empirical political science research questions

Political Science Research Paper Topics

800 Political Science Research Paper Topics

Political science is a dynamic field that offers a multitude of avenues for exploration and inquiry. Whether you are passionate about the intricacies of American politics, fascinated by global affairs, or interested in the intersection of politics with social issues, there’s a wealth of research opportunities awaiting you. This comprehensive list of political science research paper topics has been meticulously curated to help students like you find inspiration and direction for your academic endeavors. Spanning various categories, these topics encompass both foundational principles and contemporary issues, ensuring a diverse range of subjects for your research. As you navigate this extensive collection, let your intellectual curiosity guide you towards a research topic that resonates with your interests and academic goals.

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African Politics

• The Role of Youth Movements in African Politics
• Assessing the Impact of Neocolonialism on African Nations
• Conflict Resolution Strategies in African States
• Corruption and Governance Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Women’s Participation in African Political Leadership
• Comparative Analysis of Post-Colonial African Constitutions
• Environmental Policies and Sustainability in African Governments
• The African Union’s Role in Regional Stability
• Ethnic Conflict and Politics in East Africa
• Human Rights Violations and Accountability in African Nations
• The Influence of International Aid on African Politics
• Media Censorship and Press Freedom in African Nations
• Ethnicity and Identity Politics in West Africa
• Healthcare Access and Quality in African Countries
• Indigenous Governance and Rights in African Societies
• Political Economy and Resource Allocation in Oil-Producing Nations
• The Impact of Globalization on African Economies
• The Legacy of Apartheid in South African Politics
• The African Diaspora’s Influence on Homeland Politics
• Environmental Conservation and Natural Resource Management in Africa

American Politics

• The Role of Third Parties in American Elections
• Analyzing the Influence of Lobbying on U.S. Policy
• The Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns
• Immigration Policies and the American Dream
• Gerrymandering and Its Effects on Electoral Outcomes
• The Role of the Electoral College in Presidential Elections
• Gun Control and Second Amendment Debates
• Healthcare Policy and Access in the United States
• Partisanship and Polarization in American Politics
• The History and Future of American Democracy
• Supreme Court Decisions and Their Political Implications
• Environmental Policies and Climate Change in the U.S.
• Media Bias and Political Discourse in America
• Political Conventions and Their Significance
• The Role of Super PACs in Campaign Financing
• Civil Rights Movements and Their Impact on U.S. Politics
• Trade Policy and Global Economic Relations
• National Security and Counterterrorism Strategies
• Populism and Its Influence on American Politics
• Electoral Reform and Voting Rights in the United States

Asian Politics

• China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Global Politics
• Democracy Movements in Hong Kong and Taiwan
• India’s Foreign Policy and Regional Influence
• The North Korea Nuclear Crisis
• Environmental Challenges in Southeast Asian Nations
• Ethnic Conflict and Identity Politics in South Asia
• Economic Growth and Inequality in East Asian Countries
• ASEAN’s Role in Regional Security
• Japan’s Approach to Pacifism and Defense
• Cybersecurity and Cyber Warfare in Asia
• Religious Extremism and Political Stability in the Middle East
• China-India Border Dispute and Geopolitical Implications
• South China Sea Disputes and Maritime Politics
• The Rohingya Crisis and Humanitarian Interventions
• Political Reform and Authoritarianism in Central Asia
• Technological Advancements and Political Change in Asia
• The Belt and Road Initiative and Its Impact on Asian Economies
• Environmental Conservation Efforts in Asian Nations
• Geopolitical Rivalries in the Indo-Pacific Region
• Media Censorship and Freedom of Expression in Asia
• Comparative Politics
• Comparative Analysis of Political Regimes: Democracies vs. Authoritarian States
• Theories of State Formation and Governance
• Electoral Systems Around the World
• Social Welfare Policies in Western and Non-Western Societies
• The Role of Civil Society in Political Change
• Political Parties and Their Impact on Governance
• Analyzing Political Culture in Diverse Societies
• Case Studies in Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding
• Federal vs. Unitary Systems of Government
• Gender and Political Representation Across Countries
• Immigration Policies and Integration Strategies
• Indigenous Rights and Self-Determination Movements
• Environmental Policies and Sustainability Practices
• Populist Movements in Contemporary Politics
• The Impact of Globalization on National Identities
• Human Rights Violations and Accountability Mechanisms
• Comparative Analysis of Welfare States
• Ethnic Conflict and Power Sharing Agreements
• Religious Diversity and Its Political Implications
• Social Movements and Political Change Across Regions
• Constitutions and Constitutionalism
• The Evolution of Constitutional Law: Historical Perspectives
• Judicial Review and Constitutional Interpretation
• Federalism and State Powers in Constitutional Design
• Comparative Analysis of National Constitutions
• Human Rights Provisions in Modern Constitutions
• Constitutional Amendments and Reform Efforts
• Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
• Constitutional Design in Post-Conflict Societies
• Constitutionalism and Indigenous Rights
• Challenges to Constitutional Democracy in the 21st Century
• Constitutions and Cultural Pluralism
• Environmental Provisions in Constitutions
• The Role of Constitutional Courts in Political Systems
• Social and Economic Rights in Constitutions
• Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law
• The Impact of Technological Advancements on Constitutional Governance
• Constitutional Protections for Minority Rights
• Constitutional Referendums and Public Participation
• Constitutional Provisions for Emergency Powers
• Gender Equality Clauses in National Constitutions
• Democracy and Democratization
• The Role of Civil Society in Democratization
• Democratic Backsliding: Causes and Consequences
• Comparative Analysis of Electoral Systems and Democracy
• The Impact of Media on Political Awareness and Democracy
• Political Parties and Their Role in Democratic Governance
• Women’s Political Participation and Representation in Democracies
• Democratic Transitions in Post-Authoritarian States
• Youth Movements and Their Influence on Democratization
• Populism and Its Effect on Democratic Norms
• Comparative Analysis of Direct vs. Representative Democracy
• Democratization and Economic Development
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Democratization
• The Role of International Organizations in Promoting Democracy
• Religious Diversity and Democracy in Multiethnic Societies
• The Challenges of Democratic Consolidation
• Media Freedom and Democratization in the Digital Age
• Human Rights and Democratic Governance
• Democratization and Conflict Resolution in Divided Societies
• Civil-Military Relations in Emerging Democracies
• Assessing the Quality of Democracy in Different Countries

Political Corruption

• The Impact of Corruption on Political Stability
• Corruption and Economic Development: A Comparative Analysis
• Anti-Corruption Measures and Their Effectiveness
• Corruption in Public Procurement and Government Contracts
• Political Scandals and Their Influence on Public Opinion
• The Role of Whistleblowers in Exposing Political Corruption
• Corruption and Its Impact on Foreign Aid and Investments
• Political Patronage and Nepotism in Government
• Transparency and Accountability Mechanisms
• Corruption and Environmental Exploitation
• Cultural Factors and Perceptions of Corruption
• Corruption in Law Enforcement and the Judiciary
• The Role of Media in Investigating Political Corruption
• Corruption and Political Party Financing
• Comparative Analysis of Corruption Levels in Different Countries
• Ethnicity and Corruption: Case Studies
• Political Corruption in Post-Conflict Societies
• Gender, Power, and Corruption
• Corruption and Human Rights Violations
• Strategies for Combating Political Corruption

European Politics

• The European Union’s Role in Global Governance
• Brexit and Its Implications for European Politics
• European Integration and Supranationalism
• Euroscepticism and Anti-EU Movements
• Immigration and European Identity
• Populist Parties in European Elections
• Environmental Policies in European Countries
• The Eurozone Crisis and Economic Governance
• EU Enlargement and Eastern European Politics
• Human Rights and European Integration
• Nationalism and Secession Movements in Europe
• Security Challenges in the Baltic States
• EU-US Relations and Transatlantic Cooperation
• Energy Policies and Dependency on Russian Gas
• The Common Agricultural Policy and Farming in Europe
• European Social Welfare Models and Inequality
• The Schengen Agreement and Border Control
• The Rise of Far-Right Movements in Western Europe
• EU Environmental Regulations and Sustainability
• The Role of the European Court of Justice in Shaping European Politics
• Comparative Analysis of Federal Systems
• Fiscal Federalism and Taxation in Federal States
• Federalism and Ethnic Conflict Resolution
• The Role of Governors in Federal Systems
• Intergovernmental Relations in Federal Countries
• Federalism and Healthcare Policy
• Environmental Federalism and Conservation Efforts
• Federalism and Immigration Policies
• Indigenous Rights and Self-Government in Federal States
• Federalism and Education Policy
• The Role of Regional Parties in Federal Politics
• Federalism and Disaster Response
• Energy Policy and Federal-State Relations
• Federalism and Criminal Justice Reform
• Local Autonomy and Decentralization in Federal Systems
• The Impact of Federal Systems on Economic Development
• Constitutional Reform and Changes in Federalism
• Federalism and Social Welfare Programs
• The European Model of Federalism
• Comparative Analysis of Dual and Cooperative Federalism
• Foreign Policy
• Diplomatic Strategies in International Relations
• The Influence of Public Opinion on Foreign Policy
• Economic Diplomacy and Trade Negotiations
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Foreign Policy
• Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping Efforts
• International Human Rights Advocacy and Foreign Policy
• Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy
• Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Control
• Cybersecurity and Foreign Policy Challenges
• Climate Diplomacy and Global Environmental Agreements
• Refugee and Migration Policies in International Relations
• The Impact of International Organizations on Foreign Policy
• Energy Security and Geopolitical Strategies
• Regional Alliances and Security Agreements
• Terrorism and Counterterrorism Strategies
• Humanitarian Interventions and Responsibility to Protect
• The Role of Intelligence Agencies in Foreign Policy
• Economic Sanctions and Their Effectiveness
• Foreign Aid and Development Assistance
• International Law and Treaty Negotiations
• Gender and Politics
• Gender Representation in Political Leadership
• The Impact of Women’s Movements on Gender Policy
• Gender-Based Violence and Political Responses
• Intersectionality and Identity Politics in Gender Advocacy
• Gender Mainstreaming in Government Policies
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Political Movements
• Women in Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations
• The Gender Pay Gap and Labor Policies
• Female Political Empowerment and Quotas
• Masculinity Studies and Political Behavior
• Gender and Environmental Justice
• The Role of Men in Promoting Gender Equality
• Gender Stereotypes and Political Campaigns
• Reproductive Rights and Political Debates
• Gender, Race, and Political Power
• Feminist Foreign Policy and Global Women’s Rights
• Gender and Healthcare Policy
• Gender Disparities in Education Access
• Gender, Technology, and Digital Divide
• Patriarchy and Its Effects on Political Systems
• Globalization and Politics
• The Impact of Globalization on National Sovereignty
• Trade Agreements and Their Political Implications
• Globalization and Income Inequality
• Environmental Policies in the Globalized World
• Cultural Diversity in a Globalized Society
• Globalization and Labor Movements
• Global Health Governance and Pandemics
• Migration and Political Responses to Globalization
• Technology and Global Political Connectivity
• Globalization and Political Populism
• Human Rights in a Globalized Context
• Globalization and the Spread of Political Ideas
• Global Supply Chains and Political Vulnerabilities
• Media and Information Flow in Global Politics
• Globalization and Terrorism Networks
• Transnational Corporations and Political Influence
• Globalization and Political Identity
• The Role of International Organizations in Managing Globalization
• Globalization and Climate Change Politics
• Globalization and Post-Pandemic Political Challenges
• Political Ideologies
• Liberalism and Its Contemporary Relevance
• Conservatism in Modern Political Thought
• Socialism and Its Variations in Different Countries
• Fascism and the Rise of Far-Right Ideologies
• Anarchism and Political Movements
• Marxism and Its Influence on Political Theory
• Environmentalism as a Political Ideology
• Feminism and Its Political Manifestations
• Populism as an Emerging Political Ideology
• Nationalism and Its Role in Contemporary Politics
• Multiculturalism and Political Pluralism
• Postcolonialism and Its Impact on Global Politics
• Postmodernism and Its Critique of Political Discourse
• Religious Political Ideologies and Fundamentalism
• Libertarianism and Minimalist Government
• Technological Utopianism and Political Change
• Eco-Socialism and Environmental Politics
• Identity Politics and Intersectional Ideologies
• Indigenous Political Thought and Movements
• Futurism and Political Visions of Tomorrow

Checks and Balances

• The Role of the Executive Branch in Checks and Balances
• Congressional Oversight and Accountability
• The Separation of Powers in Parliamentary Systems
• Checks and Balances in Local Government
• Media and Public Opinion as Checks on Government
• Bureaucratic Agencies and Their Role in Oversight
• The Balance of Power in Federal Systems
• The Role of Political Parties in Checks and Balances
• Checks and Balances in Authoritarian Regimes
• The Role of Interest Groups in Government Oversight
• The Influence of Lobbying on Checks and Balances
• The Role of the Courts in Presidential Accountability
• Checks and Balances in Times of National Crisis
• The Use of Veto Power in Checks and Balances
• Checks and Balances and the Protection of Civil Liberties
• The Role of Whistleblowers in Exposing Government Misconduct
• Checks and Balances and National Security Policies
• The Evolution of Checks and Balances in Modern Democracies
• Interest Groups and Lobbies
• The Influence of Corporate Lobbying on Public Policy
• Interest Groups and Campaign Finance in Politics
• Advocacy Groups and Their Impact on Legislative Agendas
• The Role of Unions in Interest Group Politics
• Environmental Organizations and Lobbying Efforts
• Identity-Based Interest Groups and Their Political Power
• Health Advocacy Groups and Healthcare Policy
• The Influence of Foreign Lobbying on U.S. Politics
• Interest Groups and Regulatory Capture
• Interest Groups in Comparative Politics
• The Use of Social Media in Interest Group Campaigns
• Gun Control Advocacy and Interest Group Dynamics
• Religious Organizations and Political Lobbying
• Interest Groups and Human Rights Advocacy
• Farming and Agricultural Interest Groups
• Interest Groups and Education Policy
• LGBTQ+ Advocacy and Political Representation
• Interest Groups and Criminal Justice Reform
• Veterans’ Organizations and Their Political Clout
• Interest Groups and Their Role in Shaping Public Opinion
• International Relations
• Theories of International Relations: Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism
• Power Politics and International Security
• The Role of Diplomacy in Conflict Resolution
• Multilateralism vs. Unilateralism in International Relations
• International Organizations and Their Influence on World Politics
• Global Governance and Challenges to Sovereignty
• Humanitarian Interventions and the Responsibility to Protect
• Non-State Actors in International Relations
• International Law and Its Application in Conflict Zones
• Arms Control Agreements and Nuclear Proliferation
• International Trade Agreements and Economic Diplomacy
• International Environmental Agreements and Climate Change
• Cybersecurity Threats in the Digital Age
• Refugee Crises and Forced Migration on the Global Stage
• Geopolitics of Energy Resources
• Peacekeeping Operations and Conflict Prevention
• Global Health Diplomacy and Pandemic Response
• The Role of Intelligence Agencies in International Relations
• The Changing Dynamics of U.S.-China Relations

International Security

• Cybersecurity Threats and Global Security
• Arms Control and Nuclear Non-Proliferation
• Regional Conflict and Security Implications
• Humanitarian Interventions and Security Dilemmas
• Intelligence Sharing and National Security
• Environmental Security and Resource Conflicts
• Non-State Actors in Global Security
• Maritime Security and Freedom of Navigation
• The Role of International Organizations in Global Security
• Military Alliances and Collective Defense
• Space Security and Militarization of Outer Space
• Cyber Warfare and State-Sponsored Hacking
• Security Challenges in Post-Conflict Zones
• Refugee Crises and Security Implications
• Emerging Technologies and Security Risks
• Energy Security and Geopolitical Tensions
• Food Security and Global Agricultural Policies
• Biological and Chemical Weapons Proliferation
• Climate Change and Security Threats

Latin American Politics

• Populism in Latin American Politics
• Drug Trafficking and Security Challenges
• Political Instability and Regime Changes
• Indigenous Movements and Political Representation
• Corruption Scandals and Governance Issues
• Environmental Politics and Conservation Efforts
• Social Movements and Protests in Latin America
• Economic Inequality and Poverty Reduction Strategies
• Human Rights Violations and Accountability
• The Role of the United States in Latin American Politics
• Regional Integration and Trade Agreements
• Gender Equality and Women in Politics
• Land Reform and Agrarian Policies
• Indigenous Rights and Land Conflicts
• Media Freedom and Political Discourse
• Migration Patterns and Regional Impacts
• Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Backsliding
• Drug Legalization Debates in Latin America
• Religious Influence in Politics
• Latin American Diplomacy and International Relations
• Law and Courts
• Judicial Independence and the Rule of Law
• Constitutional Interpretation and Originalism
• Supreme Court Decision-Making and Precedent
• Legal Ethics and Professional Responsibility
• Criminal Justice Reform and Sentencing Policies
• Civil Rights Litigation and Legal Activism
• International Law and Its Application in Domestic Courts
• Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms
• The Role of Judges in Shaping Public Policy
• Access to Justice and Legal Aid Programs
• Gender Bias in Legal Systems
• Intellectual Property Rights and Legal Challenges
• Immigration Law and Border Control
• Environmental Law and Sustainability
• Corporate Governance and Legal Compliance
• Privacy Rights in the Digital Age
• Family Law and Custody Disputes
• Law and Technology: Legal Issues in AI and Robotics
• Legal Education and Training of Lawyers
• Legal Pluralism and Customary Law Systems
• Legislative Studies
• The Role of Legislative Bodies in Policy-Making
• Parliamentary Systems vs. Presidential Systems
• Legislative Oversight and Government Accountability
• Party Politics and Legislative Behavior
• Committee Structures and Decision-Making Processes
• Electoral Systems and Their Impact on Legislation
• Minority Rights and Representation in Legislatures
• Lobbying and Interest Group Influence on Legislators
• Legislative Ethics and Codes of Conduct
• The Evolution of Legislative Bodies in Modern Democracies
• Legislative Responses to Crises and Emergencies
• Legislative Innovations and Reforms
• Legislative Responsiveness to Public Opinion
• Legislative Term Limits and Their Effects
• Gender Parity in Legislative Representation
• Legislative Coalitions and Majority Building
• Legislative Role in Budgetary Processes
• Legislative Oversight of Intelligence Agencies
• Subnational Legislatures and Regional Autonomy
• Comparative Analysis of Legislative Systems

Middle Eastern Politics

• The Arab Spring and Political Transformations
• Sectarianism and Conflict in the Middle East
• Authoritarianism and Political Repression
• The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and Peace Efforts
• Oil Politics and Resource-Driven Conflicts
• Terrorism and Insurgency in the Middle East
• Foreign Interventions and Proxy Wars
• Human Rights Abuses and Accountability
• Religious Politics and Extremism
• Migration and Refugees in the Middle East
• Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
• Political Islam and Islamist Movements
• Water Scarcity and Regional Tensions
• Media and Censorship in Middle Eastern States
• Kurdish Politics and Autonomy Movements
• Sectarianism and Its Impact on State Structures
• Economic Challenges and Youth Unemployment
• Environmental Issues and Sustainability
• Iran’s Role in Regional Politics
• Middle Eastern Diplomacy and Global Relations

Nation and State

• National Identity and Its Influence on Statehood
• Secession Movements and the Question of Statehood
• Stateless Nations and the Right to Self-Determination
• State-Building in Post-Conflict Zones
• Failed States and International Interventions
• Ethnic Nationalism and Nation-Building
• Federalism and Devolution of Powers
• State Symbols and Nationalism
• Nationalism and Economic Policies
• Colonial Legacy and the Formation of Nations
• Territorial Disputes and State Sovereignty
• Ethnic Minorities and Their Political Rights
• Globalization and the Erosion of Statehood
• Nationalism in the Era of Transnationalism
• Nationalist Movements and Regional Autonomy
• The Role of Education in Shaping National Identity
• National Symbols and Their Political Significance
• Migration and Its Impact on National Identity
• Cultural Diversity and Nation-Building Challenges
• The Role of Language in Defining Nationhood

Political Behavior

• Voter Turnout and Political Participation Rates
• Political Socialization and Civic Engagement
• Partisan Loyalty and Voting Behavior
• Political Trust and Public Opinion
• Political Apathy and Its Causes
• Political Mobilization Strategies
• Protest Movements and Activism
• Electoral Behavior and Decision-Making
• Political Communication and Information Sources
• Political Social Networks and Online Activism
• Political Behavior of Youth and Generational Differences
• Political Behavior of Minority Groups
• Gender and Political Participation
• Social Media Influence on Political Behavior
• Public Opinion Polling and Its Impact
• Political Psychology and Behavioral Analysis
• Political Behavior in Non-Democratic Systems
• Voting Behavior in Swing States
• Political Behavior in Times of Crisis
• Political Behavior Research Methodologies

Political Change

• Regime Change and Democratization
• Revolution and Political Transformation
• Transitional Justice and Post-Conflict Reconciliation
• Political Leadership and Change Initiatives
• Nonviolent Movements and Political Change
• Social Movements and Policy Reforms
• The Role of Technology in Political Change
• Political Change in Authoritarian Regimes
• Youth-Led Political Change Movements
• Resistance Movements and Their Strategies
• Cultural Movements and Political Change
• Environmental Movements and Policy Impact
• Economic Crisis and Political Change
• International Influence on Political Change
• Indigenous Movements and Political Empowerment
• Women’s Movements and Gender-Driven Change
• Grassroots Movements and Local Governance
• The Impact of Global Events on Political Change
• Political Change and Human Rights
• Comparative Studies of Political Change

Political Communication

• Media Influence on Political Attitudes
• Political Advertising and Campaign Strategies
• Political Rhetoric and Persuasion Techniques
• Social Media and Political Discourse
• Political Debates and Public Perception
• Crisis Communication and Political Leadership
• Media Ownership and Political Influence
• Propaganda and Information Warfare
• Fact-Checking and Media Accountability
• News Framing and Agenda Setting
• Political Satire and Public Opinion
• Political Communication in Multicultural Societies
• Crisis Communication and Government Response
• Public Relations and Political Image Management
• Political Talk Shows and Public Engagement
• The Role of Polling in Political Communication
• Speechwriting and Political Oratory
• Media Literacy and Critical Thinking
• Political Communication Ethics and Responsibility
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Political Communication

Political Concepts

• Democracy: Theories and Applications
• Justice and Fairness in Political Systems
• Power and Authority in Governance
• Liberty and Individual Rights
• Equality: Political, Social, and Economic Dimensions
• Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities
• Sovereignty and the State
• Representation and Political Legitimacy
• Political Obligation and Consent
• Rights vs. Welfare: A Philosophical Debate
• The Common Good in Political Philosophy
• Social Contract Theories and Political Order
• Freedom of Speech and Political Discourse
• Political Ideals and Utopian Visions
• The Ethics of Political Decision-Making
• Anarchy and Political Order
• Nationalism and Patriotism as Political Concepts
• Political Realism vs. Idealism
• Human Dignity and Political Values
• Multiculturalism and Cultural Diversity in Politics

Political Economy

• Economic Policies and Political Decision-Making
• The Impact of Global Trade Agreements on National Economies
• Income Inequality and Political Consequences
• Taxation Policies and Political Debates
• Political Influence on Central Banks
• Economic Growth vs. Environmental Sustainability
• Government Regulation of Financial Markets
• Economic Crises and Political Responses
• Populism and Economic Policies
• Economic Development and Political Stability
• Corruption and Economic Performance
• Political Economy of Resource-Rich Nations
• International Trade Wars and Political Tensions
• Fiscal Policies and Government Budgets
• Labor Market Policies and Political Alignment
• Economic Ideologies and Political Parties
• Globalization and Income Redistribution
• Economic Populism and Public Opinion
• Economic Forecasting and Political Decision-Making
• Comparative Studies of Political Economies

Political Parties

• Party Systems and Electoral Politics
• Party Platforms and Policy Agendas
• Coalition Politics and Party Alliances
• Third Parties and Their Influence
• Party Funding and Campaign Finance
• Political Party Polarization
• Party Identification and Voter Behavior
• Party Primaries and Candidate Selection
• Populist Parties and Their Impact
• Minor Parties and Representation
• Party Discipline and Legislative Behavior
• Party Systems in Non-Democratic States
• Party Leadership and Ideological Shifts
• Party Membership and Activism
• Youth Participation in Political Parties
• Party Conventions and Political Strategy
• Party Mergers and Dissolutions
• Ethnic and Religious Parties in Multi-Cultural Societies
• Popularity of Anti-Establishment Parties
• Comparative Studies of Political Party Systems

Political Psychology

• Political Attitudes and Ideological Beliefs
• Personality Traits and Political Preferences
• Political Socialization and Identity Formation
• Political Trust and Distrust
• Group Psychology and Political Behavior
• The Role of Emotions in Political Decision-Making
• Cognitive Biases and Political Judgment
• Political Persuasion and Communication
• Political Polarization and Social Identity
• Fear and Political Behavior
• Voter Apathy and Psychological Factors
• Motivated Reasoning in Politics
• Political Stereotypes and Prejudices
• Political Leadership and Charisma
• Political Participation and Civic Psychology
• Mass Movements and Crowd Psychology
• Political Stress and Mental Health
• The Psychology of Political Extremism
• Political Tolerance and Intolerance
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Political Psychology

Political Theory

• Theories of Justice and Equality
• Democratic Theory and Political Legitimacy
• Social Contract Theories in Political Philosophy
• The Ethics of Political Leadership
• Political Authority and Obedience
• Rights and Liberties in Political Theory
• Political Utopias and Ideal Societies
• Power and Its Distribution in Political Thought
• Political Liberalism vs. Communitarianism
• The Role of Consent in Governance
• Political Anarchism and Stateless Societies
• The Philosophy of Political Revolution
• Political Philosophy and Human Rights
• Theories of Political Representation
• Feminist Political Theory and Gender Equality
• Cosmopolitanism and Global Justice
• Political Conservatism and Traditionalism
• Postmodernism and Deconstruction in Political Theory
• Critical Theory and Social Change
• Comparative Political Theories

Politics and Society

• The Societal Impact of Welfare Policies
• Environmental Policies and Sustainable Societies
• Social Movements and Their Political Goals
• Education Policies and Social Equity
• Healthcare Policies and Public Health
• Criminal Justice Policies and Social Inequality
• Immigration Policies and Integration Challenges
• Social Media and Political Activism
• Identity Politics and Social Cohesion
• Economic Policies and Income Distribution
• Civil Society and Political Engagement
• Social Capital and Political Participation
• Family Policies and Social Values
• Multiculturalism and Cultural Diversity
• Social Inclusion and Exclusion in Politics
• Urbanization and Political Dynamics
• Social Stratification and Political Behavior
• Aging Populations and Policy Implications
• Social Norms and Political Change
• Cross-Cultural Studies of Politics and Society

Politics of Oppression

• Political Repression and Human Rights Violations
• The Role of Mass Media in Oppression
• Authoritarian Regimes and Dissent
• Gender-Based Oppression and Activism
• State Surveillance and Privacy Rights
• Indigenous Rights and Anti-Oppression Movements
• Political Exile and Dissident Communities
• Censorship and Freedom of Expression
• Political Violence and Resistance
• Ethnic Conflict and Oppressed Minorities
• The Psychology of Oppression and Compliance
• Political Persecution and International Responses
• Refugees and Asylum Politics
• Oppression in Cyber-Space
• Socioeconomic Oppression and Inequality
• Historical Perspectives on Political Oppression
• Anti-Oppression Legislation and Human Rights Advocacy
• Discrimination and the Law
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Oppression
• Comparative Studies of Oppressive Regimes

Public Administration

• Bureaucratic Accountability and Transparency
• Public Sector Reform and Modernization
• Administrative Ethics and Integrity
• Performance Measurement in Public Administration
• E-Government and Digital Transformation
• Public-Private Partnerships in Service Delivery
• Administrative Decision-Making and Policy Implementation
• Leadership and Change Management in the Public Sector
• Civil Service Systems and Human Resource Management
• Administrative Law and Legal Challenges
• Emergency Management and Crisis Response
• Local Government and Municipal Administration
• Public Budgeting and Financial Management
• Public Administration and Social Welfare Programs
• Environmental Administration and Sustainability
• Healthcare Administration and Policy
• Public Diplomacy and International Relations
• Administrative Responsiveness and Citizen Engagement
• Public Administration in Developing Nations
• Comparative Public Administration Studies

Public Policy

• Policy Analysis and Evaluation
• The Role of Think Tanks in Policy Formulation
• Policy Implementation Challenges and Solutions
• Policy Advocacy and Lobbying
• Healthcare Policy and Access to Medical Services
• Education Policy and Curriculum Development
• Social Welfare Policies and Poverty Alleviation
• Environmental Policy and Conservation Efforts
• Technology and Innovation Policy
• Immigration Policy and Border Control
• Security and Defense Policy
• Transportation and Infrastructure Policy
• Energy Policy and Sustainability
• Foreign Aid and Development Policies
• Taxation Policy and Revenue Generation
• Criminal Justice Policy and Sentencing Reform
• Trade Policy and Economic Growth
• Drug Policy and Harm Reduction Strategies
• Social and Cultural Policy Initiatives
• Comparative Policy Studies

Race/Ethnicity, and Politics

• Racial Discrimination and Political Activism
• Ethnic Conflict and Identity Politics
• Minority Rights and Representation
• Racial Profiling and Policing
• Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity
• Indigenous Rights and Autonomy Movements
• Racial and Ethnic Voting Patterns
• The Role of Race in Political Campaigns
• Immigration Policies and Racial Implications
• Intersectionality and Multiple Identities
• Ethnic Diversity and Social Cohesion
• Slavery, Colonialism, and Historical Injustices
• Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare
• Education and Racial Achievement Gaps
• Media Representation and Stereotyping
• Hate Crimes and Extremist Movements
• Reparations and Compensation for Historical Wrongs
• Cultural Appropriation and Identity Politics
• Multiculturalism and Integration Policies
• Comparative Studies of Race and Politics

Religion and Politics

• The Role of Religious Institutions in Politics
• Religious Freedom and Secularism
• Faith-Based Advocacy and Social Change
• Religion and International Relations
• Religious Extremism and Terrorism
• Religion and Gender Equality
• Religious Minorities and Discrimination
• Political Parties and Religious Affiliation
• Religion and Environmental Ethics
• Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding
• Religious Ethics and Public Policy
• Religion in Education and Curriculum Debates
• Charitable and Faith-Based Organizations
• Religious Symbols and Public Spaces
• Sacred Texts and Political Interpretations
• Pilgrimage and Political Pilgrimage
• Religion and Human Rights
• Religious Conversion and Apostasy
• Faith and Political Leadership
• Comparative Studies of Religion and Politics

Electoral Systems

• The Impact of Electoral Systems on Representation
• Proportional Representation vs. First-Past-the-Post
• Gerrymandering and Electoral Manipulation
• Electronic Voting and Election Security
• Ranked Choice Voting Systems
• Voter Turnout and Participation Rates
• Minority Representation in Electoral Systems
• Campaign Finance and Electoral Outcomes
• Voter Registration and Access to Voting
• Electoral Reforms and Political Parties
• Voting Behavior and Demographic Patterns
• Gender and Electoral Politics
• Electoral Systems in Post-Conflict Nations
• Hybrid Electoral Systems
• Electoral Justice and Redistricting
• Political Parties and Coalition Building
• Election Observation and International Standards
• Electoral Systems and Ethnic Conflict
• Voter Suppression and Disenfranchisement
• Electoral Systems in Non-Democratic Regimes

Rights and Freedoms

• Freedom of Speech and Censorship
• Civil Liberties in Times of Crisis
• Religious Freedom and Freedom of Worship
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Advocacy
• The Right to Protest and Assembly
• Racial Profiling and Discrimination
• Right to Bear Arms and Gun Control
• Refugee Rights and Asylum Seekers
• Indigenous Rights and Land Sovereignty
• Rights of the Accused and Due Process
• Access to Healthcare as a Human Right
• Education as a Fundamental Right
• Economic Rights and Income Inequality
• Children’s Rights and Child Protection
• Disability Rights and Accessibility
• Prisoner Rights and Criminal Justice Reform
• Freedom of the Press and Media Ethics
• Comparative Human Rights Frameworks

Science/Technology and Politics

• Cybersecurity and Election Interference
• Surveillance Technologies and Privacy
• Artificial Intelligence in Governance
• Internet Regulation and Net Neutrality
• Space Exploration and International Cooperation
• Ethical Implications of Biotechnology
• Climate Science and Environmental Policy
• Digital Diplomacy and International Relations
• Technology in Disaster Management
• Data Protection and Online Privacy
• Social Media and Political Influence
• Bioethics and Genetic Engineering
• Ethical Considerations in Artificial Intelligence
• Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation
• Ethical Dilemmas in Scientific Research
• Quantum Computing and National Security
• Robotics and the Future of Labor
• E-Government Initiatives and Digital Services
• Environmental Ethics and Sustainability
• Technology Transfer in Developing Nations

War and Peace

• Conflict Resolution and Diplomacy
• Peacebuilding and Post-Conflict Reconstruction
• Arms Control and Non-Proliferation Agreements
• Nuclear Deterrence and Arms Races
• Cyber Warfare and International Law
• Refugee Crises and Forced Displacement
• United Nations Peacekeeping Missions
• War Crimes and International Tribunals
• Security Alliances and Collective Defense
• Civil Wars and State Fragmentation
• Weapons of Mass Destruction and Global Security
• Peace Accords and Conflict Resolution
• Conflict Journalism and Media Coverage
• Civilian Protection and Human Rights in Conflict Zones
• The Ethics of Humanitarian Aid
• Regional Conflicts and Regional Organizations
• Conflict-Induced Migration and Refugee Policies
• The Role of Religion in Peace and Conflict

This comprehensive list merely scratches the surface of the intriguing topics available within the realm of political science. From the intricacies of constitutional law to the dynamics of Asian politics and the complexities of comparative analysis, the field of political science offers a rich tapestry of subjects for your research pursuits. We encourage you to explore these topics, refine your interests, and embark on an academic journey that not only expands your knowledge but also contributes to the broader discourse on politics and governance. As you navigate this list, remember that the key to a successful research paper is your passion for the subject matter. Choose a topic that resonates with you, and let your curiosity drive your exploration of political science research paper topics.

Browse More Political Science Topics:

• African Politics and Society
• American Politics and Society
• Asian Politics and Society
• Culture, Media, and Language
• European Politics and Society
• Federalism and Local Politics
• Institutions and Checks and Balances
• International Security and Arms Control
• Latin American Politics and Society

The Range of Political Science Research Paper Topics

Introduction

Political science, the systematic study of politics and government, provides valuable insights into the complex world of governance, policy-making, and international relations. For students of political science, selecting the right research paper topic can be the key to unlocking a deeper understanding of these intricate issues. This page serves as a comprehensive guide to the rich array of Political Science Research Paper Topics available, offering a detailed overview of the field and highlighting its significant contributions to society.

Exploring Political Science

Political science plays a pivotal role in deciphering the dynamics of the modern world. By analyzing the behavior of individuals, groups, and institutions in political settings, it seeks to unravel the complexities of governance and decision-making. This discipline’s significance extends far beyond the classroom, as it directly informs public policy, governance structures, and international relations.

The research conducted within political science serves as the foundation for crafting effective policies and addressing pressing global challenges. Governments and organizations worldwide rely on the expertise of political scientists to provide evidence-based recommendations and solutions. Whether it’s designing social welfare programs, analyzing international conflicts, or studying voter behavior, political science research is at the forefront of shaping the way societies function.

The Essence of Political Science

Political science is the intellectual foundation of modern political analysis and policy-making. It serves as a bridge between theory and practice, helping individuals understand not only the “what” but also the “why” and “how” of political phenomena. By examining political behavior, institutions, and ideologies, this field equips students with the tools to navigate the complexities of governance and to critically evaluate the policies that shape our lives.

One of the defining features of political science is its interdisciplinary nature. It draws from various disciplines, including history, economics, sociology, psychology, and philosophy, to offer a holistic understanding of political processes. For students passionate about examining the social and political forces that shape our world, political science is a vibrant and intellectually rewarding field of study.

The Relevance of Political Science Research

Political science research is not confined to academic ivory towers; it has a profound impact on society. The evidence-based insights generated by political scientists guide governments, inform public discourse, and influence policy decisions. Research on topics such as voting behavior helps in understanding democratic processes, while studies on international relations contribute to strategies for peacekeeping and diplomacy.

Political scientists also play a crucial role in examining and addressing contemporary global challenges. They explore topics such as climate change, migration, and human rights, offering valuable insights that can shape policies and international cooperation. The relevance of political science research extends to issues of governance, accountability, and the promotion of democratic values.

Range of Research Paper Topics

Within the vast realm of political science, there exists a diverse range of research paper topics that cater to different interests and perspectives. These topics encompass various subfields, each shedding light on distinct aspects of political behavior, institutions, and ideologies. Here, we delve into some of the intriguing areas that can serve as the foundation for your research endeavors:

Democracy and Democratization : The study of democratic systems and processes is a cornerstone of political science. Research in this area may explore topics such as the challenges of democratization in emerging nations, the role of media in shaping public opinion, or the impact of electoral systems on representation.

Political Corruption : Understanding and combating political corruption is critical for the integrity of governments worldwide. Research topics may range from analyzing corruption’s economic and social consequences to exploring strategies for prevention and enforcement.

Globalization and Politics : In an increasingly interconnected world, globalization profoundly influences political dynamics. Research in this area can examine issues like the impact of globalization on national sovereignty, the role of international organizations, or the ethics of global trade.

Political Ideologies : The realm of political ideologies delves into the philosophies and belief systems that underpin political movements and parties. Topics may include the examination of specific ideologies such as liberalism, conservatism, or socialism, and their historical evolution.

Science/Technology and Politics : The intersection of science, technology, and politics is a fertile ground for research. This area covers topics like the influence of digital platforms on political discourse, ethical considerations in artificial intelligence, and the role of technology in election campaigns.

War and Peace : The study of international conflict and peacekeeping efforts remains a central concern in political science. Research may focus on issues like the causes of armed conflicts, peace negotiation strategies, or the ethics of humanitarian interventions.

Religion and Politics : Religion’s impact on political behavior and policies is a subject of ongoing debate. Research in this area can explore the role of religious institutions in politics, the influence of faith on voting patterns, or interfaith relations in diverse societies.

Race/Ethnicity, and Politics : The intersection of race, ethnicity, and politics raises critical questions about representation and equality. Research topics may encompass racial disparities in political participation, the impact of identity politics, or the dynamics of minority-majority relations.

Public Policy and Administration : The field of public policy and administration involves the study of how policies are formulated, implemented, and evaluated. Topics may include healthcare policy, environmental regulations, or the role of bureaucracy in shaping public programs.

International Relations : International relations examine interactions between states and the complexities of the global order. Research topics may focus on diplomacy, international organizations, global conflicts, or the challenges of international cooperation.

Human Rights and Justice : The study of human rights and justice explores ethical dilemmas and legal frameworks. Research may encompass issues like refugee rights, humanitarian law, or the role of international courts in addressing human rights abuses.

Environmental Politics : In an era of environmental challenges, political science research on environmental politics is vital. Topics may cover climate change policy, sustainable development, or the politics of natural resource management.

Evaluating Political Science Research Topics

As students explore these diverse topics, it’s essential to consider various factors when choosing a research paper topic. Here are some key considerations:

• Personal Interest : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the subject matter will fuel your research efforts and maintain your motivation throughout the project.
• Relevance : Consider the relevance of your chosen topic to current political debates, policies, or global issues. Research that addresses pressing concerns often has a more significant impact.
• Feasibility : Assess the availability of data, research materials, and access to experts or primary sources. Ensure that your chosen topic is researchable within your constraints.
• Originality : While it’s not necessary to reinvent the wheel, aim to contribute something new or offer a fresh perspective on existing debates or issues.
• Scope : Define the scope of your research clearly. Determine whether your topic is too broad or too narrow and adjust it accordingly.
• Methodology : Think about the research methods you’ll use. Will you conduct surveys, interviews, content analysis, or use historical data? Ensure that your chosen methods align with your topic.
• Ethical Considerations : Be mindful of ethical considerations, especially when dealing with sensitive topics or human subjects. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical standards.

Political science, as a multifaceted discipline, holds immense relevance in today’s world. Its research not only informs governance and policy-making but also empowers individuals to engage critically with the complex political issues of our time. The spectrum of Political Science Research Paper Topics is vast, reflecting the diversity of political phenomena and ideas.

As students embark on their research journeys in political science, they have the opportunity to make meaningful contributions to our understanding of governance, society, and international relations. By choosing topics that resonate with their interests and align with the pressing issues of the day, students can truly make a difference in the field of political science.

In closing, we encourage students to explore the wealth of Political Science Research Paper Topics, delve deep into their chosen areas of study, and harness the power of knowledge to effect positive change in the political landscape.

Choosing Political Science Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research topic is a crucial step in the journey of academic inquiry. It sets the tone for your entire research paper, influencing its direction, depth, and impact. When it comes to political science research paper topics, the stakes are high, as the field encompasses a wide range of subjects that can shape our understanding of governance, policy-making, and international relations. In this section, we’ll explore ten valuable tips to help you choose political science research paper topics that align with your interests, resonate with current debates, and provide ample research opportunities.

10 Tips for Choosing Political Science Research Paper Topics:

• Follow Your Passion : Begin your quest for the right research topic by considering your interests. Passion for a subject often fuels motivation and ensures your engagement throughout the research process. Whether it’s human rights, international diplomacy, or environmental policy, choose a topic that genuinely excites you.
• Stay Informed : Keep abreast of current political events, debates, and emerging issues. Reading newspapers, academic journals, and reputable websites can help you identify contemporary topics that are both relevant and research-worthy. Being informed about current affairs is essential for crafting timely and impactful research.
• Explore Gaps in Existing Literature : Conduct a thorough literature review to identify gaps or areas where further research is needed. This not only helps you understand the existing discourse but also provides insights into unexplored avenues for your research. Building on or critiquing existing research can contribute significantly to the field.
• Consider Policy Relevance : Think about the practical relevance of your chosen topic. How does it connect to real-world policy challenges? Research that addresses pressing policy issues tends to have a more substantial impact and can attract the attention of policymakers and practitioners.
• Delve into Comparative Studies : Comparative politics offers a wealth of research opportunities by allowing you to examine political systems, policies, or issues across different countries or regions. Comparative studies can yield valuable insights into the impact of context and culture on political outcomes.
• Narrow or Broaden Your Focus : Be mindful of the scope of your research topic. Some topics may be too broad to cover comprehensively in a single paper, while others may be too narrow, limiting available research material. Strike a balance by defining your research question or problem statement clearly.
• Consult Your Professors and Peers : Don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your professors or peers. They can offer valuable insights, suggest relevant literature, and help you refine your research question. Collaboration and mentorship can significantly enhance your research experience.
• Evaluate Feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your chosen topic. Consider the availability of data, research materials, and access to experts or primary sources. Ensure that your research is doable within your constraints, including time and resources.
• Embrace Interdisciplinary Perspectives : Political science often intersects with other disciplines, such as sociology, economics, or environmental science. Explore interdisciplinary angles to enrich your research. Collaborating with experts from related fields can lead to innovative insights.
• Ethical Considerations : When selecting a research topic, be mindful of ethical considerations, especially if your research involves human subjects or sensitive issues. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical standards and obtains the necessary approvals.

Choosing the right political science research paper topic is a dynamic process that requires reflection, exploration, and critical thinking. By following these ten tips, you can navigate the landscape of political science topics with confidence. Remember that your research topic is not set in stone; it can evolve as you delve deeper into your studies and gain new insights.

As you embark on your research journey, keep in mind that the topics you choose have the potential to contribute to our understanding of the political world, inform policy decisions, and shape the future of governance. Embrace the opportunity to explore, question, and discover, for it is through research that we illuminate the path to progress in the field of political science.

Choose your topics wisely, engage in meaningful inquiry, and let your passion for political science drive your pursuit of knowledge.

How to Write a Political Science Research Paper

Writing a research paper in political science is a distinctive journey that allows you to explore complex issues, develop critical thinking skills, and contribute to the body of knowledge in the field. Effective research paper writing is not only about conveying your ideas clearly but also about constructing a compelling argument supported by rigorous evidence. In this section, we’ll delve into ten valuable tips that will help you craft high-quality political science research papers, enabling you to communicate your findings effectively and make a meaningful impact.

10 Tips for Writing Political Science Research Papers:

• Thoroughly Understand the Assignment : Before you start writing, carefully read and understand your assignment guidelines. Clarify any doubts with your professor, ensuring you have a clear grasp of the expectations regarding format, length, and content.
• Choose a Strong Thesis Statement : Your thesis statement is the heart of your research paper. It should be clear, concise, and arguable. Ensure that it presents a central argument or question that your paper will address.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : A robust research paper relies on well-sourced evidence. Explore academic journals, books, reputable websites, and primary sources related to your topic. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for accurate citations.
• Structure Your Paper Effectively : Organize your paper logically, with a coherent introduction, body, and conclusion. Each section should flow smoothly, building upon the previous one. Use headings and subheadings to guide your reader.
• Craft a Captivating Introduction : Your introduction should grab the reader’s attention and provide context for your research. It should introduce your thesis statement and outline the main points you will address.
• Develop a Compelling Argument : Present a clear and well-reasoned argument throughout your paper. Each paragraph should support your thesis statement, with evidence and analysis that reinforces your position.
• Cite Your Sources Properly : Accurate citations are crucial in political science research papers. Follow the citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) specified in your assignment guidelines. Pay careful attention to in-text citations and the bibliography.
• Edit and Proofread Diligently : Writing is rewriting. After completing your initial draft, take the time to revise and edit your paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professors.
• Stay Objective and Avoid Bias : Political science research requires objectivity. Avoid personal bias and ensure that your analysis is based on evidence and sound reasoning. Acknowledge counterarguments and address them respectfully.
• Craft a Strong Conclusion : Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in the conclusion. Discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study. Leave your reader with a lasting impression.

Writing a political science research paper is not just an academic exercise; it’s an opportunity to engage with critical issues, contribute to knowledge, and develop essential skills. By applying these ten tips, you can navigate the complexities of research paper writing with confidence.

As you embark on your journey to craft high-quality papers, remember that effective communication is the key to making a meaningful impact in the realm of political science. Your research has the potential to shape discussions, influence policies, and contribute to our collective understanding of the political world.

Embrace the writing process, celebrate your achievements, and view each paper as a stepping stone in your academic and intellectual growth. Whether you’re exploring global diplomacy, dissecting political ideologies, or analyzing policy decisions, your research papers can be a force for positive change in the world of politics.

As you tackle the challenges and opportunities of political science research, remember that the knowledge you gain and the skills you develop are valuable assets that will serve you well in your academic and professional journey. Write with passion, rigor, and integrity, and let your research papers be a testament to your commitment to advancing the field of political science.

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1.5 Empirical Political Science

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Distinguish empirical political science from normative political science.
• Explain what facts are and why they may be disputed.
• Define generalization and discuss when generalizations can be helpful.

Unlike normative political science, empirical political science is based not on what should be, but on what is. It seeks to describe the real world of politics, distinguishing between what is predictable and what is idiosyncratic. Empirical political science attempts to explain and predict. 32

Empirical political science assumes that facts exist: actual, genuine, verifiable facts. Empirical questions are ones that can be answered by factual evidence. The number of votes a candidate receives is an empirical matter: votes can be counted. Counting votes accurately so that each candidate receives the actual number of votes that were cast for them can be difficult. Different ways of counting can lead to slightly different counts, but a correct number actually exists.

Connecting Courses

Empirical political science, as described here, is not different from other applications of the scientific method , whether one is examining rocks in geology, birds in botany, or the human mind in psychology. In every science-based course you take, you will observe systematic efforts to develop knowledge by using data to test hypotheses.

OpenStax Biology, a text generally assigned in introductory college biology courses, begins with a description of science and the scientific method, noting that “one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses . . . by means of repeatable experiments” 33 Until recently, few political science theories could be tested through repeated experiments, so instead political scientists had to rely on repeated observations. Congressional elections in the United States are held every two years, for example, and they generate substantial data that can be used to test hypotheses. In recent years, however, political scientists have conducted more and more true experiments. 34 Political science is connected to biology, and all other courses in science, through the use of the scientific method.

A fact may be disputed. There may be genuine uncertainty as to what the facts really are—what the evidence really shows. Sometimes it is extremely difficult to gather the facts. Do space aliens exist? That is an empirical question. Either space aliens exist, or they do not. Some researchers claim to have evidence that space aliens are real, but their evidence is not universally, or even broadly, accepted. One side of this argument is correct, however, and the other is not. Evidence has not yet conclusively determined which is correct. 35

Does the Russian government seek to interfere with American elections, and if so, does its interference affect the outcome? The first part of the question is difficult (but not impossible) to answer because when a country interferes in another country’s domestic affairs it tries to do so in secret. It is difficult to uncover secrets. 36 But the second part of the question, does the interference affect the outcome, is almost impossible to answer. Because so many factors influence election outcomes, it is extremely challenging to determine which individual factors made any consequential difference. 37

There are thus empirical debates in which people of good faith disagree about what the facts are. In many cases, however, people do not want to acknowledge what the evidence shows, and because they do not want to believe what the facts demonstrate, they insist the evidence cannot be true. Humans often use motivated reasoning , first deciding what is true—for example, “Gun control makes us safer” or “Gun control makes us less safe”—and then finding evidence that supports this belief while rejecting data that contradicts it. 38

Motivated Reasoning in Politics: Are Your Political Opinions as Rational as You Think?

Social psychologist Peter Ditto contrasts motivated reasoning with science, where scientists build conclusions based on evidence, and those employing motivated reasoning seek evidence that will support their pre-determined conclusions.

In other cases, individuals and interests may actually know what the facts are, but they are motivated by reasons of self-interest to deny them. The evidence is clear, for example, that nicotine is addictive and harmful to human health. The evidence is also clear that Big Tobacco, the largest cigarette companies, denied these facts for years because to admit them would have put their profits at risk. 39

Former President Donald Trump , along with many of his supporters, claims that he won the 2020 presidential election and that President Joe Biden was declared the victor only because of massive voter fraud. All attempts to prove that fraud led to Biden’s victory have failed: no evidence has been found to support Trump’s claims. 40 That these claims continue can be attributed to the fact that some individuals are simply unwilling to accept the evidence, while others benefit from denying the validity of it. 41

Empirical political science might find—based on the available evidence—that individuals with more education or more income are more likely to vote. Empirical political science would not consider whether this is good or bad; that would be a normative judgement. Empirical political scientists might explain the link between education, income, and voting by positing that better educated, more prosperous individuals are more likely to believe that their views matter and that because of that belief they are more likely to express those views at the ballot box. These political scientists might also use their findings to make a prediction: an individual with more education or higher income is more likely to vote than an individual with less education or lower income. 42

Based on this finding, empirical political scientists make no claims as to who should participate in politics. Questions about “should” are the domain of normative political science . Moral judgments cannot be made strictly on the basis of empirical statements. That members of one group vote at higher rates than another group, for example, tells us nothing about whether they deserve to vote at higher rates or whether government policies should be based more on their views as compared to those who vote at lower rates.

From this finding, however, empirical political scientists may infer a generalization. Generalizations are based on typical cases, average results, and general findings. Younger adults, for instance, typically vote less often than older adults. This does not mean that any specific young adult does not vote or that any specific older adult does, but that these statements are generally true. 43

Generalizations can be helpful in describing, explaining, or predicting, but there is a downside to generalizations: stereotyping . If the evidence shows that political conservatives in the United States are opposed to higher levels of immigration, this means neither that every conservative holds this belief nor that one must hold this belief to be conservative. If data suggests supporters of abortion rights tend to be women, it is not possible to infer from the evidence that all women seek more permissive abortion laws or that no men do. In using generalizations, it is important to remember that they are descriptive of groups, not individuals. These are empirical statements, not normative ones: they cannot by themselves be used to assign blame or credit.

Empirical political science can be used to make predictions, but predictions are prone to error. Can political science knowledge be useful for predicting the outcome of elections, for example? Yes. Given a set of rules about who is eligible to vote, how votes can be cast, and what different categories of voters believe about the candidates or policy options on the ballot, political science knowledge can be useful in predicting the outcome of the election. Our predictions might be wrong. Maybe people did not tell the truth about who they were planning to vote for. Maybe the people who said they were going to vote did not.

In 2016, most political polls predicted that Hillary Clinton would be elected president of the United States. 44 Clinton did indeed win the popular vote, as the pollsters anticipated, but Donald Trump won the electoral vote, against the pollsters’ expectations. Political science is imperfect, but it seeks to learn from and correct its mistakes. You will learn more about public opinion polling in Chapter 5: Political Participation and Public Opinion .

Many of the terms in this book, like incumbent , are relevant mainly for the study of politics. Other terms, like ceteris paribus , are useful across a broad range of studies that use the scientific method. Ceteris paribus can be translated as “all other things being equal.” If the ethnicity of a political candidate does not influence their probability of getting elected to office, ceteris paribus , if there are only two candidates and if they are alike in every relevant aspect (e.g., age, experience, ability to raise campaign funding) except their ethnicity, then the candidate’s ethnicity by itself does not affect the outcome of the election.

In real life, however, “all other things” are almost never equal. To the extent that our societies have inequalities of wealth, health, education, and other resources, the inequalities tend to be correlated—that is, mutually related—to each other. For example, wealth and health are correlated with each other in that wealthier people tend to have better health and poorer individuals tend to have poorer health. In the United States, Whites tend on average to have more wealth, health, education, and other social resources than do persons of color. 45 This does not mean that every White person is wealthier and healthier, but that on average, in general, they tend to be.

Empirical political science and political philosophy (or normative political science ) are distinct modes of inquiry. But this is not to say that they are conflicting, that one is better than the other, or that political scientists do not use both in their research. If empirical research discovers that certain groups are systematically disadvantaged in the political process, the researchers may also argue that these disadvantages are harmful or wrong and make a moral argument that the disadvantages should be reduced or eliminated. Empirical research is often inspired by normative concerns. Those who believe that human rights should be better protected may undertake research to understand the political factors that limit the protection of rights.

THE CHANGING POLITICAL LANDSCAPE

A slim majority.

The 2020 election in the United States resulted in a 50-50 split in the US Senate. 46 Until the election, the Republicans, whose 53 seats gave them a 6-seat advantage over the Democrats, were able to call the shots. With the Senate split 50-50, the US Constitution gives the vice president the power to break tie votes. Vice President Kamala Harris is a Democrat, so the Senate makeup became effectively 51-50. That one vote enormously increased the powers of the Senate Democrats. When you are in the minority, it can be difficult to move the political system in the direction you want. Once you gain the majority, getting what you want tends to be easier, at least in a democracy.

The 2020 election not only changed the balance of power in the US Senate, but it did so in an unprecedented way. The tie-breaking vote was held, for the first time in US history, by a woman and a person of color. Harris’s mother immigrated to the United States from India, and her father from Jamaica.

Political power is not a constant; the political landscape is constantly changing.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-political-science/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Mark Carl Rom, Masaki Hidaka, Rachel Bzostek Walker
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Introduction to Political Science
• Publication date: May 18, 2022
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-political-science/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-political-science/pages/1-5-empirical-political-science

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Political Science Research Questions : Uncovering insightful and relevant inquiries

• political science

Political science research questions seek to analyze political phenomena and institutions in society. This involves examining power structures, public policies, and government behavior to understand and explain political processes.

Political science research questions cover a wide range of topics, including comparative politics, international relations, and public administration. Researchers explore questions related to governance, political ideologies, and the impact of political decisions on society. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informing public policy, promoting democratic participation, and enhancing the functioning of political systems.

By delving into these questions, scholars contribute to deeper insights, informed debates, and evidence-based decision-making in the political arena. This research also helps to advance our understanding of the complexities and nuances inherent in political phenomena, offering valuable perspectives for addressing societal challenges.

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Understanding The Importance

When delving into the realm of political science research, understanding the importance of research questions is crucial for unlocking insightful discoveries. Research questions serve as the backbone of any empirical study, shaping the direction of the investigation and guiding the researcher towards valuable insights. By establishing clear and focused research questions, political scientists can effectively navigate the complexity of political phenomena, contributing to the advancement of knowledge within the field.

Significance Of Research Questions In Political Science

Research questions play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of political science research. This is primarily because clearly formulated research questions act as a guidepost for researchers, ensuring that their inquiries are precise and targeted . By honing in on specific aspects of political phenomena, researchers can avoid ambiguity and obtain focused insights that contribute meaningfully to the expansion of political science knowledge .

Establishing The Link Between Research Questions And Insightful Discoveries

The link between research questions and insightful discoveries lies in the focus and specificity of the inquiries. When research questions are carefully crafted , they serve as critical tools for delving deep into the intricacies of political phenomena. In doing so, researchers can uncover nuanced patterns, relationships, and causality that underlie the complex landscape of politics. Through this process, the insightful discoveries stemming from well-formulated research questions bolster the evidence base of political science, enriching the discipline with robust and meaningful findings .

Formulating Effective Research Questions

Research questions are crucial in guiding the process of political science studies. Formulating effective research questions ensures that the research is focused, relevant, and impactful. By asking the right questions, political scientists can delve into complex societal issues and contribute to a deeper understanding of political dynamics.

Attributes Of Effective Political Science Research Questions

• Specific and Focused: Effective research questions are specific and focused on a particular aspect of political science . They avoid being too broad or vague, allowing for in-depth analysis.
• Clear and Concise: Research questions should be articulated in a clear and concise manner to ensure understanding and avoid ambiguity.
• Empirical and Testable: Political science research questions should be framed in a way that allows for empirical investigation and testing, enabling the collection of concrete data and evidence.
• Relevance to Political Context: Questions must be relevant to the current political landscape, addressing issues that have practical and real-world significance.

Utilizing Contextual Relevance To Frame Research Questions

Crafting research questions that are contextually relevant involves understanding the societal, historical, and cultural context in which the political phenomena under investigation occur. By aligning research questions with the relevant political context , scholars can ensure that their inquiries address actual challenges and developments, leading to insightful and applicable findings.

Types Of Political Science Research Questions

In political science research, various types of research questions are explored to analyze and understand various aspects of political behavior, institutions, and processes. Each type of research question serves a specific purpose and contributes to the depth of knowledge within the field. Understanding the different types of political science research questions is crucial for developing effective research methodologies and addressing complex political phenomena.

Descriptive Research Questions In Political Science

Descriptive research questions in political science focus on identifying and describing the characteristics, patterns, and behaviors within political systems. These questions seek to provide a comprehensive overview of a particular political phenomenon or event, often using qualitative or quantitative methods to analyze and present the data. Examples of descriptive research questions include:

• What are the voting patterns among different demographic groups within a specific constituency?
• How has public opinion on immigration policies evolved over the past decade?

Explanatory Research Questions In Political Science

Explanatory research questions aim to uncover the reasons or causes behind political phenomena or events. These questions delve deeper into understanding the relationships between different variables, exploring underlying mechanisms, and explaining the factors that influence political outcomes. Explanatory research questions often involve hypothesis testing and statistical analysis. Examples of explanatory research questions include:

• What are the factors that contribute to the rise of populist movements in democratic societies?
• How does the distribution of power within a political system impact policy decision-making?

Predictive Research Questions In Political Science

Predictive research questions in political science seek to anticipate future political developments or outcomes based on current trends, patterns, and dynamics. These questions utilize historical data, forecasting models, and scenario analysis to project potential political scenarios and their likely consequences. Examples of predictive research questions include:

• What are the potential implications of a trade war between major global economies on international relations?
• How might demographic shifts influence the electoral landscape in the upcoming national elections?

Examples Of Insightful Political Science Research Questions

Exploring the impact of globalization on political stability.

Globalization has significantly transformed the dynamics of international relations, potentially influencing political stability in various regions. A research question could be:

• How has globalization contributed to the rise of transnational political movements?
• What are the implications of economic interdependence on state sovereignty and political stability?
• How does the flow of information and cultural exchange due to globalization impact political stability in different societies?

Analyzing The Role Of Social Media In Shaping Political Discourse

Social media platforms have become integral to political communication and public opinion formation. Researchers can investigate the following questions:

• What is the influence of social media on the formation and dissemination of political narratives?
• How does social media contribute to polarization or consensus-building in political discourse?
• What role does social media play in amplifying or attenuating the impact of misinformation and propaganda in political campaigns?

Best Practices For Uncovering Relevant Inquiries

When conducting political science research, formulating relevant and impactful research questions is crucial for success. Understanding the best practices for uncovering relevant inquiries is essential for yielding meaningful insights and driving the field forward. Below, we explore key strategies for shaping research questions in political science.

Leveraging Interdisciplinary Perspectives In Shaping Research Questions

One of the best practices for uncovering relevant inquiries in political science research is to leverage interdisciplinary perspectives when formulating research questions. Political science is a complex field that intersects with various disciplines, including sociology, economics, history, and law. By integrating insights from these diverse fields, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of political dynamics and societal structures.

Incorporating Ethical Considerations In Political Science Research Question Formulation

Another essential aspect of shaping research questions in political science is the incorporation of ethical considerations into the question formulation process. Political science research often delves into sensitive topics related to governance, power, and social justice. Thus, it is imperative for researchers to carefully consider the ethical implications of their inquiries, ensuring that their work adheres to ethical standards and respects the dignity and rights of individuals and communities.

Frequently Asked Questions Of Political Science Research Questions

What are some popular political science research questions.

Political science research questions often focus on topics like political behavior, governance, comparative politics, and international relations. Some popular questions include: “How do political institutions influence citizens’ behavior? ” And “What factors contribute to the stability of political systems? “

How Can I Develop A Unique Political Science Research Question?

To develop a unique political science research question, consider current events, gaps in existing literature, and areas of personal interest. Addressing underexplored topics or frameworks can lead to innovative research questions that contribute to the field’s knowledge base.

Why Is It Important To Refine Political Science Research Questions?

Refining research questions in political science is crucial as it helps focus the study, enhances clarity, and guides the research process. Well-defined questions enable researchers to effectively gather and analyze data, leading to more precise and impactful findings.

The political science research questions discussed highlight the significance of understanding and analyzing the complexities of modern political systems. By delving into these inquiries, researchers can develop valuable insights that contribute to our understanding of politics and its impact on society.

These questions serve as a foundation for future research and enriching our knowledge of the political landscape.

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Empirical Methods in Political Science: An Introduction

By Salih O. Noor

3.1 Introduction

Most people may not know much of anything about theory. Theory is either so “esoteric and complicated as to be incomprehensible" or "so commonplace and obvious as to be platitudinous” ( Shoemaker, Jr, and Lasorsa 2003, 5–6 ) . Either way, to most people, theories seem to be of little use. In reality, however, people use theories every day about friendship, dating, success, and so on. Political scientists rely on theory to analyze public opinion or predict election results, and weather analysts apply theory to forecast weather conditions. Most people, however, misunderstand what a theory is and what a theory does.

In this chapter we will study the meaning, significance, and building blocks of theory as well as theory-building and theory testing procedures. In the second section, we will discuss what theory is and is not, and how empirical theory differs from other kinds of claims or theories in its application of the scientific method. In the third section, we will learn some characteristics that define a good theory, discussing four very important elements of a well-crafted theory. In the fourth section, we will try to understand literature review and its importance to theory. In the last section, we will study the relationship and differences between theory-building and theory-testing, in addition to inductive and deductive reasoning and procedures in theory-building. For elaboration, we will draw at all stages on various examples from the social (and when necessary the natural) sciences, including two check boxes on the scientific method and on examples in theory-building and testing.

3.2 What is a theory?

A scientific theory is a set of logically consistent statements that tell us why the empirical social and political phenomena we observe, or the relationships between them, occur in the way they occur. More formally, a theory “is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships between those constructs) that collectively present a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions” ( Bacharach 1989, 496 ) . In short, a theory is an interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality. These propositions are comprised of (1) concepts that introduce basic terms of the theory; (2) assumptions that relate the basic concepts to each other; and (3) generalizations that relate the statements to a set of observations or, simply, report the findings on observed relationships. It is important that these propositions are “logically consistent” in that they must all be true at the same time; the theoretical concepts, assumptions, statements should be coherent with each other. Concepts, variables, and hypothesis are the building blocks of theory.

For example, the “logic of collective action” is a theory that aims to explain the dilemma of collective action and public goods. Formulated by political scientist Mancur Olson, Jr. ( Olson 1965 ) , the theory explains when (and why) do some collective groups (such as trade unions, social movements, or college students) organize better to achieve public goods (like increased wage, policy change, or improved campus security) than other groups. Olson found that the interests of highly coherent minority groups can be overrepresented, and the interests of majorities get marginalized due to the “free-rider” problem. Collective action is difficult because individual members always have incentives to "free ride" on the efforts of others, because “public goods” — goods or services that are available to every member — are by definition non-excludable (i.e. one member cannot reasonably prevent another from consuming them) and non-rivalrous (i.e. one person’s consumption of the good does not affect the others’ chances). As a result, some members (e.g. workers) can expect to enjoy public goods, such as increased wages and improved workplace conditions without bearing the costs of participating in a strike (e.g. time, money, or physical harm). In particular, large groups face tremendous challenges for collective action than small groups, because individuals in large groups gain less per capita of a successful collective action due to diminishing returns. On the contrary, small groups can provide selective incentives to their members and a prospect of greater rewards for each a successful collective action due to small number of members. As a result, Olson concludes, it is highly possible that a minority group bound together by concentrated selective incentives can dominate a majority social group. In so observing, Olson refuted previous theories that held (a) individuals in a group (of any size) will act collectively to achieve their common interests, and (b) the greatest threat in a democracy is, due to the majority’s sheer numbers, “the tyranny of the majority”.

A theory should explain why things happen, rather than just describe or predict. It is entirely possible to predict events or behaviors using a set of predictors, without necessarily explaining why such events are taking place or why they take place together. For instance, stock market analysts predict fluctuations in the stock market based on market announcements, earnings reports of major companies, and/or new data from the Federal Reserve, based on previously observed correlations. In contrast, theoretical explanations require causation, or the understanding of cause-effect relationships. Establishing causation requires four conditions: (1) correlations between two concepts, (2) temporal sequence (the cause must precede the effect in time), (3) causal pathway (causal mechanism that link cause to effect), and (4) rejection of alternative hypotheses through testing ( Bacharach 1989, 496–515 )

Theoretical explanations can be idiographic or nomothetic that vary in their theoretical premise and explanatory scope. Idiographic explanations are those that explain a single situation or event, say unemployment in the state of Illinois, in idiosyncratic detail. The explanation is detailed, accurate, and valid, but it may not apply to other similar situations, say other states, and is hence not broadly generalizable. In contrast, nomothetic explanations seek to explain a class of situations or events, for example unemployment in several US state, rather than a specific situation or event. Because nomothetic explanations are designed to be generalizable across contexts (events, or people, countries), they nonetheless tend to be less precise, less complete, and less detailed. As such, idiographic and nomothetic explanations rely on different assumptions of causality, different analytical tools, and different approaches to theory-building. Methodologically speaking, therefore, the two approaches to social science theory often fall along the qualitative-quantitative divide; the first typically uses small-N methods of analysis (e.g. cross-case analysis, within-case analysis or process tracing, and set theory) for one or few number of cases, while the second applies large-N methods of quantitative analysis (e.g. large-scale surveys, statistical analysis, regression) to a large number of cases. Further on these methods, read the chapters on small-N and large-N analysis.

Theories are important in the social and political sciences. They help us, among other things, to understand the nature of political and social phenomena (such as political events, behavior, institutions, and processes), to explain observed regularities among these phenomena (i.e. causal relationships between events or processes), to make predictions about as yet unobserved relationships (e.g. the possible effect of immigration policy on the 2020 US presidential elections), and to take a particular policy action (e.g. universal healthcare to reduce high healthcare costs). Without theories it is hard to have valid knowledge of political events, behavior, and processes, or tools to understand the relationships between different political events and processes.

However, theories can also have their own share of (systematic or non-systematic) limitations. As simplified explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations of the phenomenon of interest. While social reality is often more complex, theories are designed to be simple and parsimonious explanations based on a limited set of concepts/variables and concept/variable-relationships. Furthermore, theories may impose cognitive blinders or limit researchers’ “range of vision,” causing them to miss out on important concepts that are not identified by the theory (i.e. omitted variable). The nature of these limitations sharply vary between small-N and large-N theories, with the strengths of one being the limitations of the other.

For a better understanding of what theory is, it is good to think in terms of what theory is not. First and foremost, the theory – i.e.  empirical theory – we are concerned with here, such as Olson’s “logic of collective action,” is epistemologically different from normative political theory in political or general philosophy. Empirical theory is concerned with the examination of empirical political and policy matters through the scientific assessment of empirical evidence rather than, as political theory, with the realm of political ideas, values, and norms from a normative perspective. The latter is typically concerned with questions of overtly normative nature, such as: What system of government best guarantees freedom, justice, and equality in society?; When is obedience to a ruling power justified, and when is disobedience not justified?; Or how citizens ought to behave towards their rulers or the state? Empirical social theory rather inquires, for example, how and why a particular political system (e.g. democracy, dictatorship, military regime) emerges, why citizens behave in a particular way towards their government or leaders, or what caused voters to support the Democratic Party over the Republican Party in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Elections. The latter also differs from normative theory in terms of the tools, methods, and techniques applied in answering questions about the social and political world around us.

Social science theories are generated through the application of the scientific method – or the principles and procedures of interpreting the empirical world through objective, value-neutral observation of facts. Put simply, the scientific method is a process of guessing and verifying to reach descriptive or causal explanations—i.e. making assumptions/ hypotheses about the real social/political world, examining evidence (data) gathered from that world, and confirming (or disconfirming) those hypotheses in view of the evidence. Even though there is no social scientific method clearly written down that is followed by all scientists, it is possible to identify five steps associated with the method:

Formulate a question after observing a social/political puzzle;

Develop a theoretical model/framework to explain it;

Propose a hypothesis/testable implication ;

Test hypotheses against evidence; and

Confirm/reject the hypothesis after analyzing the evidence.

The scientific method stipulates clear and logical steps (Checkbox 1) that must be strictly followed in our search for explanations. Social scientists develop theories through the formulation of a question, proposing hypotheses about what they think the answers are, testing the hypothesis against evidence collected and examined in an objective and systematic manner, and drawing theoretical conclusions that are falsifiable through the iterative application of the scientific procedures. Therefore, empirical theory is different from normative political theory in that the latter relies on tools other than the scientific method to deal with normative and ethical questions. Normative questions ask for a normative response, seeking an indication of what is good or of what should be done; ultimately, the answers involve what someone likes or dislikes, values or rejects. The scientific method cannot provide the answers without regard for an individual’s personal values or preferences.

Checkbox 1: The Social Scientific Method

STEP1: Research Question,The first step in the scientific method is to observe the world and come up with a question. The very need for a theory begins when we observe something that is so puzzling that we ask “why did it occur?” or “what caused it to occur?” What makes the observation a puzzle worth exploring is that the observation does not fit with some prior expectation or theory that we held to be true about how the world works. Therefore, we always have a preexisting theory or expectation when we observe the world that leads to a new puzzle or question.

STEP 2: Theory or model The next step after observing something puzzling is to develop a theory (also sometimes called theoretical framework or model) to explain it. This is a set of logically consistent statements that tell us why the things that we observe occur in the way they do. The task here is to propose an explanation for the phenomenon the researcher is interested in understanding. Developing a theory requires imagination and creativity to fathom the social world, to impose some analytical order on an otherwise complex world. In short, the model will be a simplified picture of the world; it will be something that helps us understand some relationships between two or more empirical phenomena. A good model, therefore, contains only what is needed to explain the phenomenon that puzzles us and nothing else. At times, this step involves developing a theoretical framework or structure that can hold or support the theory. A theoretical framework consists of concepts, variables, and the theoretical assumptions of the theory that explains the problem under study. It is the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems.

STEP 3: Hypothesis (Implications) Once we have a model, the third step in the scientific method is to deduce implications from the model. Our model will presumably provide a logical explanation for the puzzling observation that we started with; after all that is what it was designed for. To actually test the model and allow for the possibility that it can be falsified, we will have to find other implications that can be deduced from it. We must ask “If the prior world that we created to explain the phenomena that we originally found puzzling really did exist, what else ought to exist? What else should we be able to observe?” Good models are those that produce many different implications because each prediction represents another opportunity for the model to fail and, thereof, makes the model easier to falsify. If the model fails to be falsified, we gain more confidence in its usefulness. Good models also produce small surprising implication –i.e. they tell us something we would no know without the model. Models are not particularly useful if they tell us only what we already know.

STEP 4: Test Hypotheses The fourth step is to examine whether the implications of the model are consistent with observation. We should not dogmatically uphold the implications of our model or defend them to prove they are right. On the contrary, we should try our best to falsify them because it is only after a theory has withstood these attempts that we can reasonably have confidence in it. Testing the implications that are most likely to be falsified is particularly important. Always subject a model to the harshest test that you can devise. It is also standard to ask if other (existing) models might also explain the phenomena of interest. In this case, the researcher should compare the implications of those other models with the implications of her own model. It is always the case that competing models have some of the same implications, yet they will differ in some other implications (otherwise they are not different models). The trick is to identify these points of conflict between the different models and the relevant observations in the real world that would help decide between them. This –called critical test – allows the analyst to use observation to distinguish between two or more competing explanations of the same phenomenon. After all there is only one world and only one of the models can be consistent with the real world.

STEP 5: Evaluation Confirmation or refutation of the theory is the last step in the scientific method. Our theory has been confirmed if we observe the implications deduced from our theory. Note that we cannot say our theory has been verified or proven because we can never prove or disprove a scientific explanation. Scientific method is a means to “provisionally” understand the world, and scientific theories serve as provisional explanations of the world contingent on better methods, better analytical tools, and better evidence. Our theory may or may not be true. All we can conclude, if the observations are consistent with our theoretical implications, is that our theory has not yet been falsified. We cannot rule out the possibility that it can be falsified the next time it is tested. ( Clark, Golder, and Golder 2017 )

Second, a theory is not the same as a model or paradigm. Theory and model are related terms and not infrequently confused. But the two are different from each other in their definition, purpose, and application. First, as defined above, theory is a conceptual framework or general explanation of an idea. A model (not the same as theoretical model) by contrast is a verbal or a visual representation of a concept in order to make the understanding of something easier and clearer. Second, the purpose of a theory is to explain things and is less practical, whereas a model is meant to simplify things and is more practical. The social and political world is immensely complex; models present a simplified picture of the world that puzzles us. Models present in simple and concise manner concepts, assumptions, and claims, which are the building blocks of theory. Models are commonly used in all political science, but game-theoretic models in rational-choice approaches represent the most popular forms of modelling the behavior and actions of rational actors like voters, politicians, special interest groups, and states. For example, in Olson’s theory of collective action individuals are modelled as rational, interest-maximizing actors who act only under circumstances that maximize their interests. This simple model illustrates an otherwise complex social and mental reality of actors interacting in large group contexts. Therefore, theory and model coexist in the same world of social science inquiry, yet they differ, and the failure to realize this difference can lead to confusion and perhaps in disillusionment. Theories should be understood as explanations or conclusions about certain situations or problems, while models as heuristic devices that help us understand, through concepts and theories, how some aspects of the world work and explain it to others. Models, therefore, can represent a theory but they cannot be a substitute for theory. Read ( Shoemaker, Jr, and Lasorsa 2003 ) , chapter 7, for a greater discussion of theory versus model, and ( Clark, Golder, and Golder 2013 ) , pages 121-137, for examples of game-theoretic models.

Third, a theory is not a paradigm . A paradigm is a broad, general framework or approach that defines a particular scientific discipline. It is a distinct set of concepts and assumptions, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards that guide scientific inquiry in a particular community of scholars. It determines the kind of questions supposed to be asked and their structure, the assumptions made, the methods used, and how the results should be interpreted ( Kuhn 1996, 10 ) . Scientific paradigms set the standards for studying the empirical world, while theories are explanations of some aspects of that world. In addition, unlike theory, a paradigm is not actually testable per se. Examples of paradigms in political science include systems theory, rational choice theory, comparative historical analysis, neo-liberal institutionalism, and constructivism.

Fourth, and last, social scientific theories are general explanations, and not “covering laws” of political and social behavior. It is possible to have law-like theories in the natural sciences with universal applicability to all natural phenomena; theories of electromagnetism, evolution, and relativity are some examples. This because natural phenomena display behavior and (causal) regularities that are uniform across time or space. For example, water boils at 100 degree centigrade almost always whereas, according to Albert Einstein, light travels at a speed of 186,000 miles/second, and is unchanging. As Max Weber argued, the laws that regulate social relations are quite different from the laws that govern nature; regularities in human behavior and the physical world are fundamentally different because the former display a great degree of irregularity, fluidity, and heterogeneity. Unlike natural events, political events and processes do not lend themselves to the same explanatory logic as is found in physics and the other hard sciences.

This is to neither say that human behavior is devoid of regularities nor law-like generalizations to explain it are entirely impossible. It is not rare that social scientists seek to identify such regularities and develop general explanations; examples include: Duverger’s law of plurality voting and two-party system ( Duverger 1954 ) , modernization theory on modernization and democracy ( Lipset 1959 ) ; and Moore’s “No bourgeoisie no democracy” hypothesis on the middle class and democracy ( Moore 1966 ) . These theories validly explained a broad range of historical observations, but their applicability turned out to be limited to a particular context—i.e. mostly advanced Western democracies before mid-twentieth century—which signifies that the utility of social scientific theories is context- and time-specific because regularities in human behavior hinge on the given cultural, political, and economic context. Most social scientists aspire to produce generalizations about the world; in fact, a central goal of scientific analysis is to generate concepts, models, and theories that travel across time and space. However, social and political phenomena are characterized by complexity, randomness, and diversity to yield themselves to law-like, universal theories. Cause and effect greatly vary across countries, cultures, regions, and historical contexts. What obtains to observations in a specific context often does not apply to other observations in a different context. The demise of modernization theory after the 1960s was precisely because education, urbanization, and industrialization (i.e. modernization) in the Third World did not cause democracy but instability, revolutions and dictatorships. Moreover, the more general a theory is (i.e. it explains too many observations), the less is its explanatory power concerning each observation. In fact, a social science theory that explains everything does not explain anything. Due to the complexity of causality, therefore, social science theories are judged less by their universal applicability than by their validity and robustness in explaining a particular set of observations. Theoretical generality and specificity are two competing goals in theory-building, with large-N (quantitative) analysis associated with the former and small-N (qualitative) with the latter.

3.3 What is a good theory?

A good theory should explain previously puzzling facts, be logically consistent, and produce potentially falsifiable predictions. It builds on existing theories, has clearly specified concepts (valid conceptualization) codified as measurable variables (valid measurement), and clearly shows the relationship between the concepts (causal pathway). Even though the standards for a good theory are debatable, particularly among qualitative and quantitative traditions, social scientists agree on some basic elements of what makes a good theory. We will discuss here four major characteristics of a good theory.

Parsimony is the first such element. How simple is the explanation? The simplest theory (i.e. one that uses the smallest number of variable or makes the fewest assumptions) is considered the best. A theory is considered as parsimonious when it has the ability to explain often complex phenomena in relatively few terms and statements. A parsimonious theory can specify the causal relationship (X—>Y) in clear terms using a causal model (which might involve multiple variables and relationships) that reasonably simplifies a complex empirical reality in to something comprehensible.

The second feature is generalizability or theoretical coverage. A good theory is generalizable when it has the power to explain a broad range of similar cases or phenomena outside the context of that study. In other words, the conclusions of a scientific theory are applicable to other contexts not included in the study, which is also referred to as the external validity of a theory. In qualitative research, this criterion is less important because theory is generated from a small set of cases and is less applicable to other contexts. Qualitative analysis rather puts greater emphasis on the internal validity of a study or the extent to which the theoretical claims are based on valid methods of analysis and evidence about cause and effect. Theoretical claims or inferences possess internal validity if claims of a causal relationship between two variables demonstrate that the "cause" occurrence before the "effect" (temporal precedence), the "cause" and the "effect" tend to occur together (covariation), and there are no alternative channels or mechanisms that explain the observed variation (nonspuriousness).

Observable implications or the ability of a theory to help make more accurate predictions about new unobserved instances is the third quality of a good theory. Strong theories have strong observable implications or the things we would expect to observe in the real world if our theory is right. For example, the preference theory of judges states that judges want the law to reflect their ideological preferences; and, because they lack an electoral connection, they are free to vote in accord with their ideological preferences. If this theory is correct, we should observe judges generally voting in accord with their ideological preferences, such that conservative judges cast conservative votes and liberals, liberal votes.

The fourth and last criterion used to judge a social scientific theory is falsifiability or its refutability. A good theory must be falsifiable or liable to refutation when subjected to tests using new observations or new evidence; it must be possible to identify a possible outcome of test or observation that conflicts with predictions of a given theory. In fact, according to the philosopher of science Karl Popper who introduced the concept as the basic principle of scientific inquiry, statements and theories that are not falsifiable are unscientific or not based on the scientific method. The most common way in the social sciences to support falsifiability (or safeguard against invalid refutation of a theory) is to specify the scope conditions or assumptions under which a theory is applicable. Scope conditions are parameters or boundaries specified by the analyst that identify the types of empirical contexts or observations to which the theory applies. For example, we can state that the preference theory of judges is applicable under the condition that judges vote in accordance with their ideological preferences only in the absence of a liberal (i.e., a potential whistle-blower) on the panel. The theory may be falsified when we observe that, say, conservative judges fail to cast conservative votes even in the absence of a potential whistle-blower.

3.4 Literature Reviews and Theory

We noted in the first section that developing an explanation begins with a puzzle and a research question. The first major task in a research effort often is to find a puzzling topic and to translate a general interest in a topic into a manageable research question or series of questions. Framing an engaging and appropriate research question will get a research project off to a good start by defining, and limiting, the scope of the investigation while a poorly specified question inevitably leads to wasted time and energy. But most students, when confronting a research project for the first time, either do not have a well-formulated research question as their starting point or any specific interest or topic in mind at all. We may also not know whether explanations, that fully or partially address the puzzle we have observed, already exist. To address these challenges the first major task is to conduct a literature review; i.e. to examine systematically scholarly literature that is relevant to the puzzle. Why is this important? How does thoroughly studying extant literature contribute to theory?

A literature review is a survey of books, scholarly articles, and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem at hand. It is designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while surveying a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study ( Fink 2013, 5 ) . Good research involves reviewing previous work to motivate and sharpen a research question. Reviewing relevant literature also contributes to theory development for several other reasons. Among these are: (1) to gauge what has and has not been studied, (2) to develop general explanations for observed variations in a behavior or a phenomenon, (3) to identify potential relationships between concepts and to find hypotheses, (4) to learn how others have defined and measured key concepts, (5) to identify data sources that other researchers have used, and (6) to develop alternative research designs. Lets further discuss some of the reasons that are more crucial to theory development.

Often times, a researcher or student will start off by expressing only a general interest in a topic, such as gun violence or the effects of campaign advertising, but the specific research question has yet to be formulated; for example, “What is the social background of individuals who engage in mass shooting?” or “Do negative TV campaign advertisements sway voters?” A review of previous research on these topics can help you carve a research topic by identifying research questions that others have addressed.

A researchers, on the other hand, may start with an overly specific research question such as "Do evangelicals have different views on abortion policy than non-evangelicals?" Reading the literature on public opinion on abortion will likely reveal that your specific research question is one of many aimed at answering the more general research question: What are the social attributes of people who are opposed to abortion, and do they differ from those who support abortion access? Compared to the former question, which is too narrow to sustain a research paper, the latter research question constitutes a topic that is likely to lead to theoretically crucial conclusions and more observable implications.

A literature review also can help you to identify gaps or analytical shortcomings in the literature. Here, you may find that, after reading the scholarly work in an area, previous research does not adequately answer the question for lack of effective research tools, sufficient data, and/or appropriate theoretical approach. You may design a new research project to answer an old question in a novel way using new data. A study may also replicate a previous study to confirm or challenge a hypothesis or expand our understanding of a concept. Replication is one of the cornerstones of scientific work; by testing the same hypothesis through different research design or confirming the results from previous research using the same data and methods, we can increase our confidence that the results are valid.

At other times, a researcher may begin with a hypothesis to develop an explanation for a relationship that has already been observed. Here, a literature review may reveal similar observations made by others previously and may also help you develop general explanations for the relationship by identifying theories that explain the phenomenon of interest. Your research will be more valuable if you can provide a general explanation of the observed or hypothesized relationship rather than simply a report of the empirical verification of a relationship.

A researcher, on the other hand, should be alert for competing or alternative hypotheses rather than just seeking theories that support the plausibility of own hypothesis. Here, you may start with a hypothesis specifying a simple relationship between two variables. Since it is rare for one political phenomenon to be related to or caused by just one other factor or variable (i.e. causal complexity), it is important to look for other possible causes or correlates of the dependent variable (i.e. omitted variable). Data collection should include measurement of these other relevant variables so that you may rule out competing hypotheses or at least specify more clearly the nature of the relationship between the variables ( Johnson, Reynolds, and Mycoff 2016, 82–84 ) .

A thorough understanding of existing scholarly work, therefore, is key to formulate an interesting question, test an existing hypothesis or craft new hypotheses, and the development of scientifically valid and useful explanations. Developing skills to understand key concepts and models in the subfield, to critically evaluate and synthesize expert knowledge, and to summarize complex arguments in often a large body of literature are essential for an excellent literature review. Furthermore, personal insight and non-scholarly sources (e.g. newspapers, broadcast media, internet) can be quite helpful in selecting a research topic, and a literature review can encompass virtually anything published on your topic. However, at the very least familiarity with the scholarly literature is strongly encouraged. Relying on scholarly rather than non-scholarly sources greatly improves the quality of a literature review. After all, a literature review is supposed to assess the knowledge about a topic that has been attained and communicated according to scientific principles. Finally, how many books and articles is one supposed to review depends on the purpose and scope of the project, as well as source availability. Obviously, a more complex research topic, or a subject with a larger literature, may require a more in-depth literature review than will a less complex topic or one with a smaller literature. Further readings on: the importance of literature review ( Johnson, Reynolds, and Mycoff 2016 ; Fink 2013 ; Hart 1998 ; Ridley 2012 ; Knopf 2006 ; Jesson, Matheson, and Lacey 2011 ) and structure and writing techniques ( Cook and Murowchick 2014 ; Fink 2013 ; Hart 1998 ; Jesson, Matheson, and Lacey 2011 ; Onwuegbuzie and Frels 2016 ; Ridley 2012 ; Booth, Sutton, and Papaioannou 2016 ) .

3.5 Theory-building vs Theory testing

Social scientific research may involve many activities such as interpretation of constructs or concepts, describing a social phenomenon (descriptive inference), and identifying links between two or more related phenomenon (causal inference). But the two core activities and goals that underlie most activities (in causal inference in particular) are theory-building and theory testing. Both are interrelated scientific endeavors that apply the scientific method, but they vary in important respects that should be properly understood. As table 1 summarizes, they vary in terms of their epistemological approach, main goals and tasks, and end results. At the end of section, we will discuss three exemplary theory-building and theory testing works in the political science for elaboration; but in the meantime, we will use natural science examples to easily highlight – for the latter are relatively straightforwardness – the differences between the two.

Table 1: Theory-building and theory testing compared

Theory testing, as the phrase suggests, is the process of testing (verifying) whether a certain theory is a plausible explanation of a phenomenon you would like to investigate. Its goal is to test the validity of an explanation often, but not always, through a research design, new data, and/or data analysis tools. The main focus of theory testing is to discover whether there is evidence that supports (or does not support) a particular theory. Theory testing is relatively easier than theory building. While researchers (scholars and post-graduate students) undertake a much more challenging research task of theory building, students often do research primarily aimed towards theory testing. Still, though, it is critical to deeply understand the theory and how it is used to frame empirical research before you can adequately test it yourself.

To clarify theory testing, take the Anthropogenic Global Warming (AGW) Theory, which asserts that human-caused greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause for the rising global warming levels observed in recent years. Carbon dioxide comprises one of the greenhouse gasses. Carbon dioxide causes water on the surface of the earth to evaporate; increased water vapor in the atmosphere in turn can trap heat coming from the earth thus cause global warming. To test this theory, the first step is to look into the humidity levels associated with carbon dioxide emissions because the theory posits that carbon dioxide causes water to evaporate and trap heat. Greater carbon dioxide means greater water vapor in the atmosphere measured using, say, a wet and dry bulb thermometer. The next step is to find out if there is a correlation between surface humidity and temperature, which should be positive for the theory to be true. The main task of theory testing is thus to find evidence to confirm or refute a theory.If the evidence supports the theory, then no further action is required. If the evidence rejects the theory then you can conclude either the theory is incorrect or the data is inadequate.

Theory building by contrast is an attempt to explain something as yet obscure do novo or in different perspective than has previously been suggested. The goal of theory-building is to provide a framework for analysis to better understand puzzling empirical issues and to help address real world problems. As such, it requires knowledge of the plausible theories explaining the phenomenon currently are, and how they are used in empirical research. Theory building demands the application of higher-level thinking skills compared to theory testing. It requires the synthesis of a broad range of literature, concept formation, the formulation of testable hypotheses, the collection and systematic analysis of data, and evidence-based confirmation or refutation of the hypothesized relationships between cause and effect. To be sure, theory-building can also take place by extending or modifying existing theories to new contexts. Here, a researcher attempts to replicate and/or reexamine previously theorized relationships, identifies new causal mechanisms (or pathways), uncovers previously unexplored relationships between variables, and introduces a new concept (or significantly re-conceptualizes an existing one).

In general, there are four major ways of theory-building:

Grounded theory-building: building theory inductively based on observed patterns of events of behavior in one or few more cases.

Conceptual analysis: building theory inductively by conducting a bottom-up conceptual analysis to identify different sets of predictors relevant to phenomenon of interest using a predefined framework. In one such framework, a researcher looks for different categories of inputs (factors) related to the output (effect), and explain the underlying process that links the two categories or concepts.

Extend/modify existing theory: building theory deductively by extending or reformulating existing theories to explain a new context.

Apply existing theory in new context: building theory deductively by applying theories developed in one context to an entirely new context by drawing up on the structural similarities between the two contexts.

To further clarify the idea of theory building, let’s now consider another example from the hard sciences. To this day, scientists debate what caused the sudden extinction of dinosaurs in what is known as the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, or the K-T event, at approximately 66 million years ago. The leading hypotheses predicted that a giant volcano, sudden cooling down of earth climate, and an asteroid strike was the cause. In the early 1980s, father-and-son scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez suddenly discovered (in Italy) a distinct thin layer of iridium–an element found in abundance only in space–that corresponds to the precise time the dinosaurs died. The researchers deduced that the thin layer of iridium at the K-T boundary was deposited following the impact of a large meteor, comet or asteroid with the earth. Furthermore, this bolide impact (the meteor, comet or asteroid colliding with the earth’s surface) could have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. However, conclusive evidence – especially evidence of the meteor, comet or asteroid collision with earth – was required to support the theory and to eliminate rival hypotheses. Then, in the 1990s, scientists discovered a massive meteor crater (the Chicxulub Crater), 110 miles in diameter, on the edge of the Yucatán Peninsula, extending into the Gulf of Mexico, which dates to the period in question. Scientists concluded that the 6-mile-diameter bolide that formed the crater struck the earth at 40,000 miles per hour and released 2 million times more energy than the most powerful nuclear bomb ever detonated. The resulting darkness could have plunged the earth’s temperatures into the freezing zone, killing some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth, including dinosaurs, within weeks.

Scientists reached the above conclusion through inductive reasoning –i.e. they used a small piece of evidence (iridium) about a specific observation to reach a more general conclusion. Inductive and deductive analysis – analytical approaches discussed in the previous chapter – play different roles in theory-building and theory testing. The inductive approach (inductive-statistical) is often associated with theory development. t’s a grounded theory-building approach whereby a researcher makes a detailed observation of a case or few cases, to derive broad generalizations and ideas that apply to a broader set of similar cases. Characteristic of qualitative small-N analysis, this approach aims to generate meanings from the data set collected in order to identify patterns and relationships to build a theory. Patterns, resemblances, and regularities are observed in order to reach conclusions (or to generate theory). The deductive (hypothetico-deductive) approach is most often useful in theory testing. Characteristic of quantitative large-N analysis, in deductive analysis a researcher begins with a theory, then conducts research in order to test whether that theory or hypothesis is supported by specific evidence. Extending or modifying an existing theory to fit new reality is a deductive exercise in theory testing.

Whether one applies inductive or deductive analysis, theory-building involves a series of steps from the identification and definition of concepts to the expression of their relationship in a theoretical statement, the construction of a rationale, and the specification of measurements ( Shoemaker, Jr, and Lasorsa 2003 ) [170-171] detail ten steps in theory building, in “How to Build Social Science Theories,” the most important of which are:

Observation : Start with a problem, some unexpected results, an anomaly, an observation of something unusual, something you would like to know the effects of, or something you would like to know the causes of.

Conceptualization : Identify (or formulate) the key concepts involved in the phenomenon of interest. Try to come up with concepts that are observable and measurable.

Hypothesizing : On the basis of careful observation and literature review, try to think of as many causes (or as many effects) of the key concepts as you can. Postulate causal linkages (between your concepts).

Measurement : operationalize key concepts and specify how you will measure them in terms of independent and dependent variables.

Theoretical linkage : Specify the theoretical rationale for the hypotheses. Why should they be expected to be true? Use logic and/or other theories to show your argument is reasonable, to convince that the concepts are causally linked in the way you have specified.

Hypothesis testing : Try to think in terms of multiple hypotheses that are alternative explanations for the same phenomenon. Empirically demonstrate why one (your) hypothesis is true and the other is false.

Checkbox 2: Case Studies in Theory-building and Theory Testing

Theory Building: Some Social Requisites of democracy, S. M. Lipset (1959)

Lipset developed one of the most influential theories of democracy which suggested that some social changes associated with economic development are requisite for the emergence and functioning of democracy. Does economic development lead to the emergence of democracy? And, if so, why? The key concept in his analysis is “modernization” or the transition from traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial society. Lipset observed that the average wealth, degree of industrialization and urbanization, and level of education is much higher for the more democratic countries. He then hypothesized that economic development, which he estimated through measures of income, urbanization, industrialization, and education, and the associated basic changes in the class structure, values, and attitudes of society, are the causes for the development of democracy in industrialized countries. In his words “the more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy” (p. 75). Lipset reasoned that increase in wealth provides economic security to the working class (a guard against revolution); enlarges the size of the middle class, which moderates conflict by rewarding moderate parties and punishing extremist ones; and alleviates lower class threats to the upper class, which opposes democracy when wealth inequalities are extreme. Moreover, increased income levels also improve society’s receptivity to norms of democratic tolerance, and increase voluntary associations that constitute key institutional intermediaries in democracy. Modern education is particularly relevant for cultivating a political culture – i.e. greater voting choice, political participation, tolerance, and media consumption – associated with democracy and political stability. In short, Lipset concluded, without such changes in social structure and values that come with modernization it is impossible for a country to experience transition to democracy and its consolidation. Theory Testing I: Modernization: Theories and Facts, A. Przeworski and F. Limongi (1997), Przeworski and Limongi test Lipset’s theory by reexamining the relationship between economic development and democracy put forth by him. They formulate and test two hypotheses derived from Lipset’s explanation: (a) democracy may be more likely to emerge as countries develop economically – i.e. the endogenous explanation or modernization theory or (b) democracy may be established independently of economic development but may be more likely to survive in developed countries – i.e. the exogenous explanation. Przeworski and Limongi test these hypotheses through a quantitative analysis of 135 countries (224 political regimes in total) for the period 1950-1990, using data on levels of development measured by income per capita. They refute the endogenous explanation by, first, observing that transitions to democracy are “increasingly likely as per capita income of dictatorships rises but only until it reaches a level of about $ 6,000, above which”dictatorships become more stable as countries become more affluent” (p. 159). Their findings confirm the second hypothesis by showing that economic development has a strong impact on the survival of democracies; in fact, “the probability that democracy survives increases monotonically with per capita income.” Except in Argentina, no democracy ever fell in a country with a per capita income higher than $6,055, while thirty-nine out of sixty-nine democracies did fall in countries that were poorer (p. 165). Przeworski and Limongi further observe that the emergence of democracy is linked to economic development in “old” industrialized Western countries, because development didn’t have much of an impact on the collapse of dictatorships in “new” countries postwar and the stability of democracy increases much more with economic development in the old than in the new countries. In sum, modernization theory is correct only with regard to the old countries. ,Theory Testing II: Indigenous Democratization, C. Boix and S. Stokes (2003) ,In yet another test of Lipset’s theory, Boix and Stokes reexamine the causal relationship between economic development and democracy more rigorously. Directly challenging Przeworski and Limongi on theoretical and empirical grounds, they hypothesize that development is both an endogenous and exogenous cause of democracy. Empirically, they replicate Przeworski and Limonigi’s results to show that the latter’s findings fail on three tests of robustness. First, Boix and Stokes reason out, their observation that few transitions to democracy at high levels of income is in fact consistent with endogenous democratization, because “at a per capita income of $7,000, the effects of development on political regime have already taken place: countries that were going to develop and democratize had already done so before reaching the range of the very rich” (p. 524). Second, Przeworski and Limongi’s sample is subject to “selection problems” because the year 1950 (where their data begins) is late to draw a complete story of democratization in rich countries. Using additional data for the period 1800-1949, Boix and Stokes demonstrate that per capita income has a strong positive and statistically significant effect on transitions to democracy from the mid-nineteenth century until World War II. Finally, Przeworski and Limongi’s analysis suffers from omitted variable bias. Boix and Stokes control for additional factors (i.e. international forces and oil) to find out that economic development still makes democratization more likely. Furthermore, rather than higher income per se income equality is the causal mechanism that links economic development to democracy; as countries develop, incomes are more equally distributed, which makes the wealthy to countenance democracy as the median voter favors an equitable system.

3.6 Conclusion

A social scientific theory is a generalized explanation of causally related patterns of events, behaviors, or processes. A theory is not data, facts, typologies, or mere empirical findings because theories must go well beyond objective facts or conceptual constructs to include propositions, explanations, and observable and testable falsifiable statements. Theories differ from various other forms of non-scientific claims or knowledge because they are established using objective scientific methods (theory-building), and they are amenable to further testing, confirmation, and refutation using the same scientific methods (theory testing). Theory-building and testing are two interrelated scientific endeavors that apply the scientific method, but they vary in their epistemological approach, main goals and tasks, and their end results.

Social reality is much more complex than we can possibly comprehend or fully explain. As such our theories tend to be limited, if not outright wrong, for reasons related to limited data, unobserved relations, or systematic bias, among other shortfalls. Despite these limitations, however, social scientific theories are still our only hope to better understand our social and political world. Theories are invaluable to describe events and processes, explain relationships between two or more events and process, and to make more accurate predictions whether some events or processes are bound to occur in relation to other events or processes. As a result theories should be informative, objective, accurate, and broadly useful. Different traditions in the social sciences may hold different standards of what constitutes a good theory, but it is generally understood that parsimony, generalizability, observable implication, and falsifiability are some basic elements of what constitutes a well-crafted theory.

3.7 Application Questions

Suppose a political science student is interested in voters who are fed up with “human” politicians and demanding to vote for divine, all-powerful alien leaders. What are the valid steps in developing a theory of benign alien dictatorship?

Suppose another student wants to estimate the effect of oil wealth on democratic backslide in Venezuela in the past two decades. We already know that oil wealth is highly detrimental to democracy and boosts authoritarian regime durability in low income countries. Is the student engaged in theory-building or theory testing exercise? How is she supposed to proceed in offering an explanation of recent political experience of Venezuela in conjunction with its oil-dominated economy?

3.8 Key Terms

Concept: the basic unit of thinking in theory building or an abstract idea that offers a point of view for understanding our experiences or observations, an idea of a phenomenon formed by mentally combining its attributes, or a mental image that, when operationalized, helps to organize the analysis of data.

Falsifiability: the possibility of a claim, hypothesis or theory to be proven wrong.

Hypotheses: tentative answers to a research question. In causal analysis, a hypothesis is an "educated guess" or a conjecture about the relationship between one or more empirical phenomena (i.e. independent variable) and another phenomenon (i.e. dependent variable). Since hypotheses are proposed relationships, they may turn out to be incorrect and not supported by the empirical evidence.

Literature review: a systematic examination and interpretation of the existing scholarship for the purpose of informing further research on a topic.

Theory: the conceptual and explanatory understanding that is an essential point of departure in conducting research, and that in turn is revised in light of research. Different (i.e. qualitative and quantitative) analytic traditions have divergent norms about the appropriate structure and content of these understandings.

3.9 Answers to Application Questions

The student is trying to develop a theory that explains why voters are frustrated with politicians and favor an alien dictatorship. The valid steps are to: a. formulate a question. b. define the key concepts “human” politician, corruption, and alien dictatorship. c. formulate a hypothesis, that is, to assume the venality of moral human politicians leads voters to support incorruptible aliens or alien leaders are charismatic compared to ordinary politicians, using use careful observation or literature review. d. measure corruption among politicians and the incorruptibility of aliens. e. test both hypotheses against empirical evidence. f. empirically demonstrate why one (your) hypothesis is true and the alternative hypothesis is false.

The students is involved in theory testing because existing theories of petroleum and political regimes show oil is corrosive to new democracies. She gathers data on annual oil revenues for Venezuela in the past twenty years and figure if increase or decrease in oil revenues are correlated with the decline of democracy in the country. She has to explain why oil have had a damaging effect on Venezuela’ democracy by empirically showing that it corrupted democratic institutions, destabilized the national economy, and/or strengthened the coercive capacity of the regime.

POSC 325: Political Analysis: Research Question Development

Research question development.

• Literature Review Tips
• Article Searching
• Book Searching
• Citation Style

Literature Review Assignment

Formulating a Research Question:

• Who:   think in terms of demographics (gender, age, ethnicity, religious preference, special interest groups, etc)
• What:   think about concepts/aspects, sociological and political factors, relevant hot-topic issues, statistics, etc.  
• Where:   compare/contrast a location
• Why/How/So What!:  consider the topic's significance in relation to the reviewed literature, and weigh advantages vs. disadvantages

Keep in mind that research questions can also evolve and change as you review the literature. 

Crafting Good Research Questions

• Draw on  background knowledge
• Begin from  empirical  questions. Good questions are usually about the outcomes (what explains y?) rather than about the causes (what effects does x have?)
• Utilize  "reporter questions"  to go beyond basic facts (who, what, when, where, why, how)
• Do not have a  single correct answer

Empirical Research

What Is Empirical Research? Empirical research applies observation and experience as the main modes of gathering data. Characteristics include:

• Content being based on actual and objective observation or experimentation
• Findings published in scholarly or academic journals
• Introduction, including literature review
• Methodology
• Presentation of the results
• Discussion and/or conclusion

Quantitative Research

What Is Quantitative Research? This type of research emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. The ultimate goal is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent variable] within a population. Characteristics include:

• Data usually gathered using structured research instruments
• Results based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population
• Research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability
• Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics
• Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships
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Politics Research Guide

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Topical Reviews

• Oxford Bibliographies: Political Science This link opens in a new window Hundreds of annotated guides to recent scholarship in topics across all subfields of political science and international relations.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: Politics Provides up-to-date, peer-reviewed surveys of major topics, theories, and research questions across all areas of political science.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: International Studies These peer-reviewed articles cover major topics, theories, and research questions across many subfields of international studies/international relations, like conflict, security, human rights, diplomacy, etc. This is the follow-up to the International Studies Association's International Studies Encyclopedia Online .
• Oxford Handbooks Online These handbooks provide a great source for authoritative reviews of research across political science, political theory, and related disciplines. Most of these we also have in print.
• Routledge Handbooks Online This link opens in a new window These handbooks provide overviews current research and future trends in the social sciences and humanities, with a strong collection in politics, particularly international relations and area studies.
• Annual Review of Political Science This link opens in a new window Comprehensive review of the literature in political science. Can help students identify major tends in the field as well as find general overviews of research in specific subject areas of politics.
• Elgar Research Handbooks Online Large collection of handbooks on topics across political science and public policy.

Political Theory Sources

• Cambridge Collections Online This link opens in a new window Searchable full text access to the complete Cambridge Companions to literature, philosophy, religion, and classics.
• Philosophy Compass This link opens in a new window Peer-reviewed survey articles on contemporary work in philosophy.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Authoritative source of full-text articles with current bibliographies on many topics of philosophy.
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Provides full-text articles with current bibliographies on virtually every aspect of philosophy.
• Encyclopedia of Political Theory - Mark Bevir, ed. Thorough discussions of a diverse range of political theories and concepts.
• Past Masters This link opens in a new window Searchable full-text works in several languages from major philosophers and theologians.

Major Encyclopedias Covering the Whole Discipline

• SAGE Handbook of Political Science Published in 2020, this handbook provides a thorough overview of the discipline. Each of the 92 chapters gives a comprehensive overview of major topics within each subfield. Thematic sections include, Political Theory, Methods, Political Sociology, Comparative Politics, Public Policies and Administration, International Relations, and Major Challenges for Politics and Political Science in the 21st Century.
• International Encyclopedia of Political Science (2011) Covers all aspects of politics, from political theory and methodology to political sociology, comparative politics, public policies, and international relations.
• The Encyclopedia of Political Science Covers all areas of political science and provides medium-length entries with short bibliographies for further reading. Created under the direction of the American Political Science Association. Also in print at JA61 .E513 2011 (Trustee Reading Room Reference).
• International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) This link opens in a new window Covering 26 volumes in print, this major encyclopedia aims to capture the "state of the art" of the social and behavioral sciences, expanding its focus to include related biological fields, such as evolutionary science, genetics, cognitive neuroscience, psychiatry, and health. Topics include anthropology, archaeology, demography, economics, education, geography, history, law, linguistics, philosophy, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology.

Offers reports and analysis on a variety of current policy issues. Includes background information, pro/con debates, and a chronology, plus resources for additional research.

• Facts On File Issues and Controversies This link opens in a new window Explore current issues and events with in-depth articles made to inspire thought-provoking debates. Topic pages feature the latest related news coverage from Reuters® as well as a variety of helpful background information, from the key pro/con arguments to chronologies of related events to primary documents. Updated weekly. 1995–present.
• World News Digest (Facts on File) This link opens in a new window Digest of major news stories around the world. 1940+

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Empirical Methods in Political Science

Introduction.

Jean Clipperton

What is Political Science?

This textbook focuses upon empirical methods used in political science. Before turning to the methods, it can be helpful to understand what political science is and what political science research can look like. Broadly, the discipline focuses on power and events throughout history. Some scholars focus on modern issues (e.g. Brexit) while others focus on historical ones (e.g. the New Deal in the U.S.). There are a variety of methods used and scholars are typically organized around the area/region they study. 1

Subfields in Political Science

There are four primary subfields in political science (although we can consider many subdivisions, additional groupings, and so on): comparative politics, American politics, international relations/world politics, and theory. For this text, we will focus on quantitative political science and so we will consider the first three subfields.

Comparative politics as a subfield focuses upon comparisons of countries or regions to one another. Typically, ‘comparativists’ have expertise that enables them to dig deeply into their region. However, the questions they ask are broadly relevant beyond the researcher’s region of expertise.

American politics focuses upon.…American politics. Here, scholars typically focus on behavior (e.g. voting), institutions (e.g. Congress), or history (American Political Development, a.k.a. ‘APD’). In other countries (e.g. Australia, Americanists are considered ‘comparativists’ ... so it’s all relative). Here, scholars typically focus on one of the approaches (e.g. institutions), but increasingly more scholars focus on both behavior and institutions, for example.

International relations , also known as IR or world politics, focuses on large-scale global questions. Questions here are often about trade, economic development, and/or political economy. There are different branches of IR. Focusing on the quantitative side, many IR scholars work with large datasets, perhaps only slightly more so than in other fields. Qualitative work, specifically, case studies, represents approximately 45% of the field as measured by ( Bennett, Barth, and Rutherford 2003 ) .

Methods Quantitative Methods is sometimes considered a subfield of political science and it is devoted to the development of quantitative methods, such as statistics, computational social science, and game theory. Methods scholars focus on tasks such as developing new methods for answering questions where previous ones had failed. For example, if you wanted to study something that either happens or doesn’t, then a regression wouldn’t be appropriate. You would need a new/different research method. Similarly, if you’re looking at something that unfolds over different stages, you might need to develop a strategic model to understand how the actors are incentivized to act.

Questions in Political Science

Questions in political science span the globe and often consider power: who has power, how that power is used and/or abused, and how power is specified. Here are a few questions that are or have been frequently studied: 2

Why are some countries democratic and others aren’t?

Does democratic rule make people better off? How?

What sort of political institutions lead to best outcomes?

What policies and institutions help diverse groups to live in peace?

What are causes of war? How can we prevent war?

What leads to cooperation between countries?

What are best ways to promote prosperity and avoid poverty?

Why do people vote and participate in politics as they do?

Is there a ‘resource curse’?

These are big questions. While progress has been made toward answering many of them, they are often so large and broad that a different interpretation can lead to a different finding: for example, what would be a best outcome for a political institution, Stability (and thus low turnover) or a responsive government?

As we go through the text, we’ll introduce different research questions and topics that span subfields and methods to demonstrate the range of political science research.

What are Empirical Political Science Methods?

In this textbook, we will focus on empirical research methods – meaning how political scientists use and think about quantitative data. These methods are how political scientists go from their initial question to being able to find an answer. They can be a regression/statistics, but they can also involve interviews, or mapping out social networks.

Political scientists use a range of methods to answer their research questions, with the key focus being whether the tool is appropriate for the job. Often, political scientists will specialize in one primary method, and receive training in a few others. This will shape how the researcher sees questions (for example, my own training is quantitatively-focused and so I tend to think about things from a quantitative mindset while a friend of mine has a qualitative background, so to her, she thinks about things like process as a key driver) and how that researcher is able to answer those questions.

Types of Methods

There are many types of methods used in political science. In the realm of quantitative political science, common methods include the following approaches listed below. There is one chapter that focuses upon techniques like interviews and participant observation, but the broad focus of the book is on quantitative data. Discussion about quantitative and qualitative methods is an important distinction within the discipline.

Surveys: Perhaps the most accessible or well-known approach. Surveys are questions asked of respondents. We will focus on how surveys are designed and how respondents are selected.

Experiments: Experiments are often described as the ‘gold standard’ for research and are common in many areas outside political science. In an experiment, there are frequently two groups that are identical to one another except that one group gets the ‘treatment’ and the other group does not. For example, one group might be exposed to a political ad of a certain type while the remaining group is not, to understand the connection between politics and emotions as in ( Karl 2019 ) .

Large N: In cases where there are a wealth of data, scholars may opt for statistical research. What this looks like can depend upon the size of the data.

Small N: Studies that have fewer observations or use approaches like interviews often focus on the mechanisms behind a process. For example, under what circumstances do institutions evolve and change? See: ( Mahoney and Thelen 2009 ; Ostrom 2015 ) .

Game Theory: In game theoretic approaches we represent the strategic choices actors make as a series of interdependent choices. There are frequently two key actors who must make decisions (such as cooperation or defection or the imposition of sanctions ( Pond 2017 ) ). These actions weigh the utility of certain choices dependent upon what and how their opponent(s) behave.

Social Networks: In social network research, it is the connections between individuals that become the items of interest. How do different actors relate to one another? How might information move around/through a community? These communities can be real (high school social networks, families) or virtual (who follows whom on twitter, whose work is cited by others).

Machine Learning: In this approach, very large datasets are used. Frequently, the aim is to discover patterns and connections in the data or to otherwise harness the power of many observations to discern the hidden order in the data.

Qualitative and Quantitative Political Science

Empirical research methods typically use quantitative data. These data are frequently numerical and can often show broad trends that are happening within the question of interest. Other scholars use qualitative methods. In a qualitative framework, the ‘data’ can be anything from noticing how spaces are shared by individuals at the Paris Climate Summit ( Marion Suiseeya and Zanotti 2019 ) to interviews ( Helmke 2005 ) . Often (but not always; see: Pearlman ( 2017 ) ) qualitative researchers work with fewer cases (small-n data) and quantitative researchers look at larger datasets (large-n data).

Multiple or Mixed Methods

Mixed or multiple methods refers to how many different approaches a scholar or scholars use in their analysis. Although they often specialize in one method, researchers may still combine methods – either through their own training and/or background – or through collaborating with others. For example, the use of experiments and surveys ( Teele, Kalla, and Rosenbluth 2018 ; Bonilla and Mo 2018 ) or interviews and observation ( Vargas 2016 ) ).

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches offer valuable insight into any given research question and there has been a bit of a divide that’s arisen within the discipline as technology evolves. With the increasing availability of quantitative data and low barriers to data gathering, it can be tempting to emphasize quantitative methods. Given the additional training often needed to hone and refine one’s skillset, individuals frequently rely on a primarily quantitative or qualitative approach. However, there is some movement toward what is termed a ‘mixed method’ or ‘multi-method’ approach in which both quantitative and qualitative data are used in a research project ( Seawright 2016 ) . As it will become clear at the end of the text, each method has advantages and disadvantages: combining methods can help leverage the strengths of each chosen method while minimizing the disadvantages when including a complementary method. Of course, this approach is not without a high cost – individuals must then be trained and proficient in multiple methods, something that can be challenging and time consuming.

Because of our (Clipperton et al) own background and training, we emphasize empirical approaches, but there are still many different ways to approach a question. A common trope regards advanced methodological training as equating to obtaining a hammer so that everything looks like a nail. Our hope is that you’ll develop an understanding of the different tools available in the political scientist’s tool kit so that you will be able to appreciate and interpret existing work while thinking critically about how to approach your own research questions. The research question itself can help you choose an appropriate method–rather than the reverse.

Scientific Method

Regardless of the question and the method, political scientists need a way to work through the evaluation of their question. For that, we will thank Karl Popper and his push not only for falsification but for urging that scholars have a method for their inquiry.

In this text, we rely on an adaptation of the scientific method. This is something we will use for each research article and every research proposal, so it’s important to understand each component fully. Below, we lay out the different elements of the scientific method. 3

Puzzle: This is the research question. It must be something that needs answered – often in the format, ‘research leads us to expect x, but we observe y’ or ‘here are two contradictory arguments, which is right?’ In any case, a puzzle is something that is not only unanswered, but interesting. It can somehow tell us about the world in a broader way, even if the question itself is quite narrow.

Theory: This is the explanation or answer to the question. Typically, you will have an outcome that you wish to explain with some important factor. In the following chapter, we’ll introduce theory more fully.

Hypotheses & Implications: while a theory is more broad and about the relationship of factors, hypotheses are often testable implications that stem directly from the theory.

Evidence/Test: evidence is how the authors support their theory and conclusions. It might be longitudinal data with a regression; it might be survey data with differences of means; it might be interview data. Here, you’ll explain how they are evaluating their argument.

Falsifiablity: Is it possible to disprove the theory? Sometimes articles might focus on a new paradigm for approaching a research area. These would not be falsifiable as they’re an approach or suggestion. Falsifiable questions can be proven wrong – for example, if I argue that voters prefer candicates who made a promise and kept it over those how made no promises or did not follow through, I could easily evaluate this with empirical evidence. Did voters elect someone who made promises over someone who did not? ( Bonilla 2022 ) .

Conclusions: This is what the study concludes – what are the major findings? Be specific about the findings and whether/how they generalize. For example, if the article is focusing on the 1980 Ugandan elections, what are the findings and what does that tell us overall?

Do I buy it?: This is where you’ll enter your critique of the article. You might wonder about the method they chose, how it was executed, or their particular case study. This is the point where you’ll describe your concerns and then evaluate whether the evidence presented is sufficient enough to overcome those objections.

Note that the scientific method is a helpful means to organize an article (minus the last element), but it’s an even more helpful way to organize your notes about an article. Using the scientific method can help provide a consistent, clear, organized structure that focuses on the essential elements of an article or book. In all but the last stage, you will want to be as objective as possible–laying out only the relevant elements/details. In the final portion, ‘do I buy it’, you will put down your critique. But to criticize something, you must first understand what is being argued.

What Can Research Tell Us?

When reading or conducting research, there are twin goals at play: the first is what relationships can be established in the research project/dataset itself; the second is how the question answered by the research project can speak about a broader population than just the data in the research project.

Support for hypotheses

This first component has to do with what can be established within the framework of the question and data. For example, suppose your research question has to do with political attitudes of young Americans. To answer this, you collect data from a random sample of Americans (See: chapters on Data and Hypothesis Testing ) your findings would pertain to your research question within your data. If you had a statistically significant relationship, you would find support for your hypotheses. If you failed to have a statistically significant relationship, you would not find support for your hypotheses. You would make conclusions about the individual data points within your dataset.

Generalizability

The second component has to do with how your research fits into a broader picture: what can your research tell us about young Americans and how does that fit into a larger context? Supposing you conducted your sample appropriately (See: chapter on Data ), you would be able to speak to not only the individuals in your sample, but the population they are intended to represent. This is the important component of research and why we will spend a large amount of time discussing sampling approaches and appropriate methodology. While your sample of, say, 1600 data points may be interesting, it’s really only interesting in that it can tell us about the 327 million other data points we don’t know anything about.

Overview of the Textbook

The textbook proceeds with an introduction to theory and concept building, moves to an explanation of causal inference (how do we ‘know’ whether something is causal?), and then provides a quick introduction to data and hypothesis testing. Following that, each chapter is devoted to a particular research method used within political science: surveys, experiments, large N, small n, game theory, social network analysis, and machine learning. Each chapter follows a similar format and layout to help introduce the method, its advantages, disadvantages, and different applications.

A note about this textbook: in its creation, we have worked to balance our references across subfields (see next subsection) and the race and gender of cited scholars. Our aim is to provide a diverse look at political science, incorporating as many different perspectives as possible. We use a tool developed by Jane Sumner ( Sumner 2018 ) that came out of a project with ( Dion, Sumner, and Mitchell 2018 ) to evaluate the balance in each chapter in the textbook. ↩︎

thank you to Andrew Roberts whose original list has been adapted here ↩︎

These questions adapted from ( Clark, Golder, and Golder 2017 ) ↩︎