the manipulations and measurements are grounded in meaningful and realistic contexts. Researchers strive to ensure that the interventions and measures accurately capture the theoretical constructs under investigation, enhancing the relevance and authenticity of the study.
• External Validity in Particularistic Research: Field experiments conducted in settings and populations of direct interest exhibit high external validity in particularistic research. For instance, if a field experiment on the effects of different working conditions on productivity occurs within an actual industrial setting, the findings are highly applicable to that specific context and population.
• Considerations in Universalistic Research: In universalistic research, it’s essential to recognize that nonlaboratory settings vary considerably. The fact that a field experiment was conducted outside the laboratory does not automatically guarantee broad generalizability. Each unique setting and population may yield different results, emphasizing the importance of replication and contextual awareness.

In summary, field experiments in social psychology bridge the gap between controlled laboratory research and real-world social interactions. They offer the advantage of high internal validity while capturing the richness and complexity of genuine social situations. However, researchers must be cautious about the limitations of generalizability, as findings from one field experiment may not necessarily apply universally. Rigorous replication and a nuanced understanding of the specific context are crucial for drawing robust conclusions in field experiments.

Quasi-Experiments

Quasi-experimental designs offer a middle ground between true experimental designs and nonexperimental research methods, providing a way to investigate causal relationships with some control over variables but without the stringent demands of random assignment. Here are some key points about quasi-experiments:

• Internal Validity: Quasi-experimental designs can help mitigate certain threats to internal validity, but they do not eliminate them entirely, as true experiments do. While they lack the randomized assignment of participants to different groups, they still involve manipulation of the independent variable to some extent. This manipulation allows researchers to draw causal inferences, but the presence of confounding variables remains a concern, potentially impacting the degree of internal validity.
• Control and Implementation: Quasi-experiments impose fewer demands for strict control compared to true experiments. This flexibility can make them more practical and feasible to conduct outside the laboratory. Researchers can manipulate the independent variable in real-world settings, such as implementing an ad campaign in one city while using another comparable city as a control.
• Manipulation without Random Assignment: In quasi-experiments, manipulation of the independent variable occurs without random assignment. This means that participants are not randomly assigned to different conditions or groups, raising concerns about the equivalence of the groups and the potential influence of confounding variables. Researchers must carefully consider the potential impact of these confounds when interpreting results.
• Practical Applications: Quasi-experiments are often used in applied settings where it may be challenging or impractical to employ strict experimental control. For example, researchers may investigate the effectiveness of public health campaigns, educational interventions, or policy changes using quasi-experimental designs. These studies can provide valuable insights into the real-world impact of interventions.
• Similar Considerations to Field Experiments: Many considerations that apply to field experiments, such as construct validity and external validity, also apply to quasi-experiments. Researchers must ensure that their manipulations and measurements are meaningful and realistic. Additionally, the generalizability of findings from quasi-experiments may vary depending on the specific context and population under study.

In summary, quasi-experimental designs strike a balance between experimental control and real-world applicability. They offer a way to investigate causal relationships in settings where random assignment may not be feasible. While they can provide valuable insights into cause-and-effect relationships, researchers must be mindful of potential confounding variables and limitations in internal validity. Careful design and analysis are essential to draw meaningful conclusions from quasi-experimental research.

Survey Research

Survey research is a fundamental methodology employed in various social sciences, including sociology, political science, and even within the domain of social psychology. This approach is instrumental in investigating a wide array of social phenomena and understanding the attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions of individuals within a population. Here are key aspects of survey research:

• Data Collection from Representative Samples: Survey research typically involves the collection of data from a representative sample of the population of interest or, in some cases, the entire population. For instance, researchers might survey voters in a specific state or all employees of a particular company. The goal is to gather insights that can be generalized to a larger population.
• Self-Report Data Collection: Surveys rely on self-report data collection methods, where participants respond to questions or statements about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or experiences. This can be accomplished through various means, including personal interviews, telephone interviews, or written self-administered questionnaires. Each data collection mode has its unique strengths and weaknesses, impacting factors like cost and data quality.
• Nonexperimental Design: Survey research is typically nonexperimental in nature, meaning that researchers do not manipulate variables as they would in experimental studies. Instead, survey questions are designed to measure existing attitudes, behaviors, or conditions. While this limits internal validity in terms of establishing causal relationships, survey research excels at exploring associations and patterns within populations.
• Construct Validity Challenges: Construct validity in survey research can be challenging due to the method of data collection, which relies on self-report. Participants may introduce biases into their responses, consciously or unconsciously, leading to potential inaccuracies. For instance, respondents may provide socially desirable answers rather than revealing their true beliefs or behaviors.
• External Validity: Surveys often demonstrate high external validity, particularly in particularistic research where the focus is on generalizing findings from the sample to a specific target population. This makes survey research a valuable tool for understanding the attitudes and behaviors of specific groups, such as voters in a state or employees within an organization.

In summary, survey research plays a vital role in social sciences by providing a means to collect data on a wide scale and explore the perspectives of individuals within a population. While it may lack the experimental control of laboratory studies, surveys offer valuable insights into social phenomena, attitudes, and behaviors. Researchers must be mindful of potential biases and limitations in construct validity but can leverage the high external validity of survey findings to inform their investigations and policymaking.

Naturalistic Observational Studies

Naturalistic observational studies are a valuable research method in social psychology that involve observing and documenting naturally occurring social behaviors in their real-world settings. These studies provide a unique perspective on human behavior by capturing actions and interactions as they naturally unfold. Here are some key characteristics of naturalistic observational studies:

• Realistic Settings and Populations: Naturalistic observational studies take place in realistic settings, often within the context of everyday life. Researchers venture into environments where people naturally engage in social behaviors, such as schools, workplaces, public spaces, or homes. This approach allows for the study of human behavior in its natural context.
• High Construct Validity: Construct validity in naturalistic observational studies is typically high. This is because measurements are taken in authentic, real-world settings and populations, providing a more genuine representation of social behaviors. Researchers have the opportunity to observe and document behaviors as they naturally occur, minimizing the influence of artificial or controlled conditions.
• Lack of Experimental Design: One key characteristic of naturalistic observational studies is the absence of experimental design. Unlike laboratory experiments, researchers do not manipulate variables or introduce interventions. Instead, they act as passive observers, documenting behaviors without interference. This lack of experimental control can limit internal validity, making it challenging to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Examples of Naturalistic Observations: An example provided in your question illustrates this approach: researchers interested in understanding the dynamics of intergroup relations in an elementary school might discreetly observe the seating patterns in the school lunchroom. By documenting where students of different racial backgrounds choose to sit, researchers gain insights into the extent of racial segregation in a natural, unaltered context.
• Rich Descriptive Data: Naturalistic observational studies yield rich descriptive data that can inform theories, generate hypotheses, and provide valuable insights into human behavior. Researchers often focus on qualitative and quantitative descriptions of behaviors, interactions, and contextual factors.
• Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations are paramount in naturalistic observational studies. Researchers must ensure that their observations are unobtrusive and respectful of individuals’ privacy. In some cases, obtaining informed consent may be necessary, particularly when studying sensitive or private behaviors.

In summary, naturalistic observational studies offer a window into the real-world dynamics of social behavior, providing a high level of construct validity. While they lack the experimental control found in laboratory experiments, these studies contribute valuable insights to our understanding of human behavior in its natural context. Researchers must carefully balance the benefits of authentic observations with ethical considerations and the limitations in establishing causal relationships.

Analysis of Archival Data

Analysis of archival data is a research method in social psychology that involves the examination of pre-existing records or data sources to test research hypotheses and gain insights into social phenomena. This approach leverages information stored in official or unofficial archives, such as government records, newspaper articles, library circulation records, and more. Here are key characteristics and considerations related to the analysis of archival data:

• Objective and Comprehensive Coverage: Archival data provides an objective and often comprehensive view of a population of interest. Unlike self-report measures, which rely on participants’ responses, archival data can offer a complete and unfiltered representation of real-life outcomes. Researchers can draw from a wide range of sources to access information on various social phenomena.
• Examples of Archival Data Analysis: An example provided in your question illustrates this method: researchers interested in the hypothesis that heat increases aggression may examine official weather records and crime statistics. By analyzing these data sources, researchers can investigate whether there is a correlation between hot weather and an increase in homicides. Archival data analysis allows researchers to explore relationships between variables by utilizing historical or pre-existing records.
• Construct Validity Considerations: Construct validity in archival data analysis can be a concern. This issue arises when the archival measures do not directly correspond to the psychological constructs of interest. For instance, the legal definition of homicide may not precisely align with the psychological concept of aggression. Researchers must carefully assess whether the archival data accurately capture the variables under investigation.
• Nonexperimental Designs and Internal Validity: Archival data analyses typically involve nonexperimental designs, meaning that researchers do not manipulate variables or introduce interventions. As a result, the internal validity of these studies tends to be low. Establishing causal relationships between variables can be challenging in the absence of experimental control.
• Strengths and Limitations: The strengths of archival data analysis include its ability to access historical and real-world data, offering insights into social phenomena beyond self-report measures. Archival data can provide valuable information about long-term trends, patterns, and historical events. However, researchers must contend with the limitations of construct validity and the challenge of demonstrating causal relationships.
• Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations in archival data analysis involve respecting the privacy and confidentiality of individuals whose data is included in the archives. Researchers should adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain any necessary permissions or approvals when working with archival data.

In summary, the analysis of archival data is a valuable research method in social psychology for investigating social phenomena through the examination of existing records and data sources. While it provides objective and comprehensive information, researchers must carefully assess construct validity and recognize the limitations in establishing causality due to the absence of experimental control. Archival data analysis complements other research methods and offers unique opportunities for studying historical and real-world social dynamics.

Research without Primary Data Collection

Research without primary data collection is a valuable approach in social psychology that involves the analysis and synthesis of existing studies to draw conclusions and make informed insights. This method encompasses meta-analysis and computer simulation, each serving distinct purposes within the research process.

• Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis involves the quantitative synthesis of multiple primary studies on a specific topic. Researchers collect data from previously conducted studies and analyze it collectively to draw more precise and objective conclusions. For example, if numerous studies have explored sex differences in helping behavior, a meta-analysis can provide an overall assessment of the differences and identify factors that influence these variations. Meta-analysis enhances construct validity by examining multiple operationalizations of constructs and bolsters external validity by including various settings and participant populations.
• Computer Simulation: Computer simulation is a method for exploring the implications of a theory by creating a computer program that embodies the theory’s assumptions. The program generates predictions based on specified conditions, allowing researchers to gain insights into the theory’s outcomes in complex scenarios. Computer simulation is particularly useful when theories are too intricate for intuitive prediction. However, it is essential to note that computer simulation is not a substitute for data collection. Instead, it assists in deducing a theory’s implications, which then become research hypotheses to be tested using empirical data. If the hypotheses do not align with the data, researchers may need to modify or discard the theory.

In social psychology, laboratory experimentation remains the predominant method. However, researchers recognize the value of diverse methods and appreciate that the most robust research findings are those that can be replicated across different settings and populations, using various research techniques. This emphasis on methodological diversity ensures a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of social phenomena.

In summary, research without primary data collection, such as meta-analysis and computer simulation, offers complementary approaches to traditional empirical studies. These methods provide valuable insights, enhance the precision of conclusions, and contribute to the robustness of research findings. The integration of multiple research methods and replication across diverse contexts strengthens the foundations of social psychology research.

Bibliography:

• Abelson, R. P. (1995). Statistics as principled argument. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
• Aronson. E., Ellsworth. P. C., Carlsmith, J. M., & Gonzales. M. H. (1990). Methods of research in social psychology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation. Chicago: Rand McNally.
• Judd. C. M., Smith, E. R., & Kidder. L. H. (1991). Research methods in social relations (6th ed.). Fort Worth. TX: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
• Mook. D. G. (1980). In defense of external invalidity. American Psychologist, 38, 379-388.
• Reis, H. T., & Judd, C. M. (Eds.). (in press). Handbook of research methods in social psychology. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.

6 Social Psychology Topics to Explore

Categories Social Psychology

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others. This can include the real presence of other people or just their imagined presence.

Social psychology topics examine how people interact, form impressions of one another, and make decisions in social situations. 

Social psychologists investigate topics such as social influence, social cognition, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, and attitudes. The field draws on various methods, including experiments, surveys, observations, and field studies, to understand how social factors shape human behavior and experience.

Table of Contents

Important Social Psychology Topics

Social psychology is a broad field that encompasses a wide range of sub-topics focused on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations. The three main social psychology topics that other sub-topics tend to fall under are:

Social Cognition

This subfield focuses on how people perceive, process, and remember information about themselves and others. It delves into processes like attribution, impression formation, stereotypes, prejudice, and social identity.

Social Influence

This area examines how the presence, actions, or mere existence of others can affect an individual’s thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors. This subfield examines how others influence people in social contexts. Researchers in social influence study topics such as conformity, obedience, compliance, and persuasion.

Social Relationships

This subfield focuses on studying romantic relationships, friendships, and other forms of interpersonal interaction. Researchers in this area study topics such as attraction, interpersonal relationships, aggression, altruism, and interpersonal communication.

Other Social Psychology Topics

Other areas of interest within the field of social psychology include:

Group Processes

This subfield focuses on the study of how individuals behave in group contexts. Researchers in group processes study topics such as group decision-making, social identity, intergroup conflict, and group performance.

Intergroup Relations

This subfield focuses on the study of relations between different social groups, including prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, and intergroup conflict.

Applied Social Psychology

This subfield focuses on the practical application of social psychology research to real-world problems. Researchers in this area study topics such as health behavior, environmental behavior, and organizational behavior.

These are just some of the principal subfields within social psychology, and they often overlap. Many social psychologists also specialize in specific topics within these subfields , such as the psychology of persuasion or the psychology of prejudice.

Examples of Social Psychology Topics

Social psychology topics encompass a wide range of topics that investigate how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by social factors. Here are some examples of specific social psychology topics that help us understand more about different aspects of social behavior:

• Leadership : Examining the qualities and behaviors of effective leaders , leadership styles , and the dynamics of leadership within groups.
• Group behavior : Studying how individuals behave within groups, including conformity, groupthink, social facilitation, and group decision-making processes.
• Aggression : Investigating the causes and consequences of aggressive behavior, including social learning, frustration-aggression theory, and the influence of social norms.
• Persuasion : Exploring the strategies and techniques used to influence others’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, including principles of persuasion such as reciprocity, authority, and social proof.
• Prejudice and discrimination : Examining the origins and manifestations of prejudice and discrimination based on factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and social class.
• Social identity : Investigating how individuals’ self-concept and social identity are shaped by their membership in various social groups, including social categorization, social comparison, and social identity theory.
• Attitudes and attitude change : This field studies the formation, structure, and modification of attitudes and the factors that influence attitude change, such as cognitive dissonance, persuasion, and social influence.
• Interpersonal relationships : Examining the formation, maintenance, and dissolution of relationships, including topics such as attraction, intimacy, attachment styles , and relationship satisfaction.
• Altruism and prosocial behavior : Investigating the factors that motivate individuals to engage in helping behavior, cooperation, and acts of kindness towards others, as well as the role of empathy, altruistic norms, and bystander intervention.
• Social perception and cognition : Exploring how individuals perceive, interpret, and make judgments about themselves and others in social situations, including topics such as impression formation, stereotypes, and attribution theory.

These are just a few examples of the diverse range of topics studied within social psychology. Each area contributes to our understanding of human behavior within social contexts and has important implications for addressing societal issues and improving interpersonal relationships.

Brief History of Social Psychology Topics

Social psychology has a rich and varied history, which can be traced back to the late 19th century. Here is a brief overview of its development:

1890s : Early social psychology was heavily influenced by the work of social philosophers and sociologists, such as Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim. The focus was on social norms and the impact of social structure on human behavior.

1920s-1930s : The field shifted towards experimental methods, led by psychologists such as Kurt Lewin, often credited as the founder of modern social psychology. Lewin emphasized the importance of understanding the individual’s subjective experience of social situations, and his work had a major impact on the field’s theoretical and methodological approach.

1940s-1950s : Social psychology continued to grow and expand, focusing on the study of attitudes, conformity, and persuasion. Social psychologists such as Solomon Asch and Muzafer Sherif conducted groundbreaking experiments in these areas.

1960s-1970s : This period was characterized by a growing interest in the social and cultural factors that shape human behavior. Social psychologists began to study topics such as race, gender, and intergroup relations, and to explore how social context influences individual behavior.

1980s-present : Social psychology has continued to evolve, with researchers exploring various topics related to social cognition, emotion, motivation, and social influence. The field has also become increasingly interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and cultural psychology. 

Social psychologists continue to investigate the complex ways social factors shape human experience and behavior to improve our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

Questions Social Psychology Topics Address

Social psychology topics seek to understand and explain various questions related to human behavior, cognition, and emotion in social contexts. Here are some examples of the types of questions that social psychologists might ask:

• How do individuals perceive other people based on their appearance, behavior, and other cues? What factors influence these impressions, and how accurate are they?
• How do people make group decisions, and what factors influence the decision-making process? How do group dynamics affect individual behavior and attitudes?
• How do people form and maintain relationships, and what factors contribute to their success or failure? What role do factors such as attraction, communication, and social support play in relationships?
• How do social norms, values, and beliefs influence individual behavior and attitudes? How do people conform to these norms, and what factors influence their willingness to do so?
• How do people perceive and respond to social inequality and injustice, and what factors influence these responses? What role do prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping play in social behavior and attitudes?
• How do people regulate their emotions in social situations, and what factors influence this process? How do emotions affect social behavior and decision-making?
• How do social institutions and structures, such as the family, the media, and the legal system, influence social behavior and attitudes? How can these structures be changed to promote more positive outcomes for individuals and society?

The field constantly evolves, and social psychologists are always exploring new topics and questions related to human behavior in social contexts.

Experiments on Social Psychology Topics

Social psychology has a rich history of influential and groundbreaking experiments. Such research has helped to shape our understanding of human behavior in social contexts. 

Some examples of some of the best-known experiments exploring social psychology topics include:

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted his famous obedience experiments during the 1960s. The experiments examined the willingness of participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to administer electric shocks to another person. The study revealed the disturbing extent to which people were willing to obey even when it caused harm to others.

While influential, the study has long been criticized for its ethical problems. More recently, researchers have uncovered evidence suggesting that Milgram engaged in actions to help achieve the results he was looking to find. Milgram coerced and pressured participants to continue delivering shocks. In some cases, the participants guessed what the intentions of the experiment were and altered their behavior to play along.

Asch’s Conformity Study

This study , conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s, examined how people conform to group norms even when they conflict with their own perceptions. Participants were asked to judge the length of lines on a card and then were asked to state their answer out loud in the presence of a group of confederates who gave incorrect answers.

The study revealed the strong influence of social pressure on individual decision-making. Even though participants did not agree with the other participants, they still went along in order to conform with the rest of the group.

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

This study, conducted by Philip Zimbardo in the 1970s, examined the effects of social roles and situational factors on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to be either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment. The study was terminated early due to the extreme and abusive behavior of the guards.

Like Milgram’s experiments, the Stanford prison experiment has been criticized in recent years due to recent evidence that participants faked their behaviors to get out of the study and that the experimenters themselves encouraged the abusive behaviors.

Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

This study, conducted by Leon Festinger in the 1950s, examined the psychological discomfort that arises when people hold conflicting beliefs or attitudes, a phenomenon known as cognitive dissonance . Participants were asked to complete a boring task and then were paid either $1 or $20 to tell a new participant that the task was enjoyable. The study revealed that those who were paid only $1 reported enjoying the task more, as they had to justify why they lied to the new participant.

Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment

Muzafer Sherif’s experiment, known as the Robbers Cave experiment , placed boys in a summer camp setting. The boys were placed in two groups and were pitted against each other to compete for the available resources. The study found that the participants created hierarchies and power structures that led to competition and fighting between the two groups.

Darley and Latané’s Bystander Intervention Study

This study, conducted by John Darley and Bibb Latané in the 1960s, examined the bystander effect —the phenomenon whereby people are less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when others are present. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire in a room when they heard someone in an adjacent room having a seizure. The study revealed that participants were less likely to seek help when they believed others were present.

Such experiments have helped shape our understanding of human behavior in social contexts.

Applications for Social Psychology Topics

Social psychology has the potential to be utilized to solve real-world problems in a variety of areas. Here are some examples of how social psychology can be applied to address practical problems:

Health Behavior

Social psychology can be used to promote healthy behaviors, such as exercise and healthy eating, and prevent unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking and drug use. Research in this area focuses on understanding the factors that influence health behaviors and developing effective interventions to change them.

Environmental Behavior

Social psychology can be used to promote environmentally friendly behaviors, such as recycling and reducing energy consumption. Research in this area focuses on understanding the psychological factors that influence environmental behavior and developing effective interventions to promote sustainable behavior.

Organizational Behavior

Social psychology can be used to improve organizational behavior and productivity by understanding the social dynamics that influence employee behavior and attitudes. Research in this area focuses on topics such as leadership, motivation, communication, and teamwork.

Social psychology can be used to improve educational outcomes by understanding the psychological factors that influence learning and academic achievement. Research in this area focuses on topics such as student motivation, teacher-student interactions, and educational interventions.

Social psychology can improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination. Research in this area focuses on understanding the psychological factors contributing to intergroup conflict and developing effective interventions to improve intergroup relations.

What Do Social Psychologists Do?

Social psychologists study various aspects of human behavior within social contexts. They conduct research to better understand how the presence or actions of others influence individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Some specific activities that social psychologists engage in:

Conducting Research

Social psychologists often design and conduct experiments to investigate specific social phenomena. These experiments may involve manipulating variables to observe their effects on participants’ behavior or attitudes.

Social psychologists may also conduct observational studies to observe and analyze naturally occurring social behaviors in real-world settings.

They design and administer surveys to collect data on individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Survey research helps social psychologists understand the prevalence of certain social phenomena and the factors that influence them.

Many social psychologists work in academic settings, where they teach courses on social psychology and mentor students interested in pursuing careers in the field. They may also supervise graduate students’ research projects and theses.

Applying Research Findings

Social psychologists may also work in applied settings like government agencies, non-profit organizations, or businesses. They apply their understanding of social behavior to address real-world problems, such as improving teamwork in organizations, reducing prejudice and discrimination, or designing effective marketing campaigns.

Social psychologists play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of human behavior in social contexts and applying that knowledge to various practical domains.

Social psychology can be utilized to solve real-world problems by using empirical research to understand the psychological factors that influence behavior and develop evidence-based interventions to change behavior and improve outcomes in various areas of life.

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Module 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology

Module Overview

In Module 2 we will address the fact that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. We will do this by examining the steps of the scientific method and describing the five major designs used in psychological research. We will also differentiate between reliability and validity and their importance for measurement. Psychology has very clear ethical standards and procedures for scientific research. We will discuss these but also why they are needed. Finally, psychology as a field, but especially social psychology as a subfield, is faced with a replication crisis and issues with the generalizability of its findings. These will be explained to close out the module.

Module Outline

2.1. The Scientific Method

2.2. research designs used by social psychologists, 2.3. reliability and validity, 2.4. research ethics, 2.5. issues in social psychology.

Module Learning Outcomes

• Clarify what it means for psychology to be scientific by examining the steps of the scientific method and the three cardinal features of science.
• Outline the five main research methods used in psychology and clarify how they are utilized in social psychology.
• Differentiate and explain the concepts of reliability and validity.
• Describe key features of research ethics.
• Clarify the nature of the replication crisis in psychology and the importance of generalizability.

Section Learning Objectives

• Define scientific method.
• Outline and describe the steps of the scientific method, defining all key terms.
• Identify and clarify the importance of the three cardinal features of science.

In Module 1, we learned that psychology was the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. We will spend quite a lot of time on the behavior and mental processes part, but before we proceed, it is prudent to elaborate more on what makes psychology scientific. In fact, it is safe to say that most people not within our discipline or a sister science, would be surprised to learn that psychology utilizes the scientific method at all.

So what is the scientific method? Simply, the scientific method is a systematic method for gathering knowledge about the world around us. The key word here is that it is systematic meaning there is a set way to use it. What is that way? Well, depending on what source you look at it can include a varying number of steps. For our purposes, the following will be used:

Table 2.1: The Steps of the Scientific Method

Science has at its root three cardinal features that we will see play out time and time again throughout this book, and as mentioned in Module 1. They are:

• Observation – In order to know about the world around us we must be able to see it firsthand. In relation to social psychology, we know our friend and his parents pretty well, and so in our time with them have observed the influence they exert on his life.
• Experimentation – To be able to make causal or cause and effect statements, we must be able to isolate variables. We have to manipulate one variable and see the effect of doing so on another variable. Experimentation is the primary method social psychology uses to test its hypotheses.
• Measurement – How do we know whether or not our friend is truly securely attached to his parents? Well, simply we measure attachment. In order to do that, we could give our friend a short questionnaire asking about his attachment pattern to his parents. For this questionnaire, let’s say we use a 5-point scale for all questions (with 1 meaning the question does not apply to 5 meaning it definitely is true or matters). If there were 10 questions, then our friend would have a score between 10 and 50. The 10 would come from him answering every question with a 1 and the 50 from answering every question with a 5. If you are not aware, there are four main styles of attachment (secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized-disoriented). We would have 2-3 questions assessing each of the 4 styles meaning that if we had 2 questions for that style, the score would range from 2 to 10. If 3 questions, the range would be 3 to 15. The higher the score, the more likely the person exhibits that style to the parent and our friend should only have a high score on one of the four styles if our scale correctly assesses attachment. We will discuss reliability and validity in Section 2.3.
• List the five main research methods used in psychology.
• Describe observational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe case study research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe survey research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe correlational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe experimental research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• State the utility and need for multimethod research.

Step 3 called on the scientist to test their hypothesis. Psychology as a discipline uses five main research designs. These include observational research, case studies, surveys, correlational designs, and experiments.

2.2.1. Observational Research

In terms of naturalistic observation , the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment which could include the home, school, or a forest. The researcher counts, measures, and rates behavior in a systematic way and at times uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured. This is called inter-rater reliability as you will see in Section 2.3. The advantage of this method is that you witness behavior as it occurs and it is not tainted by the experimenter. The disadvantage is that it could take a long time for the behavior to occur and if the researcher is detected then this may influence the behavior of those being observed. In the case of the latter, the behavior of the observed becomes artificial .

Laboratory observation involves observing people or animals in a laboratory setting. The researcher might want to know more about parent-child interactions and so brings a mother and her child into the lab to engage in preplanned tasks such as playing with toys, eating a meal, or the mother leaving the room for a short period of time. The advantage of this method over the naturalistic method is that the experimenter can use sophisticated equipment and videotape the session to examine it at a later time. The problem is that since the subjects know the experimenter is watching them, their behavior could become artificial from the start.

2.2.1.1. Example of an observational social psychology study. Griffiths (1991) studied the gambling behavior of adolescents by observing the clientele of 33 arcades in the UK. He used participant (when the researcher becomes an active participant in the group they are studying) and non-participant observation methodologies and found that adolescent gambling depended on the time of day and the time of year, and regular players had stereotypical behaviors and conformed to specific rules of etiquette. They played for fun, to win, to socialize, for excitement, and/or to escape.

2.2.2. Case Studies

Psychology can also utilize a detailed description of one person or a small group based on careful observation. This was the approach the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, took to develop his theories. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a rich description of the behavior being investigated but the disadvantage is that what you are learning may be unrepresentative of the larger population and so lacks generalizability . Again, bear in mind that you are studying one person or a very small group. Can you possibly make conclusions about all people from just one or even five or ten? The other issue is that the case study is subject to the bias of the researcher in terms of what is included in the final write up and what is left out. Despite these limitations, case studies can lead us to novel ideas about the cause of behavior and help us to study unusual conditions that occur too infrequently to study with large sample sizes and in a systematic way. Though our field does make use of the case study methodology, social psychology does not frequently use the design.

2.2.2.1. Example of a case study from clinical psychology. In 1895, the book, Studies on Hysteria , was published by Josef Breuer (1842-1925) and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), and marked the birth of psychoanalysis, though Freud did not use this actual term until a year later. The book published several case studies, including that of Anna O., born February 27, 1859 in Vienna to Jewish parents Siegmund and Recha Pappenheim, strict Orthodox adherents and considered millionaires at the time. Bertha, known in published case studies as Anna O., was expected to complete the formal education of a girl in the upper middle class which included foreign language, religion, horseback riding, needlepoint, and piano. She felt confined and suffocated in this life and took to a fantasy world she called her “private theater.” Anna also developed hysteria to include symptoms such as memory loss, paralysis, disturbed eye movements, reduced speech, nausea, and mental deterioration. Her symptoms appeared as she cared for her dying father and her mother called on Breuer to diagnose her condition (note that Freud never actually treated her). Hypnosis was used at first and relieved her symptoms. Breuer made daily visits and allowed her to share stories from her private theater which he came to call “talking cure” or “chimney sweeping.” Many of the stories she shared were actually thoughts or events she found troubling and reliving them helped to relieve or eliminate the symptoms. Breuer’s wife, Mathilde, became jealous of her husband’s relationship with the young girl, leading Breuer to terminate treatment in the June of 1882 before Anna had fully recovered. She relapsed and was admitted to Bellevue Sanatorium on July 1, eventually being released in October of the same year. With time, Anna O. did recover from her hysteria and went on to become a prominent member of the Jewish Community, involving herself in social work, volunteering at soup kitchens, and becoming ‘House Mother’ at an orphanage for Jewish girls in 1895. Bertha (Anna O.) became involved in the German Feminist movement, and in 1904 founded the League of Jewish Women. She published many short stories; a play called Women’s Rights , in which she criticized the economic and sexual exploitation of women, and wrote a book in 1900 called The Jewish Problem in Galicia , in which she blamed the poverty of the Jews of Eastern Europe on their lack of education. In 1935 she was diagnosed with a tumor and was summoned by the Gestapo in 1936 to explain anti-Hitler statements she had allegedly made. She died shortly after this interrogation on May 28, 1936. Freud considered the talking cure of Anna O. to be the origin of psychoanalytic therapy and what would come to be called the cathartic method.

To learn more about observational and case study designs, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/observational-research/

For more on Anna O., please see:

https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freuds-patients-serial/201201/bertha-pappenheim-1859-1936

2.2.3. Surveys/Self-Report Data

A survey is a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some number of questions which assess a psychological construct of interest such as parenting style, depression, locus of control, attitudes, or sensation seeking behavior. It may be administered by paper and pencil or computer. Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly but the actual survey could be tedious for the participant and social desirability , when a participant answers questions dishonestly so that he/she is seen in a more favorable light, could be an issue. For instance, if you are asking high school students about their sexual activity they may not give genuine answers for fear that their parents will find out. Or if you wanted to know about prejudicial attitudes of a group of people, you could use the survey method. You could alternatively gather this information via an interview in a structured or unstructured fashion. Important to survey research is that you have random sampling or when everyone in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. This helps the survey to be representative of the population and in terms of key demographic variables such as gender, age, ethnicity, race, education level, and religious orientation.

To learn more about the survey research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-1-overview-of-survey-research/

2.2.4. Correlational Research

This research method examines the relationship between two variables or two groups of variables. A numerical measure of the strength of this relationship is derived, called the correlation coefficient , and can range from -1.00, a perfect inverse relationship meaning that as one variable goes up the other goes down, to 0 or no relationship at all, to +1.00 or a perfect relationship in which as one variable goes up or down so does the other. In terms of a negative correlation we might say that as a parent becomes more rigid, controlling, and cold, the attachment of the child to the parent goes down. In contrast, as a parent becomes warmer, more loving, and provides structure, the child becomes more attached. The advantage of correlational research is that you can correlate anything. The disadvantage is that you can correlate anything. Variables that really do not have any relationship to one another could be viewed as related. Yes. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. For instance, we might correlate instances of making peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with someone we are attracted to sitting near us at lunch. Are the two related? Not likely, unless you make a really good PB&J but then the person is probably only interested in you for food and not companionship. The main issue here is that correlation does not allow you to make a causal statement.

To learn more about the correlational research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/correlational-research/

2.2.5. Example of a Study Using Survey and Correlational Designs

Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, and Knafo (2002) examined the relationship of the big five personality traits and values by administering the Schwartz (1992) Values survey, NEO-PI, a positive affect scale, and a single item assessing religiosity to introductory to psychology students at an Israeli university. For Extraversion, it was found that values that define activity, challenge, excitement, and pleasure as desirable goals in life (i.e. stimulation, hedonism, and achievement) were important while valuing self-denial or self-abnegation, expressed in traditional values, was antithetical.

For Openness, values that emphasize intellectual and emotional autonomy, acceptance and cultivation of diversity, and pursuit of novelty and change (i.e. universalism, self-direction, and stimulation) were important while conformity, security, and tradition values were incompatible. Benevolence, tradition, and to a lesser degree conformity, were important for Agreeableness while power and achievement correlated negatively. In terms of Conscientiousness (C), there was a positive correlation with security values as both share the goal of maintaining smooth interpersonal relations and avoiding disruption of social order and there was a negative correlation with stimulation, indicating an avoidance of risk as a motivator of C.

Finally, there was little association of values with the domain of Neuroticism but a closer inspection of the pattern of correlations with the facets of N suggests two components. First, the angry hostility and impulsiveness facets could be called extrapunitive since the negative emotion is directed outward and tends to correlate positively with hedonism and stimulation values and negatively with benevolence, tradition, conformity, and C values. Second, the anxiety, depression, self-consciousness, and vulnerability facets could be called intrapunitive since the negative emotion is directed inward. This component tends to correlate positively with tradition values and negatively with achievement and stimulation values.

2.2.6. Experiments

An experiment is a controlled test of a hypothesis in which a researcher manipulates one variable and measures its effect on another variable. The variable that is manipulated is called the independent variable (IV) and the one that is measured is called the dependent variable (DV) . A common feature of experiments is to have a control group that does not receive the treatment or is not manipulated and an experimental group that does receive the treatment or manipulation. If the experiment includes random assignment participants have an equal chance of being placed in the control or experimental group. The control group allows the researcher to make a comparison to the experimental group, making a causal statement possible, and stronger.

2.2.6.1. Example of an experiment.    Allison and Messick (1990) led subjects to believe they were the first of six group members to take points from a common resource pool and that they could take as many points as desired which could later be exchanged for cash. Three variables were experimentally manipulated. First, subjects in the low payoff condition were led to believe the pool was only 18 or 21 points in size whereas those in the high payoff condition were told the pool consisted of either 24 or 27 points. Second, the pools were divisible (18 and 24) or nondivisible (21 or 27). Third, half of the subjects were placed in the fate control condition and told that if the requests from the six group members exceeded the pool size, then no one could keep any points, while the other half were in the no fate control condition and told there would be no penalties for overconsumption of the pool.  Finally, data for a fourth variable, social values, was collected via questionnaire four weeks prior to participation. In all, the study employed a 2 (fate control) x 2 (payoff size) x 2 (divisibility) x 2 (social values) between-subjects factorial design.

Results showed that subjects took the least number of points from the resource pool when the resource was divisible, the payoffs were low, and there was no fate control. On the other hand, subjects took the most points when the resource was nondivisible, the payoffs were high, and subjects were noncooperative. To further demonstrate this point, Allison and Messick (1990) counted the number of inducements to which participants were exposed. This number ranged from 0 to 4 inducements. Subjects took between one-fifth and one-fourth when there were one or two inducements, took about one-third when there were three inducements, and about half of the pool when all four were present. They state that an equal division rule was used when there were no temptations to violate equality but as the number of temptations increased, subjects became progressively more likely to overconsume the pool. The authors conclude that the presence of competing cues/factors tends to invite the use of self-serving rules to include “First-come, first-served” and “People who get to go first take more.”

To learn more about the experimental research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experiment-basics/

2.2.7. Multi-Method Research

As you have seen above, no single method alone is perfect. All have their strengths and limitations. As such, for the psychologist to provide the clearest picture of what is affecting behavior or mental processes, several of these approaches are typically employed at different stages of the research process. This is called multi-method research.

2.2.8. Archival Research

Another technique used by psychologists is called archival research or when the researcher analyzes data that has already been collected and for another purpose. For instance, a researcher may request data from high schools about a student’s GPA and their SAT and/or ACT score(s) and then obtain their four-year GPA from the university they attended. This can be used to make a prediction about success in college and which measure – GPA or standardized test score – is the better predictor.

2.2.9. Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure that allows a researcher to combine data from more than one study. For example, Shariff et al. (2015) published an article on religious priming and prosociality in Personality and Social Psychology Review . The authors used effect-size analyses, p- curve analyses, and adjustments for publication bias (no worries, you don’t have to understand any of that), to evaluate the robustness of four types of religious priming, how religion affects prosocial behavior, and whether religious-priming effects generalize to those who are loosely or not religious at all. Results were presented across 93 studies and 11,653 participants and showed that religious priming has robust effects in relation to a variety of outcome measures, prosocial behavior included. It did not affect non-religious people though.

2.2.10. Communicating Results

In scientific research, it is common practice to communicate the findings of our investigation. By reporting what we found in our study other researchers can critique our methodology and address our limitations. Publishing allows psychology to grow its knowledge base about human behavior. We can also see where gaps still exist. We move it into the public domain so others can read and comment on it. Scientists can also replicate what we did and possibly extend our work if it is published.

There are several ways to communicate our findings. We can do so at conferences in the form of posters or oral presentations, through newsletters from APA itself or one of its many divisions or other organizations, or through research journals and specifically scientific research articles. Published journal articles represent a form of communication between scientists and in them, the researchers describe how their work relates to previous research, how it replicates and/or extends this work, and what their work might mean theoretically.

Research articles begin with an abstract or a 150-250 word summary of the entire article. The purpose is to describe the experiment and allows the reader to make a decision about whether he or she wants to read it further. The abstract provides a statement of purpose, overview of the methods, main results, and a brief statement of the conclusion. Keywords are also given that allow for students and other researchers alike to find the article when doing a search.

The abstract is followed by four major sections as described:

• Introduction – The first section is designed to provide a summary of the current literature as it relates to your topic. It helps the reader to see how you arrived at your hypothesis and the design of your study. Essentially, it gives the logic behind the decisions you made. You also state the purpose and share your predictions or hypothesis.
• Method – Since replication is a required element of science, we must have a way to share information on our design and sample with readers. This is the essence of the method section and covers three major aspects of your study – your participants, materials or apparatus, and procedure. The reader needs to know who was in your study so that limitations related to generalizability of your findings can be identified and investigated in the future. You will also state your operational definition, describe any groups you used, random sampling or assignment procedures, information about how a scale was scored, etc. Think of the Method section as a cookbook. The participants are your ingredients, the materials or apparatus are whatever tools you will need, and the procedure is the instructions for how to bake the cake.
• Results – In this section you state the outcome of your experiment and whether they were statistically significant or not. You can also present tables and figures.
• Discussion – In this section you start by restating the main findings and hypothesis of the study. Next, you offer an interpretation of the findings and what their significance might be. Finally, you state strengths and limitations of the study which will allow you to propose future directions.

Whether you are writing a research paper for a class or preparing an article for publication, or reading a research article, the structure and function of a research article is the same. Understanding this will help you when reading social psychological articles.

• Clarify why reliability and validity are important.
• Define reliability and list and describe forms it takes.
• Define validity and list and describe forms it takes.

Recall that measurement involves the assignment of scores to an individual which are used to represent aspects of the individual such as how conscientious they are or their level of depression. Whether or not the scores actually represent the individual is what is in question. Cuttler (2017) says in her book Research Methods in Psychology, “Psychologists do not simply  assume  that their measures work. Instead, they collect data to demonstrate  that they work. If their research does not demonstrate that a measure works, they stop using it.” So how do they demonstrate that a measure works? This is where reliability and validity come in.

2.3.1. Reliability

First, reliability describes how consistent a measure is. It can be measured in terms of test-retest reliability , or how reliable the measure is across time, internal consistency , or the “consistency of people’s responses across the items on multiple-item measures,” (Cuttler, 2017), and finally inter-rater reliability , or how consistent different observers are when making judgments. In terms of inter-rater reliability, Cuttler (2017) writes, “Inter-rater reliability would also have been measured in Bandura’s Bobo doll study. In this case, the observers’ ratings of how many acts of aggression a particular child committed while playing with the Bobo doll should have been highly positively correlated.”

2.3.2. Validity

A measure is considered to be valid if its scores represent the variable it is said to measure. For instance, if a scale says it measures depression, and it does, then we can say it is valid. Validity can take many forms. First, face validity is “the extent to which a measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest” (Cuttler, 2017). A scale purported to measure values should have questions about values such as benevolence, conformity, and self-direction, and not questions about depression or attitudes toward toilet paper.

Content validity is to what degree a measure covers the construct of interest. Cuttler (2017) says, “… consider that attitudes are usually defined as involving thoughts, feelings, and actions toward something. By this conceptual definition, a person has a positive attitude toward exercise to the extent that he or she thinks positive thoughts about exercising, feels good about exercising, and actually exercises.”

Oftentimes, we expect a person’s scores on one measure to be correlated with scores on another measure that we expect it to be related to, called criterion validity . For instance, consider parenting style and attachment. We would expect that if a person indicates on one scale that their father was authoritarian (or dictatorial) then attachment would be low or insecure. In contrast, if the mother was authoritative (or democratic) we would expect the child to show a secure attachment style.

As researchers we expect that our results will generalize from our sample to the larger population. This was the issue with case studies as the sample is too small to make conclusions about everyone. If our results do generalize from the circumstances under which our study was conducted to similar situations, then we can say our study has external validity . External validity is also affected by how real the research is. Two types of realism are possible. First, mundane realism occurs when the research setting closely resembles the real world setting. Experimental realism is the degree to which the experimental procedures that are used feel real to the participant. It does not matter if they really mirror real life but that they only appear real to the participant. If so, his or her behavior will be more natural and less artificial.

In contrast, a study is said to have good internal validity when we can confidently say that the effect on the dependent variable (the one that is measured) was due solely to our manipulation or the independent variable. A confound occurs when a factor other than the independent variable leads to changes in the dependent variable.

To learn more about reliability and validity, please visit: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-and-validity-of-measurement/

• Exemplify instances of ethical misconduct in research.
• List and describe principles of research ethics.

Throughout this module so far, we have seen that it is important for researchers to understand the methods they are using. Equally important, they must understand and appreciate ethical standards in research. The American Psychological Association identifies high standards of ethics and conduct as one of its four main guiding principles or missions. To read about the other three, please visit https://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx . So why are ethical standards needed and what do they look like?

2.4.1. Milgram’s Study on Learning…or Not

Possibly, the one social psychologist students know about the most is Stanley Milgram, if not by name, then by his study on obedience using shock (Milgram, 1974). Essentially, two individuals came to each experimental session but only one of these two individuals was a participant. The other was what is called a confederate and is part of the study without the participant knowing. The confederate was asked to pick heads or tails and then a coin was flipped. As you might expect, the confederate always won and chose to be the learner . The “experimenter,” who was also a confederate, took him into one room where he was hooked up to wires and electrodes. This was done while the “teacher,” the actual participant, watched and added to the realism of what was being done. The teacher was then taken into an adjacent room where he was seated in front of a shock generator. The teacher was told it was his task to read a series of word pairs to the learner. Upon completion of reading the list, he would ask the learner one of the two words and it was the learner’s task to state what the other word in the pair was. If the learner incorrectly paired any of the words, he would be shocked. The shock generator started at 30 volts and increased in 15-volt increments up to 450 volts. The switches were labeled with terms such as “Slight shock,” “Moderate shock,” “Danger: Severe Shock,” and the final two switches were ominously labeled “XXX.”

As the experiment progressed, the teacher would hear the learner scream, holler, plead to be released, complain about a heart condition, or say nothing at all. When the learner stopped replying, the teacher would turn to the experimenter and ask what to do, to which the experimenter indicated for him to treat nonresponses as incorrect and shock the learner. Most participants asked the experimenter whether they should continue at various points in the experiment. The experimenter issued a series of commands to include, “Please continue,” “It is absolutely essential that you continue,” and “You have no other choice, you must go on.”

Any guesses as to what happened? What percent of the participants would you hypothesize actually shocked the learner to death? Milgram found that 65 percent of participants/teachers shocked the learner to the XXX switches which would have killed him. Why? They were told to do so. How do you think the participant felt when they realized that they could kill someone simply because they were told to do so?

Source: Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.

2.4.2. GO TO JAIL:  Go Directly to Jail. Do Not Pass Go. Do Not Collect $200

Early in the morning on Sunday, August 14, 1971, a Palo Alto, CA police car began arresting college students for committing armed robbery and burglary. Each suspect was arrested at his home, charged, read his Miranda rights, searched, handcuffed, and placed in the back of the police car as neighbors watched. At the station, the suspect was booked, read his rights again, and identified. He was then placed in a cell. How were these individuals chosen? Of course, they did not really commit the crimes they were charged with. The suspects had answered a newspaper ad requesting volunteers for a study of the psychological effects of prison life.

After screening individuals who applied to partake in the study, a final group of 24 were selected. These individuals did not have any psychological problems, criminal record, history of drug use, or mental disorder. They were paid $15 for their participation. The participants were divided into two groups through a flip of a coin. One half became the prison guards and the other half the prisoners. The prison was constructed by boarding up each end of a corridor in the basement of Stanford University’s Psychology building. This space was called “The Yard” and was the only place where the prisoners were permitted to walk, exercise, and eat. Prison cells were created by removing doors from some of the labs and replacing them with specially made doors with steel bars and cell numbers. A small closet was used for solitary confinement and was called “The Hole.” There were no clocks or windows in the prison and an intercom was used to make announcements to all prisoners. The suspects who were arrested were transported to “Stanford County Jail” to be processed. It was there they were greeted by the warden and told what the seriousness of their crime was. They were stripped searched and deloused, and the process was made to be intentionally degrading and humiliating. They were given uniforms with a prison ID number on it. This number became the only way they were referred to during their time. A heavy chain was placed on each prisoner’s right ankle which served the purpose of reminding them of how oppressive their environment was.

The guards were given no training and could do what they felt was necessary to maintain order and command the respect of the prisoners. They made their own set of rules and were supervised by the warden, who was played by another student at Stanford. Guards were dressed in identical uniforms, carried a whistle, held a billy club, and wore special mirror sun-glasses so no one could see their eyes or read their emotions. Three guards were assigned to each of the three hour shifts and supervised the nine prisoners. At 2:30 am they would wake the prisoners to take counts. This provided an opportunity to exert control and to get a feel for their role. Similarly, prisoners had to figure out how they were to act and at first, tried to maintain their independence. As you might expect, this led to confrontations between the prisoners and the guards resulting in the guards physically punishing the prisoners with push-ups.

The first day was relatively quiet, but on the second day, a rebellion broke out in which prisoners removed their caps, ripped off their numbers, and put their beds against their cell doors creating a barricade. The guards responded by obtaining a fire extinguisher and shooting a stream of the cold carbon dioxide solution at the prisoners. The cells were then broken into, the prisoners stripped, beds removed, ringleaders put into solitary confinement, and a program of harassment and intimidation of the remaining inmates began. Since 9 guards could not be on duty at all times to maintain order, a special “privilege cell” was established and the three prisoners least involved in the rebellion were allowed to stay in it. They were given their beds and uniforms back, could brush their teeth and take a bath, and were allowed to eat special food in the presence of the other six prisoners. This broke the solidarity among the prisoners.

Less than 36 hours after the study began a prisoner began showing signs of uncontrollable crying, acute emotional disturbance, rage, and disorganized thinking. Though his emotional problems were initially seen as an attempt to gain release which resulted in his being returned to the prison and used as an informant, the symptoms worsened and he had to be released from the study. Then there was the rumor of a mass escape by the prisoners which the guards worked to foil. When it was revealed that the prisoners were never actually going to attempt the prison break, the guards became very frustrated and made the prisoners engage in menial work, pushups, jumping jacks, and anything else humiliating that they could think of.

A Catholic priest was invited to evaluate how realistic the prison was. Each prisoner was interviewed individually and most introduced himself to the priest by his prison number and not his name. He offered to help them obtain a lawyer and some accepted. One prisoner was feeling ill (#819) and did not meet with the priest right away. When he did, he broke down and began to cry. He was quickly taken to another room and all prison garments taken off. While this occurred, the guards lined up the other prisoners and broke them out into a chant of “Prisoner #819 is a bad prisoner. Because of what Prisoner #819 did, my cell is a mess. Mr. Correctional Officer.” This further upset the prisoner and he was encouraged to leave, though he refused each time. He finally did agree to leave after the researcher (i.e. Zimbardo) told him what he was undergoing was just a research study and not really prison. The next day parole hearings were held and prisoners who felt they deserved to be paroled were interviewed one at a time. Most, when asked if they would give up the money they were making for their participation so they could leave, said yes.

In all, the study lasted just six days. Zimbardo noted that three types of guards emerged—tough but fair who followed the prison rules; “good guys” who never punished the prisoners and did them little favors; and finally those who were hostile, inventive in their employment of punishment, and who truly enjoyed the power they had. As for the prisoners, they coped with the events in the prison in different ways. Some fought back, others broke down emotionally, one developed a rash over his entire body, and some tried to be good prisoners and do all that the guards asked of them. No matter what strategy they used early on, by the end of the study they all were disintegrated as a group, and as individuals. The guards commanded blind obedience from all of the prisoners.

When asked later why he ended the study, Zimbardo cited two reasons. First, it became apparent that the guards were escalating their abuse of the prisoners in the middle of the night when they thought no one was watching. Second, Christina Maslach, a recent Stanford Ph.D. was asked to conduct interviews with the guards and prisoners and saw the prisoners being marched to the toilet with bags on their heads and legs chained together. She was outraged and questioned the study’s morality.

Source: http://www.prisonexp.org/

If you would like to learn more about the moral foundations of ethical research, please visit: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/moral-foundations-of-ethical-research/

2.4.3. Ethical Guidelines

Due to these studies, and others, the American Psychological Association (APA) established guiding principles for conducting psychological research. The principles can be broken down in terms of when they should occur during the process of a person participating in the study.

2.4.3.1. Before participating. First, researchers must obtain informed consent or when the person agrees to participate because they are told what will happen to them. They are given information about any risks they face, or potential harm that could come to them, whether physical or psychological. They are also told about confidentiality or the person’s right not to be identified. Since most research is conducted with students taking introductory psychology courses, they have to be given the right to do something other than a research study to likely earn required credits for the class. This is called an alternative activity and could take the form of reading and summarizing a research article. The amount of time taken to do this should not exceed the amount of time the student would be expected to participate in a study.

2.4.3.2. While participating. Participants are afforded the ability to withdraw or the person’s right to exit the study if any discomfort is experienced.

2.4.3.3. After participating . Once their participation is over, participants should be debriefed or when the true purpose of the study is revealed and they are told where to go if they need assistance and how to reach the researcher if they have questions. So can researchers deceive participants, or intentionally withhold the true purpose of the study from them? According to the APA, a minimal amount of deception is allowed.

Human research must be approved by an Institutional Review Board or IRB. It is the IRB that will determine whether the researcher is providing enough information for the participant to give consent that is truly informed, if debriefing is adequate, and if any deception is allowed or not.

If you would like to learn more about how to use ethics in your research, please read: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/putting-ethics-into-practice/

• Describe the replication crisis in psychology.
• Describe the issue with generalizability faced by social psychologists.

2.5.1. The Replication Crisis in Social Psychology

Today, the field of psychology faces what is called a replication crisis. Simply, published findings in psychology are not replicable, one of the hallmarks of science. Swiatkowski and Dompnier (2017) addressed this issue but with a focus on social psychology. They note that the field faces a confidence crisis due to events such as Diederick Staple intentionally fabricating data over a dozen years which lead to the retraction of over 50 published papers. They cite a study by John et al. (2012) in which 56% of 2,155 respondents admitted to collecting more data after discovering that the initial statistical test was not significant and 46% selectively reported studies that “worked” in a paper to be published. They also note that Nuijten et al. (2015) collected a sample of over 30,000 articles from the top 8 psychology journals and found that 1 in 8 possibly had an inconsistent p value that could have affected the conclusion the researchers drew.

So, how extensive is the issue? The Psychology Reproducibility Project was started to determine to what degree psychological effects from the literature could be replicated. One hundred published studies were attempted to be replicated by independent research teams and from different subfields in psychology. Only 39% of the findings were considered to be successfully replicated. For social psychology the results were worse. Only 25% were replicated.

Why might a study not replicate? Swiatkowski and Dompnier (2017) cite a few reasons. First, they believe that statistical power, or making the decision to not reject the null hypothesis (H0 – hypothesis stating that there is no effect or your hypothesis was not correct) when it is actually false, is an issue in social psychology. Many studies are underpowered as shown by small effect sizes observed in the field, which inflates the rate of false-positive findings and leads to unreplicable findings.

Second, they say that some researchers use “unjustifiable flexibility in data analysis, such as working with several undisclosed dependent variables, collecting more observations after initial hypothesis testing, stopping data collection earlier than planned because of a statistically significant predicted finding, controlling for gender effects a posterior, dropping experimental conditions, and so on” (pg. 114). Some also do undisclosed multiple testing without making adjustments, called p-hacking, or dropping observations to achieve a significance level, called cherry picking . Such practices could explain the high prevalence of false positives in social psychological research.

Third, some current publication standards may promote bad research practices in a few ways. Statistical significance has been set at p = 0.05 as the sine qua non condition for publication. According to Swiattkowski and Dompnier (2017) this leads to dichotomous thinking in terms of the “strict existence and non-existence of an effect” (pg. 115). Also, positive, statistically significant results are more likely to be published than negative, statistically, non-significant results which can be hard to interpret. This bias leads to a structural incentive to seek out positive results. Finally, the authors point out that current editorial standards show a preference for novelty or accepting studies which report new and original psychological effects. This reduces the importance of replications which lack prestige and inspire little interest among researchers. It should also be pointed out that there is a mentality of ‘Publish or perish’ at universities for full time faculty. Those who are prolific and publish often are rewarded with promotions, pay raises, tenure, or prestigious professorships. Also, studies that present highly novel and cool findings are showcased by the media.

The authors state, “In the long run, the lack of a viable falsification procedure seriously undermines the quality of scientific knowledge psychology produces. Without a way to build a cumulative net of well-tested theories and to abandon those that are false, social psychology risks ending up with a confused mixture of both instead”(pg. 117).

For more on this issue, check out the following articles

• 2016 Article in the Atlantic – https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/psychologys-replication-crisis-cant-be-wished-away/472272/
• 2018 Article in The Atlantic – https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/11/psychologys-replication-crisis-real/576223/
• 2018 Article in the Washington Post – https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/08/27/researchers-replicate-just-13-of-21-social-science-experiments-published-in-top-journals/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.2a05aff2d7de
• 2018 Article from Science News – https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/science-public/replication-crisis-psychology-science-studies-statistics

2.5.2. Generalizability

Earlier we discussed how researchers want to generalize their findings from the sample to the population, or from a small, representative group to everyone. The problem that plagues social psychology is who makes up our samples. Many social psychological studies are conducted with college students working for course credit (Sears, 1986). They represent what is called a convenience sample . Can we generalize from college students to the larger group?

Module Recap

In Module 1 we stated that psychology studied behavior and mental processes using the strict standards of science. In Module 2 we showed you how that is done via adoption of the scientific method and use of the research designs of observation, case study, surveys, correlation, and experiments. To make sure our measurement of a variable is sound, we need to have measures that are reliable and valid. And to give our research legitimacy we have to use clear ethical standards for research to include gaining informed consent from participants, telling them of the risks, giving them the right to withdraw, debriefing them, and using nothing more than minimal deception. Despite all this, psychology faces a crisis in which many studies are not replicating and findings from some social psychological research are not generalizable to the population.

This concludes Part I of the book. In Part II we will discuss how we think about ourselves and others. First, we will tackle the self and then move to the perception of others. Part II will conclude with a discussion of attitudes.

2nd edition

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• Psychology General
• Social Psychology

The Message of Social Psychology: Perspectives on Mind in Society

ISBN: 978-0-631-19779-9

January 1997

Wiley-Blackwell

Craig McGarty , S. Alexander Haslam

Craig Mcgarty is Professor and Head of Psychology at Western Sydney University. He was previously Director of the Centre for Social and Community Research and Director of the Social Research Institute at Murdoch University and Head of the School of Psychology at The Australian National University. His books include Categorization in Social Psychology and Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, The Message of Social Psychology and Stereotypes as Explanations.