higher education research questions

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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61 Comments

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parental involvement and students academic performance

Science education topics?

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Kindly help me with the research questions on the topic” Effects of workplace conflict on the employees’ job performance”. The effects can be applicable in every institution,enterprise or organisation.

Greetings, I am a student majoring in Sociology and minoring in Public Administration. I’m considering any recommended research topic in the field of Sociology.

I’m a student pursuing Mphil in Basic education and I’m considering any recommended research proposal topic in my field of study

Kindly help me with a research topic in educational psychology. Ph.D level. Thank you.

Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

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Look at British Library as they keep a copy of all PhDs in the UK Core.ac.uk to access Open University and 6 other university e-archives, pdf downloads mostly available, all free.

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In the field of curriculum any ideas of a research topic on deconalization in contextualization of digital teaching and learning through in higher education

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I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

Hi, I am an Early childhood trainer as well as a researcher, I need more support on this topic: The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.

I’m a student in upper level secondary school and I need your support in this research topics: “Impact of incorporating project -based learning in teaching English language skills in secondary schools”.

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Higher Education Research Paper Topics

In this page on higher education research paper topics , we present a comprehensive guide to help students in the field of education with their research papers. The abstract provides a brief overview of the content covered in the page, including a keyphrase to emphasize the main focus. Throughout the page, you will find a diverse range of higher education research paper topics, expert advice on topic selection, tips for writing an effective research paper, and information about the custom writing services offered by iResearchNet. Whether you are a student in need of topic inspiration or seeking assistance with your research paper, this page will provide valuable insights and resources to support your academic journey in higher education.

100 Higher Education Research Paper Topics

In this section, we present a comprehensive list of higher education research paper topics. These topics are organized into 10 categories, each focusing on a different aspect of higher education. Within each category, you will find 10 research paper topics to spark your imagination and guide your exploration. These topics encompass a wide range of disciplines and subfields within higher education, allowing you to explore various dimensions of this dynamic field. Whether you are interested in policy issues, student experiences, teaching and learning methodologies, or institutional practices, there is something here for everyone. Let this list inspire you and serve as a starting point for your research endeavors.

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Higher Education Policy and Governance

• The impact of government funding on higher education institutions
• Evaluating the effectiveness of quality assurance mechanisms in higher education
• The role of accreditation in ensuring educational standards in higher education
• Examining the relationship between government policies and access to higher education
• Exploring the influence of international rankings on university competitiveness
• Analyzing the implications of privatization in higher education
• Investigating the role of higher education in promoting sustainable development goals
• The challenges of promoting diversity and inclusion in higher education institutions
• Examining the role of community colleges in expanding access to higher education
• The impact of globalization on higher education policies and practices

Student Experiences and Success

• Understanding the factors influencing student retention and graduation rates
• Examining the impact of financial aid policies on college access and affordability
• Exploring the experiences of first-generation college students
• Investigating the role of student support services in enhancing student success
• Analyzing the effects of student engagement on academic achievement and personal development
• Examining the influence of cultural and social capital on student experiences in higher education
• The impact of student diversity on campus climate and intercultural learning
• Exploring the experiences of international students in higher education
• Investigating the effects of work-study programs on student outcomes
• The role of technology in enhancing student learning experiences in higher education

Teaching and Learning Methodologies

• Exploring innovative pedagogical approaches in higher education
• Investigating the effectiveness of online learning in higher education
• Analyzing the impact of active learning strategies on student engagement and learning outcomes
• Examining the role of problem-based learning in promoting critical thinking skills
• The use of educational technologies to enhance teaching and learning in higher education
• Investigating the effectiveness of flipped classrooms in higher education settings
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive teaching practices on student learning outcomes
• The role of peer mentoring in supporting student learning and development
• Examining the benefits and challenges of experiential learning in higher education
• Investigating the role of assessment and feedback in promoting student learning and achievement

Higher Education and Society

• Exploring the role of higher education in fostering social mobility
• Analyzing the impact of college education on income inequality
• Investigating the relationship between higher education and economic development
• Examining the role of higher education in addressing societal challenges and promoting social justice
• The impact of community engagement initiatives in higher education institutions
• Analyzing the influence of higher education on democratic participation and civic engagement
• Exploring the role of higher education in promoting sustainable development
• The effects of globalization on higher education and its implications for society
• Investigating the role of higher education in promoting cultural diversity and intercultural understanding
• Examining the relationship between higher education and lifelong learning in a knowledge-based society

Institutional Practices and Management

• Analyzing the challenges and opportunities of strategic planning in higher education institutions
• Investigating the role of leadership in shaping organizational culture in higher education
• Exploring the effects of performance-based funding on institutional practices and outcomes
• Examining the impact of faculty development programs on teaching and research productivity
• The role of shared governance in decision-making processes within higher education institutions
• Analyzing the effects of resource allocation on institutional effectiveness and efficiency
• Investigating the influence of organizational climate on faculty job satisfaction and retention
• Exploring the role of technology in supporting administrative processes in higher education
• The impact of internationalization strategies on institutional reputation and student recruitment
• Examining the challenges and opportunities of managing diversity in higher education institutions

Higher Education and Technology

• Investigating the impact of online learning platforms on student access and engagement
• Analyzing the effectiveness of blended learning approaches in higher education
• Exploring the use of learning analytics in enhancing student success in higher education
• The impact of educational technologies on teaching practices and student learning outcomes
• Investigating the role of virtual reality in experiential learning in higher education
• Analyzing the implications of artificial intelligence in higher education settings
• Exploring the use of gamification in higher education to promote student motivation and engagement
• Investigating the challenges and opportunities of open educational resources in higher education
• Examining the role of mobile learning in supporting anytime, anywhere access to education
• The effects of social media on student engagement and communication in higher education

Access and Equity in Higher Education

• Analyzing the barriers to access and participation in higher education for marginalized groups
• Investigating the impact of affirmative action policies on diversity in higher education
• Exploring the role of financial aid programs in promoting college access and equity
• Examining the effects of merit-based scholarships on educational opportunities and social mobility
• The impact of college preparatory programs on underrepresented students’ college readiness
• Analyzing the influence of high-stakes testing on college admissions and access to higher education
• Investigating the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities of supporting non-traditional students in higher education
• The effects of community college transfer pathways on access to four-year institutions
• Examining the role of mentoring programs in supporting underrepresented students in higher education

Higher Education and Globalization

• Investigating the effects of international student mobility on higher education institutions
• Analyzing the influence of global rankings on higher education policies and practices
• Exploring the role of transnational education in higher education
• Examining the impact of global partnerships and collaborations on higher education institutions
• The effects of globalization on curriculum development and pedagogical approaches in higher education
• Investigating the influence of internationalization strategies on institutional identity and mission
• Analyzing the challenges and opportunities of recruiting and retaining international students
• Exploring the role of cross-cultural competence in higher education settings
• Investigating the impact of globalization on faculty recruitment and retention in higher education
• Examining the implications of global competition for funding and resources in higher education

Higher Education Leadership and Administration

• Analyzing the qualities and skills of effective higher education leaders
• Investigating the challenges and opportunities of leadership succession in higher education
• Exploring the role of shared governance in effective institutional leadership
• Examining the impact of leadership development programs on leadership effectiveness in higher education
• The effects of gender and diversity in leadership positions in higher education institutions
• Investigating the role of emotional intelligence in higher education leadership
• Analyzing the influence of political and institutional contexts on leadership decision-making in higher education
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities of leading in times of crisis in higher education
• Investigating the impact of ethical leadership on organizational culture and climate in higher education
• Examining the role of transformational leadership in driving innovation and change in higher education

Higher Education Assessment and Evaluation

• Analyzing the effectiveness of assessment practices in measuring student learning outcomes in higher education
• Investigating the impact of standardized testing on higher education admissions and accountability
• Exploring the role of program evaluation in improving the quality of higher education programs
• Examining the influence of accreditation processes on institutional quality and improvement
• The effects of learning outcomes assessment on instructional practices in higher education
• Investigating the use of rubrics in evaluating student performance and providing feedback in higher education
• Analyzing the challenges and opportunities of assessing student engagement in higher education
• Exploring the role of learning analytics in informing decision-making and improving student success in higher education
• Investigating the impact of outcomes-based funding on institutional assessment and accountability
• Examining the challenges and opportunities of assessing and recognizing prior learning in higher education

This comprehensive list of higher education research paper topics offers a diverse range of ideas to inspire and guide your research endeavors. Whether you are interested in policy issues, student experiences, teaching and learning methodologies, institutional practices, or global perspectives, there is a wealth of topics to explore within the field of higher education. Remember that the key to selecting a research topic is to align it with your interests, expertise, and the requirements of your research paper. As you embark on your research journey, consider the significance of your chosen topic, its relevance to the field, and the potential contribution it can make to the existing body of knowledge. With careful consideration and thorough research, you can delve into the complexities of higher education and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.

Higher Education Research Guide

Welcome to the iResearchNet page on higher education research paper topics. As students embark on their journey in higher education, they encounter numerous opportunities to explore and analyze various aspects of this dynamic field. Research papers play a pivotal role in this process, allowing students to delve deeper into specific areas of interest and contribute to the ever-evolving discourse surrounding higher education. The purpose of this page is to provide students with a comprehensive guide to selecting and developing research paper topics that are not only academically rigorous but also relevant and impactful in the context of higher education.

In today’s fast-paced and interconnected world, higher education faces a multitude of challenges and opportunities. From exploring innovative teaching methods and educational technologies to examining issues of access, equity, and diversity, there are countless avenues for research within the field. This page aims to present a diverse range of higher education research paper topics, spanning various disciplines and subfields, to inspire and guide students in their exploration.

By engaging with the content on this page, students will gain valuable insights into the current trends, debates, and gaps in knowledge within higher education. They will also find practical advice and strategies for selecting research paper topics that align with their interests and academic goals. Whether you are interested in examining the impact of online learning, exploring student engagement strategies, or investigating the role of higher education in fostering social mobility, this page offers a wealth of ideas and resources to support your research endeavors.

We invite you to delve into the world of higher education research paper topics, to discover new ideas, expand your knowledge, and contribute to the ever-growing body of scholarship in the field. Let this page serve as a valuable tool to ignite your curiosity, fuel your intellectual growth, and empower you to make meaningful contributions to the field of higher education.

Choosing Higher Education Research Paper Topics

Selecting a suitable research topic is a crucial step in the process of writing a higher education research paper. With the vast array of issues and subfields within higher education, it can be overwhelming to decide on a specific topic that aligns with your interests and meets the requirements of your research assignment. In this section, we offer expert advice to help you navigate through the selection process and choose a compelling and relevant topic for your higher education research paper.

• Identify your area of interest : Start by exploring your personal interests within the field of higher education. Reflect on the topics or issues that have caught your attention during your studies or experiences. Consider your career goals and the aspects of higher education that you are passionate about.
• Review current literature : Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature in the field of higher education. Read academic journals, books, and research articles to familiarize yourself with the latest trends, debates, and gaps in knowledge. This will help you identify potential research areas that have not been extensively explored or require further investigation.
• Narrow down your focus : Once you have identified your general area of interest, narrow down your focus to a specific research question or problem. A well-defined research question will provide a clear direction for your study and ensure that your research is focused and meaningful.
• Consider the significance and relevance : Evaluate the significance and relevance of your chosen topic. Ask yourself why it is important to study this particular aspect of higher education. Consider its implications for policymakers, educators, students, or other stakeholders. Ensure that your research topic addresses a gap in knowledge or contributes to the existing body of research.
• Assess feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your research topic in terms of data availability, resources, and time constraints. Consider the practicality of conducting research within your chosen topic, including access to relevant data sources, ethical considerations, and the scope of your research project.
• Seek input from professors or experts : Consult with your professors or other experts in the field of higher education. They can provide valuable insights and guidance based on their expertise and experience. Discuss your research interests and potential topics with them to gain further clarity and suggestions for refinement.
• Stay updated with current events : Keep yourself informed about current events and issues in higher education. Follow news, policy changes, and debates related to higher education to identify emerging topics or controversies that could be potential research areas.
• Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Explore interdisciplinary approaches by incorporating perspectives from other fields such as sociology, psychology, economics, or public policy. This can provide a unique angle to your research and contribute to a broader understanding of higher education issues.
• Brainstorm and generate ideas : Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate a list of potential research topics. Write down any ideas or concepts that come to mind, even if they seem unconventional or challenging. The goal is to encourage creativity and explore various possibilities.
• Reflect on personal experiences : Reflect on your personal experiences within higher education. Consider any challenges, observations, or insights you have gained as a student or through other educational roles. These experiences can serve as a foundation for identifying research questions or topics that are personally meaningful to you.

Choosing a higher education research paper topic requires careful consideration and exploration of your interests, current literature, and the significance of the topic. By following the expert advice provided in this section, you can navigate through the selection process and choose a research topic that aligns with your passions, contributes to the field of higher education, and engages with important issues and debates. Remember to seek guidance from professors or experts and stay updated with current events to ensure the relevance and timeliness of your research.

How to Write a Higher Education Research Paper

Writing a higher education research paper requires a systematic and well-structured approach to effectively communicate your ideas, findings, and analysis. In this section, we provide a step-by-step guide on how to write a higher education research paper that meets academic standards and effectively addresses your research question.

• Understand the assignment requirements : Carefully review the assignment guidelines provided by your instructor or institution. Pay attention to the research question or problem statement, formatting requirements, citation style, and any specific instructions or expectations.
• Conduct thorough research : Start by conducting comprehensive research on your chosen topic. Gather relevant literature, data, and scholarly sources to build a strong foundation for your research paper. Use academic databases, library resources, and credible sources to ensure the reliability and validity of your information.
• Develop a clear thesis statement : Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that captures the main argument or purpose of your research paper. The thesis statement should provide a roadmap for your paper and guide the reader in understanding the focus and significance of your study.
• Organize your paper : Create a logical structure for your research paper. Divide it into sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Each section should serve a specific purpose and contribute to the overall coherence and flow of your paper.
• Write a compelling introduction : Begin your research paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on your topic and presents the research question or problem. Clearly state the purpose of your study and its significance in the context of higher education.
• Conduct a thorough literature review : In the literature review section, critically analyze existing research and scholarly works relevant to your topic. Summarize key findings, identify gaps in knowledge, and highlight debates or controversies in the field of higher education. Use proper citations and references to acknowledge the sources of your information.
• Describe your methodology : Explain the research methodology employed in your study. Clearly outline the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques used to gather and interpret your data. Justify your choices and address any limitations or potential biases.
• Present your findings and analysis : Present your research findings in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, or visual aids to enhance the clarity and comprehensibility of your data. Analyze your findings and provide interpretations that align with your research question and support your thesis statement.
• Discuss implications and significance : Discuss the implications of your research findings for the field of higher education. Reflect on the broader implications, potential applications, or recommendations for future research or policy development. Highlight the significance of your study in advancing knowledge or addressing practical challenges in higher education.
• Write a strong conclusion : End your research paper with a concise and impactful conclusion. Summarize your key findings, restate your thesis statement, and discuss the broader implications of your research. Avoid introducing new information or ideas in the conclusion.
• Revise and proofread : Review and revise your research paper for clarity, coherence, and grammar. Ensure that your ideas are logically presented and supported by evidence. Proofread your paper for spelling and grammatical errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or writing centers to improve the quality of your paper.
• Follow proper citation and formatting guidelines : Adhere to the specific citation style required by your institution or instructor (such as APA, MLA, Chicago, or Harvard). Ensure that in-text citations and the reference list are accurately formatted and follow the guidelines of the chosen citation style.

By following these steps, you can effectively structure and write a higher education research paper that contributes to the field and showcases your analytical skills, critical thinking, and understanding of key concepts in higher education. Remember to allow ample time for research, writing, and revision to produce a well-crafted and high-quality research paper.

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The Impact of COVID-19 on the Careers of Women in Academic Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2021)

Chapter: 8 major findings and research questions, 8 major findings and research questions, introduction.

The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in late 2019, created unprecedented global disruption and infused a significant level of uncertainty into the lives of individuals, both personally and professionally, around the world throughout 2020. The significant effect on vulnerable populations, such as essential workers and the elderly, is well documented, as is the devastating effect the COVID-19 pandemic had on the economy, particularly brick-and-mortar retail and hospitality and food services. Concurrently, the deaths of unarmed Black people at the hands of law enforcement officers created a heightened awareness of the persistence of structural injustices in U.S. society.

Against the backdrop of this public health crisis, economic upheaval, and amplified social consciousness, an ad hoc committee was appointed to review the potential effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on women in academic science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM) during 2020. The committee’s work built on the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report Promising Practices for Addressing the Underrepresentation of Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Opening Doors (the Promising Practices report), which presents evidence-based recommendations to address the well-established structural barriers that impede the advancement of women in STEMM. However, the committee recognized that none of the actions identified in the Promising Practices report were conceived within the context of a pandemic, an economic downturn, or the emergence of national protests against structural racism. The representation and vitality of academic women in STEMM had already warranted national attention prior to these events, and the COVID-19

pandemic appeared to represent an additional risk to the fragile progress that women had made in some STEMM disciplines. Furthermore, the future will almost certainly hold additional, unforeseen disruptions, which underscores the importance of the committee’s work.

In times of stress, there is a risk that the divide will deepen between those who already have advantages and those who do not. In academia, senior and tenured academics are more likely to have an established reputation, a stable salary commitment, and power within the academic system. They are more likely, before the COVID-19 pandemic began, to have established professional networks, generated data that can be used to write papers, and achieved financial and job security. While those who have these advantages may benefit from a level of stability relative to others during stressful times, those who were previously systemically disadvantaged are more likely to experience additional strain and instability.

As this report has documented, during 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic had overall negative effects on women in academic STEMM in areas such productivity, boundary setting and boundary control, networking and community building, burnout rates, and mental well-being. The excessive expectations of caregiving that often fall on the shoulders of women cut across career timeline and rank (e.g., graduate student, postdoctoral scholar, non-tenure-track and other contingent faculty, tenure-track faculty), institution type, and scientific discipline. Although there have been opportunities for innovation and some potential shifts in expectations, increased caregiving demands associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, such as remote working, school closures, and childcare and eldercare, had disproportionately negative outcomes for women.

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on women in STEMM during 2020 are understood better through an intentionally intersectional lens. Productivity, career, boundary setting, mental well-being, and health are all influenced by the ways in which social identities are defined and cultivated within social and power structures. Race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, academic career stage, appointment type, institution type, age, and disability status, among many other factors, can amplify or diminish the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic for a given person. For example, non-cisgender women may be forced to return to home environments where their gender identity is not accepted, increasing their stress and isolation, and decreasing their well-being. Women of Color had a higher likelihood of facing a COVID-19–related death in their family compared with their white, non-Hispanic colleagues. The full extent of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic for women of various social identities was not fully understood at the end of 2020.

Considering the relative paucity of women in many STEMM fields prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, women are more likely to experience academic isolation, including limited access to mentors, sponsors, and role models that share gender, racial, or ethnic identities. Combining this reality with the physical isolation stipulated by public health responses to the COVID-19 pandemic,

women in STEMM were subject to increasing isolation within their fields, networks, and communities. Explicit attention to the early indicators of how the COVID-19 pandemic affected women in academic STEMM careers during 2020, as well as attention to crisis responses throughout history, may provide opportunities to mitigate some of the long-term effects and potentially develop a more resilient and equitable academic STEMM system.

MAJOR FINDINGS

Given the ongoing nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not possible to fully understand the entirety of the short- or long-term implications of this global disruption on the careers of women in academic STEMM. Having gathered preliminary data and evidence available in 2020, the committee found that significant changes to women’s work-life boundaries and divisions of labor, careers, productivity, advancement, mentoring and networking relationships, and mental health and well-being have been observed. The following findings represent those aspects that the committee agreed have been substantiated by the preliminary data, evidence, and information gathered by the end of 2020. They are presented either as Established Research and Experiences from Previous Events or Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic during 2020 that parallel the topics as presented in the report.

Established Research and Experiences from Previous Events

___________________

1 This finding is primarily based on research on cisgender women and men.

Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic during 2020

Research questions.

While this report compiled much of the research, data, and evidence available in 2020 on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, future research is still needed to understand all the potential effects, especially any long-term implications. The research questions represent areas the committee identified for future research, rather than specific recommendations. They are presented in six categories that parallel the chapters of the report: Cross-Cutting Themes; Academic Productivity and Institutional Responses; Work-Life Boundaries and Gendered Divisions of Labor; Collaboration, Networking, and Professional Societies; Academic Leadership and Decision-Making; and Mental Health and Well-being. The committee hopes the report will be used as a basis for continued understanding of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in its entirety and as a reference for mitigating impacts of future disruptions that affect women in academic STEMM. The committee also hopes that these research questions may enable academic STEMM to emerge from the pandemic era a stronger, more equitable place for women. Therefore, the committee identifies two types of research questions in each category; listed first are those questions aimed at understanding the impacts of the disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, followed by those questions exploring the opportunities to help support the full participation of women in the future.

Cross-Cutting Themes

• What are the short- and long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the career trajectories, job stability, and leadership roles of women, particularly of Black women and other Women of Color? How do these effects vary across institutional characteristics, 2 discipline, and career stage?

2 Institutional characteristics include different institutional types (e.g., research university, liberal arts college, community college), locales (e.g., urban, rural), missions (e.g., Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic-Serving Institutions, Asian American/Native American/Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions, Tribal Colleges and Universities), and levels of resources.

• How did the confluence of structural racism, economic hardships, and environmental disruptions affect Women of Color during the COVID-19 pandemic? Specifically, how did the murder of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and other Black citizens impact Black women academics’ safety, ability to be productive, and mental health?
• How has the inclusion of women in leadership and other roles in the academy influenced the ability of institutions to respond to the confluence of major social crises during the COVID-19 pandemic?
• How can institutions build on the involvement women had across STEMM disciplines during the COVID-19 pandemic to increase the participation of women in STEMM and/or elevate and support women in their current STEMM-related positions?
• How can institutions adapt, leverage, and learn from approaches developed during 2020 to attend to challenges experienced by Women of Color in STEMM in the future?

Academic Productivity and Institutional Responses

• How did the institutional responses (e.g., policies, practices) that were outlined in the Major Findings impact women faculty across institutional characteristics and disciplines?
• What are the short- and long-term effects of faculty evaluation practices and extension policies implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic on the productivity and career trajectories of members of the academic STEMM workforce by gender?
• What adaptations did women use during the transition to online and hybrid teaching modes? How did these techniques and adaptations vary as a function of career stage and institutional characteristics?
• What are examples of institutional changes implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic that have the potential to reduce systemic barriers to participation and advancement that have historically been faced by academic women in STEMM, specifically Women of Color and other marginalized women in STEMM? How might positive institutional responses be leveraged to create a more resilient and responsive higher education ecosystem?
• How can or should funding arrangements be altered (e.g., changes in funding for research and/or mentorship programs) to support new ways of interaction for women in STEMM during times of disruption, such as the COVID-19 pandemic?

Work-Life Boundaries and Gendered Divisions of Labor

• How do different social identities (e.g., racial; socioeconomic status; culturally, ethnically, sexually, or gender diverse; immigration status; parents of young children and other caregivers; women without partners) influence the management of work-nonwork boundaries? How did this change during the COVID-19 pandemic?
• How have COVID-19 pandemic-related disruptions affected progress toward reducing the gender gap in academic STEMM labor-force participation? How does this differ for Women of Color or women with caregiving responsibilities?
• How can institutions account for the unique challenges of women faculty with parenthood and caregiving responsibilities when developing effective and equitable policies, practices, or programs?
• How might insights gained about work-life boundaries during the COVID-19 pandemic inform how institutions develop and implement supportive resources (e.g., reductions in workload, on-site childcare, flexible working options)?

Collaboration, Networking, and Professional Societies

• What were the short- and long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic-prompted switch from in-person conferences to virtual conferences on conference culture and climate, especially for women in STEMM?
• How will the increase in virtual conferences specifically affect women’s advancement and career trajectories? How will it affect women’s collaborations?
• How has the shift away from attending conferences and in-person networking changed longer-term mentoring and sponsoring relationships, particularly in terms of gender dynamics?
• How can institutions maximize the benefits of digitization and the increased use of technology observed during the COVID-19 pandemic to continue supporting women, especially marginalized women, by increasing accessibility, collaborations, mentorship, and learning?
• How can organizations that support, host, or facilitate online and virtual conferences and networking events (1) ensure open and fair access to participants who face different funding and time constraints; (2) foster virtual connections among peers, mentors, and sponsors; and (3) maintain an inclusive environment to scientists of all backgrounds?
• What policies, practices, or programs can be developed to help women in STEMM maintain a sense of support, structure, and stability during and after periods of disruption?

Academic Leadership and Decision-Making

• What specific interventions did colleges and universities initiate or prioritize to ensure that women were included in decision-making processes during responses to the COVID-19 pandemic?
• How effective were colleges and universities that prioritized equity-minded leadership, shared leadership, and crisis leadership styles at mitigating emerging and potential negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on women in their communities?
• What specific aspects of different leadership models translated to more effective strategies to advance women in STEMM, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic?
• How can examples of intentional inclusion of women in decision-making processes during the COVID-19 pandemic be leveraged to develop the engagement of women as leaders at all levels of academic institutions?
• What are potential “top-down” structural changes in academia that can be implemented to mitigate the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic or other disruptions?
• How can academic leadership, at all levels, more effectively support the mental health needs of women in STEMM?

Mental Health and Well-being

• What is the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and institutional responses on the mental health and well-being of members of the academic STEMM workforce as a function of gender, race, and career stage?
• How are tools and diagnostic tests to measure aspects of wellbeing, including burnout and insomnia, used in academic settings? How does this change during times of increased stress, such as the COVID-19 pandemic?
• How might insights gained about mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic be used to inform preparedness for future disruptions?
• How can programs that focus on changes in biomarkers of stress and mood dysregulation, such as levels of sleep, activity, and texting patterns, be developed and implemented to better engage women in addressing their mental health?
• What are effective interventions to address the health of women academics in STEMM that specifically account for the effects of stress on women? What are effective interventions to mitigate the excessive levels of stress for Women of Color?

This page intentionally left blank.

The spring of 2020 marked a change in how almost everyone conducted their personal and professional lives, both within science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM) and beyond. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global scientific conferences and individual laboratories and required people to find space in their homes from which to work. It blurred the boundaries between work and non-work, infusing ambiguity into everyday activities. While adaptations that allowed people to connect became more common, the evidence available at the end of 2020 suggests that the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic endangered the engagement, experience, and retention of women in academic STEMM, and may roll back some of the achievement gains made by women in the academy to date.

The Impact of COVID-19 on the Careers of Women in Academic Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine identifies, names, and documents how the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the careers of women in academic STEMM during the initial 9-month period since March 2020 and considers how these disruptions - both positive and negative - might shape future progress for women. This publication builds on the 2020 report Promising Practices for Addressing the Underrepresentation of Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine to develop a comprehensive understanding of the nuanced ways these disruptions have manifested. The Impact of COVID-19 on the Careers of Women in Academic Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine will inform the academic community as it emerges from the pandemic to mitigate any long-term negative consequences for the continued advancement of women in the academic STEMM workforce and build on the adaptations and opportunities that have emerged.

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Insights in Higher Education: 2022

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Original Research 17 April 2023 Skill components of higher education in the era of sustainable development: an analytical study among university students in Qatar Ali A. Hadi Alshawi ,  1 more  and  Hicham Raïq 1,653 views 0 citations

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Physics Higher Education Research

Research Questions

Research questions are critical and central to educational research. When investigating a particular issue, of whatever kind or nature, the research planning process begins with formulation of two or three research questions that clarify and specify the form of inquiry.

How to frame a research question

Research questions vary widely and from discipline to discipline, but in general they are:

• Focused and concrete – they home in on a specific area for investigation. So for example, ‘How can students improve their learning of physics?’ is not a focused question. However, ‘What can I change in my teaching practice to enhance student examination performance in my mechanics module?’ has a clear focus for investigation.
• Realistic – the question guiding your enquiry is something feasible for you to investigate. The question: ‘Do student attitudes towards physics become more positive or negative if they have had repeated instruction in physics topics using inquiry-based learning approaches, every three years from when they start school through to the end of their undergraduate degree?’ is a focused question, but not one that is easily answerable except by a large research team undertaking longitudinal study and with considerable grant funding.
• Measurable . There are many questions we can ask but that we cannot easily answer in an investigation. ‘Why don’t more students study physics?’; ‘What impact on physics students internationally has there been as a result of the move from chalkboards to powerpoint presentations?’. ‘If all babies are exposed to Newton’s Three Laws using flash cards, will we see more enthusiasm for physics careers?’. You need to be able to collect data to answer your research question.
• Informed by your literature review (often following an experience of some real-world situation) for example, a physics lecturer may notice that students consistently fail to perform well in their learning of a particular topic and want to investigate further how to support them in their learning. The literature review will identify gaps, strategies, potential solutions, that can be honed into initial research questions. You may have some ideas of your own, and discover from the literature that they have not worked for others, and get ideas for what to try instead.
• Iterative. Research questions are not set in stone, and as the investigation proceeds will be further refined. Quite often we cast the net widely to begin with, and then narrow down to something more specific and manageable. For example you might start out with ‘how should mathematics best be integrated into the teaching of physics in higher education?’, and end up with ‘does the use of guided mathematical modelling interventions support more positive student attitudes towards the use of unstructured problems to assess their understanding of thermal physics?’ In empirical research the research questions to be answered are primarily concerned with drawing answers from observable data, although theoretical research also informs the design of the research process and the intervention constructed.
• Ethical. You will need ethical approval for any investigation that involves human subjects. Particular care should be taken if delving into personal or sensitive data, such as student attitudes, sexual orientation or other personal characteristics, political views, backgrounds, grades, etc. The section on ‘Ethics and Data Collection’ explains more about this.

EDUC-H205 Introduction to Education Thought

• Find Articles
• Develop a Research Question
• Keywords + Strategic Search
• Evaluate: Scholarly vs Popular
• Cite Sources

Instructional Video

Resources to Explore for Inspiration

Good researchers are curious and practice intellectual humility, in other words, they do not approach research with their minds already made up about what they will find. Use the resources below to discover contemporary topics in education and let your curiosity inspire you to learn more!

Full text discussions of current, controversial public policy issues in a variety of areas.

Articles include an overview, historical background, chronology, pro/con feature, plus resources for additional research. Graphics, photos and short "sidebar" features round out the reports. Shorter "Hot Topics" articles provide a solid introduction to subjects most in demand by students.

Features the complete contents of the latest issue; daily news and advice columns; current job listings; an archive of previously published content; discussion forums; and career-building tools such as online CV management, and salary databases.

• What Works Clearinghouse (US Dept. of Education) For more than a decade, the WWC has been a central and trusted source of scientific evidence on education programs, products, practices, and policies. We review the research, determine which studies meet rigorous standards, and summarize the findings. We focus on high-quality research to answer the question “what works in education?”

Brainstorming

• Learn More About Concept Maps Spartenburg Community College Library

Goldilocks Rule: Narrowing a Topic

Once you select a topic, refine your research question by asking the "5 W's"

Why  – why is the topic important? (to the class, to the field, or to you - let your answer help shape the following questions)

Who  – population or group (e.g., teens, college students, refugees), what  – discipline or focus (e.g., psychology or classroom strategies), where  – geographic location (e.g., united states; universities; rural areas), when  – time or era (civil rights era; last 5 years; pre-covid).

Broad topic: Immigrants in public schools

Narrowed topic: Classroom strategies that affect education outcomes for immigrant students in rural US K-12 schools.

Adapted from: University of Michigan. (2023 Finding and Exploring your topic. Retrieved from  https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283095&p=1886086

• Goldilocker Tool: University of Michigan Libraries A simple survey tool that walks users through the process of shaping their topical research question using the "5 W's"

Broadening Your Topic

If you receive too few results, broaden your research question by revisiting the "5 W's"

Why  – why is the topic important? (moving beyond your personal interest, how could your topic affect the region/state/country/world)

Who  – population or group (instead of "teens" try "adolescents," instead of "refugees" try "immigrants"), what  – discipline or focus (in addition to "psychology" add other disciplines such as "social work" or "school counseling"), where  – geographic location (expand your geographic region to include additional communities), when  – time or era (lengthen the amount of time), sample research questions.

A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. Developing a strong question is a process, so you will likely refine your question as you continue to research and to develop your ideas.  

Unclear : Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear:  How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as Facebook and TikTok?

Unfocused:  What is the effect on the environment from global warming?

Focused:  How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?

Simple vs Complex

Too simple:  How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex:   What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

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Unframing the Visual: Visual Literacy Pedagogy in Academic Libraries and Information Spaces, Maggie Murphy, Stephanie Beene, Katie Greer, Sara Schumacher, and Dana Statton Thompson (eds.), ACRL, 2024. 452p. Softcover, $108.00. 9780838939918

Visual information is everywhere. Not only that, but visuals are multidisciplinary, making it imperative to be able to analyze, examine, modify, read, and question them both as a part of everyday life, as well as in higher education. While for years librarians have been steeped in the concept of teaching information literacy, Unframing the Visual encourages us to consider the importance of visual literacy education to students, faculty, and the overall campus community.

This extensive anthology was inspired by the 2022 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Framework for Visual Literacy in Higher Education: Companion Document to the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, also known as “the VL Framework.” That title is a mouthful, and the size of this book is likewise expansive; it includes an abundant collection of research and experience related to visual literacy pedagogy.

The book’s five editors were members of the task force that authored the VL Framework. Chapter authors are just as diverse as the visual literacy tools they describe, coming from a variety of library types, locations, and backgrounds. Many different areas of librarianship are represented, including instruction, museums, special collections, DEIA, and more, making it an ideal addition to any academic library’s shelf.

The book is divided into four sections that echo the VL Framework’s themes: “Participating in a Changing Visual Information Landscape,” “Perceiving Visuals as Communicating Information,” “Practicing Visual Discernment and Criticality,” and “Pursuing Social Justice through Visual Practice.” Each section includes an introduction written by an editor and VL Framework author, plus six peer-reviewed chapters that relate to the theme. Multiple chapters make the connection between visual literacy and information literacy, noting that one does not exclude the other. As stated in Chapter 4, “to be information literate is to be visually literate” (p. 54).

Chapter topics include case studies to enhance understanding of the what, how, and why of using visual literacy in the academic library profession. While the book is lengthy at over 450 pages, it includes valuable takeaways and, of course, appealing visual examples throughout the text. All chapters include copious references and bibliographies for further reading, allowing serious researchers to delve deeper. Some chapters also include supplementary materials—such as lesson plans, worksheets, classroom discussion questions, and survey instruments—that will prove helpful to those wanting to recreate these authors’ successes.

As an outreach librarian who coordinates my academic library’s social media accounts, I found the first three chapters, which focus on “remix media” and online trends, especially relevant to my mission to reach and engage my users online. In Chapter 3, the writers take this concept a step further by encouraging libraries to use social media to not only reach their audiences, but also to educate them. Visual copyright, plagiarism, appropriation, and attribution are also mentioned throughout the book, which are topics most all library marketing professionals struggled with.

Part 2 of the book focuses on literary instruction and inclusivity, and includes topics such as data visualization and visual rhetoric. Authors assert that visual literacy can be used to teach students about academic honesty and integrity, skills that will help them throughout their college career and into the professional environment. Subject librarians will be happy to know that a wide variety of disciplines are used as examples throughout the book’s numerous case studies, including the humanities, social sciences, health sciences, and interdisciplinary studies.

The book wisely extends the definition of “visuals” to include more than just images; discussions on a variety graphic formats—including infographics, comics, memes, diagrams, videos, and more—augment the book. One of the more eye-opening chapters was Chapter 11, “Collaborative Approaches to Teaching and Building Visual Literacies,” written by librarians from UCLA who used visual modalities to “frame library instruction and create instructional objects” to better engage learners. This chapter will be especially helpful for librarians who may not have the skills, nor time, to create new visual resources, and who may instead wish to “reframe” existing resources through collaboration.

The importance of evaluating visuals is a prominent theme, especially in Part 3, which is dedicated to the VL Framework theme “learners practice visual discernment and criticality” (p. 151). Just as librarians used to champion the CRAAP test to evaluate text resources, several chapters in this section promote the need for incorporating critical visual literacy into library instruction. Visuals are not without their issues, however, and several chapters focus on accessibility concerns. In Chapter 19, “What We Aren’t Seeing: Exclusionary Practices in Visual Media,” authors Smith and Malinowski point to the need for visual media inclusivity via critical design, as well as the role of information professionals in addressing exclusionary practices. “Learning and unlearning are necessary,” they state, “and we as a profession should continue to position ourselves to evolve accordingly” (p. 339).

Unframing the Visual contains a vast amount of information and numerous case studies on the importance of libraries teaching, using, learning, and evaluating visual literacy. While a casual reader may balk at the book’s sheer size, any librarian—particularly those who work in user engagement or instruction—will be sure to find a chapter that resonates with them. If nothing else, librarians will have their eyes opened to the sheer number of visuals that surround us daily, and, hopefully, will reconsider how academic libraries can better utilize visual to inform and connect with learners. — Maria Atilano, Student Engagement Librarian, University of North Florida

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Researching inequality in higher education: tracing changing conceptions and approaches over fifty years

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Fifty years ago, higher education globally had started to change radically in terms of the proportion of young people enrolled in the system as well as society’s expectations for what this would deliver. From the outset, Higher Education has featured research interrogating various aspects of inequality in higher education, including institutions and staff as well as students. This article offers an overview of that work. Our analysis is structured around three levels at which major questions on this topic have been framed and investigated. The macro level focuses on national systems and looks at widening participation, especially the increase in access to higher education for young people. The meso level mostly focuses on institutions and their engagement with organisational inequality. The micro level focuses on the lived experiences of academics, in this case focusing on gender and race. We adopted a thematic and purposive approach to article choice, ultimately selecting key papers for further illustrative analysis. In our analysis, we tracked changes in areas of empirical or other emphasis, the use of a variety of theoretical and epistemological frameworks and methods, policy recommendations, and the geographical locations of authors and their content. We noted a growing emphasis on intersectionality and a widening range of countries but also more critical analyses and suggestions for more radical changes in higher education systems.

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Introduction

Over the last half century, higher education systems around the world have expanded substantially — at different rates in different places – and, overall, these days a far larger group of young people globally participate in higher education and mature students also have greater opportunities. Over this whole period, policymakers have had their sights on the impact that expanded higher education (HE) systems might have on social inequality. Attention has also been drawn to inequalities amongst those who work in universities, whether this relates to recruitment, contract type, pay, work cultures, workloads and division of labour, promotion or institutional ‘voice’. In this article, we examine and give examples of how work published in Higher Education dealing with how aspects of research on inequality at different levels of HE systems and organisations has developed since the journal began in the early 1970s, around the start of the period of widespread expansion in higher education.

The concept of inequality covers a huge range of topics; from massification of university study, through racism and gender discrimination in HE institutions and discriminatory treatment of students with a disability, to international comparisons of funding and other inequalities between and within different national HE systems. Conceptually, it includes everything from equality of opportunity and diversity to critical race theory and ideas about what inclusivity means in contemporary higher education. Inequality research covers both highly academically oriented studies (often but not always quantitative), through those more ‘on the ground’, comparing female and male experiences of working or studying in different universities or HE systems, to highly activist-driven pieces on issues like deaf studies or the decolonisation of the higher education curriculum. The emphasis on practice and activism in inequality studies has increased in recent times, alongside critiques of those universities and HE systems (particularly in the Global North) which are highly marketised, increasingly based on neo-liberal values and grounded in imperial and colonial attitudes (Giroux, 2018 ; Jansen, 2019 ; Riegraf & Weber, 2017 ).

Many inequality studies attempt to contribute both to academic debates and to bringing about changes in practices and policies and this paper demonstrates that dual-purpose coverage. We show that these authors come from several academic disciplines, including education, itself not a discipline but drawing on many different disciplines (Deem, 1996 ), as well as sociology, social policy, economics, psychology, gender studies, geography, disability studies and race/ethnicity studies. Few writers on inequality in higher education are engaged only in research. They also teach, supervise, do administration and third mission work and thus do not usually form part of an elite group of ‘dedicated’ HE researchers with extensive publication records but largely detached from day-to-day university work, as identified in some recent large-scale surveys of academics (Kwiek, 2015 ). Many but not all inequality researchers have a personal interest in the topic which is not just based on academic knowledge and expertise but also on lived experience of discrimination. Thus there are many fewer non-disabled white male authors of inequality articles than there are other genders, people of colour and people with a disability. Methodologically, there is a wide range of approaches, from highly quantitative statistical studies of big data sets and analytic papers to semi-structured interviews and small-scale in-depth ethnographic studies. There are also a variety of theoretical approaches ranging from feminist, critical race and anti-ableism perspectives to mainstream social science theories. Indeed, it has been suggested that higher education research tends to borrow theories from other social science fields rather than develop its own theories (Tight, 2014 ), although the wisdom of valorising theory over other aspects of social science research in research on education is still a point of debate.

The three authors all have a longstanding interest in different but cognate aspects of higher education inequality, as reflected in the three themes covered in the paper: (1) widening access; (2) organisational equality matters; and (3) the higher education experiences of black and female academics; which in this paper we have categorised as respectively, macro, meso and micro levels of analysis. We were also interested in papers on inequality which go beyond an emphasis on contributing to an academic body of knowledge and engage with practice and or activism. We began our search for suitable Higher Education articles by doing a series of keyword searches across the decades of the journal’s existence, which produced a very considerable array of papers for reading and cross-consultation between us. We gradually evolved a way of selecting exemplar articles covering the chosen three themes. Our methodology for doing this is discussed in more detail in the next section. We do not claim that the articles chosen are necessarily ‘typical’ but we have tried to ensure some variation in the geographical location of the authors.

Methodology

From the outset, we grappled with how we might best undertake our work for the paper. Footnote 1 We decided upon a process with an interpretive rather than systematic orientation. By definition, this approach does not offer reproducibility, but in sacrificing quantitative accuracy, it aims for conceptual depth.

To begin scoping the data, we went through the titles and abstracts of all articles published in Higher Education during its first three decades; and listed all those that somehow pertained to questions of (in)equality. To keep the scoping task manageable, we then identified three prominent themes to guide the investigation: (1) increasing access to undergraduate education (widening participation); (2) institutional policies and practices; and (3) the composition, and demographics of the academic workforce. These three themes do not and are not intended to cover all aspects of inequality in higher education. For example, our three levels of analysis do not include a meta-analysis of the field itself, such as research on the use of criticality in studies of higher education (Mwangi et al., 2018 ) or a recent study of how international student literature has shifted to more often include students’ voices (Page & Chahboun, 2019 ). These are also important studies but ones that are not included within the scope of this paper.

Each theme frames its major questions at a different level of analysis (access at macro level, organisational analysis at meso level and academic lived experience at micro level). We chose to organise the selected papers according to these levels in order to highlight how the different themes lend themselves to different scales of the HE system. However, this division is not always clear-cut. Studies at each of these levels may also include data that seems to pertain to the other levels, such as policy document analysis or individual interviews. However, key to categorising an article at the macro, meso or micro level lies in the overall questions being addressed.

Each author took one theme and read through the titles and abstracts of all articles published on their inequality topic in the fifty years of the journal’s existence, developing a list of all articles presenting research on that theme. For each theme we then identified sub-themes which could be applied to each article and also noted bibliometric characteristics such as the geographic base of the author(s). We found that while growth in particular fields can be observed more generally, we remained acutely aware that all we were analysing were the articles in one journal. Furthermore, we were conscious that the publication of the papers was almost certainly influenced by changing editors and editorial board membership and the existence of specialist inequality journals, as well as by prevailing societal debates that academics chose to write about.

In the second phase of the analysis, we retained the selection of articles in each major theme while focusing on the purposes of studies, the way research questions were framed, the methods they used, and the outcomes and findings. Across the first two themes (widening access and organisational policies and practices), we identified clear broad stages of evolution of each research field. For the third theme, we were unable to identify quite such clear stages, possibly due to the initially more limited representation of this work in the journal (compared to its representation in the field more broadly) but could nevertheless point to significant changes over the fifty years.

In line with the emerging orientation for this analysis, we then identified a small number of articles for each theme, which could exemplify the trends we identified. These articles were selected through an iterative deliberative process, to yield a selection that illustrated changing academic trends, theories and methods as well as findings and a geographic spread of authors. We also sought to identify articles that were particularly impactful, although this was not always easily identified just by virtue of citations. These articles we discuss in some detail to contextualise these investigations against the backdrop of fifty years of dramatic changes in higher education globally. To assist the reader, the article is structured with subheadings signalling each of these exemplar papers.

The macro level: system growth and widening participation

The origins of the journal Higher Education were closely linked to the growth in participation in higher education that was starting to gather steam from the early 1970s in many western countries. The journal’s initial orientation was substantially towards informing national policies on evolving HE systems, with a policy maker and planner audience, but it quickly transformed into an academic journal with its intellectual debates going beyond the pragmatic needs of planners. The expansion of higher education was informed by human capital theory’s emphasis on the need for countries moving into the post-industrial era to more fully embrace the emancipatory potential for university education being made available to a wider group of young people, not just a small elite. Rhetorically this seemed a significant advance for equality in society but researchers in the journal and beyond started to document what was happening and ask whether higher education was able to or ever could live up to these emancipatory ideals. These questions are illustrated by observations made by the renowned Swedish educational researcher, Torsten Husén, in a paper published in Higher Education in 1976, entitled ‘Problems of securing equal access to higher education: The dilemma between equality and excellence’:

Now in the mid-1970s we are both conceptually and empirically in a position to deal much more fruitfully with problems pertaining to equality of access than we were some 20-25 years ago. In the first place,we now have a more sophisticated conception of equality. … We have as a consequence begun to realize what I have called certain ‘equalization incompatibilities’. … The mood has swung from the almost euphoric conception of education as the Great Equalizer to that of education as the Great Sieve that sorts and certifies people for their slots in society. (Husén, 1976 , p. 411) … the education system cannot serve as a substitute for social and economic reforms. One cannot have more equality in education than exists in society at large. (Husén, 1976 , p. 412)

This part of our analysis considers articles like these that have empirically examined the expansion of undergraduate places in higher education and what this has meant for widening access to broader social groupings than those who historically accessed higher education. In total, we identified 73 articles on this topic, with more than half of these published in the last decade. This trend outpaces the overall growth in the journal over time and shows how this topic continues to be a significant one. The majority of studies (58 articles) are quantitative analyses done at a national level. A much smaller and relatively recent line of work (15 articles) are studies on widening participation that are qualitative in nature and typically done at an institutional level — but still aimed towards the macro questions in relation to widening participation at the national level. Overall, the work is dominated by European and Australasian contexts, but from early on there has also been some representation of Global South contexts.

A significant focus in this theme, and still ongoing, is an examination of what expansion of overall places in higher education has meant for participation of social groupings who historically had less access. Typically, which groups are focused on is related to the national context. The sociological terminology of social class has often been used, especially in European contexts, where there are established ways for assigning class based on entries in national surveys. Some studies have simply used socio-economic status (typically defined according to national policy and available data), and others have used parental highest level of education. Our survey of this work noted the emergence of new terminology such as ‘disadvantaged’, ‘non-traditional’ and ‘first generation’ (or ‘first in family’) students. There is a smaller representation of work on gender, with this largely in Global South contexts and in these contexts also some work on race and ethnicity, and more recently on disability.

Early research in the widening participation field tended to contextualise itself in the light of recent national policy shifts. Investigations were intended to contribute towards ongoing policy debates, for example Reuterberg & Svensson, ( 1983 ), who looked at the impact of a recent significant change in financial aid provision in Sweden. Five decades on, similar studies have been conducted across many national contexts. Findings generally show some widening of access for these social groups who were historically underrepresented in higher education, but basically never to the full level of their representation in society — there are gains, but not as originally anticipated by policymakers and reformers. Some work looking to explain these patterns investigates student aspirations for higher education and how these are framed by family and high school contexts, as well as the academic preparation that such contexts provide. Another key causal focus is the impact of financial aid in supporting broader participation.

From the 1990s onwards, widening participation had become an established and ongoing dynamic in higher education, now starting to reach most parts of the globe. A small but important line of investigation considers to which institutions and which programmes non-traditional students are gaining access. Overall, these studies find over-representation of these students in lower status institutions and programmes, with limited access obtained to elite domains of higher education. The first paper published in Higher Education on widening access, in 1976, had in fact investigated the class associations with programme choice in Scotland, finding that working class students continued to be overrepresented in programmes like engineering. The topic of institutional differentiation is a vexed one, since most policymakers recognise the need for differentiation in an advanced system but the problem stems from the association of status and potential future earnings with particular institutions.

A key concern of policymakers from early on in this expansion was about the implications for efficiency and a concern that widening access would be associated with poorer performance of students who would not have previously accessed higher education, as well as labour markets’ inability to absorb these new graduates. Regarding academic outcomes, some of the research sought to understand the relation between part-time work (more prevalent amongst students from less privileged social groupings) and academic performance. The research on academic performance has an array of outcomes, but mostly tends to refute the assumption that ‘non-traditional’ students would reduce efficiency in the system. Even when there are performance differentials, there are still overall absolute outcomes in terms of graduates who previously would not have had the opportunity to do a degree. Similar findings emerge regarding employment, with changing patterns of graduate employment not easily attributable to an oversupply of graduates in economic contexts that are not highly planned.

The emergence of qualitative studies investigating widening participation is relatively recent. A first line of enquiry seeks to explore the lived experiences of students from underrepresented groups, comparing these to the intended goals of widening participation policy. There is a wide variety of approaches under this umbrella. As might be anticipated, some of it focuses on perceived problems and barriers, especially earlier work, but some work also subverts this assumption of deficit. A new line of research that has emerged in the last decade that critically interrogates policy at both national and institutional level, as well as some studies that look through to institutional implementation of policy commitments, e.g., in the processes for promotion of faculty. In line with the overall shift in the journal alluded to earlier, the authors are no longer policy insiders but tend more to be academics working in institutions closely with the students that have been the beneficiaries and subjects of these developments.

Exemplar paper 1: Chanana ( 1993 ) Accessing higher education: the dilemma of schooling women, minorities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in contemporary India

Many of the early quantitative studies of widening participation were conducted in Western contexts. We chose this paper to show that these concerns were also shared by newly independent postcolonial countries, such as India. Karuna Chanana is an internationally renowned sociologist at Jawaharlal Nehru University who is still researching women’s participation in education. The study assesses the progress made in post-independence India in relation to access to higher education for groups that were the focus for activism, policy discourse and constitutional provisions after independence in 1947. Women’s education had been a major focus for development strategy in the early post-independence period. Scheduled Castes and Tribes became a focus for particular constitutional reservations in higher education (women don’t have this provision). Religious minorities (especially Muslims) obtained the constitutional provision allowing them to set up separate institutions.

The method for this paper compares absolute enrolment data from the period 1950–1951 with the period 1988–1989. Over this period, overall enrolment grew tenfold, while, for example, women’s enrolment grew from one-tenth to one-third of total enrolment i.e. significant absolute growth and at a higher rate than men. A key constraint on the study lies in which data were available for analysis. For Scheduled Castes and Tribes, the paper only reports the proportion of total enrolments for 1988–1989. For religious minorities, data was more complex to obtain, and the author obtained data from religious affiliated institutions. The methods in this paper are characteristic of many papers in this period; purely descriptive with aggregate enrolment numbers for particular time periods. Following a detailed analysis, Chanana ( 1993 , p. 89) concludes:

An overall conceptual framework is sadly missing at the policy level. The impact of various strategies too is difficult to assess in the case of women since most of these have been adopted during the last few years. The assessment of facilities for Muslims, Scheduled Castes and Tribes have been provided in the annual reports of respective Commissioners. They do not give much hope. The reservations have also not been very effective. The lacunae at the implementation stage are far too many and the situation is far too complex. Micro planning and decentralisation are the suggested alternative approaches to educational planning (India 1990b), but there has been a large gap between policy and practice especially because the implementation is left to the provincial governments while the policy pronouncements flow from the federal government. This gap, apart from unrealistic planning, reflects a schism in ideal and reality which, in turn, explains the extent and nature of educational disadvantage in India.

Exemplar paper 2: Boliver ( 2011 ) Expansion, differentiation, and the persistence of social class inequalities in British higher education

This paper is a significant exemplar of the growth in scope and depth of the quantitative research on widening participation. Boliver, now Professor of Sociology at Durham University, considers Britain from the 1960s through to the mid-1990s, and rigorously tests the hypothesis that expanding access will reduce inequality. The 1960s and the late 1980s through to mid-1990s were periods of significant expansion in participation in UK higher education. Across this full period there was a seven-fold increase in participation, from 5 to 35% of the youth cohort. Using data from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), Boliver selects a sample of those who were 18 years old in the years from 1960 to 1995. The data allows for the identification of social class based on the occupational class positions held by the fathers when the respondents were children. Using binary logistic regression, she can determine the odds for overall participation in higher education, as well as access to a degree programme and to an elite institution. The major finding of this ambitious study is to show that for most of these periods of expansion, the inequalities based on class for the odds of reaching higher education remained intact, and only started to decline when the more advantaged classes had reached saturation in the 1990s. In relation to which programmes and institutions students were accessing, these social class inequalities have not changed. Thus, as was hypothesised, when higher education expands, the more advantaged classes are typically better placed to take up the expanded opportunities for participation in higher education. They also can use their resources to access the higher status programmes and institutions. Boliver ( 2011 , p. 240) comments on these findings:

That said, it is noteworthy that although social class differences in the odds of higher education enrolment (whether in general or specifically in its more prestigious forms) did not become more equal as a consequence of expansion, nor did they become more unequal. On reflection this is perhaps rather surprising. Indeed, it might well have been expected that those from more advantaged social origins would have monopolised the new enrolment opportunities opened up by expansion and that those from less advantaged backgrounds would have been largely excluded from doing the same. And yet, those from different social class backgrounds in fact appear to have benefited more or less equally from expansion even if less advantaged groups continued to lag substantially behind in their enrolment rates. In this limited sense, then, the expansion of higher education in Britain could be said to have been inclusive rather than exclusive (cf. Arum et al. 2007).

Compared to the earlier work on this topic of which the previous paper is an exemplar, there are several points of difference in methods and approach. Firstly, Boliver can take in a longer sweep of time. Secondly, she doesn’t only track participation but also looks at which programmes and which institutions are being accessed. Finally, the use of binary logistic regression models allows for a determination of probabilities of access to higher education.

Exemplar paper 3: Leathwood ( 2006 ) Gender, equity and the discourse of the independent learner in higher education

This paper is located in a UK period (especially in England) where broadening of access was tied to economic imperatives through policy statements emphasising ‘independent life-long learners’ and is a significant exemplar of a new stance in relation to policy, also reflecting the growing critique of now entrenched neoliberal politics. While the neoliberal agenda appears to offer better outcomes for those who did not traditionally access higher education, the problem is that it doesn’t actually secure job stability but rather imposes the responsibility on the employee to repeatedly retrain and upskill as economic demands shift.

This research is located in one institution, a ‘post-1992’ university. This term refers to former polytechnics and central institutions given university status (but not a Royal Charter) in 1992 — thus ending, in theory, the binary line between polytechnics and established universities, and granting to the post-1992 institutions the autonomy to award degrees.

Leathwood, now a professor emerita at London Metropolitan University, locates the study in a critical analysis of the discourse on ‘independence’ showing that this is not a neutral terminology but is significantly associated with gender and race in its normative orientations. The empirical part of the paper looks at how students construct ‘independence’, drawing on focus groups and interviews conducted longitudinally across the years of study. Most of the students who participated in the study were mature students, also a majority were female, and many were also Black or Asian. i.e. these would largely be considered ‘non-traditional’ students — a term only starting to feature in the literature from around this period.

The study found that students valued independence both for being a student and what they were learning about coping in life both in the workplace and personally. However, they also valued support and would not fit the profile of the completely self-directed learner that the policy discourse seems to imply. Some students struggled with the perceived lack of support in the senior years. Overall, the author argues that students are not served by this discourse of ‘independence’ which, she argues, allows universities to absolve themselves from responsibility for student support. She writes (2006, p. 630):

In this paper, I have suggested that the ‘independent learner’ is a gendered construction and inappropriate for the majority of students. In many ways, ‘independence’ is a masculinist myth; what suits (some) men is defined as the ideal that all should be striving for, whilst men’s dependence on others remains hidden.

The meso level: institutional policies and practices on equality

The second main category of papers we identified addressed the meso level: HE institutions as the sites in which equality plays out. Many of the 56 articles in this section overlap somewhat with the afore-mentioned theme of widening access. Similarly, the majority (35) of these organisation-focused articles actually concentrate on the lived experience of individuals or groups of individuals, such as women, disabled people, or international students, in a particular organisation or groups of organisations. As those are addressed in the other two themes, in this section we instead highlight the more organisation-centred articles. We identified 21 articles that explicitly focus on higher education institutions’ policies or practices for reducing inequality, attempting to be more inclusive and diverse, and providing an equal studying and working experience for all their students and staff.

While the first institutional article— Barrett & Powell’s ( 1980 ) study of a special admissions scheme developed to facilitate admission for non-matriculated mature students in a single Australian university — was published in 1980, equality in the institutional context only emerged as a prominent topic in the early 1990s. The articles adopt varied approaches in terms of thematic focus, geographical location, and methodological and theoretical approach. Gender or ethnicity have been fairly constant (in)equality themes since the 1990s, whereas the status of disabled or international students and academics arose as a topical issue only a decade later. Other themes such as socio-economic status, age, motherhood, immigrant or refugee background or sexuality appear much less prominently. Methodologically, the early studies tend to be quantitative and/or descriptive, while the later decades bring in a breadth of qualitative, interpretive and critical studies. The higher education institutions addressed in the articles are typically located in the Anglo-Saxon countries, but as the number of articles increased in the past two decades, so too did their geographical spread.

A broadening set of concepts around which the papers are built reflect the shifting debates around inequality in higher education and society over time. Many of the early papers focus on the notions of affirmative action and equality of opportunity . Some early examples include e.g. Cavalier & Slaughter ( 1982 ) on the costs of affirmative action policy in a US institution; Ganesh & Sarupria ( 1983 ) on elite reproduction in Indian higher education and Twale et al. ( 1992 ) on affirmative action programmes in professional schools. In the more recent papers, concepts such as equity (Renn, 2012 , on women’s higher education institutions; Zerquera & Ziskin, 2020 , on performance-based funding and equity) and inequality (Sadiq et al., 2019 , on academic promotions at a South African university) also emerge. Specifically interesting is diversity which features as a key concept in many articles, starting from Bastedo & Gumport ( 2003 ) on mission differentiation and academic stratification in the USA as the first example. Diversity is also the key concept for Kezar et al. ( 2008 ) on leadership strategy for diversity in US institutions, Timmers et al. ( 2010 ) on institutional gender diversity policies in Netherlands, Ferfolja et al. ( 2020 ) on gender and sexual diversity in an Australian university and Bird & Pitman ( 2020 ) on the diversity of authors of texts in academic curricula.

In the following, we look more closely at three meso level studies which highlight some of these different methodological and conceptual approaches while explicitly aiming to fill empirical research gaps on topics they consider understudied.

Exemplar paper 1: Cavalier & Slaughter ( 1982 ) Autonomy versus affirmative action: What price social justice?

Early articles looking at organisational policies and practices primarily used a quantitative approach with descriptive statistics to describe the characteristics of the organisation (Guri, 1986 ), or an analysis of institutional documents to describe action taken by higher education institutions address given equality issues (e.g. Murphy, 2007 ; Twale et al., 1992 ).

The article by Cavalier & Slaughter ( 1982 ) is a typical example of this early period in that it adopts a descriptive mixed-method approach to calculate the direct and indirect costs of affirmative action/equal employment opportunity policy in one middle-tier American research university. The article was topical in its time, in that the US federal policies on higher education were subject to much debate nationally. In addition to filling an empirical gap in terms of measuring the direct and indirect costs related to these programmes as well as the outcomes achieved, the article offers a contribution to the policy debate not just on the affirmative action per se, but on the wider policy debate on university autonomy. As a result of the programme at this university, about 40% of the new hires were women or belonged to underrepresented minorities and their overall share in the personnel rose by 1.9%, although most of the increase was concentrated in the lower academic ranks such as lecturers and assistant professors. The overall costs of the programme were only 0.4% of the institution’s total budget. The authors noted that while the programme was inexpensive compared with other federal social justice programmes, such as social security, it only benefited selected people. In the qualitative interviews with faculty, the programme was generally endorsed, but often placed in opposition to principles of meritocracy, quality, and hiring ‘the best’. Thus, the success of the programme was dependent on cultural rather than merely technical change in the institution.

As the main cost of the programme was shown to be that of academics’ time, the authors argue that care must be taken to ensure that the burden of fulfilment of the programme would not disproportionately fall on early career and minority staff. This concern is later validated by Baez ( 2000 ) who illuminates the challenges faced by minority ethnicity academics in balancing race-related and general service expectations with research and teaching expectations. Eventually, Cavalier and Slaughter argue that while educators have criticised the programme for being costly and not effective, they have done so without having comprehensive information about the real costs and effects. The critique was ultimately directed at what was considered shrinking academic and institutional autonomy:

… educators are not concerned with the actual dollar outlay for AA/EEO but instead use its intangible educational costs as a symbolic issue in their struggle with the state over university autonomy. This struggle is set within the wider context of the fiscal crisis of the state: the federal government is increasingly unable to generate the tax dollars on which higher education has come to depend. Educators see the resulting federal and public demands for accountability as threatening traditional prerogatives - encompassed by the term ‘autonomy’ - setting higher education off from other publicly funded agencies. Representatives of the academic community are convinced the special nature of their enterprise calls for opposing state encroachment, but AA/EEO is the only issue on which they can afford resistance.’ ( Cavalier & Slaughter, 1982 , p. 382.)

Exemplar paper 2: Kezar et al. ( 2008 ) Creating a web of support: An important leadership strategy for advancing campus diversity

Another set of institution-focused articles comprise qualitative studies that draw from personal or shared observations and conclude with organisational implications or prescriptive advice. An example we chose to highlight in this category is Adrianna Kezar and colleagues’ 2008 study on institutional leadership for diversity. The authors note that:

… advancing campus diversity is complex and compounded by the demands competing for presidents’ attention such as fundraising, developing external partnerships, and being responsive to changing community needs. At the same time, campus diversity is an issue that has high stakes and garners much campus attention, and has the potential to trouble an otherwise successful presidency. (Kezar et al, 2008 , p. 70.)

The article thus aims to contribute to the literature on organisational strategy and leadership, as well as offering advice and practical tools for university leaders. The authors bring together literature focussing on advancing diversity on campus with theories on presidential leadership. They argue that the predominantly structural approach adopted in the literature on campus diversity, with its focus on integrating diversity questions into the institutional agenda, establishing diversity committees and councils, and allocating funding to diversity actions and evaluating their success is limited. It can be supported by the literature on presidential leadership which:

suggests the need for more expansive understanding of the leadership strategies associated with leading campus-wide diversity efforts, including strategies that focus on relationship-building, meaning-making and interpretation, as well as power and influence (Kezar, 2001 , p. 73).

Based on interviews with 27 university presidents representing different types of institutions around the US, the article presents three findings. First, a successful leadership approach adopted by campus presidents is a collaborative one and can be likened to a spiderweb in which interlinked nodes and strands reinforce each other. Second, multiple actors, such as faculty, administrators, staff, students, boards and various external organisations, representing the nodes of the spider web, are all vital to the diversity agenda. Third, these nodes are supported by multiple strands: strategies that highlight the action taken to foster diversity and inclusivity on campus, as well as garner support for it. The article also highlights how, by the late 2000s, diversity as a key concept was a taken for granted starting point; implicitly defined in terms of expanding and supporting a diverse student populace and faculty.

Exemplar paper 3: Bird & Pitman ( 2020 ) How diverse is your reading list? Exploring issues of representation and decolonisation in the UK

Not all the meso-level articles focus on the entire organisation and its policies and practices. Bird & Pitman’s ( 2020 ) article represents another angle into the internal life of the universities, as it is not focused on the organisational level or the questions of leadership or strategy. Yet by illuminating how diversity is manifested in what the university does in one of its main functions, education, it highlights the lived practice of (in)equality. Framing the article in terms of the many calls around the world to diversify and decolonise university curricula, the authors note that empirical analysis on the diversity of reading lists is rare and that this article aims to contribute empirical evidence for the UK debate. The authors note that the article attempts:

… to establish whether white, male and Eurocentric authors dominate university reading lists. This type of enquiry represents a crucial step towards developing and transforming our curricula in response to the global decolonisation agenda. (Bird & Pitman, 2020 , p.904.)

The article examines reading lists of two modules drawn from social sciences and sciences in a research-intensive university in the UK and asks whether the authorship of the literature on those reading lists is descriptively representative of the university community. The authorship is examined from the perspectives of gender, ethnicity and the geographical context of institutional affiliation, and compared against the demographic characteristics of the academic staff and the student body. The results highlight the differences between sciences and social science disciplines and show the disparity of the gender and ethnic makeup between the authors of the literature and the constituents of the institution.

The authors acknowledge that in selecting only three demographic dimensions, their method overlooks other potentially significant dimensions which function to disadvantage individuals, such as disability, social class, religion or sexual orientation. In line with its critical approach, the article notes that heterogeneity is hidden in broad categories such as white ethnicity and that adhering to such categories inadvertently strengthens them, instead of making their boundaries more fluid.

The article concludes with four sets of recommendations. The authors first note that the university needs to engage in a transparent dialogue with stakeholders on the diversity of reading lists. They also call for the entire sector to develop coherent strategies instead of piecemeal solutions adopted for a single classroom or module. Individual teachers must take the initiative and not wait for institutional action on the matter, but institutions must also develop tools for teachers to review their curricula. The article finally concludes by reminding the reader that the entire sector should recognise and combat structural inequalities, such as the dominance of the Global North in the publishing landscape. A similar call is also made by Mwangi et al. ( 2018 ) in their insightful analysis of the journals in the field of higher education research.

The micro level: black and women academics’ lived experiences

The emphasis on black and women academics’ lived experience in Higher Education papers was chosen to illustrate a micro-level methodological approach (often based on qualitative interviews) in papers focusing on the experience of female academics in higher education institutions in different countries and across disciplines. These articles reveal how women academics perceived their situation at different points between the 1980s and 2021. The papers consider to varying degrees to what extent each such approach could act as a trigger for activity to reduce sexism, racism and discrimination. Large scale quantitative surveys using anonymised data were initially considered (Blackstone & Fulton, 1974 ; Tuckman & Tuckman, 1981 ) but their emphasis is on overall data trends, not lived experience. Purely analytic articles also tended to ignore the latter (Freeman, 1977 ). Surveys also seldom examine who should be responsible for orchestrating change, ranging from women themselves, through universities as organisations, to policy makers. Papers were sought in which, at a micro level, female academics and academics of colour expressed their concerns and challenges in their own words.

Fourteen papers which fitted the specification were identified by reading all articles concerning black and women academics published in Higher Education from 1972 to 2021. Of these 14, six were written by US authors, with three written or co-written by UK authors and three written or co-written by Australian authors, although the article content was sometimes more international. No suitable articles on black or women academics’ lived experiences were found in the 1970 volumes, despite this being a decade of considerable growth in published work on sexism and educational inequalities (Deem, 1978 ). Much of the academic debate on sexism in Higher Education in the early days originated from the USA but gradually shifted to embrace other regions. This included Europe where EU Article 119 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome emphasised equal pay for equal work (Jacquot, 2020 ) and established a series of EU directives on inequality between women and men from 1975 onwards (Arribas & Carrasco, 2003 ). Possibly the relative absence of 1970s articles in Higher Education about academic women’s lived experience was because there were many alternative places to publish such papers, as research on sex discrimination started to grow. A new journal with a higher education policy focus was not an obvious outlet for feminist research at that time. We now turn to the three selected papers.

Exemplar paper 1: Jensen ( 1982 ) Women’s Work and Academic Culture: Adaptations and Confrontations

This paper examines 42 early career female academics’ cultural adaptation to academic life in the USA, with interviewees from five western/midwestern US higher education institutions (Jensen, 1982 ). The paper’s aim is to construct a model of women’s academic acculturation, concentrating on ‘academic culture’ but also on ‘women’s culture’ and the process of acculturation between the two. From her data, Jensen developed a model of three different responses, namely reorientation to academic norms (termed the ‘male model’), reaffirmatio n of traditional female roles while also taking on parallel professional academic roles, and a reconstitution of the two cultures in a new form of professionalism. Jensen rejects the idea of her respondents having experienced professional socialisation into academic cultures as doctoral students, since women PhD candidates during the early 1980s would seldom have encountered other women academics. Jensen notes that those who followed reorientation routes were encouraged to abandon their ‘femaleness’ in order to be taken seriously, while those who pursued reaffirmation paths tended to think of themselves as ‘superwomen’ who do everything that is asked of them inside and outside paid work. By contrast, the reconstituting group sought a move into a new lifestyle workspace, which they negotiated with the help of collegial support (mostly from other women) and were less individually competitive than the other two groups. The women in the reorienting category emphasised their academic work and its separation from other aspects of their lives. They rarely had female academic role models or friendships outside higher education. A number had considered not marrying. The reaffirmation group responded separately to academic work expectations and traditional female roles (e.g. being a mother). Almost all of them worked full-time and were generally more committed to research than teaching. They rarely identified as feminists. They also spent considerable time on their non-work lives. The reconstituting group contained both married and unmarried women, some were mothers and four had not taken their husband’s name. Most identified with feminism. Teaching (including support of female students) and research were both valued, the latter often focusing on new frontier fields. Time was also given to other non-work activities.

Jensen’s overall focus on ‘women’s culture’ as a starting point for her article would be regarded as very old fashioned now (she does not mention either sexuality or gender categories beyond female and male). However, her research approach, based on long qualitative interviews, would stand up to contemporary methodological standards, as would her careful attention to data coding practices. On the other hand, beyond the desire to develop a multi-faceted model of acculturation, the paper does not really have a strong conceptual framework, which sets it apart from recent work on gender and academics. There is also not much indication of attention to intersectionality (e.g. race and ethnicity), as only four of the 42 interviewees were women of colour or Hispanic Americans, although that might also reflect the composition of USA early career women academics at the time. The article’s conclusions reflect on and reject the extent to which holders of the three acculturative types were just measures of politicisation. Jensen suggested that the reconstituted group in particular, were looking for a holistic way to integrate their life activities in both academia and womanhood within a distinctive women’s culture. The range and significance of her research is nicely summed up in this quote from her article, which reflects on both the concepts of women’s culture and acculturation but also the socialisation process for new women academics in the USA in the early 1980s:

Without disregarding institutional constraints and status conflict, it seems important to know more about women's own perceptions and experiences in the pursuit of academic careers and compatible personal lifestyles. This study depends on the proposition that there is an institutionalised academic culture which can be described. Additionally, the study posits the existence of an unarticulated world of women's culture. This theoretical construction of women's culture is based on the general agreement of traditional and radical analyses of the behaviours and personality characteristics common to women … The idea that women's professional behaviours were not simply structurally determined, but at some level chosen and learned suggested an acculturational model of women's participation. As academic women rarely learn their profession from an older cohort of women, the professional socialization concept seemed inappropriate. Instead, women experience a process of acculturation to the male dominated and defined professional world … But as acculturative results of ethnic group and other subcultural contact can take several forms, so do the outcomes among women in academia. The orientations depend in part on the conditions of contact with the dominant culture: particular strengths of each subculture, graduate school experiences and relationships, definitions of career and professional conduct. (Jensen, 1982 , p. 68)

Exemplar paper 2: Bagilhole ( 1993 ) Survivors in a male preserve: a study of British women academics’ experiences and perceptions of discrimination in a UK university

This paper on sex discrimination experienced by women academics in a variety of disciplines in one UK university is based on a qualitative interview-based study (Bagilhole, 1993 ). There were a very similar number of interviewees (43) to Jensen’s paper, although all career stages were included in Bagilhole’s sample. Bagilhole does not mention whether everyone she interviewed was white or not and refers to her data coding in just one sentence. She also does not use an overall theoretical framework but draws on a variety of different literature, such as the idea of dominant and muted groups (Delamont, 1989 ). Both Jensen and Bagilhole were pioneers in gender research. Jensen was Co-founder and Director of Women’s Studies at Wyoming University, with a focus on women and work (Anon., 2010 ), while Bagilhole was interested in sexism in the construction and engineering industries, as well as forming the international Women in Higher Education Management Network (Gould, 2015 ). Bagihole’s broader work on several EU research projects emphasised sex discrimination in construction and civil engineering, including male-dominated networking, excessive working hours and sexist language. Her research showed how these factors affected women’s work experience. She initiated a programme of organisational change that shaped both construction bodies’ and the European Commission’s policy on changing women’s experience of the construction industry (Valentina, 2015 ).

Bagilhole’s analysis in this paper focuses on how the women she interviewed coped with discriminatory practices and beliefs emanating from both students and from male staff. The women academics she interviewed lacked support systems, had little access to mentors or role models, faced hostility from male colleagues as well as students and were sometimes left out of communication networks. Bagilhole cites a quantitative paper on the position of women academics in US and UK universities (Blackstone & Fulton, 1975 ) which showed that female academics were not rewarded for their academic endeavours in the same way as their male peers. She notes that statistical surveys draw attention to the problem but do not make visible how sexism actually operates. Indeed, she suggests that some male writers of quantitative studies ignore the impact of such behaviour and blame women for any problems female academics encounter, as was the case in a big survey of British academics (Halsey, 1992 ).

Bagilhole’s interviews involved women academics in different departments and the majority were in lecturer level posts. Bagilhole found that her sample were almost always in a minority in their departments, which meant they were sometimes invisible (e.g. in promotion) and at other times too visible, such as in classrooms dominated by male students. Women students were generally regarded by respondents as easier to deal with, but some women academics did not want to focus too much on female students for fear of criticism from male peers. Women respondents often found it difficult to permeate academic networks and some had resigned from jobs due to unsupportive male colleagues who derided women’s achievements and excluded female academics from department social events. Other women did not feel they belonged in academia and some shied away from contact with other female academics, fearing it weakened their position still further. Only 15 (out of 43) interviewees were unreservedly in favour of women’s studies (mostly those in social sciences or arts/humanities) and just 3 actually taught women’s studies courses. 18 women had reservations about women’s studies and 10 were totally opposed to them. Bagilhole compared her findings with a five-country study of women academics (Sutherland, 1985 ), which showed very similar responses and patterns. Bagilhole ends her article by saying that the processes of sex discrimination illustrated by her study needs to be highlighted to universities so they can take action to provide much greater equality. This awareness of the importance of change being orchestrated by institutions rather than women themselves (as was stressed in Jensen’s work) connects with Bagihole’s other experiences of working to change sexist practices towards women in construction and civil engineering. Bagilhole powerfully sums up the challenges that the women academics working in a male-dominated university face and the impact of this on their professional careers:

It is suggested … that women academics' experiences of being in a minority with the accompanying lack of support systems, and their difficulties of integrating into a male working environment can be seen to influence their perception of themselves as real academics and to affect their professional careers. They feel that they do not belong and are not true academics. Nearly two-thirds of the women (28) felt that there was a problem with the concept of a woman academic. Many of them felt that this was a bad thing for the profession and denied female qualities and potential. This reflects in part their struggle to keep their home life and professional life separate. ( Bagilhole, 1993 , p. 441)

Exemplar paper 3: Belluigi & Thondhlana ( 2019 ) ‘Why mouth all the pieties?’ Black and women academics’ revelations about discourses of ‘transformation’ at an historically white South African university.

This paper focuses on how different forms of inequality in higher education link with discourses about and practices related to post-apartheid efforts directed at the transformation of South African universities. The authors engaged with black female and male academics who had attended special development programmes for black academics at a Historically White Institution, in a context where institutional power relations and organisational cultures still retain many colonial elements (Belluigi & Thondhlana, 2019 ). Recent student protests in South Africa had drawn attention to the persistence of institutional practices that were deemed to be colonial in origin (Jansen, 2019 ; Pennington et al., 2017 ), as did the emergence of new theories such as Critical Race Theory and Black Feminist Thought. The authors used a survey and interviews to explore the misalignment between espoused discourses of the university concerned and institutional practices aimed at keeping dominant groups in positions of power. One author had been a programme recipient and the other worked in educational development and both admit struggling with their own positionality in relation to the research. Positionality was not mentioned by either Bagilhole or Jensen’s articles.

This article focuses on the intersectionality of ‘race’ and gender at a critical time in South Africa’s universities’ post-apartheid development. Particular emphasis is placed on the extent to which long established patterns of power and dominance in South African universities have persisted for many years. This includes the continuation of the stark differences between historically white and historically black universities. During the early 2000s, new ‘development’ programmes for black academics (e.g. leadership training or ‘capacity enhancement’), often funded by Global North philanthropic organisations, were offered at several universities. These programmes often happened before issues of programme recipients’ job security were decided, while also trying to reinforce staff adaptation to existing institutional norms and values.

A total of 27 programme recipients participated in a questionnaire and follow-up small group discussions and the paper particularly draws on answers to the transformation questions in the questionnaire. There was evidence of respondents’ fatigue in relation to institutional research on transformation, which was regarded as a way of powerful groups evading tackling actual institutional change. Participants’ reactions to transformation discourses included reference to recurring concepts, such as reparation, evolution and compliance. While concepts like psychological change resonated with most participants, other concepts evoked concern about the gap between discourse and practice. Other criticisms included that transformation discourses were often window-dressing, with little actual change occurring. Black academics were seen not as scholars, but rather as people who need to be sent on special courses, while racism, sexism and patriarchy continued apace. On occasions, evidence of these phenomena occurring was ignored or glossed over. The authors’ evidence suggests that both institutions and the entire HE system in South Africa need to be held responsible for the failure of transformative change. They convey in this quote some of the frustrations of female and male black academics noted during the research:

As the participants of our study are those bestowed with hope, aspiration and a degree of individual agency to influence higher education in the future, their experiences have considerable importance for realising equality in the South African academy. The retention of black academics is a recognised problem in the sector. Common across participants’ narratives was the disheartening impact of the misalignment of discourses with practices, on their initial commitment to equality. Becoming conscious of the ugly realities of the institution resulted in disillusionment in an institutional culture which did not “accept the necessity of reparations or restructurings, so why mouth all the pieties? Initially, it feels as though it's a start, and one feels bad about complaining when others seem to be trying. But after many months of it, you realize that it's really the whole deal, and there's nothing more. That's a disturbing realization”. The vast majority of the participants articulated feeling their agency frustrated by institutional, cultural and individual resistance to substantive transformation. This was particularly the case with those who self-identified with an obligation to effect transformation, who had become increasingly exasperated by how their agency was most often thwarted, rather than supported or extended, by larger institutional approaches. Being at the ‘rockface’ between the politics of representation and the politics of belonging was for many untenable and unsustainable. (Belluigi & Thondhlana, 2019 , p. 959)

Discussion and conclusion

Our analysis has surveyed articles published on inequality in higher education over the lifespan to date of this journal. This has offered insights into the changing methods, theories and forms of empirical research used in inequality studies conducted at what we categorised as macro, meso and micro levels. Here, it must be noted that these levels of analysis tend to nest within each other. Work tackling macro national level questions often needs to draw on meso institutional and micro individual data in order to deliver grounded insights around the impacts of policy. Likewise, we found that the meso institutional focus was almost always located within a national context and drew often on interview and survey data with individuals in the institution. And our final category focusing at a micro level on women academic’s experiences typically also had important findings in relation to institutional and national policy on women’s academic careers.

Our analysis looked at changing trends in the methods used in our selected research studies. From the macro perspective, our study identified a significant evolution in how quantitative studies were conducted, moving from descriptive studies with absolute numbers and proportions, through to more fine-grained studies looking at access patterns to different institutional types. Recent studies draw on regression techniques to determine the odds of different social groups attending particular institutions based on their socio-economic background. All these studies are of course, dependent on what national data are collected, which makes comparison across countries difficult. At the meso level, the focus has been concentrated on studies that describe and analyse organisational characteristics, policies, and practices about equality for women, ethnic minorities, students with disabilities or learning difficulties, or other disadvantaged groups. Here the methodological focus tends more towards a mix of quantitative institutional data and conceptual overview of policies, coupled with qualitative analysis of faculty and student experiences. At the micro level, research has tended to focus on interviews or focus groups and has aimed at surfacing participants’ voices. It is only in recent work at this level that we see explicit statements of author positionality, although earlier authors were keen to emphasise their commitment to feminism and to trying to eliminate discrimination against women academics.

Conceptually, there is an eclectic spread of concepts from social science that researchers have drawn on to conceptualise inequality in higher education. Across the widening participation field as a whole, there has been an emergence and evolution of terminology, concepts and theories that speak to these empirical findings, for example the evolving terminology to refer to the social groupings as a focus for access, including the emergence of terms such as ‘non-traditional student’ and ‘first generation student’ and the conceptual deliberations in relation to these. Overall, we find that the early papers focus more on women and on people’s socioeconomic background (although Cavalier & Slaughter’s, 1982 paper also talks of ‘protected classes’) and foci on race and ethnicity, LGBTQ + identifying students and academics, or international students and academics, only emerge later. Similarly, the conceptual foci gradually broaden from affirmative action and equality (of opportunity) to equity, diversity, and inclusion. Some of the debates, for example, about diversity, originated in the USA but have not always been interpreted in the same ways in other contexts. Key concepts can also change their meaning over time. Thus, for example, inclusivity, for several decades, was largely the preserve of studies about supporting those with a disability or learning difficulties but more recently inclusivity has widened out to include other disadvantaged or discriminated against social and cultural groups, with an emphasis on universal design approaches to higher education (Leišytė et al., 2021 ). Diversity is another interesting example of a key concept, which has been defined somewhat differently in the context of a European discussion, compared with a US one, where it was initially applied to businesses rather than educational organisations. Critical theory, while not new in itself, has grown in its prominence in use in higher education studies, particularly in relation to race, black feminist thought and queer theory. Intersectionality, using a perspective taking into account the experience and effects of different but overlapping forms of discrimination and disadvantage, has also become more commonplace.

In terms of the researchers themselves, in the widening participation work, we found a wide spread of people working in this area, including social scientists from different disciplines such as education or sociology, sometimes working in conjunction with economists or using their techniques. The more recent qualitative studies on this topic tended to be institutionally focused and either unfunded or supported by local funding sources. Overall, we noted the ongoing broadening geographical spread of the papers, as well as authors and the rising numbers of papers in general. The close-up analysis of papers on women’s lived experiences shows a strong evolution towards more activist stances. The overall message of the paper by Belluigi and Thondhlana is that the development programmes aimed at transformation of South African universities, both historically white and historically black, as well as the discourses and alignments of practice with policies, have failed both female and male black academics. This is a much harsher message about the failure to overcome significant inequalities amongst black male and female staff than the messages about change emanating from the nevertheless important work by Jensen and Bagilhole. Even here there is differentiation. Whereas Jensen’s 1980s paper attributes responsibility for change largely to women academics themselves, Bagilhole’s 1990s paper links women academics’ discrimination to the failures of universities as equitable organisations.

Higher education across the globe has changed dramatically over the five decades in which researchers have been publishing in this journal. Expansion and growth have been the dominant trends, and with this participation by a larger proportion of the youth cohort in all higher education contexts. With growth in the numbers of academics there has been a similar, although less marked, shift in the demographic makeup of those who teach and research. Throughout this period there has been an anticipation that these changes will be instrumental in advancing equity in society. Many researchers in Higher Education have kept this anticipation central to their work but have not shied away from looking at the empirical evidence to see whether this was matched by what really transpired. In our analysis, we looked closely at changing approaches to how this research was conducted, both in terms of theoretical underpinnings and empirical methods. There seems no doubt that these research questions are far from exhausted, and the next five decades should see further evolution in the field.

Looking forward it seems clear that research on inequality in higher education will continue to grow in prominence in the field, with much scope for ongoing inclusion of social, cultural and ethnic groups under focus. Our analysis has shown how gender (focused initially on women’s participation and experiences) and social class have been strong foci since the 1970s, while race, and gender, conceptualised more broadly to include LGBTQi dimensions, are now significant foci, reflecting political trends especially in the Global North, while an emphasis on cross-national inequities is now more prominent with increased voices from the Global South. It is hoped that this journal will continue to aim to stay at the vanguard of this important work.

We contemplated using a systematic literature review, which has become increasingly popular in the social sciences (Bambra, 2009) and lends itself to technically sophisticated (often quantitative) analyses of selected articles over a period of time. We carried out a series of pilot systematic reviews; searching for certain keywords in particular contexts, such as ‘non-traditional’ as a descriptor for students, used in title and/or abstracts of the articles published in Higher Education. We concluded that such reviews would be too compromised by the intrinsic assumptions of what can be said using papers from one journal and that the superficiality of an analysis resting on keywords would add little to the literature.

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Deem, R., Case, J.M. & Nokkala, T. Researching inequality in higher education: tracing changing conceptions and approaches over fifty years. High Educ 84 , 1245–1265 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00922-9

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32 Questions to Ask on a College Visit

Students should feel free to ask questions during an information session or on tour.

Questions to Ask on a College Visit

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Prospective students should conduct at least basic research to facilitate questions to ask during the information session or on tour, experts say.

Key Takeaways

• Before a campus visit, students should do basic research on the school.
• Students and their families have various opportunities to ask questions.
• No question is dumb.

College visits, whether in person or virtual, can help give prospective students a better feel of campus life.

Contrary to popular belief, however, students don’t need to have that “a-ha” moment when they eventually find the campus where they belong, says Thyra Briggs, vice president for admission and financial aid at Harvey Mudd College in California.

“I just don't think that happens for most students,” she says. “I don't want students to walk away from a visit where that didn't happen thinking, ‘Oh, this is not the place for me.’ This is a long-term relationship. It's not necessarily love at first sight. … In this age of instant gratification, I think it's an important thing to give a school a chance to affect you in a different way.”

For an in-person visit, families should prepare ahead of time by checking the weather and dressing comfortably as tours are mostly held outside.

"Leave plenty of time at an individual campus and allow yourself to enjoy the experience, be present in the moment and (don't) feel rushed because that could also skew your perception of things," says Bryan Gross, vice president for enrollment management at Hartwick College in New York.

It’s also important, experts say, to conduct at least basic research on the institution – even if it’s just looking at their social media accounts – to help facilitate questions to ask during the information session or on tour.

"We know that for some of you, this may be the first time you are going through this," Briggs says. "For others, it's a different student (going through the process) than the student you had who's older. So there’s no bad questions. ... I would hope that any college would welcome any question a student would ask.”

Here are 32 example questions, collected from college admissions and enrollment professions, that students don't always think to ask on college visits. These questions – edited for length or clarity – were provided by Briggs, Gross and Brian Lindeman, assistant vice president of admissions and financial aid at Macalester College  in Minnesota.

Questions About Admissions

• Does this school consider demonstrated interest?
• Is there an opportunity for prospective students to sit in on a class to experience a real lecture?
• Are there options to receive a lunch or dinner pass at the dining hall to try the food?

Questions About Academics

• Where do students typically study?
• How does advising work?
• What are the academic strengths of this school?
• What opportunities are there for study abroad and exchange programs?
• If available, are these global programs directly run by this school – where faculty members travel with students – or are these study abroad programs outsourced to a third-party company?
• Are these study abroad experiences built into the tuition or are there additional fees to participate?

Questions About Financial Aid

• What is this school's average financial aid package?
• What is the average net cost when students enroll?
• What is the current level of funding with endowed scholarships – how much are donors contributing to scholarships?
• Do you offer merit aid ? If so, what are you looking for in a candidate?

Questions About Campus Housing and Community

• What are the housing options?
• What are the fee structures for these different options?
• Are students required to live on campus ?
• How does your campus define diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging?

Questions to Ask Your Tour Guide to Gauge Campus Life

• What surprised you about this school? What's something you didn't expect?
• What keeps you coming back to this school each year?
• Have we seen your favorite place on campus?
• What event on campus gets the biggest turnout every year?
• If you were struggling with an issue, would you know who to turn to? Who would that be?

Questions About Work and Research Opportunities

• What are the opportunities for undergraduate research on campus?
• How do those research opportunities give students valuable hands-on experiences that enhance their resumes?
• What are some specific ways this school helps students gain hands-on experience through internships ?

Questions About Student and Career Outcomes

• What is the retention rate from freshman to sophomore year?
• What is the five-year graduation rate?
• What is the job-attainment rate of graduates within six months of graduating?
• What percent of students are going on to graduate school ?
• What percent of students are intentionally taking time off post-graduation compared to those who are not able to find jobs?
• What size is the alumni network?
• How are alumni actively engaging with recent graduates to help connect them specifically to opportunities in their fields?

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Office of the Vice President for Research

Traveling abroad for presentations or research this summer.

The University of Iowa is committed to engaging in research with collaborators from around the globe, working together to foster scholarship, develop new projects and research, and serve the public.   

“At the same time, it is important to safeguard intellectual property and institutional data, and to be aware of sponsor requirements and federal regulations,” said Mike Andrews, director of research integrity and security. “There are several institutional and federal regulations that researchers may not be aware of that are important to consider prior to leaving on a research trip abroad."  

Researchers at the University of Iowa have access to a wide range of resources available to support international collaboration. From travel insurance and laptop rentals, to assistance understanding federal sponsor requirements and export control regulations, UI staff are available to help prior to the initiation of a trip or collaboration.   

The Division of Sponsored Programs hosts an extensive website with resources and applicable policy information.   

 1. Review policies on travel and travel insurance   

Institutional policies  

In order for the institution to be informed of, and support researchers and scholars who are traveling internationally for research and scholarship, travelers must request pre-approval prior to university-sponsored travel. The pre-approval process in ProTrav, which routes to a traveler’s supervisor, ensures that the travel is approved and meets institutional requirements.   

The university provides travel insurance for university-sponsored travel to international locations only if the ProTrav trip request is approved in advance of the departure date. Read more about the UI travel policy.  

Sponsor policies  

In addition to requesting institutional approval, researchers must also request pre-approval from a sponsor if the travel is associated with a sponsored project.  Obtaining institutional approval via ProTrav does not constitute sponsor approval.  Since specific foreign travel approval requirements vary by sponsor, travelers should contact the Division of Sponsored Programs with questions about requesting prior approval.  

2. Disclose working with a foreign entity   

The U.S. government is engaged in a multifaceted effort to raise awareness of the potential for foreign influence on research, intellectual property, and associated technology implementation. To ensure that external activities are conducted in a manner consistent with institutional and public values, policies have been established to ensure that university employees avoid improper conflicts, and otherwise disclose activities for review and management.  

Institutional policies   

The university requires all researchers to disclose activities with foreign governments and institutions of higher education, such as presenting, teaching or conducting research external to university research activities. These disclosures should also include any form of payments, stipends, personal reimbursed travel, honoraria, and remunerations.  

The Conflict of Interest in Research Office can assist with any questions you have about what must be disclosed for research disclosure purposes. Although not exhaustive, a sample list of activities and external interests to disclose is posted on its website.   

Disclosing external research collaborations is also subject to conflict of commitment policies . Contact the Office of the Provost for more information on conflict of commitment disclosures.   

Activities under all conflict of interest and commitment policies must be disclosed to the institution through the eCOI platform .   

In addition, most federal sponsors require disclosure of other support or related activities with foreign governments and other organizations. For additional information about the information that must be disclosed to federal funding agencies, please review the Division of Sponsored Programs’ website or contact the Division of Sponsored Programs with questions.   

3. Protect university devices and data  

ITS hosts a webpage of best practices and things to consider prior to leaving campus on university-related business with personal or university owned equipment, with detailed checklists of considerations for both hardware and software. An important rule of thumb is to not travel with any devices or data you cannot replace or would not want to lose.  

ITS also offers a laptop rental program for various purposes including travel. Authorized departmental purchasing requestors can reserve equipment online for pickup at the ITS offices in 2800 University Capitol Centre during normal business hours (Monday-Friday, 8-5 p.m.). Details about the process are available on the ITS’s laptop rental webpage .   

4. Consider export controls    

Export control regulations may apply to several aspects of international travel. Questions to consider prior to travel are:  

Destination: Are you traveling to a sanctioned country?  

People, institutions, and businesses you will interact with: Are they listed on a U.S. Government restricted list? The regulations prohibit engaging in transactions or providing services to entities and individuals who appear on U.S. Government restricted lists.  

Items you are carrying, both as part of your luggage or to share with a collaborator: Is it restricted for your destination or is a license required?  

Information/Technical Data on your devices: Is it export controlled?   

If you work with export-controlled items and/or technology, and/or have questions related to new travel, please contact an export control coordinator .  

General questions about research security may be directed to the Mike Andrews , director of research integrity and security in the Office of the Vice President for Research.