case study with one participant

The Advantages and Limitations of Single Case Study Analysis

As Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman have recently noted, qualitative research methods presently enjoy “an almost unprecedented popularity and vitality… in the international relations sub-field”, such that they are now “indisputably prominent, if not pre-eminent” (2010: 499). This is, they suggest, due in no small part to the considerable advantages that case study methods in particular have to offer in studying the “complex and relatively unstructured and infrequent phenomena that lie at the heart of the subfield” (Bennett and Elman, 2007: 171). Using selected examples from within the International Relations literature[1], this paper aims to provide a brief overview of the main principles and distinctive advantages and limitations of single case study analysis. Divided into three inter-related sections, the paper therefore begins by first identifying the underlying principles that serve to constitute the case study as a particular research strategy, noting the somewhat contested nature of the approach in ontological, epistemological, and methodological terms. The second part then looks to the principal single case study types and their associated advantages, including those from within the recent ‘third generation’ of qualitative International Relations (IR) research. The final section of the paper then discusses the most commonly articulated limitations of single case studies; while accepting their susceptibility to criticism, it is however suggested that such weaknesses are somewhat exaggerated. The paper concludes that single case study analysis has a great deal to offer as a means of both understanding and explaining contemporary international relations.

The term ‘case study’, John Gerring has suggested, is “a definitional morass… Evidently, researchers have many different things in mind when they talk about case study research” (2006a: 17). It is possible, however, to distil some of the more commonly-agreed principles. One of the most prominent advocates of case study research, Robert Yin (2009: 14) defines it as “an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”. What this definition usefully captures is that case studies are intended – unlike more superficial and generalising methods – to provide a level of detail and understanding, similar to the ethnographer Clifford Geertz’s (1973) notion of ‘thick description’, that allows for the thorough analysis of the complex and particularistic nature of distinct phenomena. Another frequently cited proponent of the approach, Robert Stake, notes that as a form of research the case study “is defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of inquiry used”, and that “the object of study is a specific, unique, bounded system” (2008: 443, 445). As such, three key points can be derived from this – respectively concerning issues of ontology, epistemology, and methodology – that are central to the principles of single case study research.

First, the vital notion of ‘boundedness’ when it comes to the particular unit of analysis means that defining principles should incorporate both the synchronic (spatial) and diachronic (temporal) elements of any so-called ‘case’. As Gerring puts it, a case study should be “an intensive study of a single unit… a spatially bounded phenomenon – e.g. a nation-state, revolution, political party, election, or person – observed at a single point in time or over some delimited period of time” (2004: 342). It is important to note, however, that – whereas Gerring refers to a single unit of analysis – it may be that attention also necessarily be given to particular sub-units. This points to the important difference between what Yin refers to as an ‘holistic’ case design, with a single unit of analysis, and an ’embedded’ case design with multiple units of analysis (Yin, 2009: 50-52). The former, for example, would examine only the overall nature of an international organization, whereas the latter would also look to specific departments, programmes, or policies etc.

Secondly, as Tim May notes of the case study approach, “even the most fervent advocates acknowledge that the term has entered into understandings with little specification or discussion of purpose and process” (2011: 220). One of the principal reasons for this, he argues, is the relationship between the use of case studies in social research and the differing epistemological traditions – positivist, interpretivist, and others – within which it has been utilised. Philosophy of science concerns are obviously a complex issue, and beyond the scope of much of this paper. That said, the issue of how it is that we know what we know – of whether or not a single independent reality exists of which we as researchers can seek to provide explanation – does lead us to an important distinction to be made between so-called idiographic and nomothetic case studies (Gerring, 2006b). The former refers to those which purport to explain only a single case, are concerned with particularisation, and hence are typically (although not exclusively) associated with more interpretivist approaches. The latter are those focused studies that reflect upon a larger population and are more concerned with generalisation, as is often so with more positivist approaches[2]. The importance of this distinction, and its relation to the advantages and limitations of single case study analysis, is returned to below.

Thirdly, in methodological terms, given that the case study has often been seen as more of an interpretivist and idiographic tool, it has also been associated with a distinctly qualitative approach (Bryman, 2009: 67-68). However, as Yin notes, case studies can – like all forms of social science research – be exploratory, descriptive, and/or explanatory in nature. It is “a common misconception”, he notes, “that the various research methods should be arrayed hierarchically… many social scientists still deeply believe that case studies are only appropriate for the exploratory phase of an investigation” (Yin, 2009: 6). If case studies can reliably perform any or all three of these roles – and given that their in-depth approach may also require multiple sources of data and the within-case triangulation of methods – then it becomes readily apparent that they should not be limited to only one research paradigm. Exploratory and descriptive studies usually tend toward the qualitative and inductive, whereas explanatory studies are more often quantitative and deductive (David and Sutton, 2011: 165-166). As such, the association of case study analysis with a qualitative approach is a “methodological affinity, not a definitional requirement” (Gerring, 2006a: 36). It is perhaps better to think of case studies as transparadigmatic; it is mistaken to assume single case study analysis to adhere exclusively to a qualitative methodology (or an interpretivist epistemology) even if it – or rather, practitioners of it – may be so inclined. By extension, this also implies that single case study analysis therefore remains an option for a multitude of IR theories and issue areas; it is how this can be put to researchers’ advantage that is the subject of the next section.

Having elucidated the defining principles of the single case study approach, the paper now turns to an overview of its main benefits. As noted above, a lack of consensus still exists within the wider social science literature on the principles and purposes – and by extension the advantages and limitations – of case study research. Given that this paper is directed towards the particular sub-field of International Relations, it suggests Bennett and Elman’s (2010) more discipline-specific understanding of contemporary case study methods as an analytical framework. It begins however, by discussing Harry Eckstein’s seminal (1975) contribution to the potential advantages of the case study approach within the wider social sciences.

Eckstein proposed a taxonomy which usefully identified what he considered to be the five most relevant types of case study. Firstly were so-called configurative-idiographic studies, distinctly interpretivist in orientation and predicated on the assumption that “one cannot attain prediction and control in the natural science sense, but only understanding ( verstehen )… subjective values and modes of cognition are crucial” (1975: 132). Eckstein’s own sceptical view was that any interpreter ‘simply’ considers a body of observations that are not self-explanatory and “without hard rules of interpretation, may discern in them any number of patterns that are more or less equally plausible” (1975: 134). Those of a more post-modernist bent, of course – sharing an “incredulity towards meta-narratives”, in Lyotard’s (1994: xxiv) evocative phrase – would instead suggest that this more free-form approach actually be advantageous in delving into the subtleties and particularities of individual cases.

Eckstein’s four other types of case study, meanwhile, promote a more nomothetic (and positivist) usage. As described, disciplined-configurative studies were essentially about the use of pre-existing general theories, with a case acting “passively, in the main, as a receptacle for putting theories to work” (Eckstein, 1975: 136). As opposed to the opportunity this presented primarily for theory application, Eckstein identified heuristic case studies as explicit theoretical stimulants – thus having instead the intended advantage of theory-building. So-called p lausibility probes entailed preliminary attempts to determine whether initial hypotheses should be considered sound enough to warrant more rigorous and extensive testing. Finally, and perhaps most notably, Eckstein then outlined the idea of crucial case studies , within which he also included the idea of ‘most-likely’ and ‘least-likely’ cases; the essential characteristic of crucial cases being their specific theory-testing function.

Whilst Eckstein’s was an early contribution to refining the case study approach, Yin’s (2009: 47-52) more recent delineation of possible single case designs similarly assigns them roles in the applying, testing, or building of theory, as well as in the study of unique cases[3]. As a subset of the latter, however, Jack Levy (2008) notes that the advantages of idiographic cases are actually twofold. Firstly, as inductive/descriptive cases – akin to Eckstein’s configurative-idiographic cases – whereby they are highly descriptive, lacking in an explicit theoretical framework and therefore taking the form of “total history”. Secondly, they can operate as theory-guided case studies, but ones that seek only to explain or interpret a single historical episode rather than generalise beyond the case. Not only does this therefore incorporate ‘single-outcome’ studies concerned with establishing causal inference (Gerring, 2006b), it also provides room for the more postmodern approaches within IR theory, such as discourse analysis, that may have developed a distinct methodology but do not seek traditional social scientific forms of explanation.

Applying specifically to the state of the field in contemporary IR, Bennett and Elman identify a ‘third generation’ of mainstream qualitative scholars – rooted in a pragmatic scientific realist epistemology and advocating a pluralistic approach to methodology – that have, over the last fifteen years, “revised or added to essentially every aspect of traditional case study research methods” (2010: 502). They identify ‘process tracing’ as having emerged from this as a central method of within-case analysis. As Bennett and Checkel observe, this carries the advantage of offering a methodologically rigorous “analysis of evidence on processes, sequences, and conjunctures of events within a case, for the purposes of either developing or testing hypotheses about causal mechanisms that might causally explain the case” (2012: 10).

Harnessing various methods, process tracing may entail the inductive use of evidence from within a case to develop explanatory hypotheses, and deductive examination of the observable implications of hypothesised causal mechanisms to test their explanatory capability[4]. It involves providing not only a coherent explanation of the key sequential steps in a hypothesised process, but also sensitivity to alternative explanations as well as potential biases in the available evidence (Bennett and Elman 2010: 503-504). John Owen (1994), for example, demonstrates the advantages of process tracing in analysing whether the causal factors underpinning democratic peace theory are – as liberalism suggests – not epiphenomenal, but variously normative, institutional, or some given combination of the two or other unexplained mechanism inherent to liberal states. Within-case process tracing has also been identified as advantageous in addressing the complexity of path-dependent explanations and critical junctures – as for example with the development of political regime types – and their constituent elements of causal possibility, contingency, closure, and constraint (Bennett and Elman, 2006b).

Bennett and Elman (2010: 505-506) also identify the advantages of single case studies that are implicitly comparative: deviant, most-likely, least-likely, and crucial cases. Of these, so-called deviant cases are those whose outcome does not fit with prior theoretical expectations or wider empirical patterns – again, the use of inductive process tracing has the advantage of potentially generating new hypotheses from these, either particular to that individual case or potentially generalisable to a broader population. A classic example here is that of post-independence India as an outlier to the standard modernisation theory of democratisation, which holds that higher levels of socio-economic development are typically required for the transition to, and consolidation of, democratic rule (Lipset, 1959; Diamond, 1992). Absent these factors, MacMillan’s single case study analysis (2008) suggests the particularistic importance of the British colonial heritage, the ideology and leadership of the Indian National Congress, and the size and heterogeneity of the federal state.

Most-likely cases, as per Eckstein above, are those in which a theory is to be considered likely to provide a good explanation if it is to have any application at all, whereas least-likely cases are ‘tough test’ ones in which the posited theory is unlikely to provide good explanation (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 505). Levy (2008) neatly refers to the inferential logic of the least-likely case as the ‘Sinatra inference’ – if a theory can make it here, it can make it anywhere. Conversely, if a theory cannot pass a most-likely case, it is seriously impugned. Single case analysis can therefore be valuable for the testing of theoretical propositions, provided that predictions are relatively precise and measurement error is low (Levy, 2008: 12-13). As Gerring rightly observes of this potential for falsification:

“a positivist orientation toward the work of social science militates toward a greater appreciation of the case study format, not a denigration of that format, as is usually supposed” (Gerring, 2007: 247, emphasis added).

In summary, the various forms of single case study analysis can – through the application of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative research methods – provide a nuanced, empirically-rich, holistic account of specific phenomena. This may be particularly appropriate for those phenomena that are simply less amenable to more superficial measures and tests (or indeed any substantive form of quantification) as well as those for which our reasons for understanding and/or explaining them are irreducibly subjective – as, for example, with many of the normative and ethical issues associated with the practice of international relations. From various epistemological and analytical standpoints, single case study analysis can incorporate both idiographic sui generis cases and, where the potential for generalisation may exist, nomothetic case studies suitable for the testing and building of causal hypotheses. Finally, it should not be ignored that a signal advantage of the case study – with particular relevance to international relations – also exists at a more practical rather than theoretical level. This is, as Eckstein noted, “that it is economical for all resources: money, manpower, time, effort… especially important, of course, if studies are inherently costly, as they are if units are complex collective individuals ” (1975: 149-150, emphasis added).

Limitations

Single case study analysis has, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, the most common of which concern the inter-related issues of methodological rigour, researcher subjectivity, and external validity. With regard to the first point, the prototypical view here is that of Zeev Maoz (2002: 164-165), who suggests that “the use of the case study absolves the author from any kind of methodological considerations. Case studies have become in many cases a synonym for freeform research where anything goes”. The absence of systematic procedures for case study research is something that Yin (2009: 14-15) sees as traditionally the greatest concern due to a relative absence of methodological guidelines. As the previous section suggests, this critique seems somewhat unfair; many contemporary case study practitioners – and representing various strands of IR theory – have increasingly sought to clarify and develop their methodological techniques and epistemological grounding (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 499-500).

A second issue, again also incorporating issues of construct validity, concerns that of the reliability and replicability of various forms of single case study analysis. This is usually tied to a broader critique of qualitative research methods as a whole. However, whereas the latter obviously tend toward an explicitly-acknowledged interpretive basis for meanings, reasons, and understandings:

“quantitative measures appear objective, but only so long as we don’t ask questions about where and how the data were produced… pure objectivity is not a meaningful concept if the goal is to measure intangibles [as] these concepts only exist because we can interpret them” (Berg and Lune, 2010: 340).

The question of researcher subjectivity is a valid one, and it may be intended only as a methodological critique of what are obviously less formalised and researcher-independent methods (Verschuren, 2003). Owen (1994) and Layne’s (1994) contradictory process tracing results of interdemocratic war-avoidance during the Anglo-American crisis of 1861 to 1863 – from liberal and realist standpoints respectively – are a useful example. However, it does also rest on certain assumptions that can raise deeper and potentially irreconcilable ontological and epistemological issues. There are, regardless, plenty such as Bent Flyvbjerg (2006: 237) who suggest that the case study contains no greater bias toward verification than other methods of inquiry, and that “on the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification”.

The third and arguably most prominent critique of single case study analysis is the issue of external validity or generalisability. How is it that one case can reliably offer anything beyond the particular? “We always do better (or, in the extreme, no worse) with more observation as the basis of our generalization”, as King et al write; “in all social science research and all prediction, it is important that we be as explicit as possible about the degree of uncertainty that accompanies out prediction” (1994: 212). This is an unavoidably valid criticism. It may be that theories which pass a single crucial case study test, for example, require rare antecedent conditions and therefore actually have little explanatory range. These conditions may emerge more clearly, as Van Evera (1997: 51-54) notes, from large-N studies in which cases that lack them present themselves as outliers exhibiting a theory’s cause but without its predicted outcome. As with the case of Indian democratisation above, it would logically be preferable to conduct large-N analysis beforehand to identify that state’s non-representative nature in relation to the broader population.

There are, however, three important qualifiers to the argument about generalisation that deserve particular mention here. The first is that with regard to an idiographic single-outcome case study, as Eckstein notes, the criticism is “mitigated by the fact that its capability to do so [is] never claimed by its exponents; in fact it is often explicitly repudiated” (1975: 134). Criticism of generalisability is of little relevance when the intention is one of particularisation. A second qualifier relates to the difference between statistical and analytical generalisation; single case studies are clearly less appropriate for the former but arguably retain significant utility for the latter – the difference also between explanatory and exploratory, or theory-testing and theory-building, as discussed above. As Gerring puts it, “theory confirmation/disconfirmation is not the case study’s strong suit” (2004: 350). A third qualification relates to the issue of case selection. As Seawright and Gerring (2008) note, the generalisability of case studies can be increased by the strategic selection of cases. Representative or random samples may not be the most appropriate, given that they may not provide the richest insight (or indeed, that a random and unknown deviant case may appear). Instead, and properly used , atypical or extreme cases “often reveal more information because they activate more actors… and more basic mechanisms in the situation studied” (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Of course, this also points to the very serious limitation, as hinted at with the case of India above, that poor case selection may alternatively lead to overgeneralisation and/or grievous misunderstandings of the relationship between variables or processes (Bennett and Elman, 2006a: 460-463).

As Tim May (2011: 226) notes, “the goal for many proponents of case studies […] is to overcome dichotomies between generalizing and particularizing, quantitative and qualitative, deductive and inductive techniques”. Research aims should drive methodological choices, rather than narrow and dogmatic preconceived approaches. As demonstrated above, there are various advantages to both idiographic and nomothetic single case study analyses – notably the empirically-rich, context-specific, holistic accounts that they have to offer, and their contribution to theory-building and, to a lesser extent, that of theory-testing. Furthermore, while they do possess clear limitations, any research method involves necessary trade-offs; the inherent weaknesses of any one method, however, can potentially be offset by situating them within a broader, pluralistic mixed-method research strategy. Whether or not single case studies are used in this fashion, they clearly have a great deal to offer.

References 

Bennett, A. and Checkel, J. T. (2012) ‘Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practice’, Simons Papers in Security and Development, No. 21/2012, School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University: Vancouver.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006a) ‘Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods’, Annual Review of Political Science , 9, 455-476.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006b) ‘Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence’, Political Analysis , 14, 3, 250-267.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2007) ‘Case Study Methods in the International Relations Subfield’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 2, 170-195.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2010) Case Study Methods. In C. Reus-Smit and D. Snidal (eds) The Oxford Handbook of International Relations . Oxford University Press: Oxford. Ch. 29.

Berg, B. and Lune, H. (2012) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences . Pearson: London.

Bryman, A. (2012) Social Research Methods . Oxford University Press: Oxford.

David, M. and Sutton, C. D. (2011) Social Research: An Introduction . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Diamond, J. (1992) ‘Economic development and democracy reconsidered’, American Behavioral Scientist , 35, 4/5, 450-499.

Eckstein, H. (1975) Case Study and Theory in Political Science. In R. Gomm, M. Hammersley, and P. Foster (eds) Case Study Method . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006) ‘Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research’, Qualitative Inquiry , 12, 2, 219-245.

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz . Basic Books Inc: New York.

Gerring, J. (2004) ‘What is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?’, American Political Science Review , 98, 2, 341-354.

Gerring, J. (2006a) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Gerring, J. (2006b) ‘Single-Outcome Studies: A Methodological Primer’, International Sociology , 21, 5, 707-734.

Gerring, J. (2007) ‘Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 3, 231-253.

King, G., Keohane, R. O. and Verba, S. (1994) Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research . Princeton University Press: Chichester.

Layne, C. (1994) ‘Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 5-49.

Levy, J. S. (2008) ‘Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference’, Conflict Management and Peace Science , 25, 1-18.

Lipset, S. M. (1959) ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy’, The American Political Science Review , 53, 1, 69-105.

Lyotard, J-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge . University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis.

MacMillan, A. (2008) ‘Deviant Democratization in India’, Democratization , 15, 4, 733-749.

Maoz, Z. (2002) Case study methodology in international studies: from storytelling to hypothesis testing. In F. P. Harvey and M. Brecher (eds) Evaluating Methodology in International Studies . University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.

May, T. (2011) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process . Open University Press: Maidenhead.

Owen, J. M. (1994) ‘How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 87-125.

Seawright, J. and Gerring, J. (2008) ‘Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options’, Political Research Quarterly , 61, 2, 294-308.

Stake, R. E. (2008) Qualitative Case Studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry . Sage Publications: Los Angeles. Ch. 17.

Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science . Cornell University Press: Ithaca.

Verschuren, P. J. M. (2003) ‘Case study as a research strategy: some ambiguities and opportunities’, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 6, 2, 121-139.

Yin, R. K. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

[1] The paper follows convention by differentiating between ‘International Relations’ as the academic discipline and ‘international relations’ as the subject of study.

[2] There is some similarity here with Stake’s (2008: 445-447) notion of intrinsic cases, those undertaken for a better understanding of the particular case, and instrumental ones that provide insight for the purposes of a wider external interest.

[3] These may be unique in the idiographic sense, or in nomothetic terms as an exception to the generalising suppositions of either probabilistic or deterministic theories (as per deviant cases, below).

[4] Although there are “philosophical hurdles to mount”, according to Bennett and Checkel, there exists no a priori reason as to why process tracing (as typically grounded in scientific realism) is fundamentally incompatible with various strands of positivism or interpretivism (2012: 18-19). By extension, it can therefore be incorporated by a range of contemporary mainstream IR theories.

— Written by: Ben Willis Written at: University of Plymouth Written for: David Brockington Date written: January 2013

Further Reading on E-International Relations

• Identity in International Conflicts: A Case Study of the Cuban Missile Crisis
• Imperialism’s Legacy in the Study of Contemporary Politics: The Case of Hegemonic Stability Theory
• Recreating a Nation’s Identity Through Symbolism: A Chinese Case Study
• Ontological Insecurity: A Case Study on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in Jerusalem
• Terrorists or Freedom Fighters: A Case Study of ETA
• A Critical Assessment of Eco-Marxism: A Ghanaian Case Study

Please Consider Donating

Before you download your free e-book, please consider donating to support open access publishing.

E-IR is an independent non-profit publisher run by an all volunteer team. Your donations allow us to invest in new open access titles and pay our bandwidth bills to ensure we keep our existing titles free to view. Any amount, in any currency, is appreciated. Many thanks!

Donations are voluntary and not required to download the e-book - your link to download is below.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

An official website of the United States government

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Single-Case Experimental Designs: A Systematic Review of Published Research and Current Standards

Justin d smith.

• Author information
• Article notes
• Copyright and License information

Address correspondence to Justin D. Smith, Child and Family Center, University of Oregon, 195 West 12th Avenue, Eugene, OR 97401-3408; [email protected]

Issue date 2012 Dec.

This article systematically reviews the research design and methodological characteristics of single-case experimental design (SCED) research published in peer-reviewed journals between 2000 and 2010. SCEDs provide researchers with a flexible and viable alternative to group designs with large sample sizes. However, methodological challenges have precluded widespread implementation and acceptance of the SCED as a viable complementary methodology to the predominant group design. This article includes a description of the research design, measurement, and analysis domains distinctive to the SCED; a discussion of the results within the framework of contemporary standards and guidelines in the field; and a presentation of updated benchmarks for key characteristics (e.g., baseline sampling, method of analysis), and overall, it provides researchers and reviewers with a resource for conducting and evaluating SCED research. The results of the systematic review of 409 studies suggest that recently published SCED research is largely in accordance with contemporary criteria for experimental quality. Analytic method emerged as an area of discord. Comparison of the findings of this review with historical estimates of the use of statistical analysis indicates an upward trend, but visual analysis remains the most common analytic method and also garners the most support amongst those entities providing SCED standards. Although consensus exists along key dimensions of single-case research design and researchers appear to be practicing within these parameters, there remains a need for further evaluation of assessment and sampling techniques and data analytic methods.

Keywords: daily diary, single-case experimental design, systematic review, time-series

The single-case experiment has a storied history in psychology dating back to the field’s founders: Fechner (1889) , Watson (1925) , and Skinner (1938) . It has been used to inform and develop theory, examine interpersonal processes, study the behavior of organisms, establish the effectiveness of psychological interventions, and address a host of other research questions (for a review, see Morgan & Morgan, 2001 ). In recent years the single-case experimental design (SCED) has been represented in the literature more often than in past decades, as is evidenced by recent reviews ( Hammond & Gast, 2010 ; Shadish & Sullivan, 2011 ), but it still languishes behind the more prominent group design in nearly all subfields of psychology. Group designs are often professed to be superior because they minimize, although do not necessarily eliminate, the major internal validity threats to drawing scientifically valid inferences from the results ( Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002 ). SCEDs provide a rigorous, methodologically sound alternative method of evaluation (e.g., Barlow, Nock, & Hersen, 2008 ; Horner et al., 2005 ; Kazdin, 2010 ; Kratochwill & Levin, 2010 ; Shadish et al., 2002 ) but are often overlooked as a true experimental methodology capable of eliciting legitimate inferences (e.g., Barlow et al., 2008 ; Kazdin, 2010 ). Despite a shift in the zeitgeist from single-case experiments to group designs more than a half century ago, recent and rapid methodological advancements suggest that SCEDs are poised for resurgence.

Basics of the SCED

Single case refers to the participant or cluster of participants (e.g., a classroom, hospital, or neighborhood) under investigation. In contrast to an experimental group design in which one group is compared with another, participants in a single-subject experiment research provide their own control data for the purpose of comparison in a within-subject rather than a between-subjects design. SCEDs typically involve a comparison between two experimental time periods, known as phases. This approach typically includes collecting a representative baseline phase to serve as a comparison with subsequent phases. In studies examining single subjects that are actually groups (i.e., classroom, school), there are additional threats to internal validity of the results, as noted by Kratochwill and Levin (2010) , which include setting or site effects.

The central goal of the SCED is to determine whether a causal or functional relationship exists between a researcher-manipulated independent variable (IV) and a meaningful change in the dependent variable (DV). SCEDs generally involve repeated, systematic assessment of one or more IVs and DVs over time. The DV is measured repeatedly across and within all conditions or phases of the IV. Experimental control in SCEDs includes replication of the effect either within or between participants ( Horner et al., 2005 ). Randomization is another way in which threats to internal validity can be experimentally controlled. Kratochwill and Levin (2010) recently provided multiple suggestions for adding a randomization component to SCEDs to improve the methodological rigor and internal validity of the findings.

Examination of the effectiveness of interventions is perhaps the area in which SCEDs are most well represented ( Morgan & Morgan, 2001 ). Researchers in behavioral medicine and in clinical, health, educational, school, sport, rehabilitation, and counseling psychology often use SCEDs because they are particularly well suited to examining the processes and outcomes of psychological and behavioral interventions (e.g., Borckardt et al., 2008 ; Kazdin, 2010 ; Robey, Schultz, Crawford, & Sinner, 1999 ). Skepticism about the clinical utility of the randomized controlled trial (e.g., Jacobsen & Christensen, 1996 ; Wachtel, 2010 ; Westen & Bradley, 2005 ; Westen, Novotny, & Thompson-Brenner, 2004 ) has renewed researchers’ interest in SCEDs as a means to assess intervention outcomes (e.g., Borckardt et al., 2008 ; Dattilio, Edwards, & Fishman, 2010 ; Horner et al., 2005 ; Kratochwill, 2007 ; Kratochwill & Levin, 2010 ). Although SCEDs are relatively well represented in the intervention literature, it is by no means their sole home: Examples appear in nearly every subfield of psychology (e.g., Bolger, Davis, & Rafaeli, 2003 ; Piasecki, Hufford, Solham, & Trull, 2007 ; Reis & Gable, 2000 ; Shiffman, Stone, & Hufford, 2008 ; Soliday, Moore, & Lande, 2002 ). Aside from the current preference for group-based research designs, several methodological challenges have repressed the proliferation of the SCED.

Methodological Complexity

SCEDs undeniably present researchers with a complex array of methodological and research design challenges, such as establishing a representative baseline, managing the nonindependence of sequential observations (i.e., autocorrelation, serial dependence), interpreting single-subject effect sizes, analyzing the short data streams seen in many applications, and appropriately addressing the matter of missing observations. In the field of intervention research for example, Hser et al. (2001) noted that studies using SCEDs are “rare” because of the minimum number of observations that are necessary (e.g., 3–5 data points in each phase) and the complexity of available data analysis approaches. Advances in longitudinal person-based trajectory analysis (e.g., Nagin, 1999 ), structural equation modeling techniques (e.g., Lubke & Muthén, 2005 ), time-series forecasting (e.g., autoregressive integrated moving averages; Box & Jenkins, 1970 ), and statistical programs designed specifically for SCEDs (e.g., Simulation Modeling Analysis; Borckardt, 2006 ) have provided researchers with robust means of analysis, but they might not be feasible methods for the average psychological scientist.

Application of the SCED has also expanded. Today, researchers use variants of the SCED to examine complex psychological processes and the relationship between daily and momentary events in peoples’ lives and their psychological correlates. Research in nearly all subfields of psychology has begun to use daily diary and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) methods in the context of the SCED, opening the door to understanding increasingly complex psychological phenomena (see Bolger et al., 2003 ; Shiffman et al., 2008 ). In contrast to the carefully controlled laboratory experiment that dominated research in the first half of the twentieth century (e.g., Skinner, 1938 ; Watson, 1925 ), contemporary proponents advocate application of the SCED in naturalistic studies to increase the ecological validity of empirical findings (e.g., Bloom, Fisher, & Orme, 2003 ; Borckardt et al., 2008 ; Dattilio et al., 2010 ; Jacobsen & Christensen, 1996 ; Kazdin, 2008 ; Morgan & Morgan, 2001 ; Westen & Bradley, 2005 ; Westen et al., 2004 ). Recent advancements and expanded application of SCEDs indicate a need for updated design and reporting standards.

This Review

Many current benchmarks in the literature concerning key parameters of the SCED were established well before current advancements and innovations, such as the suggested minimum number of data points in the baseline phase(s), which remains a disputed area of SCED research (e.g., Center, Skiba, & Casey, 1986 ; Huitema, 1985 ; R. R. Jones, Vaught, & Weinrott, 1977 ; Sharpley, 1987 ). This article comprises (a) an examination of contemporary SCED methodological and reporting standards; (b) a systematic review of select design, measurement, and statistical characteristics of published SCED research during the past decade; and (c) a broad discussion of the critical aspects of this research to inform methodological improvements and study reporting standards. The reader will garner a fundamental understanding of what constitutes appropriate methodological soundness in single-case experimental research according to the established standards in the field, which can be used to guide the design of future studies, improve the presentation of publishable empirical findings, and inform the peer-review process. The discussion begins with the basic characteristics of the SCED, including an introduction to time-series, daily diary, and EMA strategies, and describes how current reporting and design standards apply to each of these areas of single-case research. Interweaved within this presentation are the results of a systematic review of SCED research published between 2000 and 2010 in peer-reviewed outlets and a discussion of the way in which these findings support, or differ from, existing design and reporting standards and published SCED benchmarks.

Review of Current SCED Guidelines and Reporting Standards

In contrast to experimental group comparison studies, which conform to generally well agreed upon methodological design and reporting guidelines, such as the CONSORT ( Moher, Schulz, Altman, & the CONSORT Group, 2001 ) and TREND ( Des Jarlais, Lyles, & Crepaz, 2004 ) statements for randomized and nonrandomized trials, respectively, there is comparatively much less consensus when it comes to the SCED. Until fairly recently, design and reporting guidelines for single-case experiments were almost entirely absent in the literature and were typically determined by the preferences of a research subspecialty or a particular journal’s editorial board. Factions still exist within the larger field of psychology, as can be seen in the collection of standards presented in this article, particularly in regard to data analytic methods of SCEDs, but fortunately there is budding agreement about certain design and measurement characteristics. A number of task forces, professional groups, and independent experts in the field have recently put forth guidelines; each has a relatively distinct purpose, which likely accounts for some of the discrepancies between them. In what is to be a central theme of this article, researchers are ultimately responsible for thoughtfully and synergistically combining research design, measurement, and analysis aspects of a study.

This review presents the more prominent, comprehensive, and recently established SCED standards. Six sources are discussed: (1) Single-Case Design Technical Documentation from the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC; Kratochwill et al., 2010 ); (2) the APA Division 12 Task Force on Psychological Interventions, with contributions from the Division 12 Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures and the APA Task Force for Psychological Intervention Guidelines (DIV12; presented in Chambless & Hollon, 1998 ; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001 ), adopted and expanded by APA Division 53, the Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology ( Weisz & Hawley, 1998 , 1999 ); (3) the APA Division 16 Task Force on Evidence-Based Interventions in School Psychology (DIV16; Members of the Task Force on Evidence-Based Interventions in School Psychology. Chair: T. R. Kratochwill, 2003); (4) the National Reading Panel (NRP; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000 ); (5) the Single-Case Experimental Design Scale ( Tate et al., 2008 ); and (6) the reporting guidelines for EMA put forth by Stone & Shiffman (2002) . Although the specific purposes of each source differ somewhat, the overall aim is to provide researchers and reviewers with agreed-upon criteria to be used in the conduct and evaluation of SCED research. The standards provided by WWC, DIV12, DIV16, and the NRP represent the efforts of task forces. The Tate et al. scale was selected for inclusion in this review because it represents perhaps the only psychometrically validated tool for assessing the rigor of SCED methodology. Stone and Shiffman’s (2002) standards were intended specifically for EMA methods, but many of their criteria also apply to time-series, daily diary, and other repeated-measurement and sampling methods, making them pertinent to this article. The design, measurement, and analysis standards are presented in the later sections of this article and notable concurrences, discrepancies, strengths, and deficiencies are summarized.

Systematic Review Search Procedures and Selection Criteria

Search strategy.

A comprehensive search strategy of SCEDs was performed to identify studies published in peer-reviewed journals meeting a priori search and inclusion criteria. First, a computer-based PsycINFO search of articles published between 2000 and 2010 (search conducted in July 2011) was conducted that used the following primary key terms and phrases that appeared anywhere in the article (asterisks denote that any characters/letters can follow the last character of the search term): alternating treatment design, changing criterion design, experimental case*, multiple baseline design, replicated single-case design, simultaneous treatment design, time-series design. The search was limited to studies published in the English language and those appearing in peer-reviewed journals within the specified publication year range. Additional limiters of the type of article were also used in PsycINFO to increase specificity: The search was limited to include methodologies indexed as either quantitative study OR treatment outcome/randomized clinical trial and NOT field study OR interview OR focus group OR literature review OR systematic review OR mathematical model OR qualitative study.

Study selection

The author used a three-phase study selection, screening, and coding procedure to select the highest number of applicable studies. Phase 1 consisted of the initial systematic review conducted using PsycINFO, which resulted in 571 articles. In Phase 2, titles and abstracts were screened: Articles appearing to use a SCED were retained (451) for Phase 3, in which the author and a trained research assistant read each full-text article and entered the characteristics of interest into a database. At each phase of the screening process, studies that did not use a SCED or that either self-identified as, or were determined to be, quasi-experimental were dropped. Of the 571 original studies, 82 studies were determined to be quasi-experimental. The definition of a quasi-experimental design used in the screening procedure conforms to the descriptions provided by Kazdin (2010) and Shadish et al. (2002) regarding the necessary components of an experimental design. For example, reversal designs require a minimum of four phases (e.g., ABAB), and multiple baseline designs must demonstrate replication of the effect across at least three conditions (e.g., subjects, settings, behaviors). Sixteen studies were unavailable in full text in English, and five could not be obtained in full text and were thus dropped. The remaining articles that were not retained for review (59) were determined not to be SCED studies meeting our inclusion criteria, but had been identified in our PsycINFO search using the specified keyword and methodology terms. For this review, 409 studies were selected. The sources of the 409 reviewed studies are summarized in Table 1 . A complete bibliography of the 571 studies appearing in the initial search, with the included studies marked, is available online as an Appendix or from the author.

Journal Sources of Studies Included in the Systematic Review (N = 409)

Note: Each of the following journal titles contributed 1 study unless otherwise noted in parentheses: Augmentative and Alternative Communication; Acta Colombiana de Psicología; Acta Comportamentalia; Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (2); Addiction Research and Theory; Advances in Speech Language Pathology; American Annals of the Deaf; American Journal of Education; American Journal of Occupational Therapy; American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology; The American Journal on Addictions; American Journal on Mental Retardation; Applied Ergonomics; Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback; Australian Journal of Guidance & Counseling; Australian Psychologist; Autism; The Behavior Analyst; The Behavior Analyst Today; Behavior Analysis in Practice (2); Behavior and Social Issues (2); Behaviour Change (2); Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy; Behaviour Research and Therapy (3); Brain and Language (2); Brain Injury (2); Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy (2); Canadian Journal of School Psychology; Career Development for Exceptional Individuals; Chinese Mental Health Journal; Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics; Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy; Cognitive and Behavioral Practice; Cognitive Computation; Cognitive Therapy and Research; Communication Disorders Quarterly; Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology (2); Developmental Neurorehabilitation (2); Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal (3); Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology; Down Syndrome: Research & Practice; Drug and Alcohol Dependence (2); Early Childhood Education Journal (2); Early Childhood Services: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Effectiveness; Educational Psychology (2); Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities; Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology; Environment and Behavior (2); European Eating Disorders Review; European Journal of Sport Science; European Review of Applied Psychology; Exceptional Children; Exceptionality; Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology; Family & Community Health: The Journal of Health Promotion & Maintenance; Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain; International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy (2); International Journal of Disability; Development and Education (2); International Journal of Drug Policy; International Journal of Psychology; International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology; International Psychogeriatrics; Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis (3); Japanese Journal of Special Education; Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities (2); Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (3); Journal of Attention Disorders (2); Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry; Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings; Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology; Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy; Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (2); Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education; Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation (2); Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools (2); Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (2); Journal of General Internal Medicine; Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities; Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (2); Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology; Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry; Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health; Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community; Journal of Safety Research; Journal of School Psychology (3); The Journal of Socio-Economics; The Journal of Special Education; Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research (2); Journal of Sport Behavior; Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment; Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society; Journal of Traumatic Stress; The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences; Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools; Learning Disabilities Research & Practice (2); Learning Disability Quarterly (2); Music Therapy Perspectives; Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair; Neuropsychological Rehabilitation (2); Pain; Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy (2); Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory; Psychological Assessment; Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences; The Psychological Record; Reading and Writing; Remedial and Special Education (3); Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities (2); Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience; School Psychology International; Seminars in Speech and Language; Sleep and Hypnosis; School Psychology Quarterly; Social Work in Health Care; The Sport Psychologist (3); Therapeutic Recreation Journal (2); The Volta Review; Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation.

Coding criteria amplifications

A comprehensive description of the coding criteria for each category in this review is available from the author by request. The primary coding criteria are described here and in later sections of this article.

Research design was classified into one of the types discussed later in the section titled Predominant Single-Case Experimental Designs on the basis of the authors’ stated design type. Secondary research designs were then coded when applicable (i.e., mixed designs). Distinctions between primary and secondary research designs were made based on the authors’ description of their study. For example, if an author described the study as a “multiple baseline design with time-series measurement,” the primary research design would be coded as being multiple baseline, and time-series would be coded as the secondary research design.

Observer ratings were coded as present when observational coding procedures were described and/or the results of a test of interobserver agreement were reported.

Interrater reliability for observer ratings was coded as present in any case in which percent agreement, alpha, kappa, or another appropriate statistic was reported, regardless of the amount of the total data that were examined for agreement.

Daily diary, daily self-report, and EMA codes were given when authors explicitly described these procedures in the text by name. Coders did not infer the use of these measurement strategies.

The number of baseline observations was either taken directly from the figures provided in text or was simply counted in graphical displays of the data when this was determined to be a reliable approach. In some cases, it was not possible to reliably determine the number of baseline data points from the graphical display of data, in which case, the “unavailable” code was assigned. Similarly, the “unavailable” code was assigned when the number of observations was either unreported or ambiguous, or only a range was provided and thus no mean could be determined. Similarly, the mean number of baseline observations was calculated for each study prior to further descriptive statistical analyses because a number of studies reported means only.

The coding of the analytic method used in the reviewed studies is discussed later in the section titled Discussion of Review Results and Coding of Analytic Methods .

Results of the Systematic Review

Descriptive statistics of the design, measurement, and analysis characteristics of the reviewed studies are presented in Table 2 . The results and their implications are discussed in the relevant sections throughout the remainder of the article.

Descriptive Statistics of Reviewed SCED Characteristics

Note. % refers to the proportion of reviewed studies that satisfied criteria for this code: For example, the percent of studies reporting observer ratings.

The categories in the “Research design” subsection are the primary designs identified by the authors.

Categories in the “Mixed designs” subsection are included in the “Research design” subsection. Only the 3 most prevalent mixed designs are reported.

One study of 624 subjects was excluded from the calculation of the number of subjects because it was a significant outlier.

Similarly, one study with 500 subjects and one study with 950 subjects were excluded from the number of subject analyses for the simultaneous condition and time-series designs, respectively. This resulted in only one simultaneous condition study, which is why no standard deviation or range is reported.

Because of reporting inconsistencies in the reviewed articles, the mean number of baseline observations for each study was first calculated and then combined and reported in this table.

In contrast to the results reported in text, the findings here are based on the total number of studies and are not divided into those that reported an analysis and those that did not. Visual and statistical analyses are not applicable to most studies using changing criterion designs. However, some authors reported using visual analysis methods.

Discussion of the Systematic Review Results in Context

The SCED is a very flexible methodology and has many variants. Those mentioned here are the building blocks from which other designs are then derived. For those readers interested in the nuances of each design, Barlow et al., (2008) ; Franklin, Allison, and Gorman (1997) ; Kazdin (2010) ; and Kratochwill and Levin (1992) , among others, provide cogent, in-depth discussions. Identifying the appropriate SCED depends upon many factors, including the specifics of the IV, the setting in which the study will be conducted, participant characteristics, the desired or hypothesized outcomes, and the research question(s). Similarly, the researcher’s selection of measurement and analysis techniques is determined by these factors.

Predominant Single-Case Experimental Designs

Alternating/simultaneous designs (6%; primary design of the studies reviewed).

Alternating and simultaneous designs involve an iterative manipulation of the IV(s) across different phases to show that changes in the DV vary systematically as a function of manipulating the IV(s). In these multielement designs, the researcher has the option to alternate the introduction of two or more IVs or present two or more IVs at the same time. In the alternating variation, the researcher is able to determine the relative impact of two different IVs on the DV, when all other conditions are held constant. Another variation of this design is to alternate IVs across various conditions that could be related to the DV (e.g., class period, interventionist). Similarly, the simultaneous design would occur when the IVs were presented at the same time within the same phase of the study.

Changing criterion design (4%)

Changing criterion designs are used to demonstrate a gradual change in the DV over the course of the phase involving the active manipulation of the IV. Criteria indicating that a change has occurred happen in a step-wise manner, in which the criterion shifts as the participant responds to the presence of the manipulated IV. The changing criterion design is particularly useful in applied intervention research for a number of reasons. The IV is continuous and never withdrawn, unlike the strategy used in a reversal design. This is particularly important in situations where removal of a psychological intervention would be either detrimental or dangerous to the participant, or would be otherwise unfeasible or unethical. The multiple baseline design also does not withdraw intervention, but it requires replicating the effects of the intervention across participants, settings, or situations. A changing criterion design can be accomplished with one participant in one setting without withholding or withdrawing treatment.

Multiple baseline/combined series design (69%)

The multiple baseline or combined series design can be used to test within-subject change across conditions and often involves multiple participants in a replication context. The multiple baseline design is quite simple in many ways, essentially consisting of a number of repeated, miniature AB experiments or variations thereof. Introduction of the IV is staggered temporally across multiple participants or across multiple within-subject conditions, which allows the researcher to demonstrate that changes in the DV reliably occur only when the IV is introduced, thus controlling for the effects of extraneous factors. Multiple baseline designs can be used both within and across units (i.e., persons or groups of persons). When the baseline phase of each subject begins simultaneously, it is called a concurrent multiple baseline design. In a nonconcurrent variation, baseline periods across subjects begin at different points in time. The multiple baseline design is useful in many settings in which withdrawal of the IV would not be appropriate or when introduction of the IV is hypothesized to result in permanent change that would not reverse when the IV is withdrawn. The major drawback of this design is that the IV must be initially withheld for a period of time to ensure different starting points across the different units in the baseline phase. Depending upon the nature of the research questions, withholding an IV, such as a treatment, could be potentially detrimental to participants.

Reversal designs (17%)

Reversal designs are also known as introduction and withdrawal and are denoted as ABAB designs in their simplest form. As the name suggests, the reversal design involves collecting a baseline measure of the DV (the first A phase), introducing the IV (the first B phase), removing the IV while continuing to assess the DV (the second A phase), and then reintroducing the IV (the second B phase). This pattern can be repeated as many times as is necessary to demonstrate an effect or otherwise address the research question. Reversal designs are useful when the manipulation is hypothesized to result in changes in the DV that are expected to reverse or discontinue when the manipulation is not present. Maintenance of an effect is often necessary to uphold the findings of reversal designs. The demonstration of an effect is evident in reversal designs when improvement occurs during the first manipulation phase, compared to the first baseline phase, then reverts to or approaches original baseline levels during the second baseline phase when the manipulation has been withdrawn, and then improves again when the manipulation in then reinstated. This pattern of reversal, when the manipulation is introduced and then withdrawn, is essential to attributing changes in the DV to the IV. However, maintenance of the effects in a reversal design, in which the DV is hypothesized to reverse when the IV is withdrawn, is not incompatible ( Kazdin, 2010 ). Maintenance is demonstrated by repeating introduction–withdrawal segments until improvement in the DV becomes permanent even when the IV is withdrawn. There is not always a need to demonstrate maintenance in all applications, nor is it always possible or desirable, but it is paramount in the learning and intervention research contexts.

Mixed designs (10%)

Mixed designs include a combination of more than one SCED (e.g., a reversal design embedded within a multiple baseline) or an SCED embedded within a group design (i.e., a randomized controlled trial comparing two groups of multiple baseline experiments). Mixed designs afford the researcher even greater flexibility in designing a study to address complex psychological hypotheses, but also capitalize on the strengths of the various designs. See Kazdin (2010) for a discussion of the variations and utility of mixed designs.

Related Nonexperimental Designs

Quasi-experimental designs.

In contrast to the designs previously described, all of which constitute “true experiments” ( Kazdin, 2010 ; Shadish et al., 2002 ), in quasi-experimental designs the conditions of a true experiment (e.g., active manipulation of the IV, replication of the effect) are approximated and are not readily under the control of the researcher. Because the focus of this article is on experimental designs, quasi-experiments are not discussed in detail; instead the reader is referred to Kazdin (2010) and Shadish et al. (2002) .

Ecological and naturalistic single-case designs

For a single-case design to be experimental, there must be active manipulation of the IV, but in some applications, such as those that might be used in social and personality psychology, the researcher might be interested in measuring naturally occurring phenomena and examining their temporal relationships. Thus, the researcher will not use a manipulation. An example of this type of research might be a study about the temporal relationship between alcohol consumption and depressed mood, which can be measured reliably using EMA methods. Psychotherapy process researchers also use this type of design to assess dyadic relationship dynamics between therapists and clients (e.g., Tschacher & Ramseyer, 2009 ).

Research Design Standards

Each of the reviewed standards provides some degree of direction regarding acceptable research designs. The WWC provides the most detailed and specific requirements regarding design characteristics. Those guidelines presented in Tables 3 , 4 , and 5 are consistent with the methodological rigor necessary to meet the WWC distinction “meets standards.” The WWC also provides less-stringent standards for a “meets standards with reservations” distinction. When minimum criteria in the design, measurement, or analysis sections of a study are not met, it is rated “does not meet standards” ( Kratochwill et al., 2010 ). Many SCEDs are acceptable within the standards of DIV12, DIV16, NRP, and in the Tate et al. SCED scale. DIV12 specifies that replication occurs across a minimum of three successive cases, which differs from the WWC specifications, which allow for three replications within a single-subject design but does not necessarily need to be across multiple subjects. DIV16 does not require, but seems to prefer, a multiple baseline design with a between-subject replication. Tate et al. state that the “design allows for the examination of cause and effect relationships to demonstrate efficacy” (p. 400, 2008). Determining whether or not a design meets this requirement is left up to the evaluator, who might then refer to one of the other standards or another source for direction.

Research Design Standards and Guidelines

Measurement and Assessment Standards and Guidelines

Analysis Standards and Guidelines

The Stone and Shiffman (2002) standards for EMA are concerned almost entirely with the reporting of measurement characteristics and less so with research design. One way in which these standards differ from those of other sources is in the active manipulation of the IV. Many research questions in EMA, daily diary, and time-series designs are concerned with naturally occurring phenomena, and a researcher manipulation would run counter to this aim. The EMA standards become important when selecting an appropriate measurement strategy within the SCED. In EMA applications, as is also true in some other time-series and daily diary designs, researcher manipulation occurs as a function of the sampling interval in which DVs of interest are measured according to fixed time schedules (e.g., reporting occurs at the end of each day), random time schedules (e.g., the data collection device prompts the participant to respond at random intervals throughout the day), or on an event-based schedule (e.g., reporting occurs after a specified event takes place).

Measurement

The basic measurement requirement of the SCED is a repeated assessment of the DV across each phase of the design in order to draw valid inferences regarding the effect of the IV on the DV. In other applications, such as those used by personality and social psychology researchers to study various human phenomena ( Bolger et al., 2003 ; Reis & Gable, 2000 ), sampling strategies vary widely depending on the topic area under investigation. Regardless of the research area, SCEDs are most typically concerned with within-person change and processes and involve a time-based strategy, most commonly to assess global daily averages or peak daily levels of the DV. Many sampling strategies, such as time-series, in which reporting occurs at uniform intervals or on event-based, fixed, or variable schedules, are also appropriate measurement methods and are common in psychological research (see Bolger et al., 2003 ).

Repeated-measurement methods permit the natural, even spontaneous, reporting of information ( Reis, 1994 ), which reduces the biases of retrospection by minimizing the amount of time elapsed between an experience and the account of this experience ( Bolger et al., 2003 ). Shiffman et al. (2008) aptly noted that the majority of research in the field of psychology relies heavily on retrospective assessment measures, even though retrospective reports have been found to be susceptible to state-congruent recall (e.g., Bower, 1981 ) and a tendency to report peak levels of the experience instead of giving credence to temporal fluctuations ( Redelmeier & Kahneman, 1996 ; Stone, Broderick, Kaell, Deles-Paul, & Porter, 2000 ). Furthermore, Shiffman et al. (1997) demonstrated that subjective aggregate accounts were a poor fit to daily reported experiences, which can be attributed to reductions in measurement error resulting in increased validity and reliability of the daily reports.

The necessity of measuring at least one DV repeatedly means that the selected assessment method, instrument, and/or construct must be sensitive to change over time and be capable of reliably and validly capturing change. Horner et al. (2005) discusses the important features of outcome measures selected for use in these types of designs. Kazdin (2010) suggests that measures be dimensional, which can more readily detect effects than categorical and binary measures. Although using an established measure or scale, such as the Outcome Questionnaire System ( M. J. Lambert, Hansen, & Harmon, 2010 ), provides empirically validated items for assessing various outcomes, most measure validation studies conducted on this type of instrument involve between-subject designs, which is no guarantee that these measures are reliable and valid for assessing within-person variability. Borsboom, Mellenbergh, and van Heerden (2003) suggest that researchers adapting validated measures should consider whether the items they propose using have a factor structure within subjects similar to that obtained between subjects. This is one of the reasons that SCEDs often use observational assessments from multiple sources and report the interrater reliability of the measure. Self-report measures are acceptable practice in some circles, but generally additional assessment methods or informants are necessary to uphold the highest methodological standards. The results of this review indicate that the majority of studies include observational measurement (76.0%). Within those studies, nearly all (97.1%) reported interrater reliability procedures and results. The results within each design were similar, with the exception of time-series designs, which used observer ratings in only half of the reviewed studies.

Time-series

Time-series designs are defined by repeated measurement of variables of interest over a period of time ( Box & Jenkins, 1970 ). Time-series measurement most often occurs in uniform intervals; however, this is no longer a constraint of time-series designs (see Harvey, 2001 ). Although uniform interval reporting is not necessary in SCED research, repeated measures often occur at uniform intervals, such as once each day or each week, which constitutes a time-series design. The time-series design has been used in various basic science applications ( Scollon, Kim-Pietro, & Diener, 2003 ) across nearly all subspecialties in psychology (e.g., Bolger et al., 2003 ; Piasecki et al., 2007 ; for a review, see Reis & Gable, 2000 ; Soliday et al., 2002 ). The basic time-series formula for a two-phase (AB) data stream is presented in Equation 1 . In this formula α represents the step function of the data stream; S represents the change between the first and second phases, which is also the intercept in a two-phase data stream and a step function being 0 at times i = 1, 2, 3…n1 and 1 at times i = n1+1, n1+2, n1+3…n; n 1 is the number of observations in the baseline phase; n is the total number of data points in the data stream; i represents time; and ε i = ρε i −1 + e i , which indicates the relationship between the autoregressive function (ρ) and the distribution of the data in the stream.

Time-series formulas become increasingly complex when seasonality and autoregressive processes are modeled in the analytic procedures, but these are rarely of concern for short time-series data streams in SCEDs. For a detailed description of other time-series design and analysis issues, see Borckardt et al. (2008) , Box and Jenkins (1970) , Crosbie (1993) , R. R. Jones et al. (1977) , and Velicer and Fava (2003) .

Time-series and other repeated-measures methodologies also enable examination of temporal effects. Borckardt et al. (2008) and others have noted that time-series designs have the potential to reveal how change occurs, not simply if it occurs. This distinction is what most interested Skinner (1938) , but it often falls below the purview of today’s researchers in favor of group designs, which Skinner felt obscured the process of change. In intervention and psychopathology research, time-series designs can assess mediators of change ( Doss & Atkins, 2006 ), treatment processes ( Stout, 2007 ; Tschacher & Ramseyer, 2009 ), and the relationship between psychological symptoms (e.g., Alloy, Just, & Panzarella, 1997 ; Hanson & Chen, 2010 ; Oslin, Cary, Slaymaker, Colleran, & Blow, 2009 ), and might be capable of revealing mechanisms of change ( Kazdin, 2007 , 2009 , 2010 ). Between- and within-subject SCED designs with repeated measurements enable researchers to examine similarities and differences in the course of change, both during and as a result of manipulating an IV. Temporal effects have been largely overlooked in many areas of psychological science ( Bolger et al., 2003 ): Examining temporal relationships is sorely needed to further our understanding of the etiology and amplification of numerous psychological phenomena.

Time-series studies were very infrequently found in this literature search (2%). Time-series studies traditionally occur in subfields of psychology in which single-case research is not often used (e.g., personality, physiological/biological). Recent advances in methods for collecting and analyzing time-series data (e.g., Borckardt et al., 2008 ) could expand the use of time-series methodology in the SCED community. One problem with drawing firm conclusions from this particular review finding is a semantic factor: Time-series is a specific term reserved for measurement occurring at a uniform interval. However, SCED research appears to not yet have adopted this language when referring to data collected in this fashion. When time-series data analytic methods are not used, the matter of measurement interval is of less importance and might not need to be specified or described as a time-series. An interesting extension of this work would be to examine SCED research that used time-series measurement strategies but did not label it as such. This is important because then it could be determined how many SCEDs could be analyzed with time-series statistical methods.

Daily diary and ecological momentary assessment methods

EMA and daily diary approaches represent methodological procedures for collecting repeated measurements in time-series and non-time-series experiments, which are also known as experience sampling. Presenting an in-depth discussion of the nuances of these sampling techniques is well beyond the scope of this paper. The reader is referred to the following review articles: daily diary ( Bolger et al., 2003 ; Reis & Gable, 2000 ; Thiele, Laireiter, & Baumann, 2002 ), and EMA ( Shiffman et al., 2008 ). Experience sampling in psychology has burgeoned in the past two decades as technological advances have permitted more precise and immediate reporting by participants (e.g., Internet-based, two-way pagers, cellular telephones, handheld computers) than do paper and pencil methods (for reviews see Barrett & Barrett, 2001 ; Shiffman & Stone, 1998 ). Both methods have practical limitations and advantages. For example, electronic methods are more costly and may exclude certain subjects from participating in the study, either because they do not have access to the necessary technology or they do not have the familiarity or savvy to successfully complete reporting. Electronic data collection methods enable the researcher to prompt responses at random or predetermined intervals and also accurately assess compliance. Paper and pencil methods have been criticized for their inability to reliably track respondents’ compliance: Palermo, Valenzuela, and Stork (2004) found better compliance with electronic diaries than with paper and pencil. On the other hand, Green, Rafaeli, Bolger, Shrout, & Reis (2006) demonstrated the psychometric data structure equivalence between these two methods, suggesting that the data collected in either method will yield similar statistical results given comparable compliance rates.

Daily diary/daily self-report and EMA measurement were somewhat rarely represented in this review, occurring in only 6.1% of the total studies. EMA methods had been used in only one of the reviewed studies. The recent proliferation of EMA and daily diary studies in psychology reported by others ( Bolger et al., 2003 ; Piasecki et al., 2007 ; Shiffman et al., 2008 ) suggests that these methods have not yet reached SCED researchers, which could in part have resulted from the long-held supremacy of observational measurement in fields that commonly practice single-case research.

Measurement Standards

As was previously mentioned, measurement in SCEDs requires the reliable assessment of change over time. As illustrated in Table 4 , DIV16 and the NRP explicitly require that reliability of all measures be reported. DIV12 provides little direction in the selection of the measurement instrument, except to require that three or more clinically important behaviors with relative independence be assessed. Similarly, the only item concerned with measurement on the Tate et al. scale specifies assessing behaviors consistent with the target of the intervention. The WWC and the Tate et al. scale require at least two independent assessors of the DV and that interrater reliability meeting minimum established thresholds be reported. Furthermore, WWC requires that interrater reliability be assessed on at least 20% of the data in each phase and in each condition. DIV16 expects that assessment of the outcome measures will be multisource and multimethod, when applicable. The interval of measurement is not specified by any of the reviewed sources. The WWC and the Tate et al. scale require that DVs be measured repeatedly across phases (e.g., baseline and treatment), which is a typical requirement of a SCED. The NRP asks that the time points at which DV measurement occurred be reported.

The baseline measurement represents one of the most crucial design elements of the SCED. Because subjects provide their own data for comparison, gathering a representative, stable sampling of behavior before manipulating the IV is essential to accurately inferring an effect. Some researchers have reported the typical length of the baseline period to range from 3 to 12 observations in intervention research applications (e.g., Center et al., 1986 ; Huitema, 1985 ; R. R. Jones et al., 1977 ; Sharpley, 1987 ); Huitema’s (1985) review of 881 experiments published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis resulted in a modal number of three to four baseline points. Center et al. (1986) suggested five as the minimum number of baseline measurements needed to accurately estimate autocorrelation. Longer baseline periods suggest a greater likelihood of a representative measurement of the DVs, which has been found to increase the validity of the effects and reduce bias resulting from autocorrelation ( Huitema & McKean, 1994 ). The results of this review are largely consistent with those of previous researchers: The mean number of baseline observations was found to be 10.22 ( SD = 9.59), and 6 was the modal number of observations. Baseline data were available in 77.8% of the reviewed studies. Although the baseline assessment has tremendous bearing on the results of a SCED study, it was often difficult to locate the exact number of data points. Similarly, the number of data points assessed across all phases of the study were not easily identified.

The WWC, DIV12, and DIV16 agree that a minimum of three data points during the baseline is necessary. However, to receive the highest rating by the WWC, five data points are necessary in each phase, including the baseline and any subsequent withdrawal baselines as would occur in a reversal design. DIV16 explicitly states that more than three points are preferred and further stipulates that the baseline must demonstrate stability (i.e., limited variability), absence of overlap between the baseline and other phases, absence of a trend, and that the level of the baseline measurement is severe enough to warrant intervention; each of these aspects of the data is important in inferential accuracy. Detrending techniques can be used to address baseline data trend. The integration option in ARIMA-based modeling and the empirical mode decomposition method ( Wu, Huang, Long, & Peng, 2007 ) are two sophisticated detrending techniques. In regression-based analytic methods, detrending can be accomplished by simply regressing each variable in the model on time (i.e., the residuals become the detrended series), which is analogous to adding a linear, exponential, or quadratic term to the regression equation.

NRP does not provide a minimum for data points, nor does the Tate et al. scale, which requires only a sufficient sampling of baseline behavior. Although the mean and modal number of baseline observations is well within these parameters, seven (1.7%) studies reported mean baselines of less than three data points.

Establishing a uniform minimum number of required baseline observations would provide researchers and reviewers with only a starting guide. The baseline phase is important in SCED research because it establishes a trend that can then be compared with that of subsequent phases. Although a minimum number of observations might be required to meet standards, many more might be necessary to establish a trend when there is variability and trends in the direction of the expected effect. The selected data analytic approach also has some bearing on the number of necessary baseline observations. This is discussed further in the Analysis section.

Reporting of repeated measurements

Stone and Shiffman (2002) provide a comprehensive set of guidelines for the reporting of EMA data, which can also be applied to other repeated-measurement strategies. Because the application of EMA is widespread and not confined to specific research designs, Stone and Shiffman intentionally place few restraints on researchers regarding selection of the DV and the reporter, which is determined by the research question under investigation. The methods of measurement, however, are specified in detail: Descriptions of prompting, recording of responses, participant-initiated entries, and the data acquisition interface (e.g., paper and pencil diary, PDA, cellular telephone) ought to be provided with sufficient detail for replication. Because EMA specifically, and time-series/daily diary methods similarly, are primarily concerned with the interval of assessment, Stone and Shiffman suggest reporting the density and schedule of assessment. The approach is generally determined by the nature of the research question and pragmatic considerations, such as access to electronic data collection devices at certain times of the day and participant burden. Compliance and missing data concerns are present in any longitudinal research design, but they are of particular importance in repeated-measurement applications with frequent measurement. When the research question pertains to temporal effects, compliance becomes paramount, and timely, immediate responding is necessary. For this reason, compliance decisions, rates of missing data, and missing data management techniques must be reported. The effect of missing data in time-series data streams has been the topic of recent research in the social sciences (e.g., Smith, Borckardt, & Nash, in press ; Velicer & Colby, 2005a , 2005b ). The results and implications of these and other missing data studies are discussed in the next section.

Analysis of SCED Data

Visual analysis.

Experts in the field generally agree about the majority of critical single-case experiment design and measurement characteristics. Analysis, on the other hand, is an area of significant disagreement, yet it has also received extensive recent attention and advancement. Debate regarding the appropriateness and accuracy of various methods for analyzing SCED data, the interpretation of single-case effect sizes, and other concerns vital to the validity of SCED results has been ongoing for decades, and no clear consensus has been reached. Visual analysis, following systematic procedures such as those provided by Franklin, Gorman, Beasley, and Allison (1997) and Parsonson and Baer (1978) , remains the standard by which SCED data are most commonly analyzed ( Parker, Cryer, & Byrns, 2006 ). Visual analysis can arguably be applied to all SCEDs. However, a number of baseline data characteristics must be met for effects obtained through visual analysis to be valid and reliable. The baseline phase must be relatively stable; free of significant trend, particularly in the hypothesized direction of the effect; have minimal overlap of data with subsequent phases; and have a sufficient sampling of behavior to be considered representative ( Franklin, Gorman, et al., 1997 ; Parsonson & Baer, 1978 ). The effect of baseline trend on visual analysis, and a technique to control baseline trend, are offered by Parker et al. (2006) . Kazdin (2010) suggests using statistical analysis when a trend or significant variability appears in the baseline phase, two conditions that ought to preclude the use of visual analysis techniques. Visual analysis methods are especially adept at determining intervention effects and can be of particular relevance in real-world applications (e.g., Borckardt et al., 2008 ; Kratochwill, Levin, Horner, & Swoboda, 2011 ).

However, visual analysis has its detractors. It has been shown to be inconsistent, can be affected by autocorrelation, and results in overestimation of effect (e.g., Matyas & Greenwood, 1990 ). Visual analysis as a means of estimating an effect precludes the results of SCED research from being included in meta-analysis, and also makes it very difficult to compare results to the effect sizes generated by other statistical methods. Yet, visual analysis proliferates in large part because SCED researchers are familiar with these methods and are not only generally unfamiliar with statistical approaches, but lack agreement about their appropriateness. Still, top experts in single-case analysis champion the use of statistical methods alongside visual analysis whenever it is appropriate to do so ( Kratochwill et al., 2011 ).

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis of SCED data consists generally of an attempt to address one or more of three broad research questions: (1) Does introduction/manipulation of the IV result in statistically significant change in the level of the DV (level-change or phase-effect analysis)? (2) Does introduction/manipulation of the IV result in statistically significant change in the slope of the DV over time (slope-change analysis)? and (3) Do meaningful relationships exist between the trajectory of the DV and other potential covariates? Level- and slope-change analyses are relevant to intervention effectiveness studies and other research questions in which the IV is expected to result in changes in the DV in a particular direction. Visual analysis methods are most adept at addressing research questions pertaining to changes in level and slope (Questions 1 and 2), most often using some form of graphical representation and standardized computation of a mean level or trend line within and between each phase of interest (e.g., Horner & Spaulding, 2010 ; Kratochwill et al., 2011 ; Matyas & Greenwood, 1990 ). Research questions in other areas of psychological science might address the relationship between DVs or the slopes of DVs (Question 3). A number of sophisticated modeling approaches (e.g., cross-lag, multilevel, panel, growth mixture, latent class analysis) may be used for this type of question, and some are discussed in greater detail later in this section. However, a discussion about the nuances of this type of analysis and all their possible methods is well beyond the scope of this article.

The statistical analysis of SCEDs is a contentious issue in the field. Not only is there no agreed-upon statistical method, but the practice of statistical analysis in the context of the SCED is viewed by some as unnecessary (see Shadish, Rindskopf, & Hedges, 2008 ). Traditional trends in the prevalence of statistical analysis usage by SCED researchers are revealing: Busk & Marascuilo (1992) found that only 10% of the published single-case studies they reviewed used statistical analysis; Brossart, Parker, Olson, & Mahadevan (2006) estimated that this figure had roughly doubled by 2006. A range of concerns regarding single-case effect size calculation and interpretation is discussed in significant detail elsewhere (e.g., Campbell, 2004 ; Cohen, 1994 ; Ferron & Sentovich, 2002 ; Ferron & Ware, 1995 ; Kirk, 1996 ; Manolov & Solanas, 2008 ; Olive & Smith, 2005 ; Parker & Brossart, 2003 ; Robey et al., 1999 ; Smith et al., in press ; Velicer & Fava, 2003 ). One concern is the lack of a clearly superior method across datasets. Although statistical methods for analyzing SCEDs abound, few studies have examined their comparative performance with the same dataset. The most recent studies of this kind, performed by Brossart et al. (2006) , Campbell (2004) , Parker and Brossart (2003) , and Parker and Vannest (2009) , found that the more promising available statistical analysis methods yielded moderately different results on the same data series, which led them to conclude that each available method is equipped to adequately address only a relatively narrow spectrum of data. Given these findings, analysts need to select an appropriate model for the research questions and data structure, being mindful of how modeling results can be influenced by extraneous factors.

The current standards unfortunately provide little guidance in the way of statistical analysis options. This article presents an admittedly cursory introduction to available statistical methods; many others are not covered in this review. The following articles provide more in-depth discussion and description of other methods: Barlow et al. (2008) ; Franklin et al., (1997) ; Kazdin (2010) ; and Kratochwill and Levin (1992 , 2010 ). Shadish et al. (2008) summarize more recently developed methods. Similarly, a Special Issue of Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention (2008, Volume 2) provides articles and discussion of the more promising statistical methods for SCED analysis. An introduction to autocorrelation and its implications for statistical analysis is necessary before specific analytic methods can be discussed. It is also pertinent at this time to discuss the implications of missing data.

Autocorrelation

Many repeated measurements within a single subject or unit create a situation that most psychological researchers are unaccustomed to dealing with: autocorrelated data, which is the nonindependence of sequential observations, also known as serial dependence. Basic and advanced discussions of autocorrelation in single-subject data can be found in Borckardt et al. (2008) , Huitema (1985) , and Marshall (1980) , and discussions of autocorrelation in multilevel models can be found in Snijders and Bosker (1999) and Diggle and Liang (2001) . Along with trend and seasonal variation, autocorrelation is one example of the internal structure of repeated measurements. In the social sciences, autocorrelated data occur most naturally in the fields of physiological psychology, econometrics, and finance, where each phase of interest has potentially hundreds or even thousands of observations that are tightly packed across time (e.g., electroencephalography actuarial data, financial market indices). Applied SCED research in most areas of psychology is more likely to have measurement intervals of day, week, or hour.

Autocorrelation is a direct result of the repeated-measurement requirements of the SCED, but its effect is most noticeable and problematic when one is attempting to analyze these data. Many commonly used data analytic approaches, such as analysis of variance, assume independence of observations and can produce spurious results when the data are nonindependent. Even statistically insignificant autocorrelation estimates are generally viewed as sufficient to cause inferential bias when conventional statistics are used (e.g., Busk & Marascuilo, 1988 ; R. R. Jones et al., 1977 ; Matyas & Greenwood, 1990 ). The effect of autocorrelation on statistical inference in single-case applications has also been known for quite some time (e.g., R. R. Jones et al., 1977 ; Kanfer, 1970 ; Kazdin, 1981 ; Marshall, 1980 ). The findings of recent simulation studies of single-subject data streams indicate that autocorrelation is a nontrivial matter. For example, Manolov and Solanas (2008) determined that calculated effect sizes were linearly related to the autocorrelation of the data stream, and Smith et al. (in press) demonstrated that autocorrelation estimates in the vicinity of 0.80 negatively affect the ability to correctly infer a significant level-change effect using a standardized mean differences method. Huitema and colleagues (e.g., Huitema, 1985 ; Huitema & McKean, 1994 ) argued that autocorrelation is rarely a concern in applied research. Huitema’s methods and conclusions have been questioned and opposing data have been published (e.g., Allison & Gorman, 1993 ; Matyas & Greenwood, 1990 ; Robey et al., 1999 ), resulting in abandonment of the position that autocorrelation can be conscionably ignored without compromising the validity of the statistical procedures. Procedures for removing autocorrelation in the data stream prior to calculating effect sizes are offered as one option: One of the more promising analysis methods, autoregressive integrated moving averages (discussed later in this article), was specifically designed to remove the internal structure of time-series data, such as autocorrelation, trend, and seasonality ( Box & Jenkins, 1970 ; Tiao & Box, 1981 ).

Missing observations

Another concern inherent in repeated-measures designs is missing data. Daily diary and EMA methods are intended to reduce the risk of retrospection error by eliciting accurate, real-time information ( Bolger et al., 2003 ). However, these methods are subject to missing data as a result of honest forgetfulness, not possessing the diary collection tool at the specified time of collection, and intentional or systematic noncompliance. With paper and pencil diaries and some electronic methods, subjects might be able to complete missed entries retrospectively, defeating the temporal benefits of these assessment strategies ( Bolger et al., 2003 ). Methods of managing noncompliance through the study design and measurement methods include training the subject to use the data collection device appropriately, using technology to prompt responding and track the time of response, and providing incentives to participants for timely compliance (for additional discussion of this topic, see Bolger et al., 2003 ; Shiffman & Stone, 1998 ).

Even when efforts are made to maximize compliance during the conduct of the research, the problem of missing data is often unavoidable. Numerous approaches exist for handling missing observations in group multivariate designs (e.g., Horton & Kleinman, 2007 ; Ibrahim, Chen, Lipsitz, & Herring, 2005 ). Ragunathan (2004) and others concluded that full information and raw data maximum likelihood methods are preferable. Velicer and Colby (2005a , 2005b ) established the superiority of maximum likelihood methods over listwise deletion, mean of adjacent observations, and series mean substitution in the estimation of various critical time-series data parameters. Smith et al. (in press) extended these findings regarding the effect of missing data on inferential precision. They found that managing missing data with the EM procedure ( Dempster, Laird, & Rubin, 1977 ), a maximum likelihood algorithm, did not affect one’s ability to correctly infer a significant effect. However, lag-1 autocorrelation estimates in the vicinity of 0.80 resulted in insufficient power sensitivity (< 0.80), regardless of the proportion of missing data (10%, 20%, 30%, or 40%). 1 Although maximum likelihood methods have garnered some empirical support, methodological strategies that minimize missing data, particularly systematically missing data, are paramount to post-hoc statistical remedies.

Nonnormal distribution of data

In addition to the autocorrelated nature of SCED data, typical measurement methods also present analytic challenges. Many statistical methods, particularly those involving model finding, assume that the data are normally distributed. This is often not satisfied in SCED research when measurements involve count data, observer-rated behaviors, and other, similar metrics that result in skewed distributions. Techniques are available to manage nonnormal distributions in regression-based analysis, such as zero-inflated Poisson regression ( D. Lambert, 1992 ) and negative binomial regression ( Gardner, Mulvey, & Shaw, 1995 ), but many other statistical analysis methods do not include these sophisticated techniques. A skewed data distribution is perhaps one of the reasons Kazdin (2010) suggests not using count, categorical, or ordinal measurement methods.

Available statistical analysis methods

Following is a basic introduction to the more promising and prevalent analytic methods for SCED research. Because there is little consensus regarding the superiority of any single method, the burden unfortunately falls on the researcher to select a method capable of addressing the research question and handling the data involved in the study. Some indications and contraindications are provided for each method presented here.

Multilevel and structural equation modeling

Multilevel modeling (MLM; e.g., Schmidt, Perels, & Schmitz, 2010 ) techniques represent the state of the art among parametric approaches to SCED analysis, particularly when synthesizing SCED results ( Shadish et al., 2008 ). MLM and related latent growth curve and factor mixture methods in structural equation modeling (SEM; e.g., Lubke & Muthén, 2005 ; B. O. Muthén & Curran, 1997 ) are particularly effective for evaluating trajectories and slopes in longitudinal data and relating changes to potential covariates. MLM and related hierarchical linear models (HLM) can also illuminate the relationship between the trajectories of different variables under investigation and clarify whether or not these relationships differ amongst the subjects in the study. Time-series and cross-lag analyses can also be used in MLM and SEM ( Chow, Ho, Hamaker, & Dolan, 2010 ; du Toit & Browne, 2007 ). However, they generally require sophisticated model-fitting techniques, making them difficult for many social scientists to implement. The structure (autocorrelation) and trend of the data can also complicate many MLM methods. The common, short data streams in SCED research and the small number of subjects also present problems to MLM and SEM approaches, which were developed for data with significantly greater numbers of observations when the number of subjects is fewer, and for a greater number of participants for model-fitting purposes, particularly when there are fewer data points. Still, MLM and related techniques arguably represent the most promising analytic methods.

A number of software options 2 exist for SEM. Popular statistical packages in the social sciences provide SEM options, such as PROC CALIS in SAS ( SAS Institute Inc., 2008 ), the AMOS module ( Arbuckle, 2006 ) of SPSS ( SPSS Statistics, 2011 ), and the sempackage for R ( R Development Core Team, 2005 ), the use of which is described by Fox ( Fox, 2006 ). A number of stand-alone software options are also available for SEM applications, including Mplus ( L. K. Muthén & Muthén, 2010 ) and Stata ( StataCorp., 2011 ). Each of these programs also provides options for estimating multilevel/hierarchical models (for a review of using these programs for MLM analysis see Albright & Marinova, 2010 ). Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling can also be accomplished using the HLM 7 program ( Raudenbush, Bryk, & Congdon, 2011 ).

Autoregressive moving averages (ARMA; e.g., Browne & Nesselroade, 2005 ; Liu & Hudack, 1995 ; Tiao & Box, 1981 )

Two primary points have been raised regarding ARMA modeling: length of the data stream and feasibility of the modeling technique. ARMA models generally require 30–50 observations in each phase when analyzing a single-subject experiment (e.g., Borckardt et al., 2008 ; Box & Jenkins, 1970 ), which is often difficult to satisfy in applied psychological research applications. However, ARMA models in an SEM framework, such as those described by du Toit & Browne (2001) , are well suited for longitudinal panel data with few observations and many subjects. Autoregressive SEM models are also applicable under similar conditions. Model-fitting options are available in SPSS, R, and SAS via PROC ARMA.

ARMA modeling also requires considerable training in the method and rather advanced knowledge about statistical methods (e.g., Kratochwill & Levin, 1992 ). However, Brossart et al. (2006) point out that ARMA-based approaches can produce excellent results when there is no “model finding” and a simple lag-1 model, with no differencing and no moving average, is used. This approach can be taken for many SCED applications when phase- or slope-change analyses are of interest with a single, or very few, subjects. As already mentioned, this method is particularly useful when one is seeking to account for autocorrelation or other over-time variations that are not directly related to the experimental or intervention effect of interest (i.e., detrending). ARMA and other time-series analysis methods require missing data to be managed prior to analysis by means of options such as full information maximum likelihood estimation, multiple imputation, or the Kalman filter (see Box & Jenkins, 1970 ; Hamilton, 1994 ; Shumway & Stoffer, 1982 ) because listwise deletion has been shown to result in inaccurate time-series parameter estimates ( Velicer & Colby, 2005a ).

Standardized mean differences

Standardized mean differences approaches include the common Cohen’s d , Glass’s Delta, and Hedge’s g that are used in the analysis of group designs. The computational properties of mean differences approaches to SCEDs are identical to those used for group comparisons, except that the results represent within-case variation instead of the variation between groups, which suggests that the obtained effect sizes are not interpretively equivalent. The advantage of the mean differences approach is its simplicity of calculation and also its familiarity to social scientists. The primary drawback of these approaches is that they were not developed to contend with autocorrelated data. However, Manolov and Solanas (2008) reported that autocorrelation least affected effect sizes calculated using standardized mean differences approaches. To the applied-research scientist this likely represents the most accessible analytic approach, because statistical software is not required to calculate these effect sizes. The resultant effect sizes of single subject standardized mean differences analysis must be interpreted cautiously because their relation to standard effect size benchmarks, such as those provided by Cohen (1988) , is unknown. Standardized mean differences approaches are appropriate only when examining significant differences between phases of the study and cannot illuminate trajectories or relationships between variables.

Other analytic approaches

Researchers have offered other analytic methods to deal with the characteristics of SCED data. A number of methods for analyzing N -of-1 experiments have been developed. Borckardt’s Simulation Modeling Analysis (2006) program provides a method for analyzing level- and slope-change in short (<30 observations per phase; see Borckardt et al., 2008 ), autocorrelated data streams that is statistically sophisticated, yet accessible and freely available to typical psychological scientists and clinicians. A replicated single-case time-series design conducted by Smith, Handler, & Nash (2010) provides an example of SMA application. The Singwin Package, described in Bloom et al., (2003) , is a another easy-to-use parametric approach for analyzing single-case experiments. A number of nonparametric approaches have also been developed that emerged from the visual analysis tradition: Some examples include percent nonoverlapping data ( Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Casto, 1987 ) and nonoverlap of all pairs ( Parker & Vannest, 2009 ); however, these methods have come under scrutiny, and Wolery, Busick, Reichow, and Barton (2010) have suggested abandoning them altogether. Each of these methods appears to be well suited for managing specific data characteristics, but they should not be used to analyze data streams beyond their intended purpose until additional empirical research is conducted.

Combining SCED Results

Beyond the issue of single-case analysis is the matter of integrating and meta-analyzing the results of single-case experiments. SCEDs have been given short shrift in the majority of meta-analytic literature ( Littell, Corcoran, & Pillai, 2008 ; Shadish et al., 2008 ), with only a few exceptions ( Carr et al., 1999 ; Horner & Spaulding, 2010 ). Currently, few proven methods exist for integrating the results of multiple single-case experiments. Allison and Gorman (1993) and Shadish et al. (2008) present the problems associated with meta-analyzing single-case effect sizes, and W. P. Jones (2003) , Manolov and Solanas (2008) , Scruggs and Mastropieri (1998) , and Shadish et al. (2008) offer four different potential statistical solutions for this problem, none of which appear to have received consensus amongst researchers. The ability to synthesize and compare single-case effect sizes, particularly effect sizes garnered through group design research, is undoubtedly necessary to increase SCED proliferation.

Discussion of Review Results and Coding of Analytic Methods

The coding criteria for this review were quite stringent in terms of what was considered to be either visual or statistical analysis. For visual analysis to be coded as present, it was necessary for the authors to self-identify as having used a visual analysis method. In many cases, it could likely be inferred that visual analysis had been used, but it was often not specified. Similarly, statistical analysis was reserved for analytic methods that produced an effect. 3 Analyses that involved comparing magnitude of change using raw count data or percentages were not considered rigorous enough. These two narrow definitions of visual and statistical analysis contributed to the high rate of unreported analytic method, shown in Table 1 (52.3%). A better representation of the use of visual and statistical analysis would likely be the percentage of studies within those that reported a method of analysis. Under these parameters, 41.5% used visual analysis and 31.3% used statistical analysis. Included in these figures are studies that included both visual and statistical methods (11%). These findings are slightly higher than those estimated by Brossart et al. (2006) , who estimated statistical analysis is used in about 20% of SCED studies. Visual analysis continues to undoubtedly be the most prevalent method, but there appears to be a trend for increased use of statistical approaches, which is likely to only gain momentum as innovations continue.

Analysis Standards

The standards selected for inclusion in this review offer minimal direction in the way of analyzing the results of SCED research. Table 5 summarizes analysis-related information provided by the six reviewed sources for SCED standards. Visual analysis is acceptable to DV12 and DIV16, along with unspecified statistical approaches. In the WWC standards, visual analysis is the acceptable method of determining an intervention effect, with statistical analyses and randomization tests permissible as a complementary or supporting method to the results of visual analysis methods. However, the authors of the WWC standards state, “As the field reaches greater consensus about appropriate statistical analyses and quantitative effect-size measures, new standards for effect demonstration will need to be developed” ( Kratochwill et al., 2010 , p.16). The NRP and DIV12 seem to prefer statistical methods when they are warranted. The Tate at al. scale accepts only statistical analysis with the reporting of an effect size. Only the WWC and DIV16 provide guidance in the use of statistical analysis procedures: The WWC “recommends” nonparametric and parametric approaches, multilevel modeling, and regression when statistical analysis is used. DIV16 refers the reader to Wilkinson and the Task Force on Statistical Inference of the APA Board of Scientific Affairs (1999) for direction in this matter. Statistical analysis of daily diary and EMA methods is similarly unsettled. Stone and Shiffman (2002) ask for a detailed description of the statistical procedures used, in order for the approach to be replicated and evaluated. They provide direction for analyzing aggregated and disaggregated data. They also aptly note that because many different modes of analysis exist, researchers must carefully match the analytic approach to the hypotheses being pursued.

Limitations and Future Directions

This review has a number of limitations that leave the door open for future study of SCED methodology. Publication bias is a concern in any systematic review. This is particularly true for this review because the search was limited to articles published in peer-reviewed journals. This strategy was chosen in order to inform changes in the practice of reporting and of reviewing, but it also is likely to have inflated the findings regarding the methodological rigor of the reviewed works. Inclusion of book chapters, unpublished studies, and dissertations would likely have yielded somewhat different results.

A second concern is the stringent coding criteria in regard to the analytic methods and the broad categorization into visual and statistical analytic approaches. The selection of an appropriate method for analyzing SCED data is perhaps the murkiest area of this type of research. Future reviews that evaluate the appropriateness of selected analytic strategies and provide specific decision-making guidelines for researchers would be a very useful contribution to the literature. Although six sources of standards apply to SCED research reviewed in this article, five of them were developed almost exclusively to inform psychological and behavioral intervention research. The principles of SCED research remain the same in different contexts, but there is a need for non–intervention scientists to weigh in on these standards.

Finally, this article provides a first step in the synthesis of the available SCED reporting guidelines. However, it does not resolve disagreements, nor does it purport to be a definitive source. In the future, an entity with the authority to construct such a document ought to convene and establish a foundational, adaptable, and agreed-upon set of guidelines that cuts across subspecialties but is applicable to many, if not all, areas of psychological research, which is perhaps an idealistic goal. Certain preferences will undoubtedly continue to dictate what constitutes acceptable practice in each subspecialty of psychology, but uniformity along critical dimensions will help advance SCED research.

Conclusions

The first decade of the twenty-first century has seen an upwelling of SCED research across nearly all areas of psychology. This article contributes updated benchmarks in terms of the frequency with which SCED design and methodology characteristics are used, including the number of baseline observations, assessment and measurement practices, and data analytic approaches, most of which are largely consistent with previously reported benchmarks. However, this review is much broader than those of previous research teams and also breaks down the characteristics of single-case research by the predominant design. With the recent SCED proliferation came a number of standards for the conduct and reporting of such research. This article also provides a much-needed synthesis of recent SCED standards that can inform the work of researchers, reviewers, and funding agencies conducting and evaluating single-case research, which reveals many areas of consensus as well as areas of significant disagreement. It appears that the question of where to go next is very relevant at this point in time. The majority of the research design and measurement characteristics of the SCED are reasonably well established, and the results of this review suggest general practice that is in accord with existing standards and guidelines, at least in regard to published peer-reviewed works. In general, the published literature appears to be meeting the basic design and measurement requirement to ensure adequate internal validity of SCED studies.

Consensus regarding the superiority of any one analytic method stands out as an area of divergence. Judging by the current literature and lack of consensus, researchers will need to carefully select a method that matches the research design, hypotheses, and intended conclusions of the study, while also considering the most up-to-date empirical support for the chosen analytic method, whether it be visual or statistical. In some cases the number of observations and subjects in the study will dictate which analytic methods can and cannot be used. In the case of the true N -of-1 experiment, there are relatively few sound analytic methods, and even fewer that are robust with shorter data streams (see Borckardt et al., 2008 ). As the number of observations and subjects increases, sophisticated modeling techniques, such as MLM, SEM, and ARMA, become applicable. Trends in the data and autocorrelation further obfuscate the development of a clear statistical analysis selection algorithm, which currently does not exist. Autocorrelation was rarely addressed or discussed in the articles reviewed, except when the selected statistical analysis dictated consideration. Given the empirical evidence regarding the effect of autocorrelation on visual and statistical analysis, researchers need to address this more explicitly. Missing-data considerations are similarly left out when they are unnecessary for analytic purposes. As newly devised statistical analysis approaches mature and are compared with one another for appropriateness in specific SCED applications, guidelines for statistical analysis will necessarily be revised. Similarly, empirically derived guidance, in the form of a decision tree, must be developed to ensure application of appropriate methods based on characteristics of the data and the research questions being addressed. Researchers could also benefit from tutorials and comparative reviews of different software packages: This is a needed area of future research. Powerful and reliable statistical analyses help move the SCED up the ladder of experimental designs and attenuate the view that the method applies primarily to pilot studies and idiosyncratic research questions and situations.

Another potential future advancement of SCED research comes in the area of measurement. Currently, SCED research gives significant weight to observer ratings and seems to discourage other forms of data collection methods. This is likely due to the origins of the SCED in behavioral assessment and applied behavior analysis, which remains a present-day stronghold. The dearth of EMA and diary-like sampling procedures within the SCED research reviewed, yet their ever-growing prevalence in the larger psychological research arena, highlights an area for potential expansion. Observational measurement, although reliable and valid in many contexts, is time and resource intensive and not feasible in all areas in which psychologists conduct research. It seems that numerous untapped research questions are stifled because of this measurement constraint. SCED researchers developing updated standards in the future should include guidelines for the appropriate measurement requirement of non-observer-reported data. For example, the results of this review indicate that reporting of repeated measurements, particularly the high-density type found in diary and EMA sampling strategies, ought to be more clearly spelled out, with specific attention paid to autocorrelation and trend in the data streams. In the event that SCED researchers adopt self-reported assessment strategies as viable alternatives to observation, a set of standards explicitly identifying the necessary psychometric properties of the measures and specific items used would be in order.

Along similar lines, SCED researchers could take a page from other areas of psychology that champion multimethod and multisource evaluation of primary outcomes. In this way, the long-standing tradition of observational assessment and the cutting-edge technological methods of EMA and daily diary could be married with the goal of strengthening conclusions drawn from SCED research and enhancing the validity of self-reported outcome assessment. The results of this review indicate that they rarely intersect today, and I urge SCED researchers to adopt other methods of assessment informed by time-series, daily diary, and EMA methods. The EMA standards could serve as a jumping-off point for refined measurement and assessment reporting standards in the context of multimethod SCED research.

One limitation of the current SCED standards is their relatively limited scope. To clarify, with the exception of the Stone & Shiffman EMA reporting guidelines, the other five sources of standards were developed in the context of designing and evaluating intervention research. Although this is likely to remain its patent emphasis, SCEDs are capable of addressing other pertinent research questions in the psychological sciences, and the current standards truly only roughly approximate salient crosscutting SCED characteristics. I propose developing broad SCED guidelines that address the specific design, measurement, and analysis issues in a manner that allows it to be useful across applications, as opposed to focusing solely on intervention effects. To accomplish this task, methodology experts across subspecialties in psychology would need to convene. Admittedly this is no small task.

Perhaps funding agencies will also recognize the fiscal and practical advantages of SCED research in certain areas of psychology. One example is in the field of intervention effectiveness, efficacy, and implementation research. A few exemplary studies using robust forms of SCED methodology are needed in the literature. Case-based methodologies will never supplant the group design as the gold standard in experimental applications, nor should that be the goal. Instead, SCEDs provide a viable and valid alternative experimental methodology that could stimulate new areas of research and answer questions that group designs cannot. With the astonishing number of studies emerging every year that use single-case designs and explore the methodological aspects of the design, we are poised to witness and be a part of an upsurge in the sophisticated application of the SCED. When federal grant-awarding agencies and journal editors begin to use formal standards while making funding and publication decisions, the field will benefit.

Last, for the practice of SCED research to continue and mature, graduate training programs must provide students with instruction in all areas of the SCED. This is particularly true of statistical analysis techniques that are not often taught in departments of psychology and education, where the vast majority of SCED studies seem to be conducted. It is quite the conundrum that the best available statistical analytic methods are often cited as being inaccessible to social science researchers who conduct this type of research. This need not be the case. To move the field forward, emerging scientists must be able to apply the most state-of-the-art research designs, measurement techniques, and analytic methods.

Acknowledgments

Research support for the author was provided by research training grant MH20012 from the National Institute of Mental Health, awarded to Elizabeth A. Stormshak. The author gratefully acknowledges Robert Horner and Laura Lee McIntyre, University of Oregon; Michael Nash, University of Tennessee; John Ferron, University of South Florida; the Action Editor, Lisa Harlow, and the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful suggestions and guidance in shaping this article; Cheryl Mikkola for her editorial support; and Victoria Mollison for her assistance in the systematic review process.

Appendix. Results of Systematic Review Search and Studies Included in the Review

Psycinfo search conducted july 2011.

Primary key terms and phrases appearing ANYWHERE in the article (asterisks denote that any characters/letters can follow the last character of the search term):

Alternating treatment design

Changing criterion design

Experimental case*

Multiple baseline design

Replicated single-case design

Simultaneous treatment design

Time-series design

Methodological limiters:

Quantitative study OR treatment outcome/randomized clinical trial

NOT field study OR interview OR focus group OR literature review OR systematic review OR mathematical model OR qualitative study

Other limiters:

Publication range: 2000–2010

Published in peer-reviewed journals

Available in the English Language

Bibliography

(* indicates inclusion in study: N = 409)

• *. Aburrous M, Hossain MA, Dahal K, Thabtah F. Experimental case studies for investigating e-banking phishing techniques and attack strategies. Cognitive Computation. 2010;2(3):242–253. doi: 10.1007/s12559-010-9042-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aguilar R, Caramés JM, Espinet A. Effects of neonatal handling on playfulness by means of reversal of the desire to play in rats (Rattus norvegicus) Journal of Comparative Psychology. 2009;123(4):347–356. doi: 10.1037/a0016437. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ahearn WH. Using simultaneous presentation to increase vegetables consumption in a mildly selective child with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2003;36(3):361–365. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-361. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Allday RA, Pakurar K. Effects of teacher greetings on student on-task behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(2):317–320. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.86-06. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Allen-DeBoer RA, Malmgren KW, Glass M-E. Reading instruction for youth with emotional and behavioral disorders in a juvenile correctional facility. Behavioral Disorders. 2006;32(1):18–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Almeida FA, Smith-Ray RL, Van Den Berg R, Schriener P, Gonzales M, Onda P, Estabrooks PA. Utilizing a simple stimulus control strategy to increase physician referrals for physical activity promotion. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 2005;27(4):505–514. [ Google Scholar ]
• Almer ED, Gramling AA, Kaplan SE. Impact of post-restatement actions taken by a firm on non-professional investors’ credibility perceptions. Journal of Business Ethics. 2008;80(1):61–76. doi: 10.1007/s10551-007-9442-0. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Alvero AM, Rost K, Austin J. The safety observer effect: The effects of conducting safety observations. Journal of Safety Research. 2008;39(4):365–373. doi: 10.1016/j.jsr.2008.05.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Amato Zech NA, Hoff KE, Doepke KJ. Increasing on-task behavior in the classroom: Extension of self-monitoring strategies. Psychology in the Schools. 2006;43(2):211–221. doi: 10.1002/pits.20137. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Andrews-Salvia M, Roy N, Cameron RM. Evaluating the effects of memory books for individuals with severe dementia. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology. 2003;11(1):51–59. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Angermeier K, Schlosser RW, Luiselli JK, Harrington C, Carter B. Effects of iconicity on requesting with the Picture Exchange Communication System in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2008;2(3):430–446. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2007.09.004. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Anglesea MM, Hoch H, Taylor BA. Reducing rapid eating in teenagers with autism: Use of a pager prompt. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(1):107–111. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-107. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Antonelli G, Arrichiello F, Chiaverini S. The null-space-based behavioral control for autonomous robotic systems. Intelligent Service Robotics. 2008;1(1):27–39. doi: 10.1007/s11370-007-0002-3. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Apple AL, Billingsley F, Schwartz IS. Effects of video modeling alone and with self-management on compliment-giving behaviors of children with high-functioning ASD. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2005;7(1):33–46. doi: 10.1177/10983007050070010401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Arbona CB, Osma J, Garcia-Palacios A, Quero S, Baños RM. Treatment of flying phobia using virtual reality: Data from a 1-year follow-up using a multiple baseline design. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2004;11(5):311–323. doi: 10.1002/cpp.404. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Arco L, du Toit E. Effects of adding on-the-job feedback to conventional analog staff training in a nursing home. Behavior Modification. 2006;30(5):713–735. doi: 10.1177/0145445505281058. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ardoin SP, McCall M, Klubnik C. Promoting generalization of oral reading fluency: Providing drill versus practice opportunities. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2007;16(1):55–70. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Arndorfer RE, Allen KD. Extending the efficacy of a thermal biofeedback treatment package to the management of tension-type headaches in children. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain. 2001;41(2):183–192. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4610.2001.111006183.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Auslander GK, Buchs A. Evaluating an activity intervention with hemodialysis patients in Israel. Social Work in Health Care. 2002;35(1–2):407–423. doi: 10.1300/J010v35n01_05. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Austin J, Weatherly NL, Gravina NE. Using task clarification, graphic feedback, and verbal feedback to increase closing-task completion in a privately owned restaurant. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2005;38(1):117–120. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.159-03. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Azrin NH, Brooks J, Kellen MJ, Ehle C, Vinas V. Speed of eating as a determinant of the bulimic desire to vomit. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2008;30(3):263–270. doi: 10.1080/07317100802275728. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Azrin NH, Kellen MJ, Brooks J, Ehle C, Vinas V. Relationship between rate of eating and degree of satiation. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2008;30(4):355–364. doi: 10.1080/07317100802483223. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bach AK, Barlow DH, Wincze JP. The enhancing effects of manualized treatment for erectile dysfunction among men using sildenafil: A preliminary investigation. Behavior Therapy. 2004;35(1):55–73. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7894(04)80004-2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Banda DR, Hart SL. Increasing peer-to-peer social skills through direct instruction of two elementary school girls with autism. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. 2010;10(2):124–132. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01149.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Banda DR, Hart SL, Liu-Gitz L. Impact of training peers and children with autism on social skills during center time activities in inclusive classrooms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(4):619–625. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.12.005. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Barbera ML, Kubina RM., Jr Using transfer procedures to teach tacts to a child with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2005;21:155–161. doi: 10.1007/BF03393017. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Barry LM, Messer JJ. A practical application of self-management for students diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2003;5(4):238–248. doi: 10.1177/10983007030050040701. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bartels J, Douwes R, de Jong M, Pruyn A. Organizational identification during a merger: Determinants of employees’ expected identification with the new organization. British Journal of Management. 2006;17(Suppl 1):S49–S67. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2006.00478.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Barton EE, Wolery M. Evaluation of e-mail feedback on the verbal behaviors of pre-service teachers. Journal of Early Intervention. 2007;30(1):55–72. doi: 10.1177/105381510703000105. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bass-Ringdahl SM. The relationship of audibility and the development of canonical babbling in young children with hearing impairment. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. 2010;15(3):287–310. doi: 10.1093/deafed/enq013. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Batchelder A, McLaughlin TF, Weber KP, Derby KM, Gow T. The effects of hand-over-hand and a dot-to-dot tracing procedure on teaching an autistic student to write his name. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2009;21(2):131–138. doi: 10.1007/s10882-009-9131-2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beautrais AL, Gibb SJ, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Larkin GL. Removing bridge barriers stimulates suicides: An unfortunate natural experiment. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2009;43(6):495–497. doi: 10.1080/00048670902873714. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Beck KV, Miltenberger RG. Evaluation of a commercially available program and in situ training by parents to teach abduction-prevention skills to children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(4):761–772. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-761. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Beeson PM, Egnor H. Combining treatment for written and spoken naming. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 2006;12(6):816–827. doi: 10.1017/s1355617706061005. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Begeny JC, Martens BK. Assisting low-performing readers with a group-based reading fluency intervention. School Psychology Review. 2006;35(1):91–107. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Belfiore PJ, Fritts KM, Herman BC. The role of procedural integrity: Using self-monitoring to enhance Discrete Trial Instruction (DTI) Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2008;23(2):95–102. doi: 10.1177/1088357607311445. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bell RJ, Skinner CH, Fisher LA. Decreasing putting yips in accomplished golfers via solution-focused guided imagery: A single-subject research design. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2009;21(1):1–14. doi: 10.1080/10413200802443776. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Benavides CA, Poulson CL. Task interspersal and performance of matching tasks by preschoolers with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(3):619–629. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.12.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Benedict EA, Horner RH, Squires JK. Assessment and implementation of positive behavior support in preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 2007;27(3):174–192. doi: 10.1177/02711214070270030801. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bennett K, Brady MP, Scott J, Dukes C, Frain M. The effects of covert audio coaching on the job performance of supported employees. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2010;25(3):173–185. doi: 10.1177/1088357610371636. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berk RA, Sorenson SB, Wiebe DJ, Upchurch DM. The legalization of abortion and subsequent youth homicide: A time series analysis. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy (ASAP) 2003;3(1):45–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00014.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bermúdez-Ornelas G, Hernández-Guzmán L. Tratamiento de una sesión de la fobia específica a las arañas en niños [Treatment of a session of phobia to spiders in children] International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2008;8(3):779–791. [ Google Scholar ]
• Birkan B, McClannahan LE, Krantz PJ. Effects of superimposition and background fading on the sight-word reading of a boy with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2007;1(2):117–125. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2006.08.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Björkman T, Hansson L. Case management for individuals with a severe mental illness: A 6-year follow-up study. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2007;53(1):12–22. doi: 10.1177/0020764006066849. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Blischak DM, Shah SD, Lombardino LJ, Chiarella K. Effects of phonemic awareness instruction on the encoding skills of children with severe speech impairment. Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal. 2004;26(21–22):1295–1304. doi: 10.1080/09638280412331280325. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bliss SL, Skinner CH, Adams R. Enhancing an English language learning fifth-grade student’s sight-word reading with a time-delay taped-words intervention. School Psychology Review. 2006;35(4):663–670. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bloh C. Assessing transfer of stimulus control procedures across learners with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2008;24:87–101. doi: 10.1007/BF03393059. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Boersma K, Linton S, Overmeer T, Jansson M, Vlaeyen J, de Jong J. Lowering fear-avoidance and enhancing function through exposure in vivo. A multiple baseline study across six patients with back pain. Pain. 2004;108(1–2):8–16. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2003.03.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Borrero CSW, Vollmer TR. Experimental analysis and treatment of multiply controlled problem behavior: A systematic replication and extension. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(3):375–379. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.170-04. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bosseler A, Massaro DW. Development and evaluation of a computer-animated tutor for vocabulary and language learning in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2003;33(6):653–672. doi: 10.1023/B:JADD.0000006002.82367.4f. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Botella C, Bretón-López J, Quero S, Baños R, García-Palacios A. Treating cockroach phobia with augmented reality. Behavior Therapy. 2010;41(3):401–413. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2009.07.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bowie SL, Barthelemy JJ, White G., Jr Federal welfare and housing policy at the crossroads: Outcomes from a rent incentive-based welfare-to-work initiative in a low-income, predominantly African American, urban public housing community. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 2007;15(2–3):391–414. doi: 10.1300/J137v15n02_22. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bowman-Perrott LJ, Greenwood CR, Tapia Y. The efficacy of CWPT used in secondary alternative school classrooms with small teacher/pupil ratios and students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Education & Treatment of Children. 2007;30(3):65–87. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyer E, Miltenberger RG, Batsche C, Fogel V. Video modeling by experts with video feedback to enhance gymnastics skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(4):855–860. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-855. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bradshaw W. Use of single-system research to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural treatment of schizophrenia. British Journal of Social Work. 2003;33(7):885–899. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/33.7.885. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brannick MT, Fabri PJ, Zayas-Castro J, Bryant RH. Evaluation of an error-reduction training program for surgical residents. Academic Medicine. 2009;84(12):1809–1814. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181bf36b0. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Bray MA, Kehle TJ, Peck HL, Margiano SG, Dobson R, Peczynski K, Alric JM. Written emotional expression as an intervention for asthma: A replication. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2005;22(1):141–165. doi: 10.1300/J370v22n01_08. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Brenske S, Rudrud EH, Schulze KA, Rapp JT. Increasing activity attendance and engagement in individuals with dementia using descriptive prompts. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(2):273–277. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-273. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bressi C, Lo Baido R, Manenti S, Frongia P, Guidotti B, Maggi L, Invernizzi G. Efficacia clinica della terapia familiare sistemica nella schizofrenia: Uno studio prospettico longitudinale [Schizophrenia and the clinical efficacy of systemic family therapy: A prospective longitudinal study] Rivista di Psichiatria. 2004;39(3):189–197. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bressi C, Manenti S, Frongia P, Porcellana M, Invernizzi G. Systemic family therapy in schizophrenia: A randomized clinical trial of effectiveness. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 2007;77(1):43–49. doi: 10.1159/000110059. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Buckley SD, Newchok DK. Differential impact of response effort within a response chain on use of mands in a student with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;26(1):77–85. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.07.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burke RV, Andersen MN, Bowen SL, Howard MR, Allen KD. Evaluation of two instruction methods to increase employment options for young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2010;31(6):1223–1233. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.07.023. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Burns MK, Peters R, Noell GH. Using performance feedback to enhance implementation fidelity of the problem-solving team process. Journal of School Psychology. 2008;46(5):537–550. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2008.04.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Byrnes V. Getting a feel for the market: The use of privatized school management in Philadelphia. American Journal of Education. 2009;115(3):437–455. doi: 10.1086/597486. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Calmels C, Berthoumieux C, d’Arripe-Longueville F. Effects of an imagery training program on selective attention of national softball players. The Sport Psychologist. 2004;18(3):272–296. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Calmels C, Holmes P, Berthoumieux C, Singer RN. The development of movement imagery vividness through a structured intervention in softball. Journal of Sport Behavior. 2004;27(4):307–322. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Camarata S, Yoder P, Camarata M. Simultaneous treatment of grammatical and speech-comprehensibility deficits in children with Down syndrome. Down Syndrome: Research & Practice. 2006;11(1):9–17. doi: 10.3104/reports.314. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Cancio EJ, West RP, Young KR. Improving mathematics homework completion and accuracy of students with EBD through self-management and parent participation. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2004;12(1):9–22. doi: 10.1177/10634266040120010201. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Cannon JE, Fredrick LD, Easterbrooks SR. Vocabulary instruction through books read in American Sign Language for English-language learners with hearing loss. Communication Disorders Quarterly. 2010;31(2):98–112. doi: 10.1177/1525740109332832. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cardman S, Ryan BP. Experimental analysis of the relationship between speaking rate and stuttering during mother-child conversation II. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2007;19(5):457–469. doi: 10.1007/s10882-007-9063-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Carlson B, McLaughlin TF, Derby KM, Blecher J. Teaching preschool children with autism and developmental delays to write. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology. 2009;7(1):225–238. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carlson JI, Luiselli JK, Slyman A, Markowski A. Choice-making as intervention for public disrobing in children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2008;10(2):86–90. doi: 10.1177/1098300707312544. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Carnahan C, Musti-Rao S, Bailey J. Promoting active engagement in small group learning experiences for students with autism and significant learning needs. Education & Treatment of Children. 2009;32(1):37–61. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0047. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Carrier MH, Côté G. Évaluation de l’efficacité d’un traitement cognitif-comportemental pour le trouble d’anxiété généralisée combiné à des strategiés de régulation des émotions et d’acceptation et d’engagement expérientiel [Evaluation of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for GAD combined with emotion regulation and acceptance-based strategies] European Review of Applied Psychology/Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée. 2010;60(1):11–25. doi: 10.1016/j.erap.2009.06.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Carter DR, Horner RH. Adding function-based behavioral support to First Step to Success: Integrating individualized and manualized practices. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2009;11(1):22–34. doi: 10.1177/1098300708319125. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Carter DR, Norman RK. Class-wide positive behavior support in preschool: Improving teacher implementation through consultation. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2010;38(4):279–288. doi: 10.1007/s10643-010-0409-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Casey AM, McWilliam RA. Graphical feedback to increase teachers’ use of incidental teaching. Journal of Early Intervention. 2008;30(3):251–268. doi: 10.1177/1053815108319038. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Casey SD, Merical CL. The use of functional communication training without additional treatment procedures in an inclusive school setting. Behavioral Disorders. 2006;32(1):46–54. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Cass M, Cates D, Smith M, Jackson C. Effects of manipulative instruction on solving area and perimeter problems by students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 2003;18(2):112–120. doi: 10.1111/1540-5826.00067. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Catania CN, Almeida D, Liu-Constant B, DiGennaro Reed FD. Video modeling to train staff to implement discrete-trial instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(2):387–392. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-387. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cautilli JD, Dziewolska H. Brief report: The use of opportunity to respond and practice to increase efficiency of the stepping reflex in a five-month-old infant. The Behavior Analyst Today. 2006;7(4):538–547. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ceroni GB, Rucci P, Berardi D, Berti Ceroni F, Katon W. Case review vs. usual care in primary care patients with depression: A pilot study. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2002;24(2):71–80. doi: 10.1016/s0163-8343(01)00182-7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chaabane DBB, Alber-Morgan SR, DeBar RM. The effects of parent-implemented PECS training on improvisation of mands by children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(3):671–677. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-671. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Charlop MH, Malmberg DB, Berquist KL. An application of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) with children with autism and a visually impaired therapist. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2008;20(6):509–525. doi: 10.1007/s10882-008-9112-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cho H, Wilke DJ. How has the Violence Against Women Act affected the response of the criminal justice system to domestic violence? Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare. 2005;32(4):125–139. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Choate ML, Pincus DB, Eyberg SM, Barlow DH. Parent-child interaction therapy for treatment of separation anxiety disorder in young children: A pilot study. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice. 2005;12(1):126–135. doi: 10.1016/s1077-7229(05)80047-1. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Christian AH, Mills T, Simpson SL, Mosca L. Quality of cardiovascular disease preventive care and physician/practice characteristics. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2006;21(3):231–237. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00331.x. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chu YH, Frongillo EA, Jones SJ, Kaye GL. Improving patrons’ meal selections through the use of point-of-selection nutrition labels. American Journal of Public Health. 2009;99(11):2001–2005. doi: 10.2105/ajph.2008.153205. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ciemins EL. The effect of parity-induced copayment reductions on adolescent utilization of substance use services. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2004;65(6):731–735. doi: 10.15288/jsa.2004.65.731. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ciemins EL, Blum L, Nunley M, Lasher A, Newman JM. The economic and clinical impact of an inpatient palliative care consultation service: A multifaceted approach. Journal of Palliative Medicine. 2007;10(6):1347–1355. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2007.0065. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Clarfield J, Stoner G. Research brief: The effects of computerized reading instruction on the academic performance of students identified with ADHD. School Psychology Review. 2005;34(2):246–254. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Clayton M, Helms B, Simpson C. Active prompting to decrease cell phone use and increase seat belt use while driving. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(3):341–349. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.153-04. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clayton MC, Woodard C. The effect of response cards on participation and weekly quiz scores of university students enrolled introductory psychology courses. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2007;16(3):250–258. doi: 10.1007/s10864-007-9038-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Clyne C, Blampied NM. Training in emotion regulation as a treatment for binge eating: A preliminary study. Behaviour Change. 2004;21(4):269–281. doi: 10.1375/bech.21.4.269.66105. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Codding RS, Livanis A, Pace GM, Vaca L. Using performance feedback to improve treatment integrity of classwide behavior plans: An investigation of observer reactivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(3):417–422. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-417. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Codding RS, Skowron J, Pace GM. Back to basics: Training teachers to interpret curriculum-based measurement data and create observable and measurable objectives. Behavioral Interventions. 2005;20(3):165–176. doi: 10.1002/bin.194. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Codding RS, Smyth CA. Using performance feedback to decrease classroom transition time and examine collateral effects on academic engagement. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation. 2008;18(4):325–345. doi: 10.1080/10474410802463312. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Coleman-Martin MB, Heller KW. Using a modified constant prompt-delay procedure to teach spelling to students with physical disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(4):469–480. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-469. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Collie-Akers V, Schultz JA, Carson V, Fawcett SB, Ronan M. Evaluating mobilization strategies with neighborhood and faith organizations to reduce risk for health disparities. Health Promotion Practice. 2009;10(2, Suppl):118S–127S. doi: 10.1177/1524839908331271. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Collins S, Higbee TS, Salzberg CL. The effects of video modeling on staff implementation of a problem-solving intervention with adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(4):849–854. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-849. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Conelea CA, Woods DW. Examining the impact of distraction on tic suppression in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2008;46(11):1193–1200. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.07.005. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Conroy MA, Asmus JM, Sellers JA, Ladwig CN. The use of an antecedent-based intervention to decrease stereotypic behavior in a general education classroom: A case study. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2005;20(4):223–230. doi: 10.1177/10883576050200040401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper MD. Exploratory analyses of the effects of managerial support and feedback consequences on behavioral safety maintenance. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2006;26(3):1–41. doi: 10.1300/J075v26n03_01. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Cory L, Dattilo J, Williams R. Effects of a leisure education program on social knowledge and skills of youth with cognitive disabilities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal. 2006;40(3):144–164. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coryn CLS, Schröter DC, Hanssen CE. Adding a time-series design element to the success case method to improve methodological rigor: An application for nonprofit program evaluation. American Journal of Evaluation. 2009;30(1):80–92. doi: 10.1177/1098214008326557. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Craig-Unkefer LA, Kaiser AP. Increasing peer-directed social-communication skills of children enrolled in Head Start. Journal of Early Intervention. 2003;25(4):229–247. doi: 10.1177/105381510302500401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Crawley SH, Lynch P, Vannest K. The use of self-monitoring to reduce off-task behavior and cross-correlation examination of weekends and absences as an antecedent to off-task behavior. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2006;28(2):29–48. doi: 10.1300/J019v28n02_03. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Creech J, Golden JA. Increasing Braille practice and reading comprehension in a student with visual impairment and moderate mental retardation: An initial study and follow-up. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2009;21(3):225–233. doi: 10.1007/s10882-009-9137-9. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Crosland KA, Cigales M, Dunlap G, Neff B, Clark HB, Giddings T, Blanco A. Using staff training to decrease the use of restrictive procedures at two facilities for foster care children. Research on Social Work Practice. 2008;18(5):401–409. doi: 10.1177/1049731507314006. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Crosland KA, Dunlap G, Sager W, Neff B, Wilcox C, Blanco A, Giddings T. The effects of staff training on the types of interactions observed at two group homes for foster care children. Research on Social Work Practice. 2008;18(5):410–420. doi: 10.1177/1049731507314000. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Crozier S, Tincani MJ. Using a modified social story to decrease disruptive behavior of a child with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2005;20(3):150–157. doi: 10.1177/10883576050200030301. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Culig KM, Dickinson AM, Lindstrom-Hazel D, Austin J. Combining workstation design and performance management to increase ergonomically correct computer typing postures. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2008;28(3):146–175. doi: 10.1080/01608060802251064. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Da Fonte MA, Taber-Doughty T. The use of graphic symbols in infancy: How early can we start? Early Child Development and Care. 2010;180(4):417–439. doi: 10.1080/03004430802009141. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dallery J, Glenn IM, Raiff BR. An Internet-based abstinence reinforcement treatment for cigarette smoking. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007;86(2–3):230–238. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.06.013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dallery J, Meredith S, Glenn IM. A deposit contract method to deliver abstinence reinforcement for cigarette smoking. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(4):609–615. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-609. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Davis KM, Boon RT, Cihak DF, Fore C., III Power cards to improve conversational skills in adolescents with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2010;25(1):12–22. doi: 10.1177/1088357609354299. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de los Angeles Cruz-Almanza M, Gaona-Márquez L, Sánchez-Sosa JJ. Empowering women abused by their problem drinker spouses: Effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention. Salud Mental. 2006;29(5):25–31. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. DeQuinzio JA, Townsend DB, Poulson CL. The effects of forward chaining and contingent social interaction on the acquisition of complex sharing responses by children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2008;2(2):264–275. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2007.06.006. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. DeRosse P, Fields L. The contextually controlled, feature-mediated classification of symbols. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 2010;93(2):225–245. doi: 10.1901/jeab.2010.93-225. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Devlin P. Enhancing the job performance of employees with disabilities using the self-determined career development model. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2008;43(4):502–513. doi: 10.1352/1934-9556-49.4.221. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Digennaro-Reed FD, Codding R, Catania CN, Maguire H. Effects of video modeling on treatment integrity of behavioral interventions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2010;43(2):291–295. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2010.43-291. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dimling LM. Conceptually based vocabulary intervention: Second graders’ development of vocabulary words. American Annals of the Deaf. 2010;155(4):425–448. doi: 10.1353/aad.2010.0040. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dixon MR, Holton B. Altering the magnitude of delay discounting by pathological gamblers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(2):269–275. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-269. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dodd S, Hupp SDA, Jewell JD, Krohn E. Using parents and siblings during a social story intervention for two children diagnosed with PDD-NOS. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2008;20(3):217–229. doi: 10.1007/s10882-007-9090-4. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dojo Y, Tanaka-Matsumi J, Inoue N. Effect of goal setting with a target behavior card on class preparation behavior of children in a regular classroom. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2004;19(2):148–160. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Donaldson JM, Normand MP. Using goal setting, self-monitoring, and feedback to increase calorie expenditure in obese adults. Behavioral Interventions. 2009;24(2):73–83. doi: 10.1002/bin.277. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dorminy KP, Luscre D, Gast DL. Teaching organizational skills to children with high functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2009;44(4):538–550. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Downs A, Downs RC, Rau K. Effects of training and feedback on discrete trial teaching skills and student performance. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2008;29(3):235–246. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2007.05.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Drager KDR, Postal VJ, Carrolus L, Castellano M, Gagliano C, Glynn J. The effect of aided language modeling on symbol comprehension and production in 2 preschoolers with autism. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 2006;15(2):112–125. doi: 10.1044/1058-0360(2006/012). [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Driscoll C, Carter M. The effects of social and isolate toys on the social interaction of preschool children with disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2009;21(4):279–300. doi: 10.1007/s10882-009-9142-z. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Driscoll C, Carter M. The effects of spatial density on the social interaction of preschool children with disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2010;57(2):191–206. doi: 10.1080/10349121003750836. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dufrene BA, Reisener CD, Olmi DJ, Zoder-Martell K, McNutt MR, Horn DR. Peer tutoring for reading fluency as a feasible and effective alternative in response to intervention systems. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2010;19(3):239–256. doi: 10.1007/s10864-010-9111-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Dugas MJ, Ladouceur R. Treatment of GAD: Targeting intolerance of uncertainty in two types of worry. Behavior Modification. 2000;24(5):635–657. doi: 10.1177/0145445500245002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Duhon GJ, House SE, Poncy BC, Hastings KW, McClurg SC. An examination of two techniques for promoting response generalization of early literacy skills. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2010;19(1):62–75. doi: 10.1007/s10864-010-9097-2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Earleywine M, Van Dam NT. Case studies in cannabis vaporization. Addiction Research & Theory. 2010;18(3):243–249. doi: 10.3109/16066350902974753. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Easterbrooks SR, Stoner M. Using a visual tool to increase adjectives in the written language of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Communication Disorders Quarterly. 2006;27(2):95–109. doi: 10.1177/15257401060270020701. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ebanks ME, Fisher WW. Altering the timing of academic prompts to treat destructive behavior maintained by escape. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2003;36(3):355–359. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-355. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ebert KD, Kohnert K. Non-linguistic cognitive treatment for primary language impairment. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. 2009;23(9):647–664. doi: 10.1080/02699200902998770. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eckman N, Williams KE, Riegel K, Paul C. Teaching chewing: A structured approach. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2008;62(5):514–521. doi: 10.5014/ajot.62.5.514. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Eikenhout N, Austin J. Using goals, feedback, reinforcement, and a performance matrix to improve customer service in a large department store. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2004;24(3):27–62. doi: 10.1300/J075v24n03_02. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eikeseth S, Nesset R. Behavioral treatment of children with phonological disorder: The efficacy of vocal imitation and sufficient-response-exemplar training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2003;36(3):325–337. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-325. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Eisen AR, Raleigh H, Neuhoff CC. The unique impact of parent training for separation anxiety disorder in children. Behavior Therapy. 2008;39(2):195–206. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2007.07.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Elias NC, Goyos C, Saunders M, Saunders R. Teaching manual signs to adults with mental retardation using matching-to-sample procedures and stimulus equivalence. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2008;24:1–13. doi: 10.1007/BF03393053. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Embregts PJCM. Effectiveness of video feedback and self-management on inappropriate social behavior of youth with mild mental retardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2000;21(5):409–423. doi: 10.1016/s0891-4222(00)00052-4. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Endo Y, Ohkubo K, Gomi Y, Noguchi M, Takahashi N, Takei S, Noro F. Application of interdependent group-oriented contingencies to cleaning behaviors of students in an elementary school: Effects of class-wide intervention and social validity. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2007;22(1):17–30. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Engel JM, Jensen MP, Schwartz L. Outcome of biofeedback-assisted relaxation for pain in adults with cerebral palsy: Preliminary findings. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. 2004;29(2):135–140. doi: 10.1023/B:APBI.0000026639.95223.6f. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Fabiano GA, Pelham WE., Jr Improving the effectiveness of behavioral classroom interventions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A case study. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2003;11(2):124–130. doi: 10.1177/106342660301100206. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Facon B, Beghin M, Rivière V. The reinforcing effect of contingent attention on verbal perseverations of two children with severe visual impairment. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 2007;38(1):23–28. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.01.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fazzio D, Martin GL, Arnal L, Yu DCT. Instructing university students to conduct discrete-trials teaching with children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(1):57–66. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.04.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Feather JS, Ronan KR. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy for abused children with posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. New Zealand Journal of Psychology. 2006;35(3):132–145. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Feather JS, Ronan KR. Trauma-focused CBT with maltreated children: A clinic-based evaluation of a new treatment manual. Australian Psychologist. 2009;44(3):174–194. doi: 10.1080/00050060903147083. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fenstermacher K, Olympia D, Sheridan SM. Effectiveness of a computer-facilitated interactive social skills training program for boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly. 2006;21(2):197–224. doi: 10.1521/scpq.2006.21.2.197. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferguson H, Myles BS, Hagiwara T. Using a personal digital assistant to enhance the independence of an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;40(1):60–67. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ferrara SLN. Reading fluency and self-efficacy: A case study. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2005;52(3):215–231. doi: 10.1080/10349120500252858. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Fienup DM, Doepke K. Evaluation of a changing criterion intervention to increase fluent responding with an elementary age student with autism. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2008;4(3):297–303. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Filter KJ, Horner RH. Function-based academic interventions for problem behavior. Education & Treatment of Children. 2009;32(1):1–19. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0043. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Finkel AS, Weber KP, Derby KM. Use of a Braille Exchange Communication System to improve articulation and acquire mands with a legally blind and developmentally disabled female. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2004;16(4):321–336. doi: 10.1007/s10882-004-0689-4. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Finnigan E, Starr E. Increasing social responsiveness in a child with autism: A comparison of music and non-music interventions. Autism. 2010;14(4):321–348. doi: 10.1177/1362361309357747. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Fischer JL, Howard JS, Sparkman CR, Moore AG. Establishing generalized syntactical responding in young children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(1):76–88. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.07.009. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Fleming CV, Wheeler GM, Cannella-Malone HI, Basbagill AR, Chung Y-C, Day KG. An evaluation of the use of eye gaze to measure preference of individuals with severe physical and developmental disabilities. Developmental Neurorehabilitation. 2010;13(4):266–275. doi: 10.3109/17518421003705706. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Flood WA, Wilder DA. The use of differential reinforcement and fading to increase time away from a caregiver in a child with separation anxiety disorder. Education & Treatment of Children. 2004;27(1):1–8. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Forquer LM, Johnson CM. Continuous white noise to reduce resistance going to sleep and night wakings in toddlers. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2005;27(2):1–10. doi: 10.1300/J019v27n02_01. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Forquer LM, Johnson CM. Continuous white noise to reduce sleep latency and night wakings in college students. Sleep and Hypnosis. 2007;9(2):60–66. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Forrest K, luzzini J. A comparison of oral motor and production training for children with speech sound disorders. Seminars in Speech and Language. 2008;29(4):304–311. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1103394. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Foxx RM, Schreck KA, Garito J, Smith A, Weisenberger S. Replacing the echolalia of children with autism with functional use of verbal labeling. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2004;16(4):307–320. doi: 10.1007/s10882-004-0688-5. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. France KG, Blampied NM. Modifications of systematic ignoring in the management of infant sleep disturbance: Efficacy and infant distress. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2005;27(1):1–16. doi: 10.1300/J019v27n01_01. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Franzen K, Kamps D. The utilization and effects of positive behavior support strategies on an urban school playground. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2008;10(3):150–161. doi: 10.1177/1098300708316260. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Frea WD, Arnold CL, Vittimberga GL. A demonstration of the effects of augmentative communication on the extreme aggressive behavior of a child with autism within an integrated preschool setting. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2001;3(4):194–198. doi: 10.1177/109830070100300401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Freeman P, Rees T, Hardy L. An intervention to increase social support and improve performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2009;21(2):186–200. doi: 10.1080/10413200902785829. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fujita Y, Hasegawa Y. Weight control: Selection of low-calorie food. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2003;18(1):3–9. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ganz JB, Bourgeois BC, Flores MM, Campos BA. Implementing visually cued imitation training with children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental delays. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2008;10(1):56–66. doi: 10.1177/1098300707311388. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ganz JB, Flores MM. Effects of the use of visual strategies in play groups for children with autism spectrum disorders and their peers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2008;38(5):926–940. doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0463-4. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ganz JB, Flores MM. The effectiveness of direct instruction for teaching language to children with autism spectrum disorders: Identifying materials. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2009;39(1):75–83. doi: 10.1007/s10803-008-0602-6. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ganz JB, Kaylor M, Bourgeois B, Hadden K. The impact of social scripts and visual cues on verbal communication in three children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2008;23(2):79–94. doi: 10.1177/1088357607311447. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ganz JB, Sigafoos J. Self-monitoring: Are young adults with MR and autism able to utilize cognitive strategies independently? Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;40(1):24–33. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Garrity ML, Luiselli JK, McCollum SA. Effects of a supervisory intervention on assessment of interobserver agreement by educational service providers. Behavioral Interventions. 2008;23(2):105–112. doi: 10.1002/bin.258. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gena A, Couloura S, Kymissis E. Modifying the affective behavior of preschoolers with autism using in-vivo or video modeling and reinforcement contingencies. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2005;35(5):545–556. doi: 10.1007/s10803-005-0014-9. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• German DJ. A phonologically based strategy to improve word-finding abilities in children. Communication Disorders Quarterly. 2002;23(4):177–190. doi: 10.1177/15257401020230040301. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gilbertson D, Witt JC, Duhon G, Dufrene B. Using brief assessments to select math fluency and on-task behavior interventions: An investigation of treatment utility. Education & Treatment of Children. 2008;31(2):167–181. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0023. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Girling-Butcher RD, Ronan KR. Brief cognitive-behavioural therapy for children with anxiety disorders: Initial evaluation of a program designed for clinic settings. Behaviour Change. 2009;26(1):27–53. doi: 10.1375/bech.26.1.27. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glassman TJ, Dodd V, Miller EM, Braun RE. Preventing high-risk drinking among college students: A social marketing case study. Social Marketing Quarterly. 2010;16(4):92–110. doi: 10.1080/15245004.2010.522764. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goldkamp JS, Vîlcicã ER. Targeted enforcement and adverse system side effects: The generation of fugitives in Philadelphia. Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 2008;46(2):371–409. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00113.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gómez S, López F, Martín CB, Barnes-Holmes Y, Barnes-Holmes D. Exemplar training and a derived transformation of functions in accordance with symmetry and equivalence. The Psychological Record. 2007;57(2):273–294. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Goodman JI, Brady MP, Duffy ML, Scott J, Pollard NE. The effects of “bug-in-ear” supervision on special education teachers’ delivery of learn units. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2008;23(4):207–216. doi: 10.1177/1088357608324713. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gorman DM, Huber JC., Jr Do medical cannabis laws encourage cannabis use? International Journal of Drug Policy. 2007;18(3):160–167. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.10.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gravina N, Austin J, Schoedtder L, Loewy S. The effects of self-monitoring on safe posture performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2008;28(4):238–259. doi: 10.1080/01608060802454825. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gravina N, Lindstrom-Hazel D, Austin J. The effects of workstation changes and behavioral interventions on safe typing postures in an office. Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation. 2007;29(3):245–253. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gravina N, Wilder DA, White H, Fabian T. The effect of raffle odds on signing in at a treatment center for adults with mental illness. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2004;24(4):31–42. doi: 10.1300/J075v24n04_02. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gregg MJ, Hrycaiko D, Mactavish JB, Martin GL. A mental skills package for Special Olympics athletes: A preliminary study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2004;21(1):4–18. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Grey I, Healy O, Leader G, Hayes D. Using a Time Timer™ to increase appropriate waiting behavior in a child with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2009;30(2):359–366. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2008.07.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Grissom T, Ward P, Martin B, Leenders NYJM. Physical activity in physical education: Teacher or technology effects. Family & Community Health: The Journal of Health Promotion & Maintenance. 2005;28(2):125–129. doi: 10.1097/00003727-200504000-00004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Grskovic JA, Hall AM, Montgomery DJ, Vargas AU, Zentall SS, Belfiore PJ. Reducing time-out assignments for students with emotional/behavioral disorders in a self-contained classroom. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2004;13(1):25–36. doi: 10.1023/b:jobe.0000011258.06561.82. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gryiec M, Grandy S, McLaughlin TF. The effects of the copy, cover, and compare procedure in spelling with an elementary student with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Precision Teaching & Celeration. 2004;20(1):2–8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gupta A, Naorem T. Cognitive retraining in epilepsy. Brain Injury. 2003;17(2):161–174. doi: 10.1080/0269905021000010195. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Gyovai LK, Cartledge G, Kourea L, Yurick A, Gibson L. Early reading intervention: Responding to the learning needs of young at-risk English language learners. Learning Disability Quarterly. 2009;32(3):143–162. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Haddad K, Tremayne P. The effects of centering on the free-throw shooting performance of young athletes. The Sport Psychologist. 2009;23(1):118–136. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hall LJ, Grundon GS, Pope C, Romero AB. Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments. Behavioral Interventions. 2010;25(1):37–51. [ Google Scholar ]
• Halsteinli V. Treatment intensity in child and adolescent mental health services and health care reform in Norway, 1998–2006. Psychiatric Services. 2010;61(3):280–285. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.61.3.280. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hamilton RA, Scott D, MacDougall MP. Assessing the effectiveness of self-talk interventions on endurance performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2007;19(2):226–239. doi: 10.1080/10413200701230613. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hansen DL, Morgan RL. Teaching grocery store purchasing skills to students with intellectual disabilities using a computer-based instruction program. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2008;43(4):431–442. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hanser GA, Erickson KA. Integrated word identification and communication instruction for students with complex communication needs: Preliminary results. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2007;22(4):268–278. doi: 10.1177/10883576070220040901. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Harding JW, Wacker DP, Berg WK, Winborn-Kemmerer L, Lee JF, Ibrahimovic M. Analysis of multiple manding topographies during functional communication training. Education & Treatment of Children. 2009;32(1):21–36. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0045. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hart JM, Fritz JM, Kerrigan DC, Saliba EN, Gansneder BM, Ingersoll CD. Quadriceps inhibition after repetitive lumbar extension exercise in persons with a history of low back pain. Journal of Athletic Training. 2006;41(3):264–269. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hartley ET, Kehle TJ, Bray MA. Increasing student classroom participation through self-modeling. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2002;19(1):51–63. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hartnedy SL, Mozzoni MP, Fahoum Y. The effect of fluency training on math and reading skills in neuropsychiatric diagnosis children: A multiple baseline design. Behavioral Interventions. 2005;20(1):27–36. doi: 10.1002/bin.167. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Haslam SA, Reicher S. Identity entrepreneurship and the consequences of identity failure: The dynamics of leadership in the BBC prison study. Social Psychology Quarterly. 2007;70(2):125–147. doi: 10.1177/019027250707000204. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hastie PA, Sharpe T. Introducing a changing-criterion design to hold students accountable in structured physical activity settings. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools. 2006;7(1):73–88. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hastie PA, Sharpe T. Implementation guidelines: Introducing a changing-criterion design to hold students accountable in structured physical activity settings. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools. 2006;7(1):89–91. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hayter S, Scott E, McLaughlin TF, Weber KP. The use of a modified direct instruction flashcard system with two high school students with developmental disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2007;19(4):409–415. doi: 10.1007/s10882-007-9059-3. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hayward D, Eikeseth S, Gale C, Morgan S. Assessing progress during treatment for young children with autism receiving intensive behavioural interventions. Autism. 2009;13(6):613–633. doi: 10.1177/1362361309340029. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Heering PW, Wilder DA. The use of dependent group contingencies to increase on-task behavior in two general education classrooms. Education & Treatment of Children. 2006;29(3):459–468. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hernandez E, Hanley GP, Ingvarsson ET, Tiger JH. A preliminary evaluation of the emergence of novel mand forms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(1):137–156. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.96-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hetzroni OE, Tannous J. Effects of a computer-based intervention program on the communicative functions of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2004;34(2):95–113. doi: 10.1023/B:JADD.0000022602.40506.bf. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Higbee TS, Chang S-M, Endicott K. Noncontingent access to preferred sensory stimuli as a treatment for automatically reinforced stereotypy. Behavioral Interventions. 2005;20(3):177–184. doi: 10.1002/bin.190. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hillman HL, Miller LK. The effects of a spouse implemented contingency contract on asthma medication adherence. The Behavior Analyst Today. 2009;10(1):1–6. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Himle MB, Woods DW, Conelea CA, Bauer CC, Rice KA. Investigating the effects of tic suppression on premonitory urge ratings in children and adolescents with Tourette’s syndrome. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2007;45(12):2964–2976. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.007. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hirasawa N, Fujiwara Y, Yamane M. Physical arrangements and staff implementation of function-based interventions in school and community settings. Japanese Journal of Special Education. 2009;46(6):435–446. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hirayoshi S, Nakajima S. Do rats press the lever for longer than the required duration?: Differential reinforcement of response duration and response topography. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2003;18(2):99–107. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hitchcock CH, Prater MA, Dowrick PW. Reading comprehension and fluency: Examining the effects of tutoring and video self-modeling on first-grade students with reading difficulties. Learning Disability Quarterly. 2004;27(2):89–103. doi: 10.2307/1593644. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Holzer ML, Madaus JW, Bray MA, Kehle TJ. The test-taking strategy intervention for college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 2009;24(1):44–56. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.01276.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hoskins S, Coleman M, McNeely D. Stress in careers of individuals with dementia and community mental health teams: An uncontrolled evaluation study. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2005;50(3):325–333. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03396.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hough MS. Melodic intonation therapy and aphasia: Another variation on a theme. Aphasiology. 2010;24(6–8):775–786. doi: 10.1080/02687030903501941. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Howard CD, Barrett AF, Frick TW. Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers’ comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 2010;43(1):89–112. doi: 10.2190/EC.43.1.f. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Høye A, Rezvy G, Hansen V, Olstad R. The effect of gender in diagnosing early schizophrenia: An experimental case simulation study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2006;41(7):549–555. doi: 10.1007/s00127-006-0066-y. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huitema BE. Analysis of interrupted time-series experiments using ITSE: A critique. Understanding Statistics. 2004;3(1):27–46. doi: 10.1207/s15328031us0301_2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Hundert JP. Training classroom and resource preschool teachers to develop inclusive class interventions for children with disabilities: Generalization to new intervention targets. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2007;9(3):159–173. doi: 10.1177/10983007070090030401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hupp SDA, Allen KD. Using an audio cueing procedure to increase rate of parental attention during parent training. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2005;27(2):43–49. doi: 10.1300/J019v27n02_04. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ingersoll B, Dvortcsak A, Whalen C, Sikora D. The effects of a developmental, social-pragmatic language intervention on rate of expressive language production in young children with autistic spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2005;20(4):213–222. doi: 10.1177/10883576050200040301. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ingersoll B, Gergans S. The effect of a parent-implemented imitation intervention on spontaneous imitation skills in young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2007;28(2):163–175. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ingersoll B, Lalonde K. The impact of object and gesture imitation training on language use in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2010;53(4):1040–1051. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2009/09-0043). [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ingersoll B, Lewis E, Kroman E. Teaching the imitation and spontaneous use of descriptive gestures in young children with autism using a naturalistic behavioral intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2007;37(8):1446–1456. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0221-z. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ingersoll B, Schreibman L. Teaching reciprocal imitation skills to young children with autism using a naturalistic behavioral approach: Effects on language, pretend play, and joint attention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2006;36(4):487–505. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0089-y. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ingvarsson ET, Hanley GP. An evaluation of computer-based programmed instruction for promoting teachers’ greetings of parents by name. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(2):203–214. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.18-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Iqbal N, Caswell HL, Hare DJ, Pilkington O, Mercer S, Duncan S. Neuropsychological profiles of patients with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy and their siblings: A preliminary controlled experimental video-EEG case series. Epilepsy & Behavior. 2009;14(3):516–521. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.12.025. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ishida M. Effects of recasts on the acquisition of the aspectual form -te i-(ru) by learners of Japanese as a foreign language. Language Learning. 2004;54(2):311–394. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00257.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ivy JW, Schreck KA. A behavioral approach to training day care workers. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2008;4(2):227–238. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jameson JM, McDonnell J, Johnson JW, Riesen T, Polychronis S. A comparison of one-to-one embedded instruction in the general education classroom and one-to-one massed practice instruction in the special education classroom. Education & Treatment of Children. 2007;30(1):23–44. doi: 10.1353/etc.2007.0001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jansson S, Söderlund A. A new treatment programme to improve balance in elderly people-an evaluation of an individually tailored home-based exercise programme in five elderly women with a feeling of unsteadiness. Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal. 2004;26(24):1431–1443. doi: 10.1080/09638280400000245. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jason LA, Braciszewski J, Olson BD, Ferrari JR. Increasing the number of mutual help recovery homes for substance abusers: Effects of government policy and funding assistance. Behavior and Social Issues. 2005;14(1):71–79. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jindal-Snape D. Generalization and maintenance of social skills of children with visual impairments: Self-evaluation and the role of feedback. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness. 2004;98(8):470–483. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jo Rodriguez B, Loman SL, Horner RH. A preliminary analysis of the effects of coaching feedback on teacher implementation fidelity of First Step to Success. Behavior Analysis in Practice. 2009;2(2):11–21. doi: 10.1007/BF03391744. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jöbges M, Heuschkel G, Pretzel C, Illhardt C, Renner C, Hummelsheim H. Repetitive training of compensatory steps: A therapeutic approach for postural instability in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2004;75(12):1682–1687. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2003.016550. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Johnston SS, Buchanan S, Davenport L. Comparison of fixed and gradual array when teaching sound-letter correspondence to two children with autism who use AAC. AAC: Augmentative and Alternative Communication. 2009;25(2):136–144. doi: 10.1080/07434610902921516. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jones PH, Ryan BP. Experimental analysis of the relationship between speaking rate and stuttering during mother–child conversation. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2001;13(3):279–305. doi: 10.1023/a:1016610420533. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Jung S, Sainato DM, Davis CA. Using high-probability request sequences to increase social interactions in young children with autism. Journal of Early Intervention. 2008;30(3):163–187. doi: 10.1177/1053815108317970. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kahng S, Boscoe JH, Byrne S. The use of escape contingency and a token economy to increase food acceptance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2003;36(3):349–353. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-349. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kalarchian MA, Marcus M, Levine MD, Haas GL, Greeno CG, Weissfeld LA, Qin L. Behavioral treatment of obesity in patients taking antipsychotic medications. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2005;66(8):1058–1063. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0815. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kapoor VG, Bray MA, Kehle TJ. School-based intervention: Relaxation and guided imagery for students with asthma and anxiety disorder. Canadian Journal of School Psychology. 2010;25(4):311–327. doi: 10.1177/0829573510375551. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Karmali I, Greer RD, Nuzzolo-Gomez R, Ross DE, Rivera-Valdes C. Reducing palilalia by presenting tact corrections to young children with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2005;21:145–153. doi: 10.1007/BF03393016. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kashinath S, Woods J, Goldstein H. Enhancing generalized teaching strategy use in daily routines by parents of children with autism. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2006;49(3):466–485. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2006/036). [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kay S, Harchik AF, Luiselli JK. Elimination of drooling by an adolescent student with autism attending public high school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2006;8(1):24–28. doi: 10.1177/10983007060080010401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Keen B, Jacobs D. Racial threat, partisan politics, and racial disparities in prison admissions: A panel analysis. Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 2009;47(1):209–238. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00143.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Keen D, Brannigan KL, Cuskelly M. Toilet training for children with autism: The effects of video modeling category. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2007;19(4):291–303. doi: 10.1007/s10882-007-9044-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Keller CL, Brady MP, Taylor RL. Using self-evaluation to improve student teacher interns’ use of specific praise. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;40(4):368–376. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kellett S. The treatment of compulsive hoarding with object-affect fusion informed CBT: Initial experimental case evidence. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2006;34(4):481–485. doi: 10.1017/s1352465806003006. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kelley C, Loy DP. Comparing the effects of aquatic and land-based exercise on the physiological stress response of women with fibromyalgia. Therapeutic Recreation Journal. 2008;42(2):103–118. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kerler WA, III, Killough LN. The effects of satisfaction with a client’s management during a prior audit engagement, trust, and moral reasoning on auditors’ perceived risk of management fraud. Journal of Business Ethics. 2009;85(2):109–136. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9752-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Killu K, Weber KP, McLaughlin TF. An evaluation of repeated readings across various counting periods of see to think, think to say, and think to write channels with a university student with learning disabilities. Journal of Precision Teaching & Celeration. 2001;17(2):39–57. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kim S, Oah S, Dickinson AM. The impact of public feedback on three recycling-related behaviors in South Korea. Environment and Behavior. 2005;37(2):258–274. doi: 10.1177/0013916504267639. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kiran S, Roberts PM. Semantic feature analysis treatment in Spanish-English and French-English bilingual aphasia. Aphasiology. 2010;24(2):231–261. doi: 10.1080/02687030902958365. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kirby KC, Kerwin MLE, Carpenedo CM, Rosenwasser BJ, Gardner RS. Interdependent group contingency management for cocaine-dependent methadone maintenance patients. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(4):579–595. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-579. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kleeberger V, Mirenda P. Teaching generalized imitation skills to a preschooler with autism using video modeling. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2010;12(2):116–127. doi: 10.1177/1098300708329279. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Koegel RL, Openden D, Koegel LK. A systematic desensitization paradigm to treat hypersensitivity to auditory stimuli in children with autism in family contexts. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities. 2004;29(2):122–134. doi: 10.2511/rpsd.29.2.122. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Koegel RL, Shirotova L, Koegel LK. Antecedent stimulus control: Using orienting cues to facilitate first-word acquisition for nonresponders with autism. The Behavior Analyst. 2009;32(2):281–284. doi: 10.1007/BF03392190. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Koegel RL, Shirotova L, Koegel LK. Brief report: Using individualized orienting cues to facilitate first-word acquisition in non-responders with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2009;39(11):1587–1592. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0765-9. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kohler FW, Greteman C, Raschke D, Highnam C. Using a buddy skills package to increase the social interactions between a preschooler with autism and her peers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 2007;27(3):155–163. doi: 10.1177/02711214070270030601. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Koopmans R, Olzak S. Discursive opportunities and the evolution of right-wing violence in Germany. American Journal of Sociology. 2004;110(1):198–230. doi: 10.1086/386271. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Koul R, Corwin M, Hayes S. Production of graphic symbol sentences by individuals with aphasia: Efficacy of a computer-based augmentative and alternative communication intervention. Brain and Language. 2005;92(1):58–77. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2004.05.008. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kourea L, Cartledge G, Musti-Rao S. Improving the reading skills of urban elementary students through total class peer tutoring. Remedial and Special Education. 2007;28(2):95–107. doi: 10.1177/07419325070280020801. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kramarski B, Hirsch C. Using computer algebra systems in mathematical classrooms. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2003;19(1):35–45. doi: 10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00004.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kramer TJ, Caldarella P, Christensen L, Shatzer RH. Social and emotional learning in the kindergarten classroom: Evaluation of the Strong Start curriculum. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2010;37(4):303–309. doi: 10.1007/s10643-009-0354-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kumar R, Pati NC, Mohanty S. Efficacy of an errorless training procedure on acquisition and maintenance of money naming by mentally retarded. Social Science International. 2004;20(1):48–64. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kuosma K, Hjerrild J, Pedersen PU, Hundrup YA. Assessment of the nutritional status among residents in a Danish nursing home: Health effects of a formulated food and meal policy. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2008;17(17):2288–2293. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02203.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Kwak L, Kremers SPJ, van Baak MA, Brug J. A poster-based intervention to promote stair use in blue- and white-collar worksites. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory. 2007;45(2–3):177–181. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.05.005. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ladd MV, Luiselli JK, Baker L. Continuous access to competing stimulation as intervention for self-injurious skin picking in a child with autism. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2009;31(1):54–60. doi: 10.1080/07317100802701400. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ladouceur R, Léger É, Dugas M, Freeston MH. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) for older adults. International Psychogeriatrics. 2004;16(2):195–207. doi: 10.1017/s1041610204000274. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lammi BM, Law M. The effects of Family-Centred Functional Therapy on the occupational performance of children with cerebral palsy. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy/Revue Canadienne D’Ergothérapie. 2003;70(5):285–297. doi: 10.1177/000841740307000505. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lancioni GE, Singh NN, O’Reilly MF, Campodonico F, Piazzolla G, Scalini L, Oliva D. Impact of favorite stimuli automatically delivered on step responses of persons with multiple disabilities during their use of walker devices. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;26(1):71–76. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.04.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lane KL, Little MA, Redding-Rhodes J, Phillips A, Welsh MT. Outcomes of a teacher-led reading intervention for elementary students at risk for behavioural disorders. Exceptional Children. 2007;74(1):47–70. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lane KL, Rogers LA, Parks RJ, Weisenbach JL, Mau AC, Merwin MT, Bergman WA. Function-based interventions for students who are nonresponsive to primary and secondary prevention efforts: Illustrations at the elementary and middle school levels. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2007;15(3):169–183. doi: 10.1177/10634266070150030401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lang R, Shogren KA, Machalicek W, Rispoli M, O’Reilly M, Baker S, Regester A. Video self-modeling to teach classroom rules to two students with Asperger’s. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(2):483–488. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.10.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lannie AL, Martens BK. Effects of task difficulty and type of contingency on students’ allocation of responding to math worksheets. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(1):53–65. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-53. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lannie AL, Martens BK. Targeting performance dimensions in sequence according to the instructional hierarchy: Effects on children’s math work within a self-monitoring program. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2008;17(4):356–375. doi: 10.1007/s10864-008-9073-2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lanovaz MJ, Fletcher SE, Rapp JT. Identifying stimuli that alter immediate and subsequent levels of vocal stereotypy: A further analysis of functionally matched stimulation. Behavior Modification. 2009;33(5):682–704. doi: 10.1177/0145445509344972. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Laushey KM, Heflin LJ, Shippen M, Alberto PA, Fredrick L. Concept mastery routines to teach social skills to elementary children with high functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2009;39(10):1435–1448. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0757-9. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Law S-P, Yeung O, Chiu KMY. Treatment for anomia in Chinese using an ortho-phonological cueing method. Aphasiology. 2008;22(2):139–163. doi: 10.1080/02687030701191358. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lawrence JM, Watkins ML, Ershoff D, Petitti DB, Chiu V, Postlethwaite D, Erickson JD. Design and evaluation of interventions promoting periconceptional multivitamin use. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2003;25(1):17–24. doi: 10.1016/s0749-3797(03)00097-7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Leaf JB, Taubman M, Bloomfield S, Palos-Rafuse L, Leaf R, McEachin J, Oppenheim ML. Increasing social skills and pro-social behavior for three children diagnosed with autism through the use of a teaching package. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(1):275–289. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.07.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. LeBlanc LA, Carr JE, Crossett SE, Bennett CM, Detweiler DD. Intensive outpatient behavioral treatment of primary urinary incontinence of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2005;20(2):98–105. doi: 10.1177/10883576050200020601. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• LeBlanc LA, Geiger KB, Sautter RA, Sidener TM. Using the Natural Language Paradigm (NLP) to increase vocalizations of older adults with cognitive impairments. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2007;28(4):437–444. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.06.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Leblanc M-P, Ricciardi JN, Luiselli JK. Improving discrete trial instruction by paraprofessional staff through an abbreviated performance feedback intervention. Education & Treatment of Children. 2005;28(1):76–82. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lebrecque J, Marchand A, Dugas MJ, Letarte A. Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for comorbid panic disorder with agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Modification. 2007;31(5):616–637. doi: 10.1177/0145445507301132. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lee R, Sturmey P. The effects of lag schedules and preferred materials on variable responding in students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2006;36(3):421–428. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0080-7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Leew SV, Stein NG, Gibbard WB. Weighted vests’ effect on social attention for toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy/Revue Canadienne D’Ergothérapie. 2010;77(2):113–124. doi: 10.2182/cjot.2010.77.2.7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lehmann CM, Heagy CD. Effects of professional experience and group interaction on information requested in analyzing IT cases. Journal of Education for Business. 2008;83(6):347–354. doi: 10.3200/joeb.83.6.347-354. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lehmann I, Crimando W. Unintended consequences of state and federal antidiscrimination and family medical leave legislation on the employment rates of persons with disabilities. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 2008;51(3):159–169. doi: 10.1177/0034355207312111. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Levingston HB, Neef NA, Cihon TM. The effects of teaching precurrent behaviors on children’s solution of multiplication and division word problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(2):361–367. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-361. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Li Q, Wang X-C, Cheng L-G. Multiple-baseline design on pretend game for the rectification of children’s aggressive behavior. Chinese Mental Health Journal. 2008;22(3):175–178. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Li Y. Recovering from spousal bereavement in later life: Does volunteer participation play a role. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2007;62B(4):S257–S266. doi: 10.1093/geronb/62.4.s257. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Liberatore JS, Luyben PD. The effects of feedback and positive reinforcement on the on-task behavior of dancers. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community. 2009;37(3):200–208. doi: 10.1080/10852350902976122. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Liddle HA, Rowe CL, Gonzalez A, Henderson CE, Dakof GA, Greenbaum PE. Changing provider practices, program environment, and improving outcomes by transporting multidimensional family therapy to an adolescent drug treatment setting. The American Journal on Addictions. 2006;15(Suppl 1):102–112. doi: 10.1080/10550490601003698. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lien-Thorne S, Kamps D. Replication study of the first step to success early intervention program. Behavioral Disorders. 2005;31(1):18–32. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lienemann TO, Graham S, Leader-Janssen B, Reid R. Improving the writing performance of struggling writers in second grade. The Journal of Special Education. 2006;40(2):66–78. doi: 10.1177/00224669060400020301. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lindsay P, Maynard I, Thomas O. Effects of hypnosis on flow states and cycling performance. The Sport Psychologist. 2005;19(2):164–177. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liso DR. The effects of choice making on toy engagement in nonambulatory and partially ambulatory preschool students. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 2010;30(2):91–101. doi: 10.1177/0271121409344354. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Loewy S, Bailey J. The effects of graphic feedback, goal-setting, and manager praise on customer service behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2007;27(3):15–26. doi: 10.1300/J075v27n03_02. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Loftin RL, Odom SL, Lantz JF. Social interaction and repetitive motor behaviors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2008;38(6):1124–1135. doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0499-5. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Lohrmann S, Talerico J. Anchor the Boat: A classwide intervention to reduce problem behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2004;6(2):113–120. doi: 10.1177/10983007040060020601. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Loncola JA, Craig-Unkefer L. Teaching social communication skills to young urban children with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;40(3):243–263. [ Google Scholar ]
• López GC, Guzmán LH, Sierra AV, Meza V. Entrenamiento en habilidades de afrontamiento y competencia prosocial de jóvenes con historia de calle [Training in coping and pro-social competence abilities in homeless youngsters. Revista Mexicana de Psicología. 2003;20(2):201–209. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lubitsh G, Doyle C, Valentine J. The impact of theory of constraints (TOC) in an NHS trust. Journal of Management Development. 2005;24(2):116–131. doi: 10.1108/02621710510579482. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Luciano-Soriano MC, Molina-Cobos FJ, Gómez-Becerra I. Say-do-report training to change chronic behaviors in mentally retarded subjects. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2000;21(5):355–366. doi: 10.1016/s0891-4222(00)00048-2. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Luk R, Ferrence R, Gmel G. The economic impact of a smoke-free bylaw on restaurant and bar sales in Ottawa, Canada. Addiction. 2006;101(5):738–745. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01434.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lyerla F, LeRouge C, Cooke DA, Turpin D, Wilson L. A nursing clinical decision support system and potential predictors of head-of-bed position for patients receiving mechanical ventilation. American Journal of Critical Care. 2010;19(1):39–47. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2010836. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Maag JW, Anderson JM. Effects of sound-field amplification to increase compliance of students with emotional and behavior disorders. Behavioral Disorders. 2006;31(4):378–393. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. MacArthur CA, Lembo L. Strategy instruction in writing for adult literacy learners. Reading and Writing. 2009;22(9):1021–1039. doi: 10.1007/s11145-008-9142-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Machalicek W, Shogren K, Lang R, Rispoli M, O’Reilly MF, Franco JH, Sigafoos J. Increasing play and decreasing the challenging behavior of children with autism during recess with activity schedules and task correspondence training. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(2):547–555. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.11.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Madaus MMR, Kehle TJ, Madaus J, Bray MA. Mystery motivator as an intervention to promote homework completion and accuracy. School Psychology International. 2003;24(4):369–377. doi: 10.1177/01430343030244001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mancil GR, Conroy MA, Haydon TF. Effects of a modified milieu therapy intervention on the social communicative behaviors of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2009;39(1):149–163. doi: 10.1007/s10803-008-0613-3. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Manuel JC, Sunseri MA, Olson R, Scolari M. A diagnostic approach to increase reusable dinnerware selection in a cafeteria. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(2):301–310. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.143-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Marcus A, Sinnott B, Bradley S, Grey I. Treatment of idiopathic toe-walking in children with autism using GaitSpot Auditory Speakers and simplified habit reversal. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(2):260–267. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.012. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Martens BK, Eckert TL, Begeny JC, Lewandowski LJ, DiGennaro FD, Montarello SA, Fiese BH. Effects of a fluency-building program on the reading performance of low-achieving second and third grade students. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2007;16(1):39–54. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Martens BK, Gertz LE, de Lacy Werder CS, Rymanowski JL. Agreement between descriptive and experimental analyses of behavior under naturalistic test conditions. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2010;19(3):205–221. doi: 10.1007/s10864-010-9110-9. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Martin N, Fink R, Laine M. Treatment of word retrieval deficits with contextual priming. Aphasiology. 2004;18(5–7):457–471. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000129. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Martins MP, Harris SL. Teaching children with autism to respond to joint attention initiations. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2006;28(1):51–68. doi: 10.1300/J019v28n01_04. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Marvin KL, Rapp JT, Stenske MT, Rojas NR, Swanson GJ, Bartlett SM. Response repetition as an error-correction procedure for sight-word reading: A replication and extension. Behavioral Interventions. 2010;25(2):109–127. doi: 10.1002/bin.299. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Massaro DW, Light J. Improving the vocabulary of children with hearing loss. The Volta Review. 2004;104(3):141–174. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mastel-Smith B, Binder B, Malecha A, Hersch G, Symes L, McFarlane J. Testing therapeutic life review offered by home care workers to decrease depression among home-dwelling older women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 2006;27(10):1037–1049. doi: 10.1080/01612840600943689. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Matchett DL, Burns MK. Increasing word recognition fluency with an English-language learner. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools. 2009;10(2):194–206. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mausbach BT, Coon DW, Patterson TL, Grant I. Engagement in activities is associated with affective arousal in Alzheimer’s caregivers: A preliminary examination of the temporal relations. Behavior Therapy. 2008;39(4):366–374. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2007.10.002. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mauszycki SC, Wambaugh JL. The effects of rate control treatment on consonant production accuracy in mild apraxia of speech. Aphasiology. 2008;22(7–8):906–920. doi: 10.1080/02687030701800818. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mayfield KH, Vollmer TR. Teaching math skills to at-risk students using home-based peer tutoring. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(2):223–237. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.108-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mazzotti VL, Test DW, Wood CL, Richter S. Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ knowledge of postschool options. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals. 2010;33(1):25–40. doi: 10.1177/0885728809338714. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McCarthy PJ, Jones MV, Harwood CG, Davenport L. Using goal setting to enhance positive affect among junior multievent athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology. 2010;4(1):53–68. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McCartney EJ, Anderson CM, English CL. Effect of brief clinic-based training on the ability of caregivers to implement escape extinction. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2005;7(1):18–32. doi: 10.1177/10983007050070010301. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McClellan CB, Cohen LL, Moffett K. Time out based discipline strategy for children’s non-compliance with cystic fibrosis treatment. Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal. 2009;31(4):327–336. doi: 10.1080/09638280802051713. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McCurdy BL, Lannie AL, Barnabas E. Reducing disruptive behavior in an urban school cafeteria: An extension of the Good Behavior Game. Journal of School Psychology. 2009;47(1):39–54. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2008.09.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McDonnell J, Johnson JW, Polychronis S, Riesen T, Jameson M, Kercher K. Comparison of one-to-one embedded instruction in general education classes with small group instruction in special education classes. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2006;41(2):125–138. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McDougall D. The range-bound changing criterion design. Behavioral Interventions. 2005;20(2):129–137. doi: 10.1002/bin.189. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McEwen SE, Polatajko HJ, Huijbregts MPJ, Ryan JD. Inter-task transfer of meaningful, functional skills following a cognitive-based treatment: Results of three multiple baseline design experiments in adults with chronic stroke. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2010;20(4):541–561. doi: 10.1080/09602011003638194. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McGoey KE, Schneider DL, Rezzetano KM, Prodan T, Tankersley M. Classwide intervention to manage disruptive behavior in the kindergarten classroom. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2010;26(3):247–261. doi: 10.1080/15377903.2010.495916. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. McKee SA, Harris GT, Rice ME, Silk L. Effects of a Snoezelen room on the behavior of three autistic clients. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2007;28(3):304–316. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.04.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McNeil MR, Katz WF, Fossett TRD, Garst DM, Szuminsky NJ, Carter G, Lim KY. Effects of online augmented kinematic and perceptual feedback on treatment of speech movements in apraxia of speech. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica. 2010;62(3):127–133. doi: 10.1159/000287211. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mechling LC, Gustafson M. Comparison of the effects of static picture and video prompting on completion of cooking related tasks by students with moderate intellectual disabilities. Exceptionality. 2009;17(2):103–116. doi: 10.1080/09362830902805889. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mesmer EM, Duhon GJ, Hogan K, Newry B, Hommema S, Fletcher C, Boso M. Generalization of sight word accuracy using a common stimulus procedure: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2010;19(1):47–61. doi: 10.1007/s10864-010-9103-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Miguel CF, Petursdottir AI, Carr JE. The effects of multiple-tact and receptive-discrimination training on the acquisition of intraverbal behavior. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2005;21:27–41. doi: 10.1007/BF03393008. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Miller JA, Austin J, Rohn D. Teaching pedestrian safety skills to children. Environment and Behavior. 2004;36(3):368–385. doi: 10.1177/0013916503260880. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Milne D, Westerman C. Evidence-based clinical supervision: Rationale and illustration. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2001;8(6):444–457. doi: 10.1002/cpp.297. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Morgan L, Goldstein H. Teaching mothers of low socioeconomic status to use decontextualized language during storybook reading. Journal of Early Intervention. 2004;26(4):235–252. doi: 10.1177/105381510402600401. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morrison JQ, Jones KM. The effects of positive peer reporting as a class-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2007;16(2):111–124. doi: 10.1007/s10864-006-9005-y. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Morrison L, Kamps D, Garcia J, Parker D. Peer mediation and monitoring strategies to improve initiations and social skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2001;3(4):237–250. doi: 10.1177/109830070100300405. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mozingo DB, Smith T, Riordan MR, Reiss ML, Bailey JS. Enhancing frequency recording by developmental disabilities treatment staff. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(2):253–256. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.55-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mruzek DW, Cohen C, Smith T. Contingency contracting with students with autism spectrum disorders in a public school setting. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2007;19(2):103–114. doi: 10.1007/s10882-007-9036-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Mullane J, Corkum P. Case series: Evaluation of a behavioral sleep intervention for three children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and dyssomnia. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2006;10(2):217–227. doi: 10.1177/1087054706288107. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Müller K, Bütefisch CM, Seitz RJ, Hömberg V. Mental practice improves hand function after hemiparetic stroke. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 2007;25(5–6):501–511. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Munroe-Chandler KJ, Hall CR, Fishburne GJ, Shannon V. Using cognitive general imagery to improve soccer strategies. European Journal of Sport Science. 2005;5(1):41–49. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Murphy KA, Theodore LA, Aloiso D, Alric-Edwards JM, Hughes TL. Interdependent group contingency and mystery motivators to reduce preschool disruptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools. 2007;44(1):53–63. doi: 10.1002/pits.20205. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Murray LL, Ballard K, Karcher L. Linguistic specific treatment: Just for Broca’s aphasia? Aphasiology. 2004;18(9):785–809. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000273. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Nakamura BJ, Pestle SL, Chorpita BF. Differential sequencing of cognitive-behavioral techniques for reducing child and adolescent anxiety. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2009;23(2):114–135. doi: 10.1891/0889-8391.23.2.114. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nakonezny PA, Reddick R, Rodgers JL. Did divorces decline after the Oklahoma City bombing? Journal of Marriage and Family. 2004;66(1):90–100. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2004.00007.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Naoi N, Yokoyama K, Yamamoto J-i. Matrix training for expressive and receptive two-word utterances in children with autism. Japanese Journal of Special Education. 2006;43(6):505–518. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Naoi N, Yokoyama K, Yamamoto J-i. Intervention for tact as reporting in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2007;1(2):174–184. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2006.08.005. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nasar JL. Prompting drivers to stop for crossing pedestrians. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 2003;6(3):175–182. doi: 10.1016/s1369-8478(03)00024-x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Neddenriep CE, Skinner CH, Wallace MA, McCallum E. ClassWide peer tutoring: Two experiments investigating the generalized relationship between increased oral reading fluency and reading comprehension. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2009;25(3):244–269. doi: 10.1080/15377900802487185. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Neef NA, Bicard DF, Endo S, Coury DL, Aman MG. Evaluation of pharmacological treatment of impulsivity In children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2005;38(2):135–146. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.116-02. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Neef NA, Marckel J, Ferreri S, Jung S, Nist L, Armstrong N. Effects of modeling versus instructions on sensitivity to reinforcement schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(3):267–281. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-267. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Nelson JS, Alber SR, Gordy A. Effects of systematic error correction and repeated readings on the reading accuracy and proficiency of second graders with disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children. 2004;27(3):186–198. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Newman B, Ten Eyck P. Self-management of initiations by students diagnosed with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2005;21:117–122. doi: 10.1007/BF03393013. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nguyen DM, Yu CT, Martin TL, Fregeau P, Pogorzelec C, Martin GL. Teaching object-picture matching to improve concordance between object and picture preferences for individuals with developmental disabilities: Pilot study. Journal on Developmental Disabilities. 2009;15(1):53–64. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Noda W, Tanaka-Matsumi J. Effect of a classroom-based behavioral intervention package on the improvement of children’s sitting posture in Japan. Behavior Modification. 2009;33(2):263–273. doi: 10.1177/0145445508321324. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Normand MP. Increasing physical activity through self-monitoring, goal setting, and feedback. Behavioral Interventions. 2008;23(4):227–236. doi: 10.1002/bin.267. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Normand MP, Knoll ML. The effects of a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure on the unprompted vocalizations of a young child diagnosed with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2006;22:81–85. doi: 10.1007/BF03393028. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. O’Callaghan PM, Allen KD, Powell S, Salama F. The efficacy of noncontingent escape for decreasing children’s disruptive behavior during restorative dental treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(2):161–171. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.79-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. O’Callaghan PM, Reitman D, Northup J, Hupp SDA, Murphy MA. Promoting social skills generalization with ADHD-diagnosed children in a sports setting. Behavior Therapy. 2003;34(3):313–330. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7894(03)80003-5. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. O’Reilly MF, O’Halloran M, Sigafoos J, Lancioni GE, Green V, Edrisinha C, Olive M. Evaluation of video feedback and self-management to decrease schoolyard aggression and increase pro-social behaviour in two students with behavioural disorders. Educational Psychology. 2005;25(2–3):199–206. doi: 10.1080/0144341042000301157. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Okinaka T, Shimazaki T. Effects of self-recording and self-goal-setting on accuracy of first service in soft tennis. Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2010;24(2):43–47. [ Google Scholar ]
• Okuda K. Behavioral consultation services for school-refusal students with high-functioning pervasive developmental disorders: Token economy and changing reinforcement criteria. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2005;20(1):2–12. [ Google Scholar ]
• Okuyama T, Isawa S. Right-left discrimination from one’s own and another person’s viewpoint in children with autism: Higher-order conditional discrimination and generalization of viewpoint. Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2010;24(2):2–16. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ota K. Self-recording and accuracy of writing responses by students with developmental disabilities. Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2010;24(2):17–29. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ottone S, Ponzano F. Competition and cooperation in markets: The experimental case of a winner-take-all setting. The Journal of Socio-Economics. 2010;39(2):163–170. doi: 10.1016/j.socec.2009.10.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Palmen A, Didden R, Korzilius H. Effectiveness of behavioral skills training on staff performance in a job training setting for high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(4):731–740. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2010.01.012. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pampino RN, Jr, MacDonald JE, Mullin JE, Wilder DA. Weekly feedback vs. daily feedback: An application in retail. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2003;23(2–3):21–43. doi: 10.1300/J075v23n02_03. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pan-Skadden J, Wilder DA, Sparling J, Severtson E, Donaldson J, Postma N, Neidert P. The use of behavioral skills training and in-situ training to teach children to solicit help when lost: A preliminary investigation. Education & Treatment of Children. 2009;32(3):359–370. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0063. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pappas DN, Skinner CH, Skinner AL. Supplementing accelerated reading with classwide interdependent group-oriented contingencies. Psychology in the Schools. 2010;47(9):887–902. doi: 10.1002/pits.20512. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Park S, Singer GHS, Gibson M. The functional effect of teacher positive and neutral affect on task performance of students with significant disabilities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2005;7(4):237–246. doi: 10.1177/10983007050070040501. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pasiali V. The use of prescriptive therapeutic songs in a home-based environment to promote social skills acquisition by children with autism: Three case studies. Music Therapy Perspectives. 2004;22(1):11–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Patterson DL, van der Mars H. Distant interactions and their effects on children’s physical activity levels. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2008;13(3):277–294. doi: 10.1080/17408980701345808. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Peach RK, Reuter KA. A discourse-based approach to semantic feature analysis for the treatment of aphasic word retrieval failures. Aphasiology. 2010;24(9):971–990. doi: 10.1080/02687030903058629. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Peck HL, Bray MA, Kehle TJ. Relaxation and guided imagery: A school-based intervention for children with asthma. Psychology in the Schools. 2003;40(6):657–675. doi: 10.1002/pits.10127. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Peck HL, Kehle TJ, Bray MA, Theodore LA. Yoga as an intervention for children with attention problems. School Psychology Review. 2005;34(3):415–424. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pennington L, Miller N, Robson S, Steen N. Intensive speech and language therapy for older children with cerebral palsy: A systems approach. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2010;52(4):337–344. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03366.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Peterson P, Carta JJ, Greenwood C. Teaching enhanced milieu language teaching skills to parents in multiple risk families. Journal of Early Intervention. 2005;27(2):94–109. doi: 10.1177/105381510502700205. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Peterson SMP, Caniglia C, Royster AJ, Macfarlane E, Plowman K, Baird SJ, Wu N. Blending functional communication training and choice making to improve task engagement and decrease problem behaviour. Educational Psychology. 2005;25(2–3):257–274. doi: 10.1080/0144341042000301193. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Petscher ES, Bailey JS. Effects of training, prompting, and self-monitoring on staff behavior in a classroom for students with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(2):215–226. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.02-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pétursdóttir A-L, McMaster K, McComas JJ, Bradfield T, Braganza V, Koch-McDonald J, Scharf H. Brief experimental analysis of early reading interventions. Journal of School Psychology. 2009;47(4):215–243. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2009.02.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pétursdóttir A-L, Sigurdardóttir ZG. Increasing the skills of children with developmental disabilities through staff training in behavioral teaching techniques. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2006;41(3):264–279. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pétursdóttir A-L, Carr JE, Lechago SA, Almason SM. An evaluation of intraverbal training and listener training for teaching categorization skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(1):53–68. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-53. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Phaneuf L, McIntyre LL. Effects of individualized video feedback combined with group parent training on inappropriate maternal behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(4):737–741. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.737-741. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Phillips KJ, Mudford OC. Functional analysis skills training for residential caregivers. Behavioral Interventions. 2008;23(1):1–12. doi: 10.1002/bin.252. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pingzhi Y. A reversal design experiment on the game modification of preschool children’s social withdrawal. Psychological Science (China) 2004;27(1):231–233. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pitman MJ. Functional analysis and treatment of socially stigmatizing ambulation. The Behavior Analyst Today. 2007;8(3):284–297. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ploszay AJ, Gentner NB, Skinner CH, Wrisberg CA. The effects of multisensory imaging in conjunction with physical movement rehearsal on golf putting performance. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2006;15(4):249–257. doi: 10.1007/s10864-006-9034-6. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Plow MA, Mathiowetz V, Lowe DA. Comparing individualized rehabilitation to a group wellness intervention for persons with multiple sclerosis. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2009;24(1):23–26. doi: 10.4278/ajhp.071211128. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Plumer PJ, Stoner G. The relative effects of classwide peer tutoring and peer coaching on the positive social behaviors of children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2005;9(1):290–300. doi: 10.1177/1087054705280796. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Porritt M, Burt A, Poling A. Increasing fiction writers’ productivity through an Internet-based intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2006;39(3):393–397. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2006.134-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Pullen PC, Lane HB, Lloyd JW, Nowak R, Ryals J. Effects of explicit instruction on decoding of struggling first grade students: A data-based case study. Education & Treatment of Children. 2005;28(1):63–76. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Putnam RF, Handler MW, Ramirez-Platt CM, Luiselli JK. Improving student bus-riding behavior through a whole-school intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2003;36(4):583–590. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-583. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pyles MK, Hahn EJ. Smoke-free legislation and charitable gaming in Kentucky. Tobacco Control: An International Journal. 2009;18(1):60–62. doi: 10.1136/tc.2008.027532. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Quesnel C, Savard J, Simard S, Ivers H, Morin CM. Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia in women treated for nonmetastic breast cancer. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2003;71(1):189–200. doi: 10.1037/0022-006x.71.1.189. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Quilty KM. Teaching paraprofessionals how to write and implement social stories for students with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education. 2007;28(3):182–189. doi: 10.1177/07419325070280030701. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Raghavendra P, Oaten R. Effects of speech and print feedback on spelling performance of a child with cerebral palsy using a speech generating device. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology. 2007;2(5):299–308. doi: 10.1080/17483100701256388. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raiff BR, Faix C, Turturici M, Dallery J. Breath carbon monoxide output is affected by speed of emptying the lungs: Implications for laboratory and smoking cessation research. Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 2010;12(8):834–838. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntq090. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rantz WG, Dickinson AM, Sinclair GA, Van Houten R. The effect of feedback on the accuracy of checklist completion during instrument flight training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(3):497–509. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-497. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rassau A, Arco L. Effects of chat-based on-line cognitive behavior therapy on study related behavior and anxiety. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2003;31(3):377–381. doi: 10.1017/s1352465803003126. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rathel JM, Drasgow E, Christle CC. Effects of supervisor performance feedback on increasing preservice teachers’ positive communication behaviors with students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2008;16(2):67–77. doi: 10.1177/1063426607312537. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Raviv T, Wadsworth ME. The efficacy of a pilot prevention program for children and caregivers coping with economic strain. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2010;34(3):216–228. doi: 10.1007/s10608-009-9265-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Raymer AM, Ciampitti M, Holliway B, Singletary F, Blonder LX, Ketterson T, Rothi LJG. Semantic-phonologic treatment for noun and verb retrieval impairments in aphasia. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2007;17(2):244–270. doi: 10.1080/09602010600814661. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rebsamen M, Boucheix J-M, Fayol M. Quality control in the optical industry: From a work analysis of lens inspection to a training programme, an experimental case study. Applied Ergonomics. 2010;41(1):150–160. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2009.07.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Regan KS, Mastropieri MA, Scruggs TE. Promoting expressive writing among students with emotional and behavioral disturbance via dialogue journals. Behavioral Disorders. 2005;31(1):33–50. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reichle J, McComas J. Conditional use of a request for assistance. Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal. 2004;26(21–22):1255–1262. doi: 10.1080/09638280412331280262. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Reichow B, Barton EE, Sewell JN, Good L, Wolery M. Effects of weighted vests on the engagement of children with developmental delays and autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2010;25(1):3–11. doi: 10.1177/1088357609353751. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Reinhardt D, Theodore LA, Bray MA, Kehle TJ. Improving homework accuracy: Interdependent group contingencies and randomized components. Psychology in the Schools. 2009;46(5):471–488. doi: 10.1002/pits.20391. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Reinke WM, Lewis-Palmer T, Martin E. The effect of visual performance feedback on teacher use of behavior-specific praise. Behavior Modification. 2007;31(3):247–263. doi: 10.1177/0145445506288967. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Renvall K, Laine M, Martin N. Treatment of anomia with contextual priming: Exploration of a modified procedure with additional semantic and phonological tasks. Aphasiology. 2007;21(5):499–527. doi: 10.1080/02687030701254248. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Reynolds B, Dallery J, Shroff P, Patak M, Leraas K. A web-based contingency management program with adolescent smokers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(4):597–601. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-597. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ribes E, Vargas I, Luna D, Martínez C. Adquisición y transferencia de una discriminación condicional en una secuencia de cinco criterios distintos de ajuste funcional. [Acquisition and transfer of a conditional discrimination in a sequence of five different functional adjustment criteria. Acta Comportamentalia. 2009;17(3):299–331. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Riesen T, McDonnell J, Johnson JW, Polychronis S, Jameson M. A comparison of constant time delay and simultaneous prompting within embedded instruction in general education classes with students with moderate to severe disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2003;12(4):241–259. doi: 10.1023/a:1026076406656. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rimondini M, Del Piccolo L, Goss C, Mazzi M, Paccaloni M, Zimmermann C. The evaluation of training in patient-centred interviewing skills for psychiatric residents. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences. 2010;40(3):467–476. doi: 10.1017/s0033291709990730. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rizvi SL, Linehan MM. The treatment of maladaptive shame in borderline personality disorder: A pilot study of “opposite action”. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice. 2005;12(4):437–447. doi: 10.1016/s1077-7229(05)80071-9. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rodriguez M, Wilder DA, Therrien K, Wine B, Miranti R, Daratany K, Rodriguez M. Use of the performance diagnostic checklist to select an intervention designed to increase the offering of promotional stamps at two sites of a restaurant franchise. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2005;25(3):17–35. doi: 10.1300/J075v25n03_02. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Romanowich P, Bourret J, Vollmer TR. Further analysis of the matching law to describe two- and three-point shot allocation by professional basketball players. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(2):311–315. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.119-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rosales R, Stone K, Rehfeldt RA. The effects of behavioral skills training on implementation of the Picture Exchange Communication System. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(3):541–549. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-541. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Rosales R, Worsdell A, Trahan M. Comparison of methods for varying item presentation during noncontingent reinforcement. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(3):367–376. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.004. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rose HMS, Ludwig TD. Swimming pool hygiene: Self-monitoring, task clarification, and performance feedback increase lifeguard cleaning behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2009;29(1):69–79. doi: 10.1080/01608060802660157. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ross SW, Horner RH. Bully prevention in positive behavior support. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2009;42(4):747–759. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-747. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ruiz-Olivares R, Pino MJ, Herruzo J. Reduction of disruptive behaviors using an intervention based on the Good Behavior Game and the say-do-report correspondence. Psychology in the Schools. 2010;47(10):1046–1058. doi: 10.1002/pits.20523. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ryan S. The effects of a sound-field amplification system on managerial time in middle school physical education settings. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 2009;40(2):131–137. doi: 10.1044/0161-1461(2008/08-0038). [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Saecker LB, Skinner CH, Sager-Brown K, Roberts AS. Using responsiveness data and learning theories to modify interventions: Cover, copy, and compare to enhance number-writing accuracy. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools. 2009;10(2):171–187. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sakamoto M, Muto T, Mochizuki A. Enhancing the self-determination of students with autism: Evaluation of a training package for teachers. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2003;18(1):25–37. [ Google Scholar ]
• Salem S, Fazzio D, Arnal L, Fregeau P, Thomson K, Martin GL, Yu CT. A self-instructional package for teaching university students to conduct discrete-trials teaching with children with autism. Journal on Developmental Disabilities. 2009;15(1):21–29. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sante AD, McLaughlin TF, Weber KP. The use and evaluation of a direct instruction flash card strategy on multiplication math facts mastery with two students with developmental disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Precision Teaching & Celeration. 2001;17(2):68–75. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Sarokoff RA, Sturmey P. The effects of instructions, rehearsal, modeling, and feedback on acquisition and generalization of staff use of discrete trial teaching and student correct responses. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2008;2(1):125–136. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2007.04.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scattone D, Tingstrom DH, Wilczynski SM. Increasing appropriate social interactions of children with autism spectrum disorders using social stories. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2006;21(4):211–222. doi: 10.1177/10883576060210040201. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schadler JJ, Jr, Wilder DA, Blakely E. Signaling stimulus presentation during treatment with noncontingent reinforcement: Visual versus vocal signals. Behavioral Interventions. 2009;24(2):107–116. doi: 10.1002/bin.279. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Scheeler MC, Lee DL. Using technology to deliver immediate corrective feedback to preservice teachers. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2002;11(4):231–241. doi: 10.1023/a:1021158805714. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Scherrer MD, Wilder DA. Training to increase safe tray carrying among cocktail servers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(1):131–135. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-131. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schilling DL, Washington K, Billingsley FF, Deitz J. Classroom seating for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Therapy balls versus chairs. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2003;57(5):534–541. doi: 10.5014/ajot.57.5.534. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schindler HR, Horner RH. Generalized reduction of problem behavior of young children with autism: Building trans-situational interventions. American Journal on Mental Retardation. 2005;110(1):36–47. doi: 10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110&#x0003c;36:gropbo&#x0003e;2.0.co;2. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schisler R, Joseph LM, Konrad M, Alber-Morgan S. Comparison of the effectiveness efficiency of oral and written retelling and passage review as strategies for comprehending text. Psychology in the Schools. 2010;47(2):135–152. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schneider N, Goldstein H. Social Stories™ improve the on-task behavior for children with language impairment. Journal of Early Intervention. 2009;31(3):250–264. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schneider N, Goldstein H. Using social stories and visual schedules to improve socially appropriate behaviors in children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2010;12(3):149–160. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Schneider SL, Frens RA. Training four-syllable CV patterns in individuals with acquired apraxia of speech: Theoretical implications. Aphasiology. 2005;19(3–5):451–471. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000886. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwebel DC, Summerlin AL, Bounds ML, Morrongiello BA. The Stamp-in-Safety program: A behavioral intervention to reduce behaviors that can lead to unintentional playground injury in a preschool setting. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2006;31(2):152–162. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsj001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scott VB, Jr, Robare RD, Raines DB, Konwinski SJM, Chanin JA, Tolley RS. Emotive writing moderates the relationship between mood awareness and athletic performance in collegiate tennis players. North American Journal of Psychology. 2003;5(2):311–324. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaw R, Simms T. Reducing attention-maintained behavior through the use of positive punishment, differential reinforcement of low rates, and response marking. Behavioral Interventions. 2009;24(4):249–263. doi: 10.1002/bin.287. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Shelton D, LeGros K, Norton L, Stanton-Cook S, Morgan J, Masterman P. Randomised controlled trial: A parent-based group education programme for overweight children. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2007;43(12):799–805. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2007.01150.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shepard DS, Bail RN, Merritt CG. Cost-effectiveness of USAID’s regional program for family planning in West Africa. Studies in Family Planning. 2003;34(2):117–126. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00117.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sherriff KL, Wallis M, Chaboyer W. Nurses’ attitudes to and perceptions of knowledge and skills regarding evidence-based practice. International Journal of Nursing Practice. 2007;13(6):363–369. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-172X.2007.00651.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Shimizu H, Yoon S, McDonough CS. Teaching skills to use a computer mouse in preschoolers with developmental disabilities: Shaping moving a mouse and eye–hand coordination. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2010;31(6):1448–1461. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shin JH. Application of repeated-measures analysis of variance and hierarchical linear model in nursing research. Nursing Research. 2009;58(3):211–217. doi: 10.1097/NNR.0b013e318199b5ae. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Shipherd JC, Beck JG, Hamblen JL, Lackner JM, Freeman JB. A preliminary examination of treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in chronic pain patients: A case study. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2003;16(5):451–457. doi: 10.1023/a:1025754310462. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sigafoos J, Drasgow E, Halle JW, O’Reilly M, Seely-York S, Edrisinha C, Andrews A. Teaching VOCA use as a communicative repair strategy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2004;34(4):411–422. doi: 10.1023/B:JADD.0000037417.04356.9c. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Sigmon SC, Higgins ST. Voucher-based contingent reinforcement of marijuana abstinence among individuals with serious mental illness. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2006;30(4):291–295. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2006.02.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sigurdsson SO, Austin J. Using real-time visual feedback to improve posture at computer workstations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(3):365–375. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-365. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Sigurdsson V, Foxall G, Saevarsson H. In-store experimental approach to pricing and consumer behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2010;30(3):234–246. doi: 10.1080/01608061.2010.499029. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Siguröardóttir ZG, Sighvatsson MB. Operant conditioning and errorless learning procedures in the treatment of chronic aphasia. International Journal of Psychology. 2006;41(6):527–540. doi: 10.1080/00207590500492625. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Silverman AH, Haines AA, Davies WH, Parton E. A cognitive behavioral adherence intervention for adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings. 2003;10(2):119–127. doi: 10.1023/a:1023346222153. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Simmons-Mackie NN, Kearns KP, Potechin G. Treatment of aphasia through family member training. Aphasiology. 2005;19(6):583–593. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000408. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Simpson K, Keen D. Teaching young children with autism graphic symbols embedded within an interactive song. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2010;22(2):165–177. doi: 10.1007/s10882-009-9173-5. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Simpson S, Bell L, Britton P, Mitchell D, Morrow E, Johnston AL, Brebner J. Does video therapy work? A single case series of bulimic disorders. European Eating Disorders Review. 2006;14(4):226–241. doi: 10.1002/erv.686. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Singer-Dudek J, Greer RD. A long-term analysis of the relationship between fluency and the training and maintenance of complex math skills. The Psychological Record. 2005;55(3):361–376. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Singh NN, Lancioni GE, Joy SDS, Winton ASW, Sabaawi M, Wahler RG, Singh J. Adolescents with conduct disorder can be mindful of their aggressive behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2007;15(1):56–63. doi: 10.1177/10634266070150010601. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Singh NN, Lancioni GE, Winton ASW, Adkins AD, Singh J, Singh AN. Mindfulness training assists individuals with moderate mental retardation to maintain their community placements. Behavior Modification. 2007;31(6):800–814. doi: 10.1177/0145445507300925. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Singh NN, Lancioni GE, Winton ASW, Curtis WJ, Wahler RG, Sabaawi M, McAleavey K. Mindful staff increase learning and reduce aggression in adults with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2006;27(5):545–558. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Singh NN, Lancioni GE, Winton ASW, Singh AN, Adkins AD, Singh J. Mindful staff can reduce the use of physical restraints when providing care to individuals with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 2009;22(2):194–202. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00488.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Sliminng EC, Montes PB, Bustos CF, Hoyuelos XP, Vio CG. Efectos de un programa combinado de técnicas de modificación conductual para la disminución de la conducta disruptiva y el aumento de la conducta prosocial en escolares Chilenos. [Effects of a combined program of behavior modification techniques for decreasing disruptive behavior and increasing prosocial behavior in Chilean school children. Acta Colombiana de Psicología. 2009;12(1):67–76. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Slowiak JM, Madden GJ, Mathews R. The effects of a combined task clarification, goal setting, feedback, and performance contingent consequence intervention package on telephone customer service in a medical clinic environment. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2005;25(4):15–35. doi: 10.1300/J075v25n04_02. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Smidt A, Balandin S, Reed V, Sigafoos J. A communication training programme for residential staff working with adults with challenging behaviour: Pilot data on intervention effects. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 2007;20(1):16–29. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00336.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Smith JD, Handler L, Nash MR. Therapeutic assessment for preadolescent boys with oppositional defiant disorder: A replicated single-case time-series design. Psychological Assessment. 2010;22(3):593–602. doi: 10.1037/a0019697. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Solberg KM, Hanley GP, Layer SA, Ingvarsson ET. The effects of reinforcer pairing and fading on preschoolers’ snack selections. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(4):633–644. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.633-644. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sorenson SB, Wiebe DJ, Berk RA. Legalized abortion and the homicide of young children: An empirical investigation. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy (ASAP) 2002;2(1):239–256. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00040.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Sprague J, Perkins K. Direct and collateral effects of the First Step to Success program. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2009;11(4):208–221. doi: 10.1177/1098300708330935. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Squires J, Wilder DA, Fixsen A, Hess E, Rost K, Curran R, Zonneveld K. The effects of task clarification, visual prompts, and graphic feedback on customer greeting and up-selling in a restaurant. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2007;27(3):1–13. doi: 10.1300/J075v27n03_01. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stanton-Chapman TL, Denning CB, Jamison KR. Exploring the effects of a social communication intervention for improving requests and word diversity in preschoolers with disabilities. Psychology in the Schools. 2008;45(7):644–664. doi: 10.1002/pits.20315. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stanton-Chapman TL, Jamison KR, Denning CB. Building school communication skills in young children with disabilities: An intervention to promote peer social interactions in preschool settings. Early Childhood Services: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Effectiveness. 2008;2(4):225–251. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stanton-Chapman TL, Kaiser AP, Vijay P, Chapman C. A multicomponent intervention to increase peer-directed communication in Head Start children. Journal of Early Intervention. 2008;30(3):188–212. doi: 10.1177/1053815108318746. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stapleton S, Adams M, Atterton L. A mobile phone as a memory aid for individuals with traumatic brain injury: A preliminary investigation. Brain Injury. 2007;21(4):401–411. doi: 10.1080/02699050701252030. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Staubitz JE, Cartledge G, Yurick AL, Lo Y-Y. Repeated reading for students with emotional or behavioral disorders: Peer- and trainer-mediated instruction. Behavioral Disorders. 2005;31(1):51–64. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stichter JP, Hudson S, Sasso GM. The use of structural analysis to identify setting events in applied settings for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders. 2005;30(4):403–420. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stichter JP, Randolph JK, Kay D, Gage N. The use of structural analysis to develop antecedent-based interventions for students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2009;39(6):883–896. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0693-8. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Stormont MA, Smith SC, Lewis TJ. Teacher implementation of precorrection and praise statements in Head Start classrooms as a component of a program-wide system of positive behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2007;16(3):280–290. doi: 10.1007/s10864-007-9040-3. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Strand EA, Stoeckel R, Baas B. Treatment of severe childhood apraxia of speech: A treatment efficacy study. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology. 2006;14(4):297–307. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Strong AC, Wehby JH, Falk KB, Lane KL. The impact of a structured reading curriculum and repeated reading on the performance of junior high students with emotional and behavioral disorders. School Psychology Review. 2004;33(4):561–581. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stuart A, Frazier CL, Kalinowski J, Vos PW. The effect of frequency altered feedback on stuttering duration and type. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2008;51(4):889–897. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2008/065). [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Taber-Doughty T, Shurr J, Brewer J, Kubik S. Standard care and telecare services: Comparing the effectiveness of two service systems with consumers with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2010;54(9):843–859. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01314.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tanol G, Johnson L, McComas J, Cote E. Responding to rule violations or rule following: A comparison of two versions of the Good Behavior Game with kindergarten students. Journal of School Psychology. 2010;48(5):337–355. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tarbox RSF, Ghezzi PM, Wilson G. The effects of token reinforcement on attending in a young child with autism. Behavioral Interventions. 2006;21(3):155–164. doi: 10.1002/bin.213. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Taylor BA, Hoch H. Teaching children with autism to respond to and initiate bids for joint attention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(3):377–391. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-377. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Taylor BA, Hoch H, Potter B, Rodriguez A, Spinnato D, Kalaigian M. Manipulating establishing operations to promote initiations toward peers in children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2005;26(4):385–392. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.11.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Taylor M, Gillies RM, Ashman AF. Cognitive training, conflict resolution and exercise: Effects on young adolescents’ well-being. Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2009;19(2):131–149. doi: 10.1375/ajgc.19.2.131. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Taylor R, Iacono T. AAC and scripting activities to facilitate communication and play. Advances in Speech Language Pathology. 2003;5(2):79–93. doi: 10.1080/14417040510001669111. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. ter Kuile MM, Bulté I, Weijenborg PTM, Beekman A, Melles R, Onghena P. Therapist-aided exposure for women with lifelong vaginismus: A replicated single-case design. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2009;77(1):149–159. doi: 10.1037/a0014273. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tereshko L, MacDonald R, Ahearn WH. Strategies for teaching children with autism to imitate response chains using video modeling. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2010;4(3):479–489. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.11.005. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Theodore LA, DioGuardi RJ, Hughes TL, Aloiso D, Carlo M, Eccles D. A class-wide intervention for improving homework performance. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation. 2009;19(4):275–299. doi: 10.1080/10474410902888657. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Thomas O, Maynard I, Hanton S. Intervening with athletes during the time leading up to competition: Theory to practice II. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2007;19(4):398–418. doi: 10.1080/10413200701599140. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Thompson CK, Kearns KP, Edmonds LA. An experimental analysis of acquisition, generalisation, and maintenance of naming behaviour in a patient with anomia. Aphasiology. 2006;20(12):1226–1244. doi: 10.1080/02687030600875655. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Thorne S, Kamps D. The effects of a group contingency intervention on academic engagement and problem behavior of at-risk students. Behavior Analysis in Practice. 2008;1(2):12–18. doi: 10.1007/BF03391723. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Thothathiri M, Schwartz MF, Thompson-Schill SL. Selection for position: The role of left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex in sequencing language. Brain and Language. 2010;113(1):28–38. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2010.01.002. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tiger JH, Hanley GP. An example of discovery research involving the transfer of stimulus control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2005;38(4):499–509. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.139-04. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tijs E, Matyas TA. Bilateral training does not facilitate performance of copying tasks in poststroke hemiplegia. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2006;20(4):473–483. doi: 10.1177/1545968306287900. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tincani M, Crozier S, Alazetta L. The Picture Exchange Communication System: Effects on manding and speech development for school-aged children with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 2006;41(2):177–184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tittelbach D, DeAngelis M, Sturmey P, Alvero AM. The effects of task clarification, feedback, and goal setting on student advisors’ office behaviors and customer service. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. 2007;27(3):27–37. doi: 10.1300/J075v27n03_03. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Todd T, Reid G, Butler-Kisber L. Cycling for students with ASD: Self-regulation promotes sustained physical activity. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2010;27(3):226–241. doi: 10.1123/apaq.27.3.226. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tonon MA. A longitudinal study of the impact of village health education on environmental sanitation. International Quarterly of Community Health Education. 2007;28(2):109–126. doi: 10.2190/IQ.28.2.c. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Topbaş S, Ünal Ö. An alternating treatment comparison of minimal and maximal opposition sound selection in Turkish phonological disorders. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. 2010;24(8):646–668. doi: 10.3109/02699206.2010.486464. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Trembath D, Balandin S, Togher L, Stancliffe RJ. Peer-mediated teaching and augmentative and alternative communication for preschool-aged children with autism. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability. 2009;34(2):173–186. doi: 10.1080/13668250902845210. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Trent JA, Kaiser AP, Wolery M. The use of responsive interaction strategies by siblings. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 2005;25(2):107–118. doi: 10.1177/02711214050250020101. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Trent M, Judy SL, Ellen JM, Walker A. Use of an institutional intervention to improve quality of care for adolescents treated in pediatric ambulatory settings for pelvic inflammatory disease. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2006;39(1):50–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.08.008. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Trovato M, Slomine B, Pidcock F, Christensen J. Case study: The efficacy of donepezil hydrochloride on memory functioning in three adolescents with severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury. 2006;20(3):339–343. doi: 10.1080/02699050500487811. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Tsao L-L, Odom SL. Sibling-mediated social interaction intervention for young children with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 2006;26(2):106–123. doi: 10.1177/02711214060260020101. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Vallières A, Morin CM, Guay B. Sequential combinations of drug and cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic insomnia: An exploratory study. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2005;43(12):1611–1630. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.11.011. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• van der Sluis CK, Datema L, Saan I, Stant D, Dijkstra PU. Effects of a nurse practitioner on a multidisciplinary consultation team. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2009;65(3):625–633. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04916.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Van Houten R, Malenfant JEL. Effects of a driver enforcement program on yielding to pedestrians. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(3):351–363. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-351. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Van Houten R, Malenfant JEL, Austin J, Lebbon A. The effects of a seatbelt-gearshift delay prompt on the seatbelt use of motorists who do not regularly wear seatbelts. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2005;38(2):195–203. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.48-04. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Van Norman RK, Wood CL. Effects of prerecorded sight words on the accuracy of tutor feedback. Remedial and Special Education. 2008;29(2):96–107. doi: 10.1177/0741932507311634. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Van Rie GL, Heflin LJ. The effect of sensory activities on correct responding for children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2009;3(3):783–796. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.03.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. van Vonderen A. Effectiveness of immediate verbal feedback on trainer behaviour during communication training with individuals with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2004;48(3):245–251. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2003.00555.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. van Vonderen A, de Bresser A. The effect of supervisory feedback, self-recording, and graphic feedback on trainer behavior during one-to-one training. Behavioral Interventions. 2005;20(4):273–284. doi: 10.1002/bin.198. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• van Vonderen A, de Swart C, Didden R. Effectiveness of instruction and video feedback on staff’s use of prompts and children’s adaptive responses during one-to-one training in children with severe to profound intellectual disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2010;31(3):829–838. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.02.008. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• van Vonderen A, Duker P, Didden R. Instruction and video feedback to improve staff’s trainer behaviour and response prompting during one-to-one training with young children with severe intellectual disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2010;31(6):1481–1490. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.009. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. van Vonderen A, Duker P, Didden R. Professional development improves staff’s implementation of rehabilitation programmes for children with severe-to-profound intellectual disability. Developmental Neurorehabilitation. 2010;13(5):351–359. doi: 10.3109/17518423.2010.493916. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• VanDerHeyden AM, Witt JC, Gilbertson D. A multi-year evaluation of the effects of a response to intervention (RTI) model on identification of children for special education. Journal of School Psychology. 2007;45(2):225–256. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2006.11.004. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. VanWormer JJ. Predometers and brief e-counseling: Increasing physical activity for overweight adults. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(3):421–425. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-421. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Vichi C, Andery MAPA, Glenn SS. A metacontingency experiment: The effects of contingent consequences on patterns of interlocking contingencies of reinforcement. Behavior and Social Issues. 2009;18(1):1–17. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Vidoni C, Ward P. Effects of fair play instruction on student social skills during a middle school sport education unit. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2009;14(3):285–310. doi: 10.1080/17408980802225818. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Vintere P, Hemmes NS, Brown BL, Poulson CL. Gross-motor skill acquisition by preschool dance students under self-instruction procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2004;37(3):305–322. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2004.37-305. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wade CM, Ortiz C, Gorman BS. Two-session group parent training for bedtime noncompliance in Head Start preschoolers. Child & Family Behavior Therapy. 2007;29(3):23–55. doi: 10.1300/J019v29n03_03. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wagenaar AC, Maldonado-Molina MM, Erickson DJ, Ma L, Tobler AL, Komro KA. General deterrence effects of U.S. statutory DUI fine and jail penalties: Long-term follow-up in 32 states. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 2007;39(5):982–994. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2007.01.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Walberg JL, Craig-Unkefer LA. An examination of the effects of a social communication intervention on the play behaviors of children with autism spectrum disorder. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities. 2010;45(1):69–80. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Walker HC, Phillips DE, Boswell DB, Guthrie BL, Guthrie SL, Nicholas AP, Watts RL. Relief of acquired stuttering associated with Parkinson’s disease by unilateral left subthalamic brain stimulation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2009;52(6):1652–1657. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0089). [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wambaugh J, Nessler C. Modification of sound production treatment for apraxia of speech: Acquisition and generalisation effects. Aphasiology. 2004;18(5–7):407–427. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000165. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wambaugh JL, Mauszycki SC. Sound production treatment: Application with severe apraxia of speech. Aphasiology. 2010;24(6–8):814–825. doi: 10.1080/02687030903422494. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Warnes E, Allen KD. Biofeedback treatment of paradoxical vocal fold motion and respiratory distress in an adolescent girl. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2005;38(4):529–532. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.26-05. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Watanabe T, Kanayama Y, Muto T. Improving communication between regular class teachers and teaching assistants: Increasing teachers’ comments by modifying communication cards. The Japanese Journal of Behavior Analysis. 2007;22(1):39–48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Webb OJ, Eves FF. Promoting stair climbing: Intervention effects generalize to a subsequent stair ascent. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2007;22(2):114–119. doi: 10.4278/0890-1171-22.2.114. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Webb OJ, Eves FF. Effects of environmental changes in a stair climbing intervention: Generalization to stair descent. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2007;22(1):38–44. doi: 10.4278/0890-1171-22.1.38. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wehby JH, Lane KL, Falk KB. An inclusive approach to improving early literacy skills of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders. 2005;30(2):155–169. [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Weiner JS. Peer-mediated conversational repair in students with moderate and severe disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities. 2005;30(1):26–37. doi: 10.2511/rpsd.30.1.26. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Weiskop S, Richdale A, Matthews J. Behavioural treatment to reduce sleep problems in children with autism or fragile X syndrome. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2005;47(2):94–104. doi: 10.1017/s0012162205000186. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. West EA. Effects of verbal cues versus pictorial cues on the transfer of stimulus control for children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2008;23(4):229–241. doi: 10.1177/1088357608324715. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Westerlund D, Granucci EA, Gamache P, Clark HB. Effects of peer mentors on work-related performance of adolescents with behavioral and/or learning disabilities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 2006;8(4):244–251. doi: 10.1177/10983007060080040601. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Whalen C, Schreibman L. Joint attention training for children with autism using behavior modification procedures. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2003;44(3):456–468. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00135. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wheatley RK, West RP, Charlton CT, Sanders RB, Smith TG, Taylor MJ. Improving behavior through differential reinforcement: A praise note system for elementary school students. Education & Treatment of Children. 2009;32(4):551–571. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0071. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Whelan R, Barnes-Holmes D, Dymond S. The transformation of consequential functions in accordance with the relational frames of more-than and less-than. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 2006;86(3):317–335. doi: 10.1901/jeab.2006.113-04. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wilder DA, Atwell J. Evaluation of a guided compliance procedure to reduce noncompliance among preschool children. Behavioral Interventions. 2006;21(4):265–272. doi: 10.1002/bin.222. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Will KE, Sabo CS, Porter BE. Evaluation of the Boost ‘em in the Back Seat Program: Using fear and efficacy to increase booster seat use. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 2009;41(1):57–65. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2008.09.007. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Williamson BD, Campbell- Whatley GD, Lo Y-y. Using a random dependent group contingency to increase on-task behaviors of high school students with high incidence disabilities. Psychology in the Schools. 2009;46(10):1074–1083. doi: 10.1002/pits.20445. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Winn BD, Skinner CH, Allin JD, Hawkins JA. Practicing school consultants can empirically validate interventions: A description and demonstration of the non-concurrent multiple-baseline design. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2004;20(2):109–128. doi: 10.1300/J370v20n02_07. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wong CJ, Dillon EM, Sylvest C, Silverman K. Evaluation of a modified contingency management intervention for consistent attendance in therapeutic workplace participants. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2004;74(3):319–323. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.12.013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wong CJ, Dillon EM, Sylvest CE, Silverman K. Contingency management of reliable attendance of chronically unemployed substance abusers in a therapeutic workplace. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2004;12(1):39–46. doi: 10.1037/1064-1297.12.1.39. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wong ML, Chan R, Koh D. Long-term effects of condom promotion programmes for vaginal and oral sex on sexually transmitted infections among sex workers in Singapore. AIDS. 2004;18(8):1195–1199. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200405210-00013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Woods DW, Twohig MP. Using habit reversal to treat chronic vocal tic disorder in children. Behavioral Interventions. 2002;17(3):159–168. doi: 10.1002/bin.115. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Woods J, Kashinath S, Goldstein H. Effects of embedding caregiver-implemented teaching strategies in daily routines on children’s communication outcomes. Journal of Early Intervention. 2004;26(3):175–193. doi: 10.1177/105381510402600302. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wragg JA, Whitehead RE. CBT for adolescents with psychosis: Investigating the feasibility & effectiveness of early intervention using a single case design. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2004;32(3):313–329. doi: 10.1017/s1352465804001389. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Wu H, Miller LK. A tutoring package to teach pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese characters. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2007;40(3):583–586. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.40-583. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Yi JI, Christian L, Vittimberga G, Lowenkron B. Generalized negatively reinforced manding in children with autism. Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 2006;22:21–33. doi: 10.1007/BF03393024. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yon A, Scogin F. Behavioral activation as a treatment for geriatric depression. Clinical Gerontologist: The Journal of Aging and Mental Health. 2009;32(1):91–103. doi: 10.1080/07317110802478016. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Youmans G, Holland A, Muñoz ML, Bourgeois M. Script training and automaticity in two individuals with aphasia. Aphasiology. 2005;19(3–5):435–450. doi: 10.1080/02687030444000877. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Zens NK, Gillon GT, Moran C. Effects of phonological awareness and semantic intervention on word-learning in children with SLI. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 2009;11(6):509–524. doi: 10.3109/17549500902926881. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zeoli AM, Webster DW. Effects of domestic violence policies, alcohol taxes and police staffing levels on intimate partner homicide in large US cities. Injury Prevention. 2010;16(2):90–95. doi: 10.1136/ip.2009.024620. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zimmerman RS, Palmgreen PM, Noar SM, Lustria MLA, Lu H-Y, Horosewski ML. Effects of a televised two-city safer sex mass media campaign targeting high-sensation-seeking and impulsive-decision-making young adults. Health Education & Behavior. 2007;34(5):810–826. doi: 10.1177/1090198107299700. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Ziolkowski RA, Goldstein H. Effects of an embedded phonological awareness intervention during repeated book reading on preschool children with language delays. Journal of Early Intervention. 2008;31(1):67–90. doi: 10.1177/1053815108324808. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zisimopoulos DA. Enhancing multiplication performance in students with moderate intellectual disabilities using pegword mnemonics paired with a picture fading technique. Journal of Behavioral Education. 2010;19(2):117–133. doi: 10.1007/s10864-010-9104-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• *. Zuluaga CA, Normand MP. An evaluation of the high-probability instruction sequence with and without programmed reinforcement for compliance with high-probability instructions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 2008;41(3):453–457. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2008.41-453. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

Autocorrelation estimates in this range can be caused by trends in the data streams, which creates complications in terms of detecting level-change effects. The Smith et al. (in press) study used a Monte Carlo simulation to control for trends in the data streams, but trends are likely to exist in real-world data with high lag-1 autocorrelation estimates.

The author makes no endorsement regarding the superiority of any statistical program or package over another by their mention or exclusion in this article. The author also has no conflicts of interest in this regard.

However, it should be noted that it was often very difficult to locate an actual effect size reported in studies that used statistical analysis. Although this issue would likely have added little to this review, it does inhibit the inclusion of the results in meta-analysis.

• Albright JJ, Marinova DM. Estimating multilevel modelsuUsing SPSS, Stata, and SAS. Indiana University; 2010. Retrieved from http://www.iub.edu/%7Estatmath/stat/all/hlm/hlm.pdf . [ Google Scholar ]
• Allison DB, Gorman BS. Calculating effect sizes for meta-analysis: The case of the single case. Behavior Research and Therapy. 1993;31(6):621–631. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(93)90115-B. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alloy LB, Just N, Panzarella C. Attributional style, daily life events, and hopelessness depression: Subtype validation by prospective variability and specificity of symptoms. Cognitive Therapy Research. 1997;21:321–344. doi: 10.1023/A:1021878516875. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arbuckle JL. Amos (Version 7.0) Chicago, IL: SPSS, Inc; 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Barlow DH, Nock MK, Hersen M. Single case research designs: Strategies for studying behavior change. 3. New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon; 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Barrett LF, Barrett DJ. An introduction to computerized experience sampling in psychology. Social Science Computer Review. 2001;19(2):175–185. doi: 10.1177/089443930101900204. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bloom M, Fisher J, Orme JG. Evaluating practice: Guidelines for the accountable professional. 4. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon; 2003. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bolger N, Davis A, Rafaeli E. Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology. 2003;54:579–616. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Borckardt JJ. Simulation Modeling Analysis: Time series analysis program for short time series data streams (Version 8.3.3) Charleston, SC: Medical University of South Carolina; 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Borckardt JJ, Nash MR, Murphy MD, Moore M, Shaw D, O’Neil P. Clinical practice as natural laboratory for psychotherapy research. American Psychologist. 2008;63:1–19. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.2.77. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Borsboom D, Mellenbergh GJ, van Heerden J. The theoretical status of latent variables. Psychological Review. 2003;110(2):203–219. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.203. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bower GH. Mood and memory. American Psychologist. 1981;36(2):129–148. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.36.2.129. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Box GEP, Jenkins GM. Time-series analysis: Forecasting and control. San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day; 1970. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brossart DF, Parker RI, Olson EA, Mahadevan L. The relationship between visual analysis and five statistical analyses in a simple AB single-case research design. Behavior Modification. 2006;30(5):531–563. doi: 10.1177/0145445503261167. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Browne MW, Nesselroade JR. Representing psychological processes with dynamic factor models: Some promising uses and extensions of autoregressive moving average time series models. In: Maydeu-Olivares A, McArdle JJ, editors. Contemporary psychometrics: A festschrift for Roderick P McDonald. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers; 2005. pp. 415–452. [ Google Scholar ]
• Busk PL, Marascuilo LA. Statistical analysis in single-case research: Issues, procedures, and recommendations, with applications to multiple behaviors. In: Kratochwill TR, Levin JR, editors. Single-case research design and analysis: New directions for psychology and education. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 1992. pp. 159–185. [ Google Scholar ]
• Busk PL, Marascuilo RC. Autocorrelation in single-subject research: A counterargument to the myth of no autocorrelation. Behavioral Assessment. 1988;10:229–242. [ Google Scholar ]
• Campbell JM. Statistical comparison of four effect sizes for single-subject designs. Behavior Modification. 2004;28(2):234–246. doi: 10.1177/0145445503259264. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carr EG, Horner RH, Turnbull AP, Marquis JG, Magito McLaughlin D, McAtee ML, Doolabh A. Positive behavior support for people with developmental disabilities: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Center BA, Skiba RJ, Casey A. A methodology for the quantitative synthesis of intra-subject design research. Journal of Educational Science. 1986;19:387–400. doi: 10.1177/002246698501900404. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chambless DL, Hollon SD. Defining empirically supported therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1998;66(1):7–18. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chambless DL, Ollendick TH. Empirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence. Annual Review of Psychology. 2001;52:685–716. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.685. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chow S-M, Ho M-hR, Hamaker EL, Dolan CV. Equivalence and differences between structural equation modeling and state-space modeling techniques. Structural Equation Modeling. 2010;17(2):303–332. doi: 10.1080/10705511003661553. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the bahavioral sciences. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1988. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen J. The earth is round (p < .05) American Psychologist. 1994;49:997–1003. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.997. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Crosbie J. Interrupted time-series analysis with brief single-subject data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1993;61(6):966–974. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.61.6.966. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dattilio FM, Edwards JA, Fishman DB. Case studies within a mixed methods paradigm: Toward a resolution of the alienation between researcher and practitioner in psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 2010;47(4):427–441. doi: 10.1037/a0021181. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dempster A, Laird N, Rubin DB. Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B. 1977;39(1):1–38. [ Google Scholar ]
• Des Jarlais DC, Lyles C, Crepaz N. Improving the reporting quality of nonrandomized evaluations of behavioral and public health interventions: the TREND statement. American Journal of Public Health. 2004;94(3):361–366. doi: 10.2105/ajph.94.3.361. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Diggle P, Liang KY. Analyses of longitudinal data. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Doss BD, Atkins DC. Investigating treatment mediators when simple random assignment to a control group is not possible. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 2006;13(4):321–336. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00045.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• du Toit SHC, Browne MW. The covariance structure of a vector ARMA time series. In: Cudeck R, du Toit SHC, Sörbom D, editors. Structural equation modeling: Present and future. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International; 2001. pp. 279–314. [ Google Scholar ]
• du Toit SHC, Browne MW. Structural equation modeling of multivariate time series. Multivariate Behavioral Research. 2007;42:67–101. doi: 10.1080/00273170701340953. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fechner GT. Elemente der psychophysik [Elements of psychophysics] Leipzig, Germany: Breitkopf & Hartel; 1889. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferron J, Sentovich C. Statistical power of randomization tests used with multiple-baseline designs. The Journal of Experimental Education. 2002;70:165–178. doi: 10.1080/00220970209599504. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferron J, Ware W. Analyzing single-case data: The power of randomization tests. The Journal of Experimental Education. 1995;63:167–178. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fox J. TEACHER’S CORNER: Structural equation modeling with the sem package in R. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2006;13(3):465–486. doi: 10.1207/s15328007sem1303_7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Franklin RD, Allison DB, Gorman BS, editors. Design and analysis of single-case research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1997. [ Google Scholar ]
• Franklin RD, Gorman BS, Beasley TM, Allison DB. Graphical display and visual analysis. In: Franklin RD, Allison DB, Gorman BS, editors. Design and analysis of single-case research. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers; 1997. pp. 119–158. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gardner W, Mulvey EP, Shaw EC. Regression analyses of counts and rates: Poisson, overdispersed Poisson, and negative binomial models. Psychological Bulletin. 1995;118(3):392–404. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.118.3.392. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Green AS, Rafaeli E, Bolger N, Shrout PE, Reis HT. Paper or plastic? Data equivalence in paper and electronic diaries. Psychological Methods. 2006;11(1):87–105. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.11.1.87. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hamilton JD. Time series analysis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1994. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hammond D, Gast DL. Descriptive analysis of single-subject research designs: 1983–2007. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities. 2010;45:187–202. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hanson MD, Chen E. Daily stress, cortisol, and sleep: The moderating role of childhood psychosocial environments. Health Psychology. 2010;29(4):394–402. doi: 10.1037/a0019879. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harvey AC. Forecasting, structural time series models and the Kalman filter. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Horner RH, Carr EG, Halle J, McGee G, Odom S, Wolery M. The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children. 2005;71:165–179. [ Google Scholar ]
• Horner RH, Spaulding S. Single-case research designs. In: Salkind NJ, editor. Encyclopedia of research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Horton NJ, Kleinman KP. Much ado about nothing: A comparison of missing data methods and software to fit incomplete data regression models. The American Statistician. 2007;61(1):79–90. doi: 10.1198/000313007X172556. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hser Y, Shen H, Chou C, Messer SC, Anglin MD. Analytic approaches for assessing long-term treatment effects. Evaluation Review. 2001;25(2):233–262. doi: 10.1177/0193841X0102500206. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huitema BE. Autocorrelation in applied behavior analysis: A myth. Behavioral Assessment. 1985;7(2):107–118. [ Google Scholar ]
• Huitema BE, McKean JW. Reduced bias autocorrelation estimation: Three jackknife methods. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1994;54(3):654–665. doi: 10.1177/0013164494054003008. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ibrahim JG, Chen M-H, Lipsitz SR, Herring AH. Missing-data methods for generalized linear models: A comparative review. Journal of the American Statistical Association. 2005;100(469):332–346. doi: 10.1198/016214504000001844. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Institute of Medicine. Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1994. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jacobsen NS, Christensen A. Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy: How well can clinical trials do the job? American Psychologist. 1996;51:1031–1039. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.51.10.1031. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jones RR, Vaught RS, Weinrott MR. Time-series analysis in operant research. Journal of Behavior Analysis. 1977;10(1):151–166. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1977.10-151. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jones WP. Single-case time series with Bayesian analysis: A practitioner’s guide. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. 2003;36(28–39) [ Google Scholar ]
• Kanfer H. Self-monitoring: Methodological limitations and clinical applications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1970;35(2):148–152. doi: 10.1037/h0029874. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazdin AE. Drawing valid inferences from case studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1981;49(2):183–192. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.49.2.183. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazdin AE. Mediators and mechanisms of change in psychotherapy research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2007;3:1–27. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091432. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazdin AE. Evidence-based treatment and practice: New opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. American Psychologist. 2008;63(3):146–159. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.146. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazdin AE. Understanding how and why psychotherapy leads to change. Psychotherapy Research. 2009;19(4):418–428. doi: 10.1080/10503300802448899. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazdin AE. Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. 2. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kirk RE. Practical significance: A concept whose time has come. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1996;56:746–759. doi: 10.1177/0013164496056005002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kratochwill TR. Preparing psychologists for evidence-based school practice: Lessons learned and challenges ahead. American Psychologist. 2007;62:829–843. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.62.8.829. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kratochwill TR, Hitchcock J, Horner RH, Levin JR, Odom SL, Rindskopf DM, Shadish WR. Single-case designs technical documentation. 2010 Retrieved from What Works Clearinghouse website: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/wwc_scd.pdf . Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/wwc_scd.pdf .
• Kratochwill TR, Levin JR. Single-case research design and analysis: New directions for psychology and education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 1992. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kratochwill TR, Levin JR. Enhancing the scientific credibility of single-case intervention research: Randomization to the rescue. Psychological Methods. 2010;15(2):124–144. doi: 10.1037/a0017736. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kratochwill TR, Levin JR, Horner RH, Swoboda C. Visual analysis of single-case intervention research: Conceptual and methodological considerations (WCER Working Paper No. 2011-6) 2011 Retrieved from University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin Center for Education Research website: http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/publications/workingPapers/papers.php .
• Lambert D. Zero-inflated poisson regression, with an application to defects in manufacturing. Technometrics. 1992;34(1):1–14. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lambert MJ, Hansen NB, Harmon SC. Developing and Delivering Practice-Based Evidence. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2010. Outcome Questionnaire System (The OQ System): Development and practical applications in healthcare settings; pp. 139–154. [ Google Scholar ]
• Littell JH, Corcoran J, Pillai VK. Systematic reviews and meta-analysis. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu LM, Hudack GB. The SCA statistical system. Vector ARMA modeling of multiple time series. Oak Brook, IL: Scientific Computing Associates Corporation; 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lubke GH, Muthén BO. Investigating population heterogeneity with factor mixture models. Psychological Methods. 2005;10(1):21–39. doi: 10.1037/1082-989x.10.1.21. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Manolov R, Solanas A. Comparing N = 1 effect sizes in presence of autocorrelation. Behavior Modification. 2008;32(6):860–875. doi: 10.1177/0145445508318866. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marshall RJ. Autocorrelation estimation of time series with randomly missing observations. Biometrika. 1980;67(3):567–570. doi: 10.1093/biomet/67.3.567. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Matyas TA, Greenwood KM. Visual analysis of single-case time series: Effects of variability, serial dependence, and magnitude of intervention effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 1990;23(3):341–351. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1990.23-341. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kratochwill TR, Chair Members of the Task Force on Evidence-Based Interventions in School Psychology. Procedural and coding manual for review of evidence-based interventions. 2003 Retrieved July 18, 2011 from http://www.sp-ebi.org/documents/_workingfiles/EBImanual1.pdf .
• Moher D, Schulz KF, Altman DF the CONSORT Group. The CONSORT statement: Revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel-group randomized trials. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;285:1987–1991. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.15.1987. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morgan DL, Morgan RK. Single-participant research design: Bringing science to managed care. American Psychologist. 2001;56(2):119–127. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.119. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Muthén BO, Curran PJ. General longitudinal modeling of individual differences in experimental designs: A latent variable framework for analysis and power estimation. Psychological Methods. 1997;2(4):371–402. doi: 10.1037/1082-989x.2.4.371. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Muthén LK, Muthén BO. Mplus (Version 6.11) Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén; 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nagin DS. Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semiparametric, group-based approach. Psychological Methods. 1999;4(2):139–157. doi: 10.1037/1082-989x.4.2.139. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Olive ML, Smith BW. Effect size calculations and single subject designs. Educational Psychology. 2005;25(2–3):313–324. doi: 10.1080/0144341042000301238. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oslin DW, Cary M, Slaymaker V, Colleran C, Blow FC. Daily ratings measures of alcohol craving during an inpatient stay define subtypes of alcohol addiction that predict subsequent risk for resumption of drinking. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2009;103(3):131–136. doi: 10.1016/J.Drugalcdep.2009.03.009. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Palermo TP, Valenzuela D, Stork PP. A randomized trial of electronic versus paper pain diaries in children: Impact on compliance, accuracy, and acceptability. Pain. 2004;107(3):213–219. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2003.10.005. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parker RI, Brossart DF. Evaluating single-case research data: A comparison of seven statistical methods. Behavior Therapy. 2003;34(2):189–211. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7894(03)80013-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parker RI, Cryer J, Byrns G. Controlling baseline trend in single case research. School Psychology Quarterly. 2006;21(4):418–440. doi: 10.1037/h0084131. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parker RI, Vannest K. An improved effect size for single-case research: Nonoverlap of all pairs. Behavior Therapy. 2009;40(4):357–367. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2008.10.006. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parsonson BS, Baer DM. The analysis and presentation of graphic data. In: Kratochwill TR, editor. Single subject research. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1978. pp. 101–166. [ Google Scholar ]
• Parsonson BS, Baer DM. The visual analysis of data, and current research into the stimuli controlling it. In: Kratochwill TR, Levin JR, editors. Single-case research design and analysis: New directions for psychology and education. Hillsdale, NJ; England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 1992. pp. 15–40. [ Google Scholar ]
• Piasecki TM, Hufford MR, Solham M, Trull TJ. Assessing clients in their natural environments with electronic diaries: Rationale, benefits, limitations, and barriers. Psychological Assessment. 2007;19(1):25–43. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.19.1.25. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ragunathan TE. What do we do with missing data? Some options for analysis of incomplete data. Annual Review of Public Health. 2004;25:99–117. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.102802.124410. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raudenbush SW, Bryk AS, Congdon R. HLM 7 Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling. Scientific Software International, Inc; 2011. [ Google Scholar ]
• Redelmeier DA, Kahneman D. Patients’ memories of painful medical treatments: Real-time and retrospective evaluations of two minimally invasive procedures. Pain. 1996;66(1):3–8. doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(96)02994-6. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reis HT. Domains of experience: Investigating relationship processes from three perspectives. In: Erber R, Gilmore R, editors. Theoretical frameworks in personal relationships. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 1994. pp. 87–110. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reis HT, Gable SL. Event sampling and other methods for studying everyday experience. In: Reis HT, Judd CM, editors. Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2000. pp. 190–222. [ Google Scholar ]
• Robey RR, Schultz MC, Crawford AB, Sinner CA. Single-subject clinical-outcome research: Designs, data, effect sizes, and analyses. Aphasiology. 1999;13(6):445–473. doi: 10.1080/026870399402028. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rossi PH, Freeman HE. Evaluation: A systematic approach. 5. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1993. [ Google Scholar ]
• SAS Institute Inc. The SAS system for Windows, Version 9. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc; 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schmidt M, Perels F, Schmitz B. How to perform idiographic and a combination of idiographic and nomothetic approaches: A comparison of time series analyses and hierarchical linear modeling. Journal of Psychology. 2010;218(3):166–174. doi: 10.1027/0044-3409/a000026. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scollon CN, Kim-Pietro C, Diener E. Experience sampling: Promises and pitfalls, strengths and weaknesses. Assessing Well-Being. 2003;4:5–35. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4_8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scruggs TE, Mastropieri MA. Summarizing single-subject research: Issues and applications. Behavior Modification. 1998;22(3):221–242. doi: 10.1177/01454455980223001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scruggs TE, Mastropieri MA, Casto G. The quantitative synthesis of single-subject research. Remedial and Special Education. 1987;8(2):24–33. doi: 10.1177/074193258700800206. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shadish WR, Cook TD, Campbell DT. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 2002. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shadish WR, Rindskopf DM, Hedges LV. The state of the science in the meta-analysis of single-case experimental designs. Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention. 2008;3:188–196. doi: 10.1080/17489530802581603. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shadish WR, Sullivan KJ. Characteristics of single-case designs used to assess treatment effects in 2008. Behavior Research Methods. 2011;43:971–980. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0111-y. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sharpley CF. Time-series analysis of behavioural data: An update. Behaviour Change. 1987;4:40–45. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shiffman S, Hufford M, Hickcox M, Paty JA, Gnys M, Kassel JD. Remember that? A comparison of real-time versus retrospective recall of smoking lapses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1997;65:292–300. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.65.2.292.a. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shiffman S, Stone AA. Ecological momentary assessment: A new tool for behavioral medicine research. In: Krantz DS, Baum A, editors. Technology and methods in behavioral medicine. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 1998. pp. 117–131. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shiffman S, Stone AA, Hufford MR. Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2008;4:1–32. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shumway RH, Stoffer DS. An approach to time series smoothing and forecasting using the EM Algorithm. Journal of Time Series Analysis. 1982;3(4):253–264. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9892.1982.tb00349.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Skinner BF. The behavior of organisms. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1938. [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith JD, Borckardt JJ, Nash MR. Inferential precision in single-case time-series datastreams: How well does the EM Procedure perform when missing observations occur in autocorrelated data? Behavior Therapy. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2011.10.001. (in press) [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith JD, Handler L, Nash MR. Therapeutic Assessment for preadolescent boys with oppositional-defiant disorder: A replicated single-case time-series design. Psychological Assessment. 2010;22(3):593–602. doi: 10.1037/a0019697. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Snijders TAB, Bosker RJ. Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Soliday E, Moore KJ, Lande MB. Daily reports and pooled time series analysis: Pediatric psychology applications. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2002;27(1):67–76. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/27.1.67. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• SPSS Statistics. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc; 2011. (Version 20.0.0) [ Google Scholar ]
• StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 12. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP; 2011. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stone AA, Broderick JE, Kaell AT, Deles-Paul PAEG, Porter LE. Does the peak-end phenomenon observed in laboratory pain studies apply to real-world pain in rheumatoid arthritics? Journal of Pain. 2000;1:212–217. doi: 10.1054/jpai.2000.7568. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stone AA, Shiffman S. Capturing momentary, self-report data: A proposal for reporting guidelines. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2002;24:236–243. doi: 10.1207/S15324796ABM2403_09. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stout RL. Advancing the analysis of treatment process. Addiction. 2007;102:1539–1545. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01880.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tate RL, McDonald S, Perdices M, Togher L, Schultz R, Savage S. Rating the methodological quality of single-subject designs and N-of-1 trials: Introducing the Single-Case Experimental Design (SCED) Scale. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2008;18(4):385–401. doi: 10.1080/09602010802009201. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thiele C, Laireiter A-R, Baumann U. Diaries in clinical psychology and psychotherapy: A selective review. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2002;9(1):1–37. doi: 10.1002/cpp.302. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tiao GC, Box GEP. Modeling multiple time series with applications. Journal of the American Statistical Association. 1981;76:802–816. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tschacher W, Ramseyer F. Modeling psychotherapy process by time-series panel analysis (TSPA) Psychotherapy Research. 2009;19(4):469–481. doi: 10.1080/10503300802654496. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Velicer WF, Colby SM. A comparison of missing-data procedures for ARIMA time-series analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 2005a;65(4):596–615. doi: 10.1177/0013164404272502. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Velicer WF, Colby SM. Missing data and the general transformation approach to time series analysis. In: Maydeu-Olivares A, McArdle JJ, editors. Contemporary psychometrics. A festschrift to Roderick P McDonald. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2005b. pp. 509–535. [ Google Scholar ]
• Velicer WF, Fava JL. Time series analysis. In: Schinka J, Velicer WF, Weiner IB, editors. Research methods in psychology. Vol. 2. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 2003. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wachtel PL. Beyond “ESTs”: Problematic assumptions in the pursuit of evidence-based practice. Psychoanalytic Psychology. 2010;27(3):251–272. doi: 10.1037/a0020532. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Watson JB. Behaviorism. New York, NY: Norton; 1925. [ Google Scholar ]
• Weisz JR, Hawley KM. Finding, evaluating, refining, and applying empirically supported treatments for children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 1998;27:206–216. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp2702_7. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weisz JR, Hawley KM. Procedural and coding manual for identification of beneficial treatments. Washinton, DC: American Psychological Association, Society for Clinical Psychology, Division 12, Committee on Science and Practice; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Westen D, Bradley R. Empirically supported complexity. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2005;14:266–271. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00378.x. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Westen D, Novotny CM, Thompson-Brenner HK. The empirical status of empirically supported psychotherapies: Assumptions, findings, and reporting controlled clinical trials. Psychological Bulletin. 2004;130:631–663. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.631. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilkinson L The Task Force on Statistical Inference. Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist. 1999;54:694–704. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wolery M, Busick M, Reichow B, Barton EE. Comparison of overlap methods for quantitatively synthesizing single-subject data. The Journal of Special Education. 2010;44(1):18–28. doi: 10.1177/0022466908328009. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wu Z, Huang NE, Long SR, Peng C-K. On the trend, detrending, and variability of nonlinear and nonstationary time series. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2007;104(38):14889–14894. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0701020104. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• View on publisher site
• PDF (269.4 KB)
• Collections

Similar articles

Cited by other articles, links to ncbi databases.

• Download .nbib .nbib
• Format: AMA APA MLA NLM

Add to Collections

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved October 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

Case Studies

This guide examines case studies, a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole. Researchers collect data about participants using participant and direct observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examinations of records, and collections of writing samples. Starting with a definition of the case study, the guide moves to a brief history of this research method. Using several well documented case studies, the guide then looks at applications and methods including data collection and analysis. A discussion of ways to handle validity, reliability, and generalizability follows, with special attention to case studies as they are applied to composition studies. Finally, this guide examines the strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

Definition and Overview

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.

Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.

In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.

Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research. F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of newspaper reporters and novelists.

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting: the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the 1930's on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of cases studied and that the under-standardized character of their descriptions made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case study had become a minority practice.

Educational Applications

The 1950's marked the dawning of a new era in case study research, namely that of the utilization of the case study as a teaching method. "Instituted at Harvard Business School in the 1950s as a primary method of teaching, cases have since been used in classrooms and lecture halls alike, either as part of a course of study or as the main focus of the course to which other teaching material is added" (Armisted 1984). The basic purpose of instituting the case method as a teaching strategy was "to transfer much of the responsibility for learning from the teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active construction" (Boehrer 1990). Through careful examination and discussion of various cases, "students learn to identify actual problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem" (Merseth 1991). In addition, students are encouraged to "generate their own analysis of the problems under consideration, to develop their own solutions, and to practically apply their own knowledge of theory to these problems" (Boyce 1993). Along the way, students also develop "the power to analyze and to master a tangled circumstance by identifying and delineating important factors; the ability to utilize ideas, to test them against facts, and to throw them into fresh combinations" (Merseth 1991).

In addition to the practical application and testing of scholarly knowledge, case discussions can also help students prepare for real-world problems, situations and crises by providing an approximation of various professional environments (i.e. classroom, board room, courtroom, or hospital). Thus, through the examination of specific cases, students are given the opportunity to work out their own professional issues through the trials, tribulations, experiences, and research findings of others. An obvious advantage to this mode of instruction is that it allows students the exposure to settings and contexts that they might not otherwise experience. For example, a student interested in studying the effects of poverty on minority secondary student's grade point averages and S.A.T. scores could access and analyze information from schools as geographically diverse as Los Angeles, New York City, Miami, and New Mexico without ever having to leave the classroom.

The case study method also incorporates the idea that students can learn from one another "by engaging with each other and with each other's ideas, by asserting something and then having it questioned, challenged and thrown back at them so that they can reflect on what they hear, and then refine what they say" (Boehrer 1990). In summary, students can direct their own learning by formulating questions and taking responsibility for the study.

Types and Design Concerns

Researchers use multiple methods and approaches to conduct case studies.

Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:

Illustrative Case Studies These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

Cumulative Case Studies These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

Critical Instance Case Studies These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Much of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers are typically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:

Individual Theories These focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject.

Organizational Theories These focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.

Social Theories These focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling academic writers collectively.

For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject, Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing. The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

• Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and extensive.
• These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having the writers compose aloud their composition process.
• A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
• For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

• The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
• The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.

Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the opening pages of her Review of Literature , preceding the report.

Designing a Case Study

After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:

• What questions to study
• What data are relevant
• What data to collect
• How to analyze that data

In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.

Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:

• A study's questions.
• A study's propositions (if any).
• A study's units of analysis.
• The logic that links the data to the propositions.
• The criteria for interpreting the findings.

In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.

Conducting Case Studies

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.

Method: Single or Multi-modal?

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews , protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).

Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.

A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method.

Participant Selection

Case studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.

For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-class suburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.

Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.

Data Collection

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

• Archival records.
• Interviews.
• Direct observation.
• Participant observation.

In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:

• A writer's drafts.
• School records of student writers.
• Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
• Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
• Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
• Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.

Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.

In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.

Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.

It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."

It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.

Data Analysis

As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.

However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:

• The role of participants.
• The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
• Historical.
• Thematical.
• Ritual and symbolism.
• Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices, and values.

There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.

As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.

Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.

Composing the Case Study Report

In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.

This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.

Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.

For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?

Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.

Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:

• Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.
• Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.
• Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
• Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
• Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
• Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.

Issues of Validity and Reliability

Once key variables have been identified, they can be analyzed. Reliability becomes a key concern at this stage, and many case study researchers go to great lengths to ensure that their interpretations of the data will be both reliable and valid. Because issues of validity and reliability are an important part of any study in the social sciences, it is important to identify some ways of dealing with results.

Multi-modal case study researchers often balance the results of their coding with data from interviews or writer's reflections upon their own work. Consequently, the researchers' conclusions become highly contextualized. For example, in a case study which looked at the time spent in different stages of the writing process, Berkenkotter concluded that her participant, Donald Murray, spent more time planning his essays than in other writing stages. The report of this case study is followed by Murray's reply, wherein he agrees with some of Berkenkotter's conclusions and disagrees with others.

As is the case with other research methodologies, issues of external validity, construct validity, and reliability need to be carefully considered.

Commentary on Case Studies

Researchers often debate the relative merits of particular methods, among them case study. In this section, we comment on two key issues. To read the commentaries, choose any of the items below:

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Most case study advocates point out that case studies produce much more detailed information than what is available through a statistical analysis. Advocates will also hold that while statistical methods might be able to deal with situations where behavior is homogeneous and routine, case studies are needed to deal with creativity, innovation, and context. Detractors argue that case studies are difficult to generalize because of inherent subjectivity and because they are based on qualitative subjective data, generalizable only to a particular context.

Flexibility

The case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.

Emphasis on Context

By seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.

Inherent Subjectivity

"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.

High Investment

Case studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.

Ethical Considerations

Researchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study.

The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.

A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.

Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Merriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:

• Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concrete information upon which to formulate interpretations.
• Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example of such a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985) refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a larger case is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance, in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling out the productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile included an advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis of individual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. The seven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, to ascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composing process engaged in by these eight students.
• Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided the data. In other words, talk to your subjects.
• Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971) supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples of theoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well as examples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents. Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composing process delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focal point in this study.
• Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validity through pooled judgment.

Although little can be done to combat challenges concerning the generalizability of case studies, "most writers suggest that qualitative research should be judged as credible and confirmable as opposed to valid and reliable" (Merriam 1985). Likewise, it has been argued that "rather than transplanting statistical, quantitative notions of generalizability and thus finding qualitative research inadequate, it makes more sense to develop an understanding of generalization that is congruent with the basic characteristics of qualitative inquiry" (1985). After all, criticizing the case study method for being ungeneralizable is comparable to criticizing a washing machine for not being able to tell the correct time. In other words, it is unjust to criticize a method for not being able to do something which it was never originally designed to do in the first place.

Annotated Bibliography

Armisted, C. (1984). How Useful are Case Studies. Training and Development Journal, 38 (2), 75-77.

This article looks at eight types of case studies, offers pros and cons of using case studies in the classroom, and gives suggestions for successfully writing and using case studies.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1997). Beyond Methods: Components of Second Language Teacher Education . New York: McGraw-Hill.

A compilation of various research essays which address issues of language teacher education. Essays included are: "Non-native reading research and theory" by Lee, "The case for Psycholinguistics" by VanPatten, and "Assessment and Second Language Teaching" by Gradman and Reed.

Bartlett, L. (1989). A Question of Good Judgment; Interpretation Theory and Qualitative Enquiry Address. 70th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco.

Bartlett selected "quasi-historical" methodology, which focuses on the "truth" found in case records, as one that will provide "good judgments" in educational inquiry. He argues that although the method is not comprehensive, it can try to connect theory with practice.

Baydere, S. et. al. (1993). Multimedia conferencing as a tool for collaborative writing: a case study in Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. New York: Springer-Verlag.

The case study by Baydere et. al. is just one of the many essays in this book found in the series "Computer Supported Cooperative Work." Denley, Witefield and May explore similar issues in their essay, "A case study in task analysis for the design of a collaborative document production system."

Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., N., & Ackerman J. (1988). Conventions, Conversations, and the Writer: Case Study of a Student in a Rhetoric Ph.D. Program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 9-44.

The authors focused on how the writing of their subject, Nate or Ackerman, changed as he became more acquainted or familiar with his field's discourse community.

Berninger, V., W., and Gans, B., M. (1986). Language Profiles in Nonspeaking Individuals of Normal Intelligence with Severe Cerebral Palsy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2, 45-50.

Argues that generalizations about language abilities in patients with severe cerebral palsy (CP) should be avoided. Standardized tests of different levels of processing oral language, of processing written language, and of producing written language were administered to 3 male participants (aged 9, 16, and 40 yrs).

Bockman, J., R., and Couture, B. (1984). The Case Method in Technical Communication: Theory and Models. Texas: Association of Teachers of Technical Writing.

Examines the study and teaching of technical writing, communication of technical information, and the case method in terms of those applications.

Boehrer, J. (1990). Teaching With Cases: Learning to Question. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 41-57.

This article discusses the origins of the case method, looks at the question of what is a case, gives ideas about learning in case teaching, the purposes it can serve in the classroom, the ground rules for the case discussion, including the role of the question, and new directions for case teaching.

Bowman, W. R. (1993). Evaluating JTPA Programs for Economically Disadvantaged Adults: A Case Study of Utah and General Findings . Washington: National Commission for Employment Policy.

"To encourage state-level evaluations of JTPA, the Commission and the State of Utah co-sponsored this report on the effectiveness of JTPA Title II programs for adults in Utah. The technique used is non-experimental and the comparison group was selected from registrants with Utah's Employment Security. In a step-by-step approach, the report documents how non-experimental techniques can be applied and several specific technical issues can be addressed."

Boyce, A. (1993) The Case Study Approach for Pedagogists. Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. (Address). Washington DC.

This paper addresses how case studies 1) bridge the gap between teaching theory and application, 2) enable students to analyze problems and develop solutions for situations that will be encountered in the real world of teaching, and 3) helps students to evaluate the feasibility of alternatives and to understand the ramifications of a particular course of action.

Carson, J. (1993) The Case Study: Ideal Home of WAC Quantitative and Qualitative Data. Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. (Address). San Diego.

"Increasingly, one of the most pressing questions for WAC advocates is how to keep [WAC] programs going in the face of numerous difficulties. Case histories offer the best chance for fashioning rhetorical arguments to keep WAC programs going because they offer the opportunity to provide a coherent narrative that contextualizes all documents and data, including what is generally considered scientific data. A case study of the WAC program, . . . at Robert Morris College in Pittsburgh demonstrates the advantages of this research method. Such studies are ideal homes for both naturalistic and positivistic data as well as both quantitative and qualitative information."

---. (1991). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition and Communication. 32. 365-87.

No abstract available.

Cromer, R. (1994) A Case Study of Dissociations Between Language and Cognition. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical Children . Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 141-153.

Crossley, M. (1983) Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society. Hamilton, NZ.

Case study research, as presented here, helps bridge the theory-practice gap in comparative and international research studies of education because it focuses on the practical, day-to-day context rather than on the national arena. The paper asserts that the case study method can be valuable at all levels of research, formation, and verification of theories in education.

Daillak, R., H., and Alkin, M., C. (1982). Qualitative Studies in Context: Reflections on the CSE Studies of Evaluation Use . California: EDRS

The report shows how the Center of the Study of Evaluation (CSE) applied qualitative techniques to a study of evaluation information use in local, Los Angeles schools. It critiques the effectiveness and the limitations of using case study, evaluation, field study, and user interview survey methodologies.

Davey, L. (1991). The Application of Case Study Evaluations. ERIC/TM Digest.

This article examines six types of case studies, the type of evaluation questions that can be answered, the functions served, some design features, and some pitfalls of the method.

Deutch, C. E. (1996). A course in research ethics for graduate students. College Teaching, 44, 2, 56-60.

This article describes a one-credit discussion course in research ethics for graduate students in biology. Case studies are focused on within the four parts of the course: 1) major issues, 2 )practical issues in scholarly work, 3) ownership of research results, and 4) training and personal decisions.

DeVoss, G. (1981). Ethics in Fieldwork Research. RIE 27p. (ERIC)

This article examines four of the ethical problems that can happen when conducting case study research: acquiring permission to do research, knowing when to stop digging, the pitfalls of doing collaborative research, and preserving the integrity of the participants.

Driscoll, A. (1985). Case Study of a Research Intervention: the University of Utah’s Collaborative Approach . San Francisco: Far West Library for Educational Research Development.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Denver, CO, March 1985. Offers information of in-service training, specifically case studies application.

Ellram, L. M. (1996). The Use of the Case Study Method in Logistics Research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17, 2, 93.

This article discusses the increased use of case study in business research, and the lack of understanding of when and how to use case study methodology in business.

Emig, J. (1971) The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Urbana: NTCE.

This case study uses observation, tape recordings, writing samples, and school records to show that writing in reflexive and extensive situations caused different lengths of discourse and different clusterings of the components of the writing process.

Feagin, J. R. (1991). A Case For the Case Study . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

This book discusses the nature, characteristics, and basic methodological issues of the case study as a research method.

Feldman, H., Holland, A., & Keefe, K. (1989) Language Abilities after Left Hemisphere Brain Injury: A Case Study of Twins. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 9, 32-47.

"Describes the language abilities of 2 twin pairs in which 1 twin (the experimental) suffered brain injury to the left cerebral hemisphere around the time of birth and1 twin (the control) did not. One pair of twins was initially assessed at age 23 mo. and the other at about 30 mo.; they were subsequently evaluated in their homes 3 times at about 6-mo intervals."

Fidel, R. (1984). The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and Information Science Research, 6.

The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible, subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt to the study's progressive change.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, Plans and Prose: The Representation of Meaning in Writing. Written Communication, 1, 120-160.

Explores the ways in which writers actually use different forms of knowing to create prose.

Frey, L. R. (1992). Interpreting Communication Research: A Case Study Approach Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

The book discusses research methodologies in the Communication field. It focuses on how case studies bridge the gap between communication research, theory, and practice.

Gilbert, V. K. (1981). The Case Study as a Research Methodology: Difficulties and Advantages of Integrating the Positivistic, Phenomenological and Grounded Theory Approaches . The Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for the Study of Educational Administration. (Address) Halifax, NS, Can.

This study on an innovative secondary school in England shows how a "low-profile" participant-observer case study was crucial to the initial observation, the testing of hypotheses, the interpretive approach, and the grounded theory.

Gilgun, J. F. (1994). A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research. Social Work, 39, 4, 371-381.

This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluation of case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. It also looks at issues such as evaluation and interpretations of case studies.

Glennan, S. L., Sharp-Bittner, M. A. & Tullos, D. C. (1991). Augmentative and Alternative Communication Training with a Nonspeaking Adult: Lessons from MH. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7, 240-7.

"A response-guided case study documented changes in a nonspeaking 36-yr-old man's ability to communicate using 3 trained augmentative communication modes. . . . Data were collected in videotaped interaction sessions between the nonspeaking adult and a series of adult speaking."

Graves, D. (1981). An Examination of the Writing Processes of Seven Year Old Children. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 113-134.

Hamel, J. (1993). Case Study Methods . Newbury Park: Sage. .

"In a most economical fashion, Hamel provides a practical guide for producing theoretically sharp and empirically sound sociological case studies. A central idea put forth by Hamel is that case studies must "locate the global in the local" thus making the careful selection of the research site the most critical decision in the analytic process."

Karthigesu, R. (1986, July). Television as a Tool for Nation-Building in the Third World: A Post-Colonial Pattern, Using Malaysia as a Case-Study. International Television Studies Conference. (Address). London, 10-12.

"The extent to which Television Malaysia, as a national mass media organization, has been able to play a role in nation building in the post-colonial period is . . . studied in two parts: how the choice of a model of nation building determines the character of the organization; and how the character of the organization influences the output of the organization."

Kenny, R. (1984). Making the Case for the Case Study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16, (1), 37-51.

The article looks at how and why the case study is justified as a viable and valuable approach to educational research and program evaluation.

Knirk, F. (1991). Case Materials: Research and Practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4 (1 ), 73-81.

The article addresses the effectiveness of case studies, subject areas where case studies are commonly used, recent examples of their use, and case study design considerations.

Klos, D. (1976). Students as Case Writers. Teaching of Psychology, 3.2, 63-66.

This article reviews a course in which students gather data for an original case study of another person. The task requires the students to design the study, collect the data, write the narrative, and interpret the findings.

Leftwich, A. (1981). The Politics of Case Study: Problems of Innovation in University Education. Higher Education Review, 13.2, 38-64.

The article discusses the use of case studies as a teaching method. Emphasis is on the instructional materials, interdisciplinarity, and the complex relationships within the university that help or hinder the method.

Mabrito, M. (1991, Oct.). Electronic Mail as a Vehicle for Peer Response: Conversations of High and Low Apprehensive Writers. Written Communication, 509-32.

McCarthy, S., J. (1955). The Influence of Classroom Discourse on Student Texts: The Case of Ella . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

A look at how students of color become marginalized within traditional classroom discourse. The essay follows the struggles of one black student: Ella.

Matsuhashi, A., ed. (1987). Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production Processes Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Investigates how writers plan to produce discourse for different purposes to report, to generalize, and to persuade, as well as how writers plan for sentence level units of language. To learn about planning, an observational measure of pause time was used" (ERIC).

Merriam, S. B. (1985). The Case Study in Educational Research: A Review of Selected Literature. Journal of Educational Thought, 19.3, 204-17.

The article examines the characteristics of, philosophical assumptions underlying the case study, the mechanics of conducting a case study, and the concerns about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the method.

---. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Merry, S. E., & Milner, N. eds. (1993). The Possibility of Popular Justice: A Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States . Ann Arbor: U of Michigan.

". . . this volume presents a case study of one experiment in popular justice, the San Francisco Community Boards. This program has made an explicit claim to create an alternative justice, or new justice, in the midst of a society ordered by state law. The contributors to this volume explore the history and experience of the program and compare it to other versions of popular justice in the United States, Europe, and the Third World."

Merseth, K. K. (1991). The Case for Cases in Teacher Education. RIE. 42p. (ERIC).

This monograph argues that the case method of instruction offers unique potential for revitalizing the field of teacher education.

Michaels, S. (1987). Text and Context: A New Approach to the Study of Classroom Writing. Discourse Processes, 10, 321-346.

"This paper argues for and illustrates an approach to the study of writing that integrates ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction with linguistic analysis of written texts and teacher/student conversational exchanges. The approach is illustrated through a case study of writing in a single sixth grade classroom during a single writing assignment."

Milburn, G. (1995). Deciphering a Code or Unraveling a Riddle: A Case Study in the Application of a Humanistic Metaphor to the Reporting of Social Studies Teaching. Theory and Research in Education, 13.

This citation serves as an example of how case studies document learning procedures in a senior-level economics course.

Milley, J. E. (1979). An Investigation of Case Study as an Approach to Program Evaluation. 19th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research. (Address). San Diego.

The case study method merged a narrative report focusing on the evaluator as participant-observer with document review, interview, content analysis, attitude questionnaire survey, and sociogram analysis. Milley argues that case study program evaluation has great potential for widespread use.

Minnis, J. R. (1985, Sept.). Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory, and Distance Education Research. Distance Education, 6.2.

This article describes and defines the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography, case study, and grounded theory.

Nunan, D. (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Included in this series of essays is Peter Sturman’s "Team Teaching: a case study from Japan" and David Nunan’s own "Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study."

Nystrand, M., ed. (1982). What Writers Know: The Language, Process, and Structure of Written Discourse . New York: Academic Press.

Owenby, P. H. (1992). Making Case Studies Come Alive. Training, 29, (1), 43-46. (ERIC)

This article provides tips for writing more effective case studies.

---. (1981). Pausing and Planning: The Tempo of Writer Discourse Production. Research in the Teaching of English, 15 (2),113-34.

Perl, S. (1979). The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 13, 317-336.

"Summarizes a study of five unskilled college writers, focusing especially on one of the five, and discusses the findings in light of current pedagogical practice and research design."

Pilcher J. and A. Coffey. eds. (1996). Gender and Qualitative Research . Brookfield: Aldershot, Hants, England.

This book provides a series of essays which look at gender identity research, qualitative research and applications of case study to questions of gendered pedagogy.

Pirie, B. S. (1993). The Case of Morty: A Four Year Study. Gifted Education International, 9 (2), 105-109.

This case study describes a boy from kindergarten through third grade with above average intelligence but difficulty in learning to read, write, and spell.

Popkewitz, T. (1993). Changing Patterns of Power: Social Regulation and Teacher Education Reform. Albany: SUNY Press.

Popkewitz edits this series of essays that address case studies on educational change and the training of teachers. The essays vary in terms of discipline and scope. Also, several authors include case studies of educational practices in countries other than the United States.

---. (1984). The Predrafting Processes of Four High- and Four Low Apprehensive Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, (1), 45-64.

Rasmussen, P. (1985, March) A Case Study on the Evaluation of Research at the Technical University of Denmark. International Journal of Institutional Management in Higher Education, 9 (1).

This is an example of a case study methodology used to evaluate the chemistry and chemical engineering departments at the University of Denmark.

Roth, K. J. (1986). Curriculum Materials, Teacher Talk, and Student Learning: Case Studies in Fifth-Grade Science Teaching . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

Roth offers case studies on elementary teachers, elementary school teaching, science studies and teaching, and verbal learning.

Selfe, C. L. (1985). An Apprehensive Writer Composes. When a Writer Can't Write: Studies in Writer's Block and Other Composing-Process Problems . (pp. 83-95). Ed. Mike Rose. NMY: Guilford.

Smith-Lewis, M., R. and Ford, A. (1987). A User's Perspective on Augmentative Communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 3, 12-7.

"During a series of in-depth interviews, a 25-yr-old woman with cerebral palsy who utilized augmentative communication reflected on the effectiveness of the devices designed for her during her school career."

St. Pierre, R., G. (1980, April). Follow Through: A Case Study in Metaevaluation Research . 64th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. (Address).

The three approaches to metaevaluation are evaluation of primary evaluations, integrative meta-analysis with combined primary evaluation results, and re-analysis of the raw data from a primary evaluation.

Stahler, T., M. (1996, Feb.) Early Field Experiences: A Model That Worked. ERIC.

"This case study of a field and theory class examines a model designed to provide meaningful field experiences for preservice teachers while remaining consistent with the instructor's beliefs about the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for the classroom."

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

This book examines case study research in education and case study methodology.

Stiegelbauer, S. (1984) Community, Context, and Co-curriculum: Situational Factors Influencing School Improvements in a Study of High Schools. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Discussion of several case studies: one looking at high school environments, another examining educational innovations.

Stolovitch, H. (1990). Case Study Method. Performance And Instruction, 29, (9), 35-37.

This article describes the case study method as a form of simulation and presents guidelines for their use in professional training situations.

Thaller, E. (1994). Bibliography for the Case Method: Using Case Studies in Teacher Education. RIE. 37 p.

This bibliography presents approximately 450 citations on the use of case studies in teacher education from 1921-1993.

Thrane, T. (1986). On Delimiting the Senses of Near-Synonyms in Historical Semantics: A Case Study of Adjectives of 'Moral Sufficiency' in the Old English Andreas. Linguistics Across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: In Honor of Jacek Fisiak on the Occasion of his Fiftieth Birthday . Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

United Nations. (1975). Food and Agriculture Organization. Report on the FAO/UNFPA Seminar on Methodology, Research and Country: Case Studies on Population, Employment and Productivity . Rome: United Nations.

This example case study shows how the methodology can be used in a demographic and psychographic evaluation. At the same time, it discusses the formation and instigation of the case study methodology itself.

Van Vugt, J. P., ed. (1994). Aids Prevention and Services: Community Based Research . Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

"This volume has been five years in the making. In the process, some of the policy applications called for have met with limited success, such as free needle exchange programs in a limited number of American cities, providing condoms to prison inmates, and advertisements that depict same-sex couples. Rather than dating our chapters that deal with such subjects, such policy applications are verifications of the type of research demonstrated here. Furthermore, they indicate the critical need to continue community based research in the various communities threatened by acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . . "

Welch, W., ed. (1981, May). Case Study Methodology in Educational Evaluation. Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference. Minnesota. (Address).

The four papers in these proceedings provide a comprehensive picture of the rationale, methodology, strengths, and limitations of case studies.

Williams, G. (1987). The Case Method: An Approach to Teaching and Learning in Educational Administration. RIE, 31p.

This paper examines the viability of the case method as a teaching and learning strategy in instructional systems geared toward the training of personnel of the administration of various aspects of educational systems.

Yin, R. K. (1993). Advancing Rigorous Methodologies: A Review of 'Towards Rigor in Reviews of Multivocal Literatures.' Review of Educational Research, 61, (3).

"R. T. Ogawa and B. Malen's article does not meet its own recommended standards for rigorous testing and presentation of its own conclusions. Use of the exploratory case study to analyze multivocal literatures is not supported, and the claim of grounded theory to analyze multivocal literatures may be stronger."

---. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications Inc.

This book discusses in great detail, the entire design process of the case study, including entire chapters on collecting evidence, analyzing evidence, composing the case study report, and designing single and multiple case studies.

Related Links

Consider the following list of related Web sites for more information on the topic of case study research. Note: although many of the links cover the general category of qualitative research, all have sections that address issues of case studies.

• Sage Publications on Qualitative Methodology: Search here for a comprehensive list of new books being published about "Qualitative Methodology" http://www.sagepub.co.uk/
• The International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education: An on-line journal "to enhance the theory and practice of qualitative research in education." On-line submissions are welcome. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/tf/09518398.html
• Qualitative Research Resources on the Internet: From syllabi to home pages to bibliographies. All links relate somehow to qualitative research. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/qualres.html

Citation Information

Bronwyn Becker, Patrick Dawson, Karen Devine, Carla Hannum, Steve Hill, Jon Leydens, Debbie Matuskevich, Carol Traver, and Mike Palmquist. (1994-2024). Case Studies. The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/writing/guides/.

Copyright Information

Copyright © 1994-2024 Colorado State University and/or this site's authors, developers, and contributors . Some material displayed on this site is used with permission.

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Qualitative study design: Case Studies

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research

Case Studies

• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

In depth description of the experience of a single person, a family, a group, a community or an organisation.

An example of a qualitative case study is a life history which is the story of one specific person.  A case study may be done to highlight a specific issue by telling a story of one person or one group. 

• Oral recording

Ability to explore and describe, in depth, an issue or event. 

Develop an understanding of health, illness and health care in context. 

Single case can be used to develop or disprove a theory. 

Can be used as a model or prototype .  

Limitations

Labour intensive and generates large diverse data sets which can be hard to manage. 

Case studies are seen by many as a weak methodology because they only look at one person or one specific group and aren’t as broad in their participant selection as other methodologies. 

Example questions

This methodology can be used to ask questions about a specific drug or treatment and its effects on an individual.

• Does thalidomide cause birth defects?
• Does exposure to a pesticide lead to cancer?

Example studies

• Choi, T. S. T., Walker, K. Z., & Palermo, C. (2018). Diabetes management in a foreign land: A case study on Chinese Australians. Health & Social Care in the Community, 26(2), e225-e232. 
• Reade, I., Rodgers, W., & Spriggs, K. (2008). New Ideas for High Performance Coaches: A Case Study of Knowledge Transfer in Sport Science.  International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 3(3), 335-354. 
• Wingrove, K., Barbour, L., & Palermo, C. (2017). Exploring nutrition capacity in Australia's charitable food sector.  Nutrition & Dietetics , 74(5), 495-501. 
• Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2018). Qualitative methods for health research (4th ed.). London: SAGE. 
• University of Missouri-St. Louis. Qualitative Research Designs. Retrieved from http://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/qualdsgn.html     
• << Previous: Action research
• Next: Field research >>
• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:46 AM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• Write for Us
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 21, Issue 1
• What is a case study?
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• Roberta Heale 1 ,
• Alison Twycross 2
• 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
• 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

What is it?

Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2

Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6  ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6

The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6

Benefits and limitations of case studies

If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.

Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6

Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.

Examples of case studies

Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)

The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:

Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).

Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.

Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.

The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10

These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.

• Gustafsson J
• Calanzaro M
• Sandelowski M

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

• Privacy Policy

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Triangulation in Research – Types, Methods and...

Correlational Research – Methods, Types and...

Quasi-Experimental Research Design – Types...

One-to-One Interview – Methods and Guide

Qualitative Research Methods

Experimental Design – Types, Methods, Guide

Participant Selection and Access in Case Study Research

• First Online: 05 January 2019

Cite this chapter

• Zhongyan Wan 4  

1734 Accesses

3 Citations

Case study research requires researchers to purposefully select information-rich cases, as they will allow researchers an in-depth understanding of relevant and critical issues under investigation (Patton in Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Sage, Newbury Park, 1990 , Qual Soc Work 1(3):261–283, 2002 ). To gain such insights, purposive sampling is generally believed to contribute to the richness in the range of data collected and help increase the possibilities of uncovering multiple realities (Guba and Lincoln in Handb Qual Res 2(163–194):105, 1994 ). However, dealing with research participants in the case study approach also poses great challenges for novice researchers, as humans can be a difficult factor to control among the variables in research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Questionable Research Practices in Single-Case Experimental Designs: Examples and Possible Solutions

Case Study Research

Alinejad, D. (2011). Mapping homelands through virtual spaces: Transnational embodiment and Iranian diaspora bloggers. Global Networks, 11 (1), 43–62.

Google Scholar  

Arcury, T., & Quandt, S. (1999). Participant recruitment for qualitative research: A site-based approach to community research in complex societies. Human Organization, 58 (2), 128–133.

Article   Google Scholar  

Barbour, R. (2014). Introducing qualitative research: A student’s guide . London: Sage.

Decrop, A. (1999). Qualitative research methods for the study of tourist behaviour. In A. Pizam & Y. Mansfeld. (Eds.), Consumer Behaviour in Travel and Tourism . New York: The Haworth Hospitality Press

Duff, P. (2008). Case study research in applied linguistics . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Feldman, M. S., Bell, J., & Berger, M. T. (2003). Gaining access: A practical and theoretical guide for qualitative researchers . Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.

Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. T. (2003). Educational research (7th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Gerring, J. (2004). What is a case study and what is it good for? American Political Science Review, 98 (02), 341–354.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2 (163–194), 105.

Gummesson, E. (2000). Qualitative methods in management research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hamilton, R. J., & Bowers, B. J. (2006). Internet recruitment and e-mail interviews in qualitative studies. Qualitative Health Research, 16 (6), 821–835.

Hancock, D. R., & Algozzine, B. (2015). Doing case study research: A practical guide for beginning researchers . New York: Teachers College Press.

Hewson, C. (2014). Qualitative approaches in Internet-mediated research: Opportunities, issues, possibilities. The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research , 423–452.

Johl, S. K., & Renganathan, S. (2010). Strategies for gaining access in doing fieldwork: Reflection of two researchers. The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 8 (1), 42–50.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques . India: New Age International.

Lee, R. (1993). Doing research on sensitive topics . London: Sage.

Merriam, S. (2009). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mikecz, R. (2012). Interviewing elites addressing methodological issues. Qualitative Inquiry, 18 (6), 482–493.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Noy, C. (2008). Sampling knowledge: The hermeneutics of snowball sampling in qualitative research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 11 (4), 327–344.

Okumus, F., Altinay, L., & Roper, A. (2007). Gaining access for research: Reflections from experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 34 (1), 7–26.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Two decades of developments in qualitative inquiry a personal, experiential perspective. Qualitative Social Work, 1 (3), 261–283.

Punch, K. F. (1998). Introduction to social research . London: Sage.

Seawright, J., & Gerring, J. (2008). Case selection techniques in case study research a menu of qualitative and quantitative options. Political Research Quarterly, 61 (2), 294–308.

Silverman, D. (Ed.). (2016). Qualitative research . London: Sage.

Thomas, G. (2015). How to do your case study . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Wan, Z. Y. (2016). College teacher beliefs and practices in computer-assisted language learning classrooms in China . Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University Press.

Willis, J. W., Jost, M., & Nilakanta, R. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches . London: Sage.

Book   Google Scholar  

Wilmot, A. (2005). Designing sampling strategies for qualitative social research: With particular reference to the Office for National Statistics’ Qualitative Respondent Register. Survey Methodology Bulletin-office for National Statistics, 56, 53.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). London: Sage publications.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Foreign Language Department, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China

Zhongyan Wan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhongyan Wan .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

Kwok Kuen Tsang

Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway

School of Humanities, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Wan, Z. (2019). Participant Selection and Access in Case Study Research. In: Tsang, K., Liu, D., Hong, Y. (eds) Challenges and Opportunities in Qualitative Research. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5811-1_5

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5811-1_5

Published : 05 January 2019

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-13-5810-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-13-5811-1

eBook Packages : Social Sciences Social Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study