how to write a case study in social work

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Reading and Case Study Analysis for Social Work

Professor betty kramer, social work 821.

The purpose of this initial assignment is to demonstrate your understanding of the readings and your ability to apply course content to the mental health challenges faced by an elder and their family.

Instructions:

• Review lecture notes from Week 1 and all required readings for Week 1 and Week 2.
• Read the attached case study.
• Preliminary Assessment (Suspicions): Given what Vanessa shares with you, what might you initially suspect is causing her mother’s symptoms and why?  Be specific and provide and cite evidence from the reading to support your preliminary assessment.
• Engagement & the Clinical Interview: You will need to do a home visit to initiate the assessment.  What will you do in advance to prepare for the interview? How will you approach Mrs. Johnson?  What will want to accomplish during this home visit?
• Please list the various domains that you believe will be important to investigate as part of the assessment to determine the cause of Mrs. Johnson’s symptoms and the most appropriate care plan. Be sure to list the mental status tests and medical tests that you feel should be completed (see Ch. 4 McKinnis, 2009; Ch. 6 in Zarit & Zarit).  [Note: it is acceptable to provide bulleted list of points in response to these particular questions]
• Describe how that data will be collected (and by whom)?
• Provide a brief rationale for the assessment domains that will be included.
• Possible Recommendations: Assuming your preliminary assessment turns out to be correct, name 2-3 primary recommendations that you might make to Mrs. Johnson and her family? 
• Submit paper to Learn@UW dropobox by 9:00 a.m. before week 2 of class.

Daughter Requests Case Manager Consultation for her mother: Mrs. Johnson

Mrs. Johnson (Mrs. J.) is a 78-year-old, African American woman who lives in a small Midwestern city. About a year ago, her husband died suddenly of a stroke, leaving Mrs. J. to live alone in her home of 52 years. It was the home where she had raised her three children, all of whom graduated from college, have professional careers, and now live in other parts of the state. Her family is a source of pride, and her home has numerous pictures of her children and grandchildren.

About 3 months ago, Mrs. J.’s oldest daughter, Vanessa, got a call from one of the neighbors. Vanessa lives a 4-hour drive from her mother—a drive that can often be longer in bad weather. The neighbor stated that Mrs. J. had walked to the neighborhood store in her pajamas and slippers. Because Mrs. J. has lived in the community for several years, people have been watching out for her since her husband died, and someone gave her a ride back home. Mrs. J. doesn’t drive, and the temperature was fairly chilly that day.

As a result of the call, Vanessa went to Mrs. J.’s home for a visit. Although she and her siblings had been calling Mrs. J. regularly, no one had been to the family home in about 7 months. Vanessa was shocked at what she saw. Mrs. J. had been a cook in a school cafeteria earlier in life and always kept her own kitchen spotless. But now the house was in disarray with several dirty pots and pans scattered throughout different rooms. In addition, odd things were in the refrigerator such as a light bulb and several pieces of mail. Many of the food products were out of date, and there was a foul smell in the kitchen. Trash covered the counters and floor.

Vanessa contacted her siblings to ask them if their mother had told any of them that she wasn’t feeling well. Her brother, Anthony, remarked that their mother would often talk about Mr. J. in the present tense—but he thought that it was just her grief about his death. The younger brother, Darius, reported that his wife was typically the one who called their mother—about once a month. He didn’t know if there had been any problems—his wife never said anything about it to him. Vanessa also contacted the pastor of her church, Rev. M. He stated that Mrs. J. had been walking to church on Sundays, as usual, but he did notice that she left early a few times and other times seemed to come to service late. But like the brother, Anthony, he thought that this behavior was probably a grief reaction to the loss of her husband.

A final shock to Vanessa was when she went through her mother’s mail. There were several overdue bills and one urgent notice that the electricity was going to be cut off if the balance wasn’t paid. She owed several hundred dollars in past due heating, electric, and telephone bills.

Vanessa contacted her mother’s primary care physician (Dr. P.) who said that he had last seen Mrs. J. for her regular checkup 6 months earlier and that she had missed her last appointment a week ago. Dr. P. said that her staff had called to make another appointment but that her mother hadn’t called them back yet.  Mrs. J. is being treated with medication for arthritis, hypertension, and gastroesophogeal reflux (GERD). Her weight was stable, and her only complaint was some difficulty staying asleep at night. Dr. P. reported that her mother’s mood was sad but had improved some in the month before the last visit. The doctor asked about memory and concentration, but her mother denied having any problems with memory. Imagine that you a case manager at the local Senior Coalition.  Vanessa is calling you to seek advice about what to do. She would like you to do an assessment to help her determine what is wrong and how she can best help her mother.

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A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research

Jane F. Gilgun, PhD, LICSW, is associate professor, School of Social Work, University of Minnesota, 224 Church Street, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455.

• Article contents
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Jane F. Gilgun, A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research, Social Work , Volume 39, Issue 4, July 1994, Pages 371–380, https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/39.4.371

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Case study research is a good fit with many forms of social work practice. Although disparaged as uncontrolled and uninterpretable, the case study has great potential for building social work knowledge for assessment, intervention, and outcome. This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluating case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. Guidelines for evaluation also are guidelines for developing and interpreting case studies that will meet the rigorous demands of scientific research and be useful to social work practitioners.

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A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter

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• Published: 06 June 2017
• Volume 45 , pages 189–200, ( 2017 )

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• Jeffrey Longhofer 1 ,
• Jerry Floersch 1 &
• Eric Hartmann 2  

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In this special issue we have asked the contributors to make a case for the case study. The guest editors, Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch and Eric Hartmann, intergrate ideas from across the disciplines to explore the complexties of case study methods and theory. In education, Gary Thomas explores the importance of ethnographic case studies in understanding the relationships among schools, teachers, and students. Lance Dodes and Josh Dodes use the case study to articulate a psychoanalytic approach to addiction. In policy and generalist practice, Nancy Cartwright and Jeremy Hardie elaborate a model for a case-by-case approach to prediction and the swampy ground prediction serves up to practitioners. Christian Salas and Oliver Turnbull persuasively write about the role of the case study in neuro-psychoanalysis and illustrate it with a case vignette. In political science, Sanford Schram argues for a bottom up and ethnographic approach to studying policy implementation by describing a case of a home ownership program in Philadelphia. Eric Hartman queers the case study by articulating its role in deconstructing normative explanations of sexuality. In applied psychology, Daniel Fishman describes a comprehensive applied psychology perspective on the paradigmatic case study. Richard Miller and Miriam Jaffe offer us important ways of thinking about writing the case study and the use of multi-media. Each contributor brings a unique perspective to the use of the case study in their field, yet they share practical and philosophical assumptions.

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Longhofer, J., Floersch, J. & Hartmann, E. A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter. Clin Soc Work J 45 , 189–200 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0631-8

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How To Write A Case Study Report In Social Work?

Social work is one of the most important branches or streams of study for students in Australia and around the world. The subject has become so important that even reputed colleges and universities of Australia are offering graduation and postgraduate degree courses in social work.

The institute assigns students large assignments on social work during the courses. In this blog, we will discuss some useful tips for writing an excellent case study report on social work to impress your faculty and get the top grades .

Tips To Write an Effective Case Study Report in Social Work

• Choose an interesting subject: First, you need to choose a very interesting and updated subject for your social work case study. Some such subjects might be domestic violence, corruption, women’s empowerment, drug abuse, and alcohol abuse.
• Do an in-depth analysis: After that, you need to analyse the chosen subject or topic in-depth. You need to explain each and every fact related to that topic. No fiction should be there. Only try, and you will accept the current facts.
• Treat delicate matters likewise: A study on social work is one of the most delicate types of studies in the world. Thus, you need to write your report by treating the matter as seriously as possible and avoiding all types of fluffy language.
• Carry out extensive study and research: You always need to do extensive study and research while writing your case study report on social work. You need to note all the legal, social, and political status of the country, territory, or region in which you are doing your social study.
• Write only true facts: You must always write only true facts in your case study. Writing wrong facts can be very harmful to your paper. You always need to depict a very true picture of the scenario.
• Know how you can help others: The ultimate aim of your social study work is to help the people of your society. Each class of people suffers from particular issues or problems. You need to deal with their issues likewise to solve their problems. Thus, you always need to know the right methods to solve various problems of the suffering people.
• Give proper solutions: You must always give proper solutions to the suffering people of your society to overcome their problems. These solutions must be strictly within the legal limits of your nation. You must keep in mind that people truly benefit from the suggestions and solutions provided by you in your social work case study report.
• Give a picture of future success: In your case study report on social work, you need to depict a true picture of your social work project’s success in the long run and how it will benefit people in the concluding part.
• Always give a proper introduction and conclusion: The introduction and concluding part of your social work case study report are of high importance. The introductory part makes the first impression on your readers. If your concluding part is interesting enough, it will create an everlasting good impression on your reader faculty. Thus, you are bound to get good grades.
• Carry out long surveys: The subject of social work is very much related to practical surveys and studies. Thus, you need to conduct a lot of surveys among the people of society to learn about their real problems in life and find effective solutions for them.
• Take expert consultation: To write an ideal case study report, it is advisable to seek consultation and help from a social service expert. You need to do this under the supervision of an expert social worker.
• Study the reports of various NGOs: There are a number of NGOs or non-government organisations involved in various social studies. You can read their published reports to get an idea of how to do proper social work with true success.

What Common Mistakes Should Be Avoided While Writing a Case Study Report?

You need to avoid certain common mistakes while writing a case study report on social work or any other subject. Some of these are listed below:

• Many errors are often present in the case study paper. You always need to remove these errors by properly proofreading and editing the papers. Manual checking is preferred in this regard rather than any error-detecting software.
• You always need to avoid plagiarism in your report work. You can also use any kind of updated and advanced plagiarism-checking software technology in this regard in order to make your paper a hundred per cent plagiarism-free
• Always submit all your case study papers before the deadlines. If you cross the deadlines, your paper will come under the defaulter list, and you will lose your grades
• Try to complete all your assignment papers within specified time frames
• Do not repeat any idea more than once in any of your case study papers. Add new ideas with to-the-point explanations. This will make your paper more interesting.

How do you avail yourself of the Case Study Report Writing Services?

Writing a good case study report on social work is not an easy task. Thus, you always need expert help in this regard. You can get the best case study report on social work writing help from the most reputed C aseStudyHelp.com online organisation.

We have a team of the best writers with extensive experience in the social service case report writing field. Thus, students can always expect the best service from them. You can easily avail of our services by registering online on the CaseStudyHelp.com official website . We are always here to provide the best solutions for writing social work case study reports.

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• May 5, 2022
• 19 min read

Definition, importance, information included, presentation, amending, legislation, terminating client, sharing with client, templates: SOAP, DAP, BIRP, BPSS, Intake report

Three sections follow:

1. Background Material that provides the context for the topic

2. A suggested Practice Approach

3. A list of Supporting Material / References

Feedback welcome!

Background Material

What are case notes?

Sommers-Flanagan (2009) suggest case notes reflect the information provided at an interview and usually cover the following three broad areas:

Identifying, evaluating, and exploring the client's chief complaint and associated therapy goals.

Obtaining data related to the client's interpersonal style, interpersonal skills, and personal history.

Evaluating the client's current life situation and functioning.

AASW (2016) add a fourth point: case notes should also include actions to be taken with regard to the client. Lillis (2017) elaborates: case notes could include reference to or inclusion of other documents, e.g. a care plan, a purchase order and a review summary. For Lillis, case notes are a combination of documents that successfully describe the situation, needs and actual services provided.

Why are case notes important?

Case notes have been emphasized as central to the work in which social workers engage. Case notes:

help focus work,

support effective partnerships with service users and carers,

provide a comprehensive, documented account of work with service users and their families,

assist continuity when workers change,

provide an essential tool for managers to monitor work,

can becomes a major source of evidence for investigations and enquiries.

Inadequate case records result in poor decision-making and adverse client outcomes (AASW, 2016; Lillis, 2017).

Healy and Mulholland (2007) expand many of the above points as follows. Case records are:

a vital information base for client work

formal and factual information—what the case consists of, what has been done to deal with it, when the case began, when the situation changed, the service modifications that took place, when the case ended and the final outcome

situational data on the client’s needs (phone calls, notes, emails, face-to-face interviews)

a way of clarifying the case situation for both the practice worker and the client

having the client speak, and the subsequent work presenting the case in a coherent and focused written form helps clarify the complex issues of the case for both worker and client

a means by which social workers and service users can make visible to others, such as team members, aspects of the social context of the client’s needs that might otherwise be ignored

recording case notes provides a focused social work coherence to them, frames the individuality of the client’s situation, and makes it easier for others dealing with the client to understand the situation

a method of promoting opportunities for collaborative responses in health and community services teams

a means of promoting the recognition of good practice

assist accountability, demonstrate efficiency and quality work as well as commitment and dedication

a vital information base for the achievement of consistency in social work intervention.

How and when should case notes be recorded?

Case notes can be recorded manually or electronically and should:

include on each page the name and DOB or other identifying information of the client

be recorded as soon as possible after an interaction or event

be typed or, if handwritten, clearly readable

include the name, signature and profession/role of the author

include the time of contact, particularly where there are a high volume of interactions in a day (AASW, 2016; Sommers-Flanagan, 2009).

What information should be included in a case note?

There are no prescribed rules for what we put in or out of case notes. It depends on the agency rules and our view. However they are legal documents that can be called for by the court. So in writing them consider

Who is going to read them?

How will / can the information be interpreted?

What needs to be there so someone else can go on with the case if you leave?

Put context around any judgements you make, do not just give your opinion (Maple, 2012).

Information recorded about a client should be impartial , accurate and complete with care taken to ensure that:

only details relevant to the provision of a support or service to which the client has consented are recorded

when working with involuntary clients this means recording information relevant to statutory practice

notes are free from derogatory or emotive language

subjective opinions are qualified with relevant background information, theory or research

relevant information is not omitted. (AASW, 2016)

It is important to listen for what is important to the client. Signs that a matter is important are:

Word, phrase or topic repetitions (e.g. “money” may be mentioned four times)

Use of colloquial phrases of emphasis (e.g. ‘after all I said last time’, ‘I mean’, ‘and then where will she be’)

Swearwords (e.g. ‘it’s bloody awful’)

Tone of voice , such as extra loudness or long pauses followed by a strongly expressed phrase (Healy & Mulholland, 2007)

The guiding principle for deciding what information should be included in a case note is whether it is relevant to the service or support being provided. The type of information that is considered relevant may include:

a range of biopsychosocial, environmental and systemic factors impacting on the client; this includes consideration of an individual's culture, religion and spirituality

risk and resilience factors

facts, theory or research underpinning an assessment

a record of all discussions and interactions with the client and persons/services involved in the provision of support including referral information, telephone and email correspondence

a record of non-attendance, either by the Social Worker or client, at scheduled and agreed meetings or activities

evidence that the Social Worker and client have discussed their respective legal and ethical responsibilities. This may include:

client rights, responsibilities and complaints processes

the parameters of the service and support being offered and agreed to

issues relating to informed consent, information sharing, confidentiality and privacy

efforts to promote and support client self-determination and autonomy

specific responsibilities to clients in particular settings such as private practice or rural settings as per the relevant Association’s Code of Ethics document

professional boundaries and how dual relationships may be managed

record keeping and freedom of information

discharge planning

relevant legislative requirements and their possible implications for practice

details of reasons and any related actions or outcomes leading up to or following the termination or interruption of a service or support (AASW, 2016). Professional views may often be missing in case notes because social workers position their own subjectivity as irrelevant, or as threatening the achievement of accuracy and comprehensiveness. However, at times it is important to express it, e.g. where it is needed to justify an action (Lillis, 2017).

Other writers provide their own details of what should be included in case notes. In particular Oranga Tamariki (2022a) (the New Zealand Ministry for Children) provides general points when writing case notes. TheraNest (2020) draws together three sources to present a detailed list. This information is included under each of the references in the Supporting Material/References section that concludes this topic.

How should information be presented?

There are a number of case-writing models available to social workers. Some of them provide general guidance for writing case notes while others are specific to a service type or context. In addition, many organisations have policies and procedures around case recording (AASW, 2016). Case note templates are discussed further in the Practice Approach section that follows.

Sommers-Flanagan (2009) suggests the following should be used to structure case notes:

Most reports begin with identifying the reason for referral.

They then examine specific behavioural observations made by the interviewer.

The client’s specific problem is stated in some detail, along with its unique evolution. The history and description of several problems may be included.

For some clients past treatments or history of counselling can be listed.

Relevant medical history should be included, e.g. general health, recent illnesses, chronic physical illnesses or hospitalizations, prescription medications.

Include a social and family history where relevant.

Current ability to manage activities around daily living (ADLs) should be mentioned where relevant. This section can be expanded to include a description of the client’s psychological functioning, cognitive functioning, emotional functioning, or personality functioning.

Include some discussion of diagnostic issues, even if they are broad (e.g. depression, anxiety, substance use, eating disorder). For some clients, more detail may be appropriate.

Include a paragraph around case formulation and treatment plan: how the worker views the case and how the worker is likely to proceed in working with the client.

Can case notes be amended or changed at a later date?

If a change must be made to correct an error or omission, the change can be recorded as a new and separate case note. It is advisable to provide an explanation for its earlier absence or inaccuracy. Add, if possible, a note in the margin of the original case note referring the reader to the additional or amended detail (AASW, 2016).

What are the legislative responsibilities with regard to case notes?

Case notes may be subject to, and can be subpoenaed, for a range of legislative processes and requirements. The nature of these requirements may differ between organisations, districts, States and countries. Therefore it is important for Social Workers to:

be familiar with the specific legal requirements and processes impacting on practice

consider the implications of Federal and State legislation to the recording of case notes

understand how these requirements are implemented within their organisation (where relevant)

understand what policies and procedures may need to be implemented when working in private practice (AASW, 2016).

What should happen with case notes on termination of a service or support?

Termination or interruption of services should be included in case notes. Given termination may be unanticipated (e.g. departure of a social worker), it is particularly important to ensure that case notes are maintained and updated as soon after an interaction or event as practicable (AASW, 2016).

Sharing case notes with the client

It is important that clients can view reports, but they may also misinterpret information in a report unless offered guidance. The following guidelines are suggested:

Inform clients at the outset that records will be kept, and clients can have access to them.

Inform clients that some portions of the records are written in language designed to communicate with other professionals; consequently, the records may not be especially easy to read or understand.

If clients request their records, tell them you would like to review the records with them before releasing them, so as to minimize the possibility that the records are misinterpreted.

When clients request records, schedule an appointment (free of charge) with them to review the records together.

If clients are no longer seeing you, are angry with you, or refuse to meet with you, you can (a) release the records to them without a meeting (and hope the records are not misinterpreted), or (b) agree to release the records only to another licensed professional (who will review them with the client).

Whatever the situation, always discuss the issue of releasing records with your supervisor, rather than acting impulsively on your client's request (Sommers-Flanagan, 2009).

• Practice Approach

One of the themes to emerge from the literature around case notes is how they are “setting dependent” (AASW, 2016); Maple, 2012; TheraNest, 2020). Prescribed rules for what is included or excluded varies from agency to agency. However a number of key points from the Background Material section above. They include the following:

Each page should have the client's name, client's date of birth, social worker’s name and date of the interaction.

Case notes should be written as soon as possible after the interaction.

Consider who is going to read notes and how this should impact on writing style.

Information about a client should be impartial, accurate, complete, and free from emotive language.

Subjective opinions should be qualified with relevant background information, theory or research.

Be clear and consistent – don’t include extra details that are not to the point.

Sign and date the case notes when completed

Relevant information recorded in case notes may include:

The reason for the referral; the client’s specific problems

Evidence that legal and ethical responsibilities of both worker and client have been discussed

Relevant behavioural observations

A range of biopsychosocial, environmental and systemic factors impacting on the client. When relevant:

medical history

social and family history

ability to manage activities of daily living

culture, religion and spirituality

Risk and resilience factors

An assessment supported by facts, theory and/or research

A plan of action based on this assessment

A Selection of Formats for Writing Case Notes

Several different formats exist for writing case notes. TheraNest (2020) highlights three:

S.O.A.P. (Subjective, Objective, Assessment, Plan

D.A.P. (Data, Assessment, Plan)

B.I.R.P. (Behavior, Interventions, Response, Plan)

SOAP (Subjective, Objective, Assessment, Plan)

These four sections try to ensure case notes are complete, yet concise.

Subjective: What the client says about the problem; opinion-based information from the client including their goals, concerns, feelings, perceptions of their own problems. Also include relevant information from other family members or close friends.

Objective: Information that is fact-based, verifiable and quantifiable. This can be direct observations of the client. This might include things like the client’s appearance, body language and other obvious behaviour.

Assessment: Using subjective and objective information to assess the situation; a conclusion or recommendation could be included, with evidence as to why conclusions have been drawn.

Plan: The plan of action, e.g. referrals to other agencies, goals, timeline targets, i.e. the steps to take to assist the client meet their needs (AGS, 2019; Government of Northwest Territories Canada, n.d.; Moore, 2022a).

AGS (2019) provides two examples of case notes to illustrate the above. The AGS website also provides a template social workers can use to record case notes.

Examples of SOAP case notes

DAP (Data, Assessment, Plan)

The Data heading covers everything that occurred during a counselling session, including but not limited to a client’s observable responses, affect, traits, and behavior. This section includes specific, objective information about the session’s focus, what was said, and more, in order to answer the question: “What did I observe?”

Under Assessment, social workers interpret and analyze the data in the previous session. This involves applying some professional subjectivity and may result in clinical hypotheses or findings. Here, social workers might record things like how a session related to a client’s overall treatment goals, a working hypothesis, and/or a probable diagnosis of a client’s condition.

The Plan section is used for making decisions and recommending a plan of treatment for the client. Here, the objective and subjective data from the previous two sections are used to inform a social worker’s strategy or next actions – often between the current session and the next. This could include recommendations for therapy or lifestyle changes, among other short- and long-term treatments (Moore, 2022b).

The key difference between SOAP and DAP formats is that the former breaks down the information about a session into two discrete sections, which can be highly useful in healthcare contexts where medications, blood results, and other clinical data can inform a patient’s treatment (Moore, 2022b).

BIRP (Behaviour, Interventions, Response, Plan)

Behavior (Presenting the Problem) This section records the subjective and objective details that were observed (CF SOAP outline above). This section can also contain details about the session itself, such as where it took place.

Example: Met with client X in the office. The most recent assessment shows they are presenting symptoms of anxiety. Today they showed signs of exhaustion, lack of focus, and looked tired. They reported not being able to sleep in the past week and feeling overwhelmed by work.

Interventions This section outlines the methods used to reach the goals and objectives of the therapy. It’s a concise summary of the conversation, focusing strongly on the therapist’s actions and the patient’s reactions.

Example: Through client-centered techniques, this writer encouraged the patient to expand their thoughts about their work. Negative thoughts were identified and challenged. The patient was asked to see if there is a link between their insomnia and the stressful period at work. The connection was successfully made and normalized through discussion. The conversation then focused on the specific work-related triggers that may have led to insomnia. A mild sleep aid was prescribed.

Response In this section, the therapist should record the client’s response to the intervention, including what the client said and how they reacted.

Example: The patient initially rejected the link between their insomnia and stress at work. When asked how work made them feel, the patient became silent, reduced eye contact, and disengaged from the conversation with the writer. After a few moments of thinking, the patient was able to describe their own feelings in relation to their work.

Plan The plan outlines when the next session will take place, and its focus.

Example: The next appointment scheduled for September 16, will assess the client’s response to the sleep aid and reassess their feelings about work.

https://quenza.com/blog/girp-notes/

The GIRP framework offers a powerful communication tool by delivering a streamlined, concise, and organized account of a patient or client’s journey. GIRP notes highlight key developments and treatment plans , becoming an invaluable asset for all stakeholders.

What is a GIRP note?

The acronym GIRP stands for: G oal, I ntervention, R esponse, and P lan.

Goal GIRP notes always start with a goal. The goal describes what the patient wants to get out of therapy or coaching. You might include both short and long-term goals in this first section. For example: Janine has been attending fortnightly psychotherapy sessions to get better control of her social anxiety and agoraphobia. Long-term, she would like to have a more active social life. However, at present, her main goal is to start doing her grocery shopping in person again. Janine feels this is a safe and achievable goal for her to build some positive momentum.

Intervention The intervention simply describes the techniques, methods, or strategies the practitioner and client are using to work toward the desired change.

So, in Janine’s case, the intervention section might read: Therapist and client discussed gradual exposure techniques to start working up to completing a full in-person grocery shop. Or, for another person: Discussed client’s limiting beliefs around her capacity to successfully launch an online business. Introduced the concept of focusing on strengths rather than weaknesses. Then, prompted the client to come up with some empowering affirmations she can use when self-doubt is becoming an issue.

Response The response section provides an objective account of the individual’s reaction or progress in response to the intervention. This forces the practitioner to hone in on whether what they are doing in session is working and adjust course if necessary. In coaching, an example would be: Client struggled immensely with identifying strengths. By the end of the session we identified 3: creativity, persistence, and ability to learn new things. Did not get to move onto affirmations before the end of the session.

Plan The plan sets out the forthcoming steps, giving a clear roadmap for future treatment, services, and/or client tasks, based on insights gained from the individual’s response to past interventions.

For example: Janine to undertake 2 more trips for grocery shopping before next session. If successful, therapist and patient to decide on a new goal. May be suitable to include more social interaction, in line with long-term goal of having an active social life.

Benefits of GIRP Notes

The two most significant benefits of GIRP notes are that they:

1. Enhance communication between the client and professionals involved in a case resulting in a collaborative approach to care and a strong therapeutic relationship.

2. Maintain a focus on the individual’s goals.

Biopsychosocial-Spiritual Approach (BPSS)

The BPSS is used quite frequently by social workers, especially in their initial dealings with clients. The following is a template that could be adapted as necessary for different clients. Other templates for the BPSS can be found in a separate topic on this website at https://www.thesocialworkgraduate.com/post/bio-psychosocial-spiritual-assessment

_________________________________________________________________________________

Client Name:

Client D.O.B:

Client address:

Client contact details:

Referred by:

Presenting problem:

Family Structure/genogram:

Medical / psychological history:

Current medications:

Employment / education:

Other issues: Should check areas in BPSS to see if any other topics should be included

Planned intervention and referrals:

_____________________________________________________________________________

Pacheco (2014) suggests social workers can develop a template that can be written over when taking notes.The template can contain prompts to ensure the social worker does not forget to touch on certain areas. An example using the BPSS approach is shown on the right.

This is quite simple to make: type up your page with the prompts, highlight the prompts, and choose a light colour from the available font colours, e.g.tan background 2.

Pacheco’s approach could be used with other approaches too, such as SOAP, DAP and BIRP.

A number of other writers suggest case notes templates, and these have been included under their reference in the following Supporting Material / References section.

Healy and Mulholland (2007) suggest three approaches: topic sentences, problems to be solved, and expressing client concerns.

Oranga Tamariki (2022b) provide an example of a good and poor case note

Social Work Haven (2021) has developed a case notes cheat sheet

Sommers-Flanagan (2009) provide a detailed intake report template.

Supporting Material/References

AASW: Australian Association of Social Workers. (2016). Case notes . Retrieved from https://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/2356

AGS: Airiodion Global Services. (2019). A simple (but detailed) guide on different types & stages of social work processes . Retrieved frpm https://www.airiodion.com/social-work-process/

Healy, K., & Mulholland, J. (2007). Writing Case Records. In K Healy & J Mulholland (Eds.), Writing Skills for Social Workers (pp. 68-86) . Sage Publications.

Three Methods for Writing Case Notes

Topic sentences—provide the gist but leave out the detail

Problems to be solved

Expressing client concerns—state the client’s concerns as well as the social worker’s professional judgement

An example of each of the above follows based on this situation: The grandmother said: It was last Friday she came round, late as usual, and she hadn’t brought me any money to buy food for the kid after all I said last time it happened - no money and no food either - I mean I don’t mind looking after the kid - it’s bloody awful the way she treats that child - but on my pension I can’t pay for its food and that - I mean if she doesn’t give me some money soon I will have to stop caring for the kid and then where will she be?’

Topic sentences :

This case is about childcare by grandmother. Grandmother is client. The mother is in paid employment; she finds it difficult to supply money to the carer, and to pick up the child on time. The carer is unhappy about the money situation, and to lesser degree the time problem, and threatens to stop the caring.

Problems to be solved :

This case is about childcare by grandmother. Problem 1 - money, since mother is erratic about providing it.

Problem 2 - time of child collection, since mother is often late.

Problem 3 - carer is unhappy about the money situation, and to a lesser degree the time problem, and threatens to stop the caring.

[You may wish to go one step further and alert the attention of a specific team member by writing Problem 3 as : Problem 3 - ’In my view, the carer may need counselling’ , or ’Carer and mother may need mediation’.]

Expressing client concerns :

Client, grandmother as carer, complained about child’s mother supplying no money and being late. She warned that she could not continue with the childcare unless she was paid.

Lillis, T. (2017). Imagined, prescribed and actual text trajectories: The ‘problem’ with case notes in contemporary social work. Text and Talk, 37 (4), 485–508. http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1515/text-2017-0013

Government of Northwest Territories Canada. (n.d.). SOAP case notes guide . Retrieved from https://www.hss.gov.nt.ca/professionals/sites/professionals/files/resources/soap-case-notes-guide.pdf

GoodTherapy. (2020). For social workers: Tips for writing case notes . Retrieved from https://www.goodtherapy.org/for-professionals/business-management/private-practices/article/for-social-workers-tips-for-writing-case-notes

Maple, M. (2012). Case notes . Lecture notes, HSSW 100, University of New England, Australia.

Miller, K. (2022). BIRP notes: A complete guide on the BIRP note-taking forma t. Retrieved from https://quenza.com/blog/birp-notes/

Moore, C. (2022a). Writing SOAP notes, step-by-step: Examples + templates . Retrieved from https://quenza.com/blog/soap-note/

Moore, C. (2022b). How to write DAP notes: 5 best templates and examples . Retrieved from https://quenza.com/blog/dap-notes/

Oranga Tamariki (New Zealand Ministry for Children). (2022a). Keeping accurate records – guidance . Retrieved from https://practice.orangatamariki.govt.nz/practice-approach/practice-standards/keep-accurate-records/keep-accurate-records-guidance/

Oranga Tamariki - New Zealand Ministry for Children (2022a) suggests the following general points in providing guidance for social workers when writing case records. Each point below is expanded in the actual document.

Implement the practice standards for each tamaiti (child) in case notes, assessments, plans and reports

Record the process of engaging with, assessing, making decisions and reasons for decisions

Ensure what is recorded is easily understood

Provide adequate support if tamariki (children) want access to records

Keep personal information safe and secure

Document any key decisions made, or actions taken, the rationale for decisions or actions and the next steps.

Records identify the key people with whom engagement has occurred

Document views on relevant people involved in the case and how this has informed decision-making

Develop a chronology of critical key events and changes for te tamaiti (the child) and whanau (family) across their lifespan

Document how tamaiti (child), their whanau (extended family), caregivers or others working with the have responded to social worker decisions

Choose an appropriate communicate approach when communicating with clients

Include in notes how the family responds to decisions made

Document any oversight/approval obtained for key decisions that require it

Record discussions, key points and decisions made during supervision or case consults, including next steps

Review records often to keep the current and accurate

Oranga Tamariki (New Zealand Ministry for Children). (2022b). Case note examples . Retrieved from https://practice.orangatamariki.govt.nz/previous-practice-centre/policy/recording/key-information/case note-examples/

Pacheco, I. (2014). Note taking templates for clinical social work . Retrieved from http://socialworktech.com/2014/06/23/note-taking-templates-for-clinical-social-work/

Social Work Haven. (2021). Sample case notes from social work you can learn from . Retrieved from https://socialworkhaven.com/sample-case-notes-for-social-work/

Case notes cheat sheet

Date and time

Reason for contact or conversation

Capacity to make decisions around subject being discussed if applicable

Views of the person

Views of others

What did you see?

What did you do?

Any risks identified

Did you consult or share information with anyone? If so, why?

Your professional opinion and analysis

Action plan

Somers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2009). Intake interviewing and report writing. In J. Sommers-Flanagan & R. Sommers-Flanagan (Eds.). Clinical interviewing (4th ed., 175-212). John Wiley & Sons.

Sample Intake Report Outline

Use the following intake report outline as a guide for writing a thorough intake report. Keep in mind that this outline is lengthy and therefore, in practical clinical situations, you will need to select what to include and what to omit in your client reports.

--------------------------------------------------------------

NAME: DATE OF BIRTH: AGE: DATE OF INTAKE: INTAKE INTERVIEWER: DATE OF REPORT:

I. Identifying Information and Reason for Referral

A. Client name

D. Racial/Ethnic information

E. Marital status

F. Referral source (and telephone number, when possible)

G. Reason for referral '(why has the client been sent to you for a consultation/intake session?)

H. Presenting complaint (use a quote from me client to describe the complaint)

II. Behavioral Observations (and Mental Status Examination)

A. Appearance upon presentation (including comments about contact, body posture, and facial expression)

B. Quality and quantity of speech and responsivity to questioning

C. Client description of mood (use a quote in the report when appropriate)

D. Primary thought content (including presence or absence of suicidal ideation)

E. Level of cooperation with the interview

F. Estimate of adequacy of the data obtained

III. History of the Present Problem (or iIlness)

A. Include one paragraph describing the client's presenting problems and associated current stressors

B. Include one or two paragraphs outlining when the problem initially began and the course or development of symptoms

C. Repeat, as needed, paragraph-long descriptions of additional current problems identified during the intake interview (client problems are usually organized using diagnostic-DSM-groupings, however, suicide ideation, homicide ideation, relationship problems, etc., may be listed)

D. Follow, as appropriate, with relevant negative or rule-out statements (e.g., with a clinically depressed client, it is important to rule out mania: "The client denied any history ofmanic episodes.")

IV. Past Treatment (Psychiatric) History and Family Treatment (Psychiatric) History

A. Include a description of previous clinical problems or episodes not included in the previous section (e.g., if the client is presenting with a problem of clinical anxiety, but also has a history of treatment for an eating disorder, the eating disorder should be noted here)

B. Description of previous treatment received, including hospitalization, medications, psychotherapy or counselling, case management, and so on.

C. Include a description of all psychiatric and substance abuse disorders found in all blood relatives (i.e., at least parents, siblings, grandparents, and children, but also possibly aunts, uncles, and cousins)

D. Also include a list of any significant major medical disorders in blood relatives (e.g., cancer, diabetes, seizure disorders, thyroid disease)

V. Relevant Medical History

A. List and briefly describe past hospitalizations and major medical illnesses (e.g., asthma, mv positive, hypertension)

B. Include a description of the client's current health status (it's good to use a client quote or physician quote here)

C. Current medications and dosages

D. Primary care physician (and/or specialty physician) and telephone numbers

VI. Developmental History (This section is optional and is most appropriate for inclusion in child/adolescent cases.)

VII. Social and Family History

A. Early memories/experiences (including, when appropriate, descriptions of parents and possible abuse or childhood trauma)

B. Educational history

C. Employment history

D. Military history

E. Romantic relationship history

F. Sexual history

G. Aggression/Violence history

H. Alcohol/Drug history (if not previously covered as a primary problem area)

I. Legal history

J. Recreational history

K. Spiritual/Religious history

VIII. Current situation and Functioning

A. A description of typical daily activities

B. Self-perceived strengths and weaknesses

C. Ability to complete normal activities of daily living

IX. Diagnostic Impressions (This section should include a discussion of diagnostic issues or a listing of assigned diagnoses.)

A. Brief discussion of diagnostic issues

B. Multiaxial diagnosis from DSM

X. Case Formulation and Treatment Plan

A. Include a paragraph description of how you conceptualize the case. This description will provide a foundation for how you will work with this per- son. For example, a behaviorist will emphasize reinforcement contingencies that have influenced the client's development of symptoms and that will likely aid in alleviation of client symptoms. Alternatively, a psycho- analytically oriented interviewer will emphasize personality dynamics and historically significant and repeating relationship conflicts.

B. Include a paragraph description (or list) of recommended treatment approaches.

TheraNest. (2020). Elements of effective case notes for social wor k. Retrieved from https://theranest.com/blog/elements-of-effective-case-notes-for-social-work/

The guiding principle for writing effective case notes is to include content relevant to the service(s) or support provided. The specific content will vary based on your specific situation, but AASW broadly recommends the following:

The biopsychosocial, environmental and systemic factors impacting the client, including the client’s culture, religion/spirituality

Facts, theory or research underpinning an assessment

A record of all discussions and interactions with the client and persons/services involved in the provision of support including referral information, telephone and email correspondence

A record of non-attendance (by either you or your client) at scheduled and agreed meetings or activities

Evidence that you and your client have discussed your respective legal and ethical responsibilities — such as client rights and responsibilities, informed consent, confidentiality and privacy, professional boundaries, freedom of information, etc.

In addition to these broad guidelines, experts also recommend including the following specific pieces of information in each case note:

Topics discussed during the session

How the session related to the treatment plan

How the treatment plan goals and objectives are being met

Interventions and techniques used during the session and their effectiveness

Clinical observations

Progress or setbacks

Signs, symptoms and any increase or decrease in the severity of behaviors as they relate to any diagnosis used

Homework assigned, results and compliance

The client’s current strengths and challenges

Additionally, the following have to be included in case notes:

Demographic information

Prognosis and treatment plan

Progress to date

Dates of service

Who attended the sessions

Financial issues (billing, costs, payments, etc.)

This may seem like a lot of information to present, but case notes with this data will help document not only what took place in the session, but also your decision-making process and how you implemented treatment and intervention

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Bio-Psychosocial-Spiritual Assessment

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Part 2: Conceptualizing your research project

9. Writing your research question

Chapter outline.

• Empirical vs. ethical questions (4 minute read)
• Characteristics of a good research question (4 minute read)
• Quantitative research questions (7 minute read)
• Qualitative research questions (3 minute read)
• Evaluating and updating your research questions (4 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual violence, sexism, substance use disorders, homelessness, domestic violence, the child welfare system, cissexism and heterosexism, and truancy and school discipline.

9.1 Empirical vs. ethical questions

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Define empirical questions and provide an example
• Define ethical questions and provide an example

Writing a good research question is an art and a science. It is a science because you have to make sure it is clear, concise, and well-developed. It is an art because often your language needs “wordsmithing” to perfect and clarify the meaning. This is an exciting part of the research process; however, it can also be one of the most stressful.

Creating a good research question begins by identifying a topic you are interested in studying. At this point, you already have a working question. You’ve been applying it to the exercises in each chapter, and after reading more about your topic in the scholarly literature, you’ve probably gone back and revised your working question a few times. We’re going to continue that process in more detail in this chapter. Keep in mind that writing research questions is an iterative process, with revisions happening week after week until you are ready to start your project.

Empirical vs. ethical questions

When it comes to research questions, social science is best equipped to answer empirical questions —those that can be answered by real experience in the real world—as opposed to  ethical questions —questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. While social workers have explicit ethical obligations (e.g., service, social justice), research projects ask empirical questions to help actualize and support the work of upholding those ethical principles.

In order to help you better understand the difference between ethical and empirical questions, let’s consider a topic about which people have moral opinions. How about SpongeBob SquarePants? [1] In early 2005, members of the conservative Christian group Focus on the Family (2005) [2] denounced this seemingly innocuous cartoon character as “morally offensive” because they perceived his character to be one that promotes a “pro-gay agenda.” Focus on the Family supported their claim that SpongeBob is immoral by citing his appearance in a children’s video designed to promote tolerance of all family forms (BBC News, 2005). [3] They also cited SpongeBob’s regular hand-holding with his male sidekick Patrick as further evidence of his immorality.

So, can we now conclude that SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? Not so fast. While your mother or a newspaper or television reporter may provide an answer, a social science researcher cannot. Questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Of course, this doesn’t mean that social science researchers cannot study opinions about or social meanings surrounding SpongeBob SquarePants (Carter, 2010). [4] We study humans after all, and as you will discover in the following chapters of this textbook, we are trained to utilize a variety of scientific data-collection techniques to understand patterns of human beliefs and behaviors. Using these techniques, we could find out how many people in the United States find SpongeBob morally reprehensible, but we could never learn, empirically, whether SpongeBob is in fact morally reprehensible.

Let’s consider an example from a recent MSW research class I taught. A student group wanted to research the penalties for sexual assault. Their original research question was: “How can prison sentences for sexual assault be so much lower than the penalty for drug possession?” Outside of the research context, that is a darn good question! It speaks to how the War on Drugs and the patriarchy have distorted the criminal justice system towards policing of drug crimes over gender-based violence.

Unfortunately, it is an ethical question, not an empirical one. To answer that question, you would have to draw on philosophy and morality, answering what it is about human nature and society that allows such unjust outcomes. However, you could not answer that question by gathering data about people in the real world. If I asked people that question, they would likely give me their opinions about drugs, gender-based violence, and the criminal justice system. But I wouldn’t get the real answer about why our society tolerates such an imbalance in punishment.

As the students worked on the project through the semester, they continued to focus on the topic of sexual assault in the criminal justice system. Their research question became more empirical because they read more empirical articles about their topic. One option that they considered was to evaluate intervention programs for perpetrators of sexual assault to see if they reduced the likelihood of committing sexual assault again. Another option they considered was seeing if counties or states with higher than average jail sentences for sexual assault perpetrators had lower rates of re-offense for sexual assault. These projects addressed the ethical question of punishing perpetrators of sexual violence but did so in a way that gathered and analyzed empirical real-world data. Our job as social work researchers is to gather social facts about social work issues, not to judge or determine morality.

Key Takeaways

• Empirical questions are distinct from ethical questions.
• There are usually a number of ethical questions and a number of empirical questions that could be asked about any single topic.
• While social workers may research topics about which people have moral opinions, a researcher’s job is to gather and analyze empirical data.
• Take a look at your working question. Make sure you have an empirical question, not an ethical one. To perform this check, describe how you could find an answer to your question by conducting a study, like a survey or focus group, with real people.

9.2 Characteristics of a good research question

• Identify and explain the key features of a good research question
• Explain why it is important for social workers to be focused and clear with the language they use in their research questions

Now that you’ve made sure your working question is empirical, you need to revise that working question into a formal research question. So, what makes a good research question? First, it is generally written in the form of a question. To say that your research question is “the opioid epidemic” or “animal assisted therapy” or “oppression” would not be correct. You need to frame your topic as a question, not a statement. A good research question is also one that is well-focused. A well-focused question helps you tune out irrelevant information and not try to answer everything about the world all at once. You could be the most eloquent writer in your class, or even in the world, but if the research question about which you are writing is unclear, your work will ultimately lack direction.

In addition to being written in the form of a question and being well-focused, a good research question is one that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. For example, if your interest is in gender norms, you could ask, “Does gender affect a person’s performance of household tasks?” but you will have nothing left to say once you discover your yes or no answer. Instead, why not ask, about the relationship between gender and household tasks. Alternatively, maybe we are interested in how or to what extent gender affects a person’s contributions to housework in a marriage? By tweaking your question in this small way, you suddenly have a much more fascinating question and more to say as you attempt to answer it.

A good research question should also have more than one plausible answer. In the example above, the student who studied the relationship between gender and household tasks had a specific interest in the impact of gender, but she also knew that preferences might be impacted by other factors. For example, she knew from her own experience that her more traditional and socially conservative friends were more likely to see household tasks as part of the female domain, and were less likely to expect their male partners to contribute to those tasks. Thinking through the possible relationships between gender, culture, and household tasks led that student to realize that there were many plausible answers to her questions about how  gender affects a person’s contribution to household tasks. Because gender doesn’t exist in a vacuum, she wisely felt that she needed to consider other characteristics that work together with gender to shape people’s behaviors, likes, and dislikes. By doing this, the student considered the third feature of a good research question–she thought about relationships between several concepts. While she began with an interest in a single concept—household tasks—by asking herself what other concepts (such as gender or political orientation) might be related to her original interest, she was able to form a question that considered the relationships  among  those concepts.

This student had one final component to consider. Social work research questions must contain a target population. Her study would be very different if she were to conduct it on older adults or immigrants who just arrived in a new country. The target population is the group of people whose needs your study addresses. Maybe the student noticed issues with household tasks as part of her social work practice with first-generation immigrants, and so she made it her target population. Maybe she wants to address the needs of another community. Whatever the case, the target population should be chosen while keeping in mind social work’s responsibility to work on behalf of marginalized and oppressed groups.

In sum, a good research question generally has the following features:

• It is written in the form of a question
• It is clearly written
• It cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”
• It has more than one plausible answer
• It considers relationships among multiple variables
• It is specific and clear about the concepts it addresses
• It includes a target population
• A poorly focused research question can lead to the demise of an otherwise well-executed study.
• Research questions should be clearly worded, consider relationships between multiple variables, have more than one plausible answer, and address the needs of a target population.

Okay, it’s time to write out your first draft of a research question.

• Once you’ve done so, take a look at the checklist in this chapter and see if your research question meets the criteria to be a good one.

Brainstorm whether your research question might be better suited to quantitative or qualitative methods.

• Describe why your question fits better with quantitative or qualitative methods.
• Provide an alternative research question that fits with the other type of research method.

9.3 Quantitative research questions

• Describe how research questions for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory quantitative questions differ and how to phrase them
• Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak explanatory research questions

Quantitative descriptive questions

The type of research you are conducting will impact the research question that you ask. Probably the easiest questions to think of are quantitative descriptive questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of MSW students?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. We aren’t trying to build a causal relationship here. We’re simply trying to describe how much debt MSW students carry. Quantitative descriptive questions like this one are helpful in social work practice as part of community scans, in which human service agencies survey the various needs of the community they serve. If the scan reveals that the community requires more services related to housing, child care, or day treatment for people with disabilities, a nonprofit office can use the community scan to create new programs that meet a defined community need.

Quantitative descriptive questions will often ask for percentage, count the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determine an average. Descriptive questions may only include one variable, such as ours about student debt load, or they may include multiple variables. Because these are descriptive questions, our purpose is not to investigate causal relationships between variables. To do that, we need to use a quantitative explanatory question.

Quantitative explanatory questions

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be quantitative and explanatory. Why is that? If you recall from Chapter 2 , explanatory research tries to build nomothetic causal relationships. They are generalizable across space and time, so they are applicable to a wide audience. The editorial board of a journal wants to make sure their content will be useful to as many people as possible, so it’s not surprising that quantitative research dominates the academic literature.

Structurally, quantitative explanatory questions must contain an independent variable and dependent variable. Questions should ask about the relationship between these variables. The standard format I was taught in graduate school for an explanatory quantitative research question is: “What is the relationship between [independent variable] and [dependent variable] for [target population]?” You should play with the wording for your research question, revising that standard format to match what you really want to know about your topic.

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 9.1 does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that I have only noted what I view to be the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table. Each of these questions is drawn from student projects in my research methods classes and reflects the work of many students on their research question over many weeks.

Making it more specific

A good research question should also be specific and clear about the concepts it addresses. A student investigating gender and household tasks knows what they mean by “household tasks.” You likely also have an impression of what “household tasks” means. But are your definition and the student’s definition the same? A participant in their study may think that managing finances and performing home maintenance are household tasks, but the researcher may be interested in other tasks like childcare or cleaning. The only way to ensure your study stays focused and clear is to be specific about what you mean by a concept. The student in our example could pick a specific household task that was interesting to them or that the literature indicated was important—for example, childcare. Or, the student could have a broader view of household tasks, one that encompasses childcare, food preparation, financial management, home repair, and care for relatives. Any option is probably okay, as long as the researcher is clear on what they mean by “household tasks.” Clarifying these distinctions is important as we look ahead to specifying how your variables will be measured in Chapter 11 .

Table 9.2 contains some “watch words” that indicate you may need to be more specific about the concepts in your research question.

It can be challenging to be this specific in social work research, particularly when you are just starting out your project and still reading the literature. If you’ve only read one or two articles on your topic, it can be hard to know what you are interested in studying. Broad questions like “What are the causes of chronic homelessness, and what can be done to prevent it?” are common at the beginning stages of a research project as working questions. However, moving from working questions to research questions in your research proposal requires that you examine the literature on the topic and refine your question over time to be more specific and clear. Perhaps you want to study the effect of a specific anti-homelessness program that you found in the literature. Maybe there is a particular model to fighting homelessness, like Housing First or transitional housing, that you want to investigate further. You may want to focus on a potential cause of homelessness such as LGBTQ+ discrimination that you find interesting or relevant to your practice. As you can see, the possibilities for making your question more specific are almost infinite.

Quantitative exploratory questions

In exploratory research, the researcher doesn’t quite know the lay of the land yet. If someone is proposing to conduct an exploratory quantitative project, the watch words highlighted in Table 9.2 are not problematic at all. In fact, questions such as “What factors influence the removal of children in child welfare cases?” are good because they will explore a variety of factors or causes. In this question, the independent variable is less clearly written, but the dependent variable, family preservation outcomes, is quite clearly written. The inverse can also be true. If we were to ask, “What outcomes are associated with family preservation services in child welfare?”, we would have a clear independent variable, family preservation services, but an unclear dependent variable, outcomes. Because we are only conducting exploratory research on a topic, we may not have an idea of what concepts may comprise our “outcomes” or “factors.” Only after interacting with our participants will we be able to understand which concepts are important.

Remember that exploratory research is appropriate only when the researcher does not know much about topic because there is very little scholarly research. In our examples above, there is extensive literature on the outcomes in family reunification programs and risk factors for child removal in child welfare. Make sure you’ve done a thorough literature review to ensure there is little relevant research to guide you towards a more explanatory question.

• Descriptive quantitative research questions are helpful for community scans but cannot investigate causal relationships between variables.
• Explanatory quantitative research questions must include an independent and dependent variable.
• Exploratory quantitative research questions should only be considered when there is very little previous research on your topic.
• Identify the type of research you are engaged in (descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory).
• Create a quantitative research question for your project that matches with the type of research you are engaged in.

Preferably, you should be creating an explanatory research question for quantitative research.

9.4 Qualitative research questions

• List the key terms associated with qualitative research questions
• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research questions

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative research questions. Because qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic explanation, they are often more general and openly worded. They may include only one concept, though many include more than one. Instead of asking how one variable causes changes in another, we are instead trying to understand the experiences ,  understandings , and  meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question. These keywords often make an appearance in qualitative research questions.

Let’s work through an example from our last section. In Table 9.1, a student asked, “What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?” In this question, it is pretty clear that the student believes that adolescents in foster care who identify as LGBTQ+ may be at greater risk for homelessness. This is a nomothetic causal relationship—LGBTQ+ status causes changes in homelessness.

However, what if the student were less interested in  predicting  homelessness based on LGBTQ+ status and more interested in  understanding  the stories of foster care youth who identify as LGBTQ+ and may be at risk for homelessness? In that case, the researcher would be building an idiographic causal explanation . The youths whom the researcher interviews may share stories of how their foster families, caseworkers, and others treated them. They may share stories about how they thought of their own sexuality or gender identity and how it changed over time. They may have different ideas about what it means to transition out of foster care.

Because qualitative questions usually center on idiographic causal relationships, they look different than quantitative questions. Table 9.3 below takes the final research questions from Table 9.1 and adapts them for qualitative research. The guidelines for research questions previously described in this chapter still apply, but there are some new elements to qualitative research questions that are not present in quantitative questions.

• Qualitative research questions often ask about lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.
• Qualitative research questions may be more general and less specific.
• Qualitative research questions may also contain only one variable, rather than asking about relationships between multiple variables.

Qualitative research questions have one final feature that distinguishes them from quantitative research questions: they can change over the course of a study. Qualitative research is a reflexive process, one in which the researcher adapts their approach based on what participants say and do. The researcher must constantly evaluate whether their question is important and relevant to the participants. As the researcher gains information from participants, it is normal for the focus of the inquiry to shift.

For example, a qualitative researcher may want to study how a new truancy rule impacts youth at risk of expulsion. However, after interviewing some of the youth in their community, a researcher might find that the rule is actually irrelevant to their behavior and thoughts. Instead, their participants will direct the discussion to their frustration with the school administrators or the lack of job opportunities in the area. This is a natural part of qualitative research, and it is normal for research questions and hypothesis to evolve based on information gleaned from participants.

However, this reflexivity and openness unacceptable in quantitative research for good reasons. Researchers using quantitative methods are testing a hypothesis, and if they could revise that hypothesis to match what they found, they could never be wrong! Indeed, an important component of open science and reproducability is the preregistration of a researcher’s hypotheses and data analysis plan in a central repository that can be verified and replicated by reviewers and other researchers. This interactive graphic from 538 shows how an unscrupulous research could come up with a hypothesis and theoretical explanation  after collecting data by hunting for a combination of factors that results in a statistically significant relationship. This is an excellent example of how the positivist assumptions behind quantitative research and intepretivist assumptions behind qualitative research result in different approaches to social science.

• Qualitative research questions often contain words or phrases like “lived experience,” “personal experience,” “understanding,” “meaning,” and “stories.”
• Qualitative research questions can change and evolve over the course of the study.
• Using the guidance in this chapter, write a qualitative research question. You may want to use some of the keywords mentioned above.

9.5 Evaluating and updating your research questions

• Evaluate the feasibility and importance of your research questions
• Begin to match your research questions to specific designs that determine what the participants in your study will do

Feasibility and importance

As you are getting ready to finalize your research question and move into designing your research study, it is important to check whether your research question is feasible for you to answer and what importance your results will have in the community, among your participants, and in the scientific literature

Key questions to consider when evaluating your question’s feasibility include:

• Do you have access to the data you need?
• Will you be able to get consent from stakeholders, gatekeepers, and others?
• Does your project pose risk to individuals through direct harm, dual relationships, or breaches in confidentiality? (see Chapter 6 for more ethical considerations)
• Are you competent enough to complete the study?
• Do you have the resources and time needed to carry out the project?

Key questions to consider when evaluating the importance of your question include:

• Can we answer your research question simply by looking at the literature on your topic?
• How does your question add something new to the scholarly literature? (raises a new issue, addresses a controversy, studies a new population, etc.)
• How will your target population benefit, once you answer your research question?
• How will the community, social work practice, and the broader social world benefit, once you answer your research question?
• Using the questions above, check whether you think your project is feasible for you to complete, given the constrains that student projects face.
• Realistically, explore the potential impact of your project on the community and in the scientific literature. Make sure your question cannot be answered by simply reading more about your topic.

Matching your research question and study design

This chapter described how to create a good quantitative and qualitative research question. In Parts 3 and 4 of this textbook, we will detail some of the basic designs like surveys and interviews that social scientists use to answer their research questions. But which design should you choose?

As with most things, it all depends on your research question. If your research question involves, for example, testing a new intervention, you will likely want to use an experimental design. On the other hand, if you want to know the lived experience of people in a public housing building, you probably want to use an interview or focus group design.

We will learn more about each one of these designs in the remainder of this textbook. We will also learn about using data that already exists, studying an individual client inside clinical practice, and evaluating programs, which are other examples of designs. Below is a list of designs we will cover in this textbook:

• Surveys: online, phone, mail, in-person
• Experiments: classic, pre-experiments, quasi-experiments
• Interviews: in-person or via phone or videoconference
• Focus groups: in-person or via videoconference
• Content analysis of existing data
• Secondary data analysis of another researcher’s data
• Program evaluation

The design of your research study determines what you and your participants will do. In an experiment, for example, the researcher will introduce a stimulus or treatment to participants and measure their responses. In contrast, a content analysis may not have participants at all, and the researcher may simply read the marketing materials for a corporation or look at a politician’s speeches to conduct the data analysis for the study.

I imagine that a content analysis probably seems easier to accomplish than an experiment. However, as a researcher, you have to choose a research design that makes sense for your question and that is feasible to complete with the resources you have. All research projects require some resources to accomplish. Make sure your design is one you can carry out with the resources (time, money, staff, etc.) that you have.

There are so many different designs that exist in the social science literature that it would be impossible to include them all in this textbook. The purpose of the subsequent chapters is to help you understand the basic designs upon which these more advanced designs are built. As you learn more about research design, you will likely find yourself revising your research question to make sure it fits with the design. At the same time, your research question as it exists now should influence the design you end up choosing. There is no set order in which these should happen. Instead, your research project should be guided by whether you can feasibly carry it out and contribute new and important knowledge to the world.

• Research questions must be feasible and important.
• Research questions must match study design.
• Based on what you know about designs like surveys, experiments, and interviews, describe how you might use one of them to answer your research question.
• You may want to refer back to Chapter 2 which discusses how to get raw data about your topic and the common designs used in student research projects.

Media Attributions

• patrick-starfish-2062906_1920 © Inspired Images is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• financial-2860753_1920 © David Schwarzenberg is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• target-group-3460039_1920 © Gerd Altmann is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
• Not familiar with SpongeBob SquarePants? You can learn more about him on Nickelodeon’s site dedicated to all things SpongeBob:  http://www.nick.com/spongebob-squarepants/ ↵
• Focus on the Family. (2005, January 26). Focus on SpongeBob.  Christianity Today . Retrieved from  http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/januaryweb-only/34.0c.html ↵
• BBC News. (2005, January 20). US right attacks SpongeBob video. Retrieved from:  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4190699.stm ↵
• In fact, an MA thesis examines representations of gender and relationships in the cartoon: Carter, A. C. (2010).  Constructing gender and   relationships in “SpongeBob SquarePants”: Who lives in a pineapple under the sea . MA thesis, Department of Communication, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. ↵

research questions that can be answered by systematically observing the real world

unsuitable research questions which are not answerable by systematic observation of the real world but instead rely on moral or philosophical opinions

the group of people whose needs your study addresses

attempts to explain or describe your phenomenon exhaustively, based on the subjective understandings of your participants

"Assuming that the null hypothesis is true and the study is repeated an infinite number times by drawing random samples from the same populations(s), less than 5% of these results will be more extreme than the current result" (Cassidy et al., 2019, p. 233).

whether you can practically and ethically complete the research project you propose

the impact your study will have on participants, communities, scientific knowledge, and social justice

Graduate research methods in social work Copyright © 2021 by Matthew DeCarlo, Cory Cummings, Kate Agnelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The elements of a case presentation

Case Presentations

Case presentation format and requirements can vary widely from site to site, from meeting to meeting, and from supervisor to supervisor. Here are the key elements commonly included in a case presentation:

Client Demographics : Start by providing basic information about the client, such as age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and any other relevant demographic details.

Presenting Problem : Describe the reason the client sought assistance or was referred for services. This could include the client's primary concerns, symptoms, or issues they are facing.

Background Information : Offer a brief overview of the client's personal history, including family dynamics, educational background, employment status, housing situation, and any significant life events that may be relevant to their current situation.

Social and Environmental Factors : Discuss the client's social support system, relationships, cultural factors, and environmental circumstances that may impact their well-being or contribute to their presenting problem.

Assessment : Present findings from assessments or evaluations conducted with the client, including their strengths, needs, risks, and protective factors. This may involve using standardized assessment tools, clinical observations, or information gathered through interviews.

Goals and Objectives : Outline the client's goals for intervention and any objectives set to achieve those goals. It's generally preferred that goals be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Intervention Plan : Describe the interventions or strategies proposed to address the client's needs and work towards their goals. This could include individual therapy, group therapy, case management, advocacy, referrals to other services, or collaboration with other professionals.

Progress to Date : Provide an update on the client's progress since the initiation of services, including any changes in their symptoms, functioning, or circumstances. Highlight successes, challenges, and areas for further attention.

Collaboration and Coordination : Discuss any collaboration or coordination efforts with other professionals, agencies, or community resources involved in the client's care. This could include interdisciplinary team meetings, case conferences, or referrals to external service providers.

Plan for Continued Support : Outline the next steps in the intervention process, including ongoing monitoring, adjustments to the intervention plan as needed, and plans for follow-up or discharge.

Ethical and Legal Considerations : Address any ethical dilemmas or legal issues relevant to the case, ensuring that interventions are in line with professional standards and legal requirements.

Reflection and Supervision Needs : Reflect on the case presentation, identifying lessons learned, challenges encountered, and areas where further supervision or support may be needed to enhance practice effectiveness and client outcomes.

By including these elements in a case presentation, social workers can effectively communicate important information about their clients' needs, progress, and plans for intervention while promoting collaboration and accountability within multidisciplinary teams.

Here's a sample case presentation--using all of the above--for a hypothetical client named "Sarah," who is seeking assistance for depression and anxiety:

Client Demographics:

• Sarah is a 32-year-old Caucasian woman.
• She lives alone in an apartment in downtown.
• Sarah is employed full-time as a marketing assistant in a local firm.

Presenting Problem:

• Sarah presents with symptoms of depression and anxiety, reporting feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worry that have been persistent for the past six months.
• She states that she has difficulty sleeping and concentrating at work due to intrusive thoughts and worries about her performance.

Background Information:

• Sarah grew up in a middle-class family with both parents and an older brother.
• She describes her childhood as generally happy but notes that her parents divorced when she was in high school, which was a significant stressor.
• Sarah completed a Bachelor's degree in Business Administration but struggled to find stable employment after graduation, which contributed to her feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem.

Social and Environmental Factors:

• Sarah reports feeling socially isolated since moving to the city for work two years ago.
• She has few close friends in the area and does not have much contact with her family, who live in another state.
• Sarah's apartment is clean and well-kept, but she mentions feeling overwhelmed by the responsibilities of living independently.

Assessment:

• Client has moderate-severe symptoms of depression and generalized anxiety disorder.
• Sarah demonstrates strengths in her ability to articulate her feelings and seek help, as well as her commitment to attending therapy sessions regularly.

Goals and Objectives:

• Objective: Decrease self-reported symptoms by 50% within three months through cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques.
• Objective: Participate in at least one social activity outside of work per week.

Intervention Plan:

• Weekly individual therapy sessions using CBT to address negative thought patterns and develop coping skills.
• Psychoeducation on relaxation techniques, mindfulness, and stress management strategies.
• Referral to a psychiatrist for medication evaluation and management if indicated.
• Encouragement of participation in community events or interest-based groups to expand social connections.

Progress to Date:

• Sarah has attended three therapy sessions and reports some improvement in her mood and sleep patterns.
• She has expressed interest in joining a local book club and has initiated contact with the group organizer.

Collaboration and Coordination:

• Coordination with Sarah's primary care physician to monitor any physical health concerns related to her mental health symptoms.
• Collaboration with the HR department at Sarah's workplace to explore accommodations or support services that may be available to her as an employee.

Plan for Continued Support:

• Continue weekly therapy sessions with regular progress assessments.
• Monitor medication compliance and effectiveness if psychiatric referral is pursued.
• Encourage ongoing participation in social activities and provide support as needed.

Ethical and Legal Considerations:

• Ensure confidentiality and informed consent in all aspects of treatment.
• Adhere to professional ethical guidelines and standards of practice in providing care to Sarah.

Reflection and Supervision Needs:

• Reflect on the therapeutic relationship and explore any countertransference issues that may arise.
• Seek supervision or consultation as needed to address complex case dynamics or ethical dilemmas.

On the Exam

Thankfully, the ASWB is multiple choice. You will not be asked to do a case presentation to pass the test. The topic may still appear looking something like this:

• Which of the following elements is typically included in a case presentation?
• In a case presentation, what is the purpose of discussing the client's social and environmental factors?
• Why is it important to address ethical and legal considerations in a case presentation?

And, of course, you'll encounter lots of vignette questions--themselves like mini case presentations--asking you to assess, diagnose, choose a FIRST or NEXT step, etc.

Get a ton of practice with questions like those on SWTP's full-length practice tests. Ready?

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How to Write a Case Study: Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

• October 7, 2022

Content Manager at SocialBee

Why is learning how to write a case study so important?

Well, because it provides your customers with social proof and supporting evidence of how effective your products and services are. Moreover, it eliminates the doubt that usually makes clients give up on their next purchase.

That is why today we are going to talk about the step-by-step process of writing a case study . We prepared five business case study examples guaranteed to inspire you throughout the process.

Let’s get started!

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a piece of content that focuses on a case from your business history. It describes the problems your client faced and the solutions you used to help them succeed.

The goal of a writing case study is to promote your business , so your aim should be to put together a compelling story with evidence that backs up all your claims.

Case studies use real-life examples to show your clients the quality and effectiveness of your products and services. It’s a marketing tool that provides credibility and it helps your potential clients gain confidence in your brand.

Case studies can be structured in different formats:

• A written document
• An infographic
• A blog post
• A landing page

Case Study Benefits

A great case study makes your potential customers want to benefit from the products and services that helped your client overcome their challenges. 

Here are the benefits of writing a case study:

• It is an affordable marketing practice
• It decreases the perceived risk of your potential clients
• It provides transparency
• It builds trust and credibility among prospective customers
• It makes your potential clients relate to the problem
• It provides your potential clients with a solution for their problems

How to Write a Case Study

Now that you know what a case study is, let’s get into the real reason why you are here — learning how to write an in-depth study.

Here is the step-by-step process of writing a case study:

• Identify the topic of your case study
• Start collaborating with a client
• Prepare questions for the interview
• Conduct the case study interview
• Structure your case study 
• Make it visual

Step 1: Identify the Topic of Your Case Study

A case study starts with a strategy. Choosing what you want to write about should be closely related to your business needs. More specifically, what service or product do you want to promote through your case study?

Because case studies focus on client challenges, business solutions, and results, you have to carefully pick the case that your potential clients will relate to the most. 

To communicate the benefits of your business, you should focus on a customer story that appeals to a specific segment of your audience . Consequently, you will target clients that relate to your customer example while providing a solution for their needs and pain points — your products and services.

Start by focusing all your research methods on identifying your customers’ main pain points. Then find examples of how your products or services have helped them overcome their challenges and achieve their goals .

Furthermore, to make sure you choose the best case study topic for your buyer persona , you should have a meeting with your sales/customer service team. Because they are in close contact with your customers, they will be able to tell you:

• The main challenges your clients face 
• The services/products that bring them the best results 

These are the main two pieces of information you want your case study to focus on.

Step 2: Start Collaborating with a Client

With a clear topic in mind, you have to find the best fit for your case study. 

However, that is not all. First, you must obtain the client’s permission. After all, your business story is theirs too.

So, craft an email to provide your client with an overview of the case study. This will help them make a decision. 

Your message should include:

• The case study format (video, written, etc.) and where it will be published (blog, landing page , etc.)
• The topic of the document
• The timeline of the process
• The information that will be included
• The benefits they get as a result of this collaboration (brand exposure, backlinks)

Additionally, you can offer to schedule a call or a meeting to answer all their questions and curiosities and provide a means for clear and open communication.

Once you receive a positive response from your client, you can continue with the next step of the process: the actual interview.

PRO TIP: A great way to ensure a smooth and safe collaboration between you and your client is to sign a legal release form before writing the case study. This will allow you to use their information and protect you from issues that may occur in the future. Moreover, if the client is not comfortable with revealing their identity, you can always offer them anonymity.

Step 3: Prepare Questions for the Interview

Now that you have the subject for your case study, it’s time to write and organize your interview in several sets of questions.

Don’t forget that the whole structure of your case study is based on the information you get from your customer interview.

So pay attention to the way you phrase the questions. After all, your goal is to gather all the data you need to avoid creating a back-and-forth process that will consume your client’s time and energy.

To help you create the best questionnaire, we created a set of case study questions and organized them into different categories. 

Here are the five main sections your case study interview should contain:

• The client’s background information
• The problem
• The start of the collaboration
• The solution
• The results

A. The Client’s Background Information

This part of the case study interview must give a comprehensive look into your customer’s business and allow your readers to get to know them better.

Here are some question ideas:

B. The Problem

Now it’s time to get into the reason your client came to you for assistance, the initial challenge that triggered your collaboration.

In this part of the interview process, you want to find out what made them ask for help and what was their situation before working with you.

You can ask your client the following case study questions:

C. The Start of the Collaboration

This part of the case study interview will focus on the process that made your collaboration possible. More specifically, how did your client research possible collaboration opportunities, and why they chose your business? 

This information will not only be informative for your future customers but will also give you a behind-the-scenes look into their decision-making process.

D. The Solution

It’s time to get into one of the most significant parts of the case study interview — the solution. Here you should discuss how your services have helped their business recover from the problems mentioned before.

Make sure you ask the right questions so you can really paint the picture of a satisfied customer.

Have a look at these question examples:

E. The Results

The best proof you can give to your customers is through your results. And this is the perfect opportunity to let your actions speak for themselves.

Unlike the other marketing strategies you use to promote your business, the content is provided by your customer, not by your team. As a result, you end up with a project that is on another level of reliability.

Here is how you can ask your client about their results:

Step 4: Conduct the Case Study Interview

Now that you have a great set of case study questions, it’s time to put them to good use.

Decide on the type of interview you want to conduct: face-to-face, video call , or phone call. Then, consult with your client and set up a date and a time when you are both available. 

It should be noted that during the interview it’s best to use a recording device for accuracy. Maybe you don’t have time to write down all the information, and you forget important details. Or maybe you want to be focused more on the conversational aspect of the interview, and you don’t want to write anything down while it’s happening.

Step 5: Structure Your Case Study 

The hard part is over. Now it’s time to organize all the information you gathered in an appealing format. Let’s have a look at what your case study should contain.

Here are the components of a case study:

• Engaging title
• Executive summary
• Client description 
• Introduction to the problem
• The problem-solving process
• Progress and results

A. Engaging Title

Putting that much work into a project, it would be a shame not to do your best to attract more readers. So, take into consideration that you only have a few seconds to catch your audience’s attention. 

You can also use a headline analyzer to evaluate the performance of your title.

The best case study titles contain:

• Relevant keywords
• Customer pain points
• Clear result

Case study example :

B. Executive Summary

Your executive summary should include a thesis statement that sums up the main points of your case study. Therefore, it must be clear and concise. Moreover, to make your audience curious, you can add a statistic or a relevant piece of data that they might be interested in.

Here is what you should include in your executive summary:

• The business you are writing about (only if the clients wants to make themselves known)
• Relevant statistics

C. Client Description 

Here is where you start to include the information you gained from your interview. Provide your readers with a clear picture of your client and create a context for your case study.

Take your client’s answers from the “Client Background” section of the interview and present them in a more appealing format.

D. Introduction to the Problem

In this section, use your client’s interview answers to write about the problem they were experiencing before working with you.

Remember to be specific because you want your audience to fully understand the situation and relate to it. At the end of the day, the goal of the case study is to show your potential customers why they should buy your services/products.

E. The Problem-Solving Process

Next, explain how your service/product helped your client overcome their problems. Moreover, let your readers know how and why your service/product worked in their case.

In this part of the case study, you should summarize: 

• The strategy used to solve the problem of your customer 
• The process of implementing the solution 

F. Progress and Results

Tell your readers about what you and your client have achieved during your collaboration. Here you can include:

• Graphics about your progress
• Business objectives they have achieved
• Relevant metrics 

Step 6: Make It Visual

To elevate the information you have written for your audience, you must make sure it’s appealing and easy to read. And a great way to achieve that is to use visuals that add value to your case study.

Here are some design elements that will make emphasize your text:

• Graphic symbols that guide the eye (arrows, bullet points, checkmarks, etc.)
• Charts, graphics, tables 
• Relevant screenshots from business reports
• The colors and fonts of your brand
• Your client’s logo

Platforms like Canva can really come in handy while designing your case study. It’s easy to use and it has multiple free slide templates and graphics that save you time and money.

PRO TIP: Share Your Case Study Across All Marketing Channels

A case study is a perfect example of evergreen content that can be reshared endlessly on your social media channels .

Aside from helping you maintain a consistent posting schedule with ease, case study-related posts will increase your credibility and push leads toward the bottom of your marketing funnel . Other examples of social proof evergreen content are reviews, testimonials, and positive social media mentions.

To keep track of all your evergreen posts and have them scheduled on a continuous loop, use a social media tool like SocialBee.

Create evergreen content categories where all your posts get reposted regularly on your social media channels. 

Start your 14-day trial today and start using SocialBee for free!

Aside from promoting your case study on social media, you can also feature it in your newsletter that you can create using email newsletter software , include it as a pop-up on your website, and even create a separate landing page dedicated to your customer study.

Share Your Case Study on Social Media with SocialBee!

Get to writing your own case study.

What do you think? Is writing a case study easier than you thought? We sure hope so.

Learning how to write a case study is a simple process once you understand the logical steps that go into it. So make sure you go over the guide a couple of times before you start documenting your customer success stories.

And remember that the goal of your case study is to attract more leads . Therefore you need to include tangible results and valuable details that will compel your audience to invest in your products and services.

Article written by

Content writer at SocialBee

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Social Work Case Notes Examples & Templates

If you’re a social worker who wants to spend less time writing case notes, you’re in the right place! We’ve got some useful writing tips and best practices to improve your case notes, along with some great case notes examples for social workers.

Here’s what you’ll find here:

What Are Case Notes What to Include in Case Notes Case Notes Examples for Social Workers Creating & Entering Case Notes Best Practices for Writing Case Notes Conclusion

What Are Case Notes?

Case notes are records of a client’s or patient’s one-on-one meetings with social workers, usually written in chronological order.

Social workers record incidents observed during a visit, their client’s recent history and present circumstances, as well as document their overall progress, goals, and response to various treatments (if undergoing any). Social workers may even interview family members and persons relevant to a given case they’re assessing.

Well-written case notes provide objective descriptions grounded in fact and evidence, and leverage a social worker’s assessments and opinions without bias. They are important for insurance coverage purposes, legal proceedings, and social work continuity as they provide an accurate historical record of treatment.

The social work case notes examples provided here can be used for case management in health and social services in order to track helpline calls, manage beds for clients in shelters, and to track the palliative care of patients in hospices.

What to Include in Case Notes

Before we get to the sample case notes and best practices, let’s take a look at what you should include in your social work case notes.

This guide presents a general overview of what information to include in your case notes. Exactly what must be entered (or left out) is dependent on what is relevant to the service or support you provide.

Here’s an outline you can follow to make sure you cover all relevant information: 

Who: What is the name and designation of the person submitting the case note? What: What was done (what services were provided)? Where: Where did it take place (whether via phone or in-person)? When: What was the date of service? Why: What was the reason for interaction and intended goal (whether this is a follow-up meeting, monthly or weekly scheduled meeting, unit inspection, intake or exit meeting)?

Additional Information to Include

Meeting Information and Observations

• Topics discussed during the session
• How the session related to the treatment plan
• How the treatment plan goals and objectives are being met
• Interventions and techniques used during the session and their effectiveness
• Clinical observations along with any facts, theory or research underpinning an assessment
• Tracking of client activities (job pursuits, psychological assessments, etc.)
• Tracking of program/agency monitoring activities (e.g. lab results)
• Evidence that you and the client have discussed your respective legal and ethical responsibilities.

Client/Patient History

• The client’s current strengths and challenges
• Progress or setbacks
• Signs, symptoms and any increase or decrease in the severity of behaviours as they relate to a diagnosis

Follow up information

• Whether or not the next meeting or follow up with the client was scheduled
• Location and time of the next meeting (if scheduled)
• Roles and responsibilities for both the client and yourself (or another case manager) to prepare for your next meeting.

Case Notes Examples for Social Workers

Sample Case Notes for Social Workers: Health & Social Services

Case notes example 1: rehousing program.

Angela Lewis, FRSP case manager, met with Ms. George at her home on 10/24/2019 at 10:00am for her scheduled monthly home visit. Ms. George was home alone at the time of the home visit as she reported that her children were at school. Ms. George appeared to be in an overall good mood at the time of the visit and was very engaged. Her apartment was free from excess trash and the client’s kitchen was free from excess food debris at the time of the visit. There also appeared to be no maintenance concerns in the unit. During the home visit with Ms. George today, the writer completed and reviewed the Housing and Participation Assessment Report (HPAR) and also assisted Ms. George with completing her monthly budget. The writer engaged Ms. George in a conversation about her progress with her goal of increasing her income. Ms. George shared that she completed about three job applications this month which included: Starbucks, Target and Marshalls. She reported that she has not yet heard back from Marshalls or Target, but shared that Starbucks contacted her for an interview which is scheduled for November 5th 2019 at 2pm. Ms. George confirmed that she will attend her job interview with Starbucks at 2pm on 11/5/2019 and also reported that she will continue to use Indeed.com as her method of searching and applying for jobs. In addition to continuing her job search, the writer suggested that Ms. George also contact Marshalls and Target in effort to follow up on the status of her applications in which Ms. George agreed to do so. Ms. George shared her goal to apply for a total of 6 jobs during the month of November. Ms. George is scheduled for a follow up phone call with the writer on 11/15/2019 at 11am regarding her progress with her job search.

Case Notes Example 2: Welfare Visit

This is another case notes example of a home visit, written in the S.O.A.P. documentation style.

S = Strengths I met with Mrs. Diaz on xx/xx/xx. Despite her financial and health concerns and her reported sadness, she has followed through with most previously agreed upon tasks. She also reached out to her children this past week, which resulted in her receiving a nice visit from her son and his family. She said that she felt in slightly better spirits because of it.

O = Objective Account Mrs. Diaz reported that she went to the food bank and has enough food to last until her next social security check arrives next week. With my assistance, Mrs. Diaz completed an application for food stamps. We also made an appointment for her at the food stamps office on Friday and I provided her with a Metro Card to get to and from her appointment. She stated that she did not call the Community Health Center to make a medical appointment as planned. When I asked her why she didn’t follow through with this, she said she is uncomfortable attending a community health center and that she is fearful of what the doctor might tell her. This writer also provided Mrs. Diaz with a referral to Agency T for financial counselling and tax preparation. This writer scheduled an appointment at Agency T on xx/xx/xx.

A = Assessment Ms. Diaz has followed up on all tasks agreed upon with the exception of making a medical appointment and says she is feeling more hopeful.

• Ms. Diaz is looking forward to attending her first yoga/movement class at the senior center tomorrow.
• She will attend her intake appointment to complete the food stamps application process on Friday.
• She will attend her appointment with the financial counsellor on xx/xx/xx. The plan to go to the community health centre was revised and Mrs. Diaz was given a list of private M.D.’s that accept Medicare. Mrs. Diaz will make an appointment with one of the doctors this week.
• This writer will check in with Mrs. Diaz via phone every Friday for the next month and we will meet again in person one month from today.

Sample Case Notes for Social Workers: Medical & Palliative Care

Case notes example 1: medical checkup.

S = Strengths Client reported difficulties in keeping appointments with providers including this case manager, ADAP, and the doctor. Client expressed concern with memory issues and transportation challenges.

O = Objective Account Client was polite and joking throughout the meeting. He was neatly dressed, well spoken but had to stop to think about what he was saying as he had trouble staying focused.

A = Assessment Client is at risk of being non-adherent to medications and other appointments. Client needs reminders to assist with keeping appointments, a pillbox to help with medication adherence and help with transportation.

P = Plan Provide client with a pillbox and have a nurse in the clinic assist in setting it up. Provide client bus tokens to assist in getting to appointments. Call client 24 hours prior to visit with case managers as a reminder.

Case Notes Example 2: Palliative Care

50 hours after initial admission visit Mrs. Violet is in visible pain upon entering the room. She is miserable. Moaning and tossing and turning in the bed. She has been taking her Lortab 10/500 as directed, taking 1 every 8 hours. The Roxanol® has not been filled. The patient’s daughter is afraid that she will “kill“ her mother with the morphine. Mrs. Violet is nauseated, unable to tolerate even water. She has not had any of the meds from the comfort kit. Her daughter has not wanted to “bother” the Hospice staff for instructions on how to use the “Comfort Kit” (preordered medications to assist with s/sx during crisis). Pollyanna received instructions initially but did not think she would need it.

There has been no bowel movement since prior to her hospitalisation 7 days ago now. You now suspect some sort of intestinal obstruction. The patient is adamant that she does not want surgery. She does agree that in the hospital that she might be able to get more comfortable with the aggressive pain management (IV meds, PCA pump possibly). Mrs. Violet’s daughter states that as long as her mother can make her own decisions that the family will abide by them. Decision is made to transfer to GIP for Pain and intractable nausea symptom control.

Case Notes Example 3: Care Plan Visit (DAP Format)

(Data) Clinic-visit with client to complete and update care plan. Client spent most of the visit talking about her medications. She mentioned that she gets sick often and suffers from nausea from time to time for no apparent reason. She said she has tried to follow the directions given by the doctor, but is concerned about the recent weight loss she has had and wonders if it is due to the medications.

(Assessment) Client fidgeted, talked fast, and seemed stressed over her medical condition. During the visit she spoke little about her family life, she seemed to be more preoccupied with having her meds changed and getting past the nausea. Not much improvement from her last visit.

(Plan) Will follow up with client to ensure she relates info to her doctor during her next visit and refer for adherence counselling until client feels better. Continue to work with client on adherence.

Creating & Entering Case Notes

Creating and entering new case notes is something caseworkers need to do on a regular basis, so it should be really easy and straightforward. Using  web-based case notes software  like  Sumac Case Portal can help.  

Case Notes Examples: Hospice & Palliative Care

Case Notes Examples: Shelter & Transitional Housing Software

Get a free demo of  Sumac Case Management  today  HERE .

Best Practices for Writing Case Notes

Let’s take a look at some best practices and writing tips to help you create timely and accurate case notes.

1. Write Clearly and Accurately - Sticking to the Facts

When writing case notes make sure you are as clear, concise, and factual as possible. Your notes should be easy to read, and not use overly complicated sentences. Besides your observations, you should also document any legally relevant information, especially if any aspect of treatment presents a liability to you or the client.

A good way of keeping your notes as detailed and accurate as possible is to record them in a timely manner, either soon after your meeting or the next day. If you are pressed for time, summarise the meeting and note a few key points immediately after. You can then write out a more detailed version of your case notes when you have the time. This way, you won’t forget important observations that could be relevant to a client’s treatment.

Once you have your case notes written down, review the information to ensure that it is up to date, accurate and grammatically correct.

Litmus Test for a Good Case Note

• When you are unable to be present, a colleague can open the record and easily figure out the next step to help the client achieve their goals.
• If your client read the note, they would feel respected and would agree with your objective account of the interaction.

2. Don’t Use Abbreviations

Social workers often use abbreviations and jargon in their day-to-day lives, and it’s very tempting to continue to do this in your case notes, as it would definitely speed things up. But if you want someone else to be able to read your notes and understand everything you’ve included, you should avoid using jargon.

Case notes are sometimes read by people outside your sector, often by judges and others in the legal profession. If your notes aren’t legible and an emergency arises, this can become a liability issue. So avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, or any kind of shorthand.

3. Avoid Value Judgements

Good sample case notes for social workers are free of value judgements. They include observations about a client’s appearance or behaviour without judgement, and are as objective as possible.

Take a look at this social work case notes example text:

“[Client] was dressed very shabbily and smelled bad.”

This text is subjective and provides little value. A note indicating that a client has stopped wearing clean clothing or that their clothing is looking progressively more damaged, is a better way to present this information.

One way of ensuring your case notes remain free of derogatory and emotive language, or value judgements is to think about how it would make your client or patient feel to have these notes read out to them. If it wouldn’t sit well, you’re very likely making a value judgement rather than stating facts or observations.

4. Protect Your Client’s Privacy

When writing case notes, it’s important to keep a client’s privacy in mind while documenting relevant information for your treatment goals.

It’s a good idea to only include detailed information relevant to the provision of a support or service to which your client has consented. For example, rather than detailing every aspect of a fight with their spouse, you might only note that the client had a fight with their spouse, or that it follows an ongoing pattern.

Here are a few topics with sensitive information you should protect:

• Information regarding legal status and criminal records
• Substance Abuse
• Domestic Violence
• Health (Physical or Mental)

To protect your client’s privacy regarding these matters, our sample case notes for social work include the following statement:

“The client reported that he or she is currently involved in the legal system/ seeking care or treatment from a doctor for a medical condition/has been connected to domestic violence resources.”

5. Separate Observation From Opinion

It’s important to separate your opinion from your observation. Engage your five senses when describing the meeting. State clearly what you saw, heard, touched, smelt, or even tasted.

Back up facts and observations with evidence and clearly distinguish between this and your personal opinion. Opinions can be important when making decisions about treatment options or assessing a situation, but they must not be written as facts.

“Patient seemed anxious”

This is an opinion that provides little value. Instead say something like: “Patient expressed fears about the future, was shaking, and said she was having panic attacks.” This is factual, well-observed, and provides relevant details without including an opinion.

6. Customise Your Case Notes for Your Organization

If case workers need to write a lot of case notes, you can streamline the process and make it better fir your programs and services with case note templates that are customised for your organization.

Let;’s face it, no two social service organizations are alike and different organizations will need to capture different information. Having a case notes template that fits your organization will help social workers do their job better and more efficiently, and lead to more valuable case note recordings overall.

If you’re using Sumac Case Management software , this case notes configuration is included for different types of organizations like health and social services, shelters, helplines and hospices, so you can choose a template most relevant to your type of service, and even customize it further do it fist your nonprofit’s exact needs.

7. Schedule Time for Case Notes

It’s a good idea to schedule 10-15 minutes either directly after each session to draft your case notes. This will help you record notes while the memory is still fresh, and you’ll never have to deal with a large pile of case notes at the end of a busy week. You can then spend time later writing them up in more detail.

Writing notes directly after a session also gives you time to reflect on the session and make notes for next steps and follow ups.

While you should make notes after a session, reviewing case notes before a new session can also be helpful. This will set the context for you and remind you of key pieces of information or conversations in earlier sessions. It can also help guide the session, and ensure both you and your client stay focused on treatment goals.

8. Keep Your Data Secure

Case notes contain highly sensitive information about your clients, including their symptoms, fears, conflicts and treatment goals, as well as their diagnosis and treatment history. It’s for this reason they’re given the same protection as medical records.

Confidential information such as this is protected under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) in the US and the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) in Canada.

Nonprofits that don’t comply could face thousands – if not millions – of dollars in fines. The safest way to store case notes is to keep them in a password-protected, encrypted cloud storage system with limited access. For example, you should select a case management software like Sumac’s which is HIPAA and PIPEDA compliant and limits access to case notes to only select staff.

Physical security is also important, especially if you store case notes manually. Lock rooms with treatment or case notes in password-protect computers.

9. Learn About Your Legal Responsibilities

Case notes may be subject to a range of legislative processes and requirements during and after the conclusion of the relationship. Depending on where you live, your country, state, or province may have different rules regarding case notes and legal requirements. It is your responsibility to be aware of them before you begin recording your interactions with clients.

For example, if someone indicates a desire to harm themselves and you are legally required to notify a third party, indicate the nature of the threat, and note who you notified and how, in your case notes. This will also serve as a legal record of events.

You should not only be familiar with the general guidelines of case note management but also how these requirements are implemented within your organization.

10. Use Technology to Manage Case Notes

Using case management software can help you create case notes more efficiently, eases the administrative burden on social workers with heavy caseloads, and enhances the quality of service you provide.

Here are a few ways technology can help:

• Eliminate paper: With case management software, all records are filed and stored online or on your computer, eliminating the need to handle and store paper records. Typed entries also ensure that records are easily readable.
• Access documents securely: Software can be password-protected and encrypted to ensure only those with access can obtain your documents. It’s much more difficult to access patient records when stored in HIPAA and PIPEDA compliant software like Sumac Case Management.
• Streamline patient registry: Online forms can be embedded on your website, so clients can register and complete a case intake questionnaire directly on your website. With seamless CRM integration, data is updated automatically, so there’s less effort and less errors.
• Find documents easily: Digital storage means that your case notes are well-organized and easily searchable. With Sumac Case Management software each case note is connected to a client’s record and date stamped, so you can view a chronological history of all notes and easily locate specific ones.

Writing accurate and well-informed case notes is a key skill all social workers need to cultivate.

Detailed, factual notes are an important practice tool that help govern treatment decisions, accurately measure outcomes, and provide an important historical record of a client’s behaviour and symptoms. They can even help improve treatment outcomes and expedite a client’s overall progress.

Try using a case management software to help you record accurate and detailed case notes. This will ensure they are not only secure, but you’ll also be able to easily share them with doctors and other authorized social workers who require this information.

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Social Work Practice with Carers

Case Study 2: Josef

Download the whole case study as a PDF file

Josef is 16 and lives with his mother, Dorota, who was diagnosed with Bipolar disorder seven years ago. Josef was born in England. His parents are Polish and his father sees him infrequently.

This case study looks at the impact of caring for someone with a mental health problem and of being a young carer , in particular the impact on education and future employment .

When you have looked at the materials for the case study and considered these topics, you can use the critical reflection tool and the action planning tool to consider your own practice.

• One-page profile

Support plan

Transcript (.pdf, 48KB)

Name : Josef Mazur

Gender : Male

Ethnicity : White European

Download resource as a PDF file

First language : English/ Polish

Religion : Roman Catholic

Josef lives in a small town with his mother Dorota who is 39. Dorota was diagnosed with Bi-polar disorder seven years ago after she was admitted to hospital. She is currently unable to work. Josef’s father, Stefan, lives in the same town and he sees him every few weeks. Josef was born in England. His parents are Polish and he speaks Polish at home.

Josef is doing a foundation art course at college. Dorota is quite isolated because she often finds it difficult to leave the house. Dorota takes medication and had regular visits from the Community Psychiatric Nurse when she was diagnosed and support from the Community Mental Health team to sort out her finances. Josef does the shopping and collects prescriptions. He also helps with letters and forms because Dorota doesn’t understand all the English. Dorota gets worried when Josef is out. When Dorota is feeling depressed, Josef stays at home with her. When Dorota is heading for a high, she tries to take Josef to do ‘exciting stuff’ as she calls it. She also spends a lot of money and is very restless.

Josef worries about his mother’s moods. He is worried about her not being happy and concerned at the money she spends when she is in a high mood state. Josef struggles to manage his day around his mother’s demands and to sleep when she is high. Josef has not told anyone about the support he gives to his mother. He is embarrassed by some of the things she does and is teased by his friends, and he does not think of himself as a carer. Josef has recently had trouble keeping up with course work and attendance. He has been invited to a meeting with his tutor to formally review attendance and is worried he will get kicked out. Josef has some friends but he doesn’t have anyone he can confide in. His father doesn’t speak to his mother.

Josef sees some information on line about having a parent with a mental health problem. He sends a contact form to ask for information. Someone rings him and he agrees to come into the young carers’ team and talk to the social worker. You have completed the assessment form with Josef in his words and then done a support plan with him.

Back to Summary

Josef Mazur

What others like and admire about me

Good at football

Finished Arkham Asylum on expert level

What is important to me

Mum being well and happy

Seeing my dad

Being an artist

Seeing my friends

How best to support me

Tell me how to help mum better

Don’t talk down to me

Talk to me 1 to 1

Let me know who to contact if I am worried about something

Work out how I can have some time on my own so I can do my college work and see my friends

Don’t tell mum and my friends

Date chronology completed : 7 March 2016

Date chronology shared with person: 7 March 2016

Young Carers Assessment

Do you look after or care for someone at home?

The questions in this paper are designed to help you think about your caring role and what support you might need to make your life a little easier or help you make time for more fun stuff.

Please feel free to make notes, draw pictures or use the form however is best for you.

What will happen to this booklet?

This is your booklet and it is your way to tell an adult who you trust about your caring at home. This will help you and the adult find ways to make your life and your caring role easier.

The adult who works with you on your booklet might be able to help you with everything you need. If they can’t, they might know other people who can.

Our Agreement

• I will share this booklet with people if I think they can help you or your family
• I will let you know who I share this with, unless I am worried about your safety, about crime or cannot contact you
• Only I or someone from my team will share this booklet
• I will make sure this booklet is stored securely
• Some details from this booklet might be used for monitoring purposes, which is how we check that we are working with everyone we should be

Signed: ___________________________________

Young person:

• I know that this booklet might get shared with other people who can help me and my family so that I don’t have to explain it all over again
• I understand what my worker will do with this booklet and the information in it (written above).

Signed: ____________________________________

Name :             Josef Mazur Address :       1 Green Avenue, Churchville, ZZ1 Z11 Telephone:        012345 123456 Email:            [email protected] Gender :         Male Date of birth :        11.11.1999        Age: 16 School :            Green College, Churchville Ethnicity :        White European First language :        English/ Polish Religion :         Baptised Roman Catholic GP :            Dr Amp, Hill Surgery

The best way to get in touch with me is:

Do you need any support with communication?

*Josef is bilingual – English and Polish. He speaks English at school and with his friends, and Polish at home. Josef was happy to have this assessment in English, however, another time he may want to have a Polish interpreter. It will be important to ensure that Josef is able to use the words he feels best express himself.

About the person/ people I care for

I look after my mum who has bipolar disorder. Mum doesn’t work and doesn’t really leave the house unless she is heading for a high. When Mum is sad she just stays at home. When she is getting hyper then she wants to do exciting stuff and she spends lots of money and she doesn’t sleep.

Do you wish you knew more about their illness?

Do you live with the person you care for?

What I do as a carer It depends on if my mum has a bad day or not. When she is depressed she likes me to stay home with her and when she is getting hyper then she wants me to go out with her. If she has new meds then I like to be around. Mum doesn’t understand English very well (she is from Poland) so I do all the letters. I help out at home and help her with getting her medication.

Tell us what an average week is like for you, what kind of things do you usually do?

Monday to Friday

Get up, get breakfast, make sure mum has her pills, tell her to get up and remind her if she’s got something to do.

If mum hasn’t been to bed then encourage her to sleep a bit and set an alarm

College – keep phone on in case mum needs to call – she usually does to ask me to get something or check when I’m coming home

Go home – go to shops on the way

Remind mum about tablets, make tea and pudding for both of us as well as cleaning the house and fitting tea in-between, ironing, hoovering, hanging out and bringing in washing

Do college work when mum goes to bed if not too tired

More chores

Do proper shop

Get prescription

See my friends, do college work

Sunday – do paper round

Physical things I do….

(for example cooking, cleaning, medication, shopping, dressing, lifting, carrying, caring in the night, making doctors appointments, bathing, paying bills, caring for brothers & sisters)

I do all the housework and shopping and cooking and get medication

Things I find difficult

Emotional support I provide…. (please tell us about the things you do to support the person you care for with their feelings; this might include, reassuring them, stopping them from getting angry, looking after them if they have been drinking alcohol or taking drugs, keeping an eye on them, helping them to relax)

If mum is stressed I stay with her

If mum is depressed I have to keep things calm and try to lighten the mood

She likes me to be around

When mum is heading for a high wants to go to theme parks or book holidays and we can’t afford it

I worry that mum might end up in hospital again

Mum gets cross if I go out

Other support

Please tell us about any other support the person you care for already has in place like a doctor or nurse, or other family or friends.

The GP sees mum sometimes. She has a nurse who she can call if things get bad.

Mum’s medication comes from Morrison’s pharmacy.

Dad lives nearby but he doesn’t talk to mum.

Mum doesn’t really have any friends.

Do you ever have to stop the person you care for from trying to harm themselves or others?

Some things I need help with

Sorting out bills and having more time for myself

I would like mum to have more support and to have some friends and things to do

On a normal week, what are the best bits? What do you enjoy the most? (eg, seeing friends, playing sports, your favourite lessons at school)

Seeing friends

When mum is up and smiling

Playing football

On a normal week, what are the worst bits? What do you enjoy the least? (eg cleaning up, particular lessons at school, things you find boring or upsetting)

Nagging mum to get up

Reading letters

Missing class

Mum shouting

Friends laugh because I have to go home but they don’t have to do anything

What things do you like to do in your spare time?

Do you feel you have enough time to spend with your friends or family doing things you enjoy, most weeks?

Do you have enough time for yourself to do the things you enjoy, most weeks?  (for example, spending time with friends, hobbies, sports)

Are there things that you would like to do, but can’t because of your role as a carer?

Can you say what some of these things are?

See friends after college

Go out at the weekend

Time to myself at home

It can feel a bit lonely

I’d like my mum to be like a normal mum

School/ College Do you think being your caring role makes school/college more difficult for you in any way?

If you ticked YES, please tell us what things are made difficult and what things might help you.

Things I find difficult at school/ college

Sometimes I get stressed about college and end up doing college work really late at night – I get a bit angry when I’m stressed

I don’t get all my college work done and I miss days

I am tired a lot of the time

Things I need help with…

I am really worried they will kick me out because I am behind and I miss class. I have to meet my tutor about it.

Do your teachers know about your caring role?

Are you happy for your teachers and other staff at school/college to know about your caring role?

Do you think that being a carer will make it more difficult for you to find or keep a job?

Why do you think being a carer is/ will make finding a job more difficult?

I haven’t thought about it. I don’t know if I’ll be able to finish my course and do art and then I won’t be able to be an artist.

Who will look after mum?

What would make it easier for you to find a job after school/college?

Finishing my course

Mum being ok

How I feel about life…

Do you feel confident both in school and outside of school?

Somewhere in the middle

In your life in general, how happy do you feel?

Quite unhappy

In your life in general, how safe do you feel?

How healthy do you feel at the moment?

Quite healthy

Being heard

Do you think people listen to what you are saying and how you are feeling?

If you said no, can you tell us who you feel isn’t listening or understanding you sometimes   (eg, you parents, your teachers, your friends, professionals)

I haven’t told anyone

I can’t talk to mum

My friends laugh at me because I don’t go out

Do you think you are included in important decisions about you and your life? (eg, where you live, where you go to school etc)

Do you think that you’re free to make your own choices about what you do and who you spend your time with?

Not often enough

Is there anybody who knows about the caring you’re doing at the moment?

If so, who?

I told dad but he can’t do anything

Would you like someone to talk to?

Supporting me Some things that would make my life easier, help me with my caring or make me feel better

I don’t know

Fix mum’s brain

People to help me if I’m worried and they can do something about it

Not getting kicked out of college

Free time – time on my own to calm down and do work or have time to myself

Time to go out with my friends

Get some friends for mum

I don’t want my mum to get into trouble

Who can I turn to for advice or support?

I would like to be able to talk to someone without mum or friends knowing

Would you like a break from your caring role?

How easy is it to see a Doctor if you need to?

To be used by social care assessors to consider and record measures which can be taken to assist the carer with their caring role to reduce the significant impact of any needs. This should include networks of support, community services and the persons own strengths. To be eligible the carer must have significant difficulty achieving 1 or more outcomes without support; it is the assessors’ professional judgement that unless this need is met there will be a significant impact on the carer’s wellbeing. Social care funding will only be made available to meet eligible outcomes that cannot be met in any other way, i.e. social care funding is only available to meet unmet eligible needs.

Date assessment completed :            7 March 2016

Social care assessor conclusion

Josef provides daily support to his mum, Dorota, who was diagnosed with bipolar disorder seven years ago. Josef helps Dorota with managing correspondence, medication and all household tasks including shopping. When Dorota has a low mood, Josef provides support and encouragement to get up. When Dorota has a high mood, Josef helps to calm her and prevent her spending lots of money. Josef reports that Dorota has some input from community health services but there is no other support. Josef’s dad is not involved though Josef sees him sometimes, and there are no friends who can support Dorota.

Josef is a great support to his mum and is a loving son. He wants to make sure his mum is ok. However, caring for his mum is impacting: on Josef’s health because he is tired and stressed; on his emotional wellbeing as he can get angry and anxious; on his relationship with his mother and his friends; and on his education. Josef is at risk of leaving college. Josef wants to be able to support his mum better. He also needs time for himself, to develop and to relax, and to plan his future.

Eligibility decision :                Eligible for support

What’s happening next :            Create support plan

Completed by Name : Role : Organisation :

Name: Josef Mazur

Address 1 Green Avenue, Churchville, ZZ1 Z11

Telephone 012345 123456

Email [email protected]

Gender: Male

Date of birth: 11.11.1999 Age: 16

School Green College, Churchville

Ethnicity White European

First language English/ Polish

Religion Baptised Roman Catholic

GP Dr Amp, Hill Surgery

My relationship to this person son

Name Dorota Mazur

Gender Female

Date of birth 12.6.79 Age 36

First language Polish

Religion Roman Catholic

Support plan completed by

Organisation

Date of support plan: 7 March 2016

This plan will be reviewed on: 7 September 2016

Signing this form

Please ensure you read the statement below in bold, then sign and date the form.

I understand that completing this form will lead to a computer record being made which will be treated confidentially. The council will hold this information for the purpose of providing information, advice and support to meet my needs. To be able to do this the information may be shared with relevant NHS Agencies and providers of carers’ services. This will also help reduce the number of times I am asked for the same information.

If I have given details about someone else, I will make sure that they know about this.

I understand that the information I provide on this form will only be shared as allowed by the Data Protection Act.

Josef has given consent to share this support plan with the CPN but does not want it to be shared with his mum.

Mental health

The social work role with carers in adult mental health services has been described as: intervening and showing professional leadership and skill in situations characterised by high levels of social, family and interpersonal complexity, risk and ambiguity (Allen 2014). Social work with carers of people with mental health needs, is dependent on good practice with the Mental Capacity Act where practitioner knowledge and understanding has been found to be variable (Iliffe et al 2015).

• Carers Trust (2015) Mental Health Act 1983 – Revised Code of Practice Briefing
• Carers Trust (2013) The Triangle of Care Carers Included: A Guide to Best Practice in Mental Health Care in England
• Mind, Talking about mental health
• Tool 1: Triangle of care: self-assessment for mental health professionals – Carers Trust (2013) The Triangle of Care Carers Included: A Guide to Best Practice in Mental Health Care in England Second Edition (page 23 Self-assessment tool for organisations)

Mental capacity, confidentiality and consent

Social work with carers of people with mental health needs, is dependent on good practice with the Mental Capacity Act where practitioner knowledge and understanding has been found to be variable (Iliffe et al 2015). Research highlights important issues about involvement, consent and confidentiality in working with carers (RiPfA 2016, SCIE 2015, Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland 2013).

• Beddow, A., Cooper, M., Morriss, L., (2015) A CPD curriculum guide for social workers on the application of the Mental Capacity Act 2005 . Department of Health
• Bogg, D. and Chamberlain, S. (2015) Mental Capacity Act 2005 in Practice Learning Materials for Adult Social Workers . Department of Health
• Department of Health (2015) Best Interest Assessor Capabilities , The College of Social Work
• RiPfA Good Decision Making Practitioner Handbook
• SCIE Mental Capacity Act resource  
• Tool 2: Making good decisions, capacity tool (page 70-71 in good decision making handbook)

Young carers

A young carer is defined as a person under 18 who provides or intends to provide care for another person. The concept of care includes practical or emotional support. It is the case that this definition excludes children providing care as part of contracted work or as voluntary work. However, the local authority can ignore this and carry out a young carer’s need assessment if they think it would be appropriate. Young carers, young adult carers and their families now have stronger rights to be identified, offered information, receive an assessment and be supported using a whole-family approach (Carers Trust 2015).

• SCIE (2015) Young carer transition in practice under the Care Act 2014
• SCIE (2015) Care Act: Transition from children’s to adult services – early and comprehensive identification
• Carers Trust (2015) Rights for young carers and young adult carers in the Children and Families Act
• Carers Trust (2015) Know your Rights: Support for Young Carers and Young Adult Carers in England
• The Children’s Society (2015) Hidden from view: The experiences of young carers in England  
• DfE (2011) Improving support for young carers – family focused approaches
• ADASS and ADCS (2015) No wrong doors: working together to support young carers and their families
• Carers Trust, Supporting Young Carers and their Families: Examples of Practice
• Refugee toolkit webpage: Children and informal interpreting
• SCIE (2010) Supporting carers: the cared for person
• SCIE (2015) Care Act Transition from children’s to adults’ services – Video diaries
• Tool 3: Young carers’ rights – The Children’s Society (2014) The Know Your Rights pack for young carers in England!
• Tool 4: Vision and principles for adults’ and children’s services to work together

Young carers of parents with mental health problems

The Care Act places a duty on local authorities to assess young carers before they turn 18, so that they have the information they need to plan for their future. This is referred to as a transition assessment. Guidance, advocating a whole family approach, is available to social workers (LGA 2015, SCIE 2015, ADASS/ADCS 2011).

• SCIE (2012) At a glance 55: Think child, think parent, think family: Putting it into practice
• SCIE (2008) Research briefing 24: Experiences of children and young people caring for a parent with a mental health problem
• SCIE (2008) SCIE Research briefing 29: Black and minority ethnic parents with mental health problems and their children
• Carers Trust (2015) The Triangle of Care for Young Carers and Young Adult Carers: A Guide for Mental Health Professionals
• ADASS and ADCS (2011) Working together to improve outcomes for young carers in families affected by enduring parental mental illness or substance misuse
• Ofsted (2013) What about the children? Joint working between adult and children’s services when parents or carers have mental ill health and/or drug and alcohol problems
• Mental health foundation (2010) MyCare The challenges facing young carers of parents with a severe mental illness
• Children’s Commissioner (2012) Silent voices: supporting children and young people affected by parental alcohol misuse
• SCIE, Parental mental health and child welfare – a young person’s story

Tool 5: Family model for assessment

• Tool 6: Engaging young carers of parents with mental health problems or substance misuse

Young carers and education/ employment

Transition moments are highlighted in the research across the life course (Blythe 2010, Grant et al 2010). Complex transitions required smooth transfers, adequate support and dedicated professionals (Petch 2010). Understanding transition theory remains essential in social work practice (Crawford and Walker 2010). Partnership building expertise used by practitioners was seen as particular pertinent to transition for a young carer (Heyman 2013).

• TLAP (2013) Making it real for young carers
• Learning and Work Institute (2018) Barriers to employment for young adult carers
• Carers Trust (2014) Young Adult Carers at College and University
• Carers Trust (2013) Young Adult Carers at School: Experiences and Perceptions of Caring and Education
• Carers Trust (2014) Young Adult Carers and Employment
• Family Action (2012) BE BOTHERED! Making Education Count for Young Carers

Download The Triangle of Care as a PDF file

The Triangle of Care Carers Included: A Guide to Best Practice in Mental Health Care in England

The Triangle of Care is a therapeutic alliance between service user, staff member and carer that promotes safety, supports recovery and sustains wellbeing…

Download the Capacity Tool as a PDF file

Capacity Tool Good decision-making Practitioners’ Handbook

The Capacity tool on page 71 has been developed to take into account the lessons from research and the case CC v KK. In particular:

• that capacity assessors often do not clearly present the available options (especially those they find undesirable) to the person being assessed
• that capacity assessors often do not explore and enable a person’s own understanding and perception of the risks and advantages of different options
• that capacity assessors often do not reflect upon the extent to which their ‘protection imperative’ has influenced an assessment, which may lead them to conclude that a person’s tolerance of risks is evidence of incapacity.

The tool allows you to follow steps to ensure you support people as far as possible to make their own decisions and that you record what you have done.

Download Know your rights as a PDF file

Tool 3: Know Your Rights Young Carers in Focus

This pack aims to make you aware of your rights – your human rights, your legal rights, and your rights to access things like benefits, support and advice.

Need to know where to find things out in a hurry? Our pack has lots of links to useful and interesting resources that can help you – and help raise awareness  about young carers’ issues!

Know Your Rights has been produced by Young Carers in Focus (YCiF), and funded by the Big Lottery Fund.

Tool 4: Vision and principles for adults’ and children’s services to work together to support young carers

Download the tool   as a PDF file

You can use this tool to consider how well adults’ and children’s services work together, and how to improve this.

Click on the diagram to open full size in a new window

This is based on ADASS and ADCS (2015) No wrong doors : working together to support young carers and their families

Download the tool as a PDF file

You can use this tool to help you consider the whole family in an assessment or review.

What are the risk, stressors and vulnerability factors?

How is the child/ young person’s wellbeing affected?

How is the adult’s wellbeing affected?

What are the protective factors and available resources?

This tool is based on SCIE (2009) Think child, think parent, think family: a guide to parental mental health and child welfare

Tool 6: Engaging young carers

Young carers have told us these ten things are important. So we will do them.

• Introduce yourself. Tell us who you are and what your job is.
• Give us as much information as you can.
• Tell us what is wrong with our parents.
• Tell us what is going to happen next.
• Talk to us and listen to us. Remember it is not hard to speak to us we are not aliens.
• Ask us what we know and what we think. We live with our parents; we know how they have been behaving.
• Tell us it is not our fault. We can feel guilty if our mum or dad is ill. We need to know we are not to blame.
• Please don’t ignore us. Remember we are part of the family and we live there too.
• Keep on talking to us and keeping us informed. We need to know what is happening.
• Tell us if there is anyone we can talk to. Maybe it could be you.

• Equal opportunities
• Complaints procedure
• Terms and conditions
• Privacy policy
• Cookie policy
• Accessibility

WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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