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'Kashmir: History, Politics and Representation' Edited by Chitralekha Zutshi

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Hafsa Kanjwal

review of Chitreleka Zutshi edited volume for Economic and Political Weekly

Ankur Datta

Journal of Narrative Politics

Omer Aijazi

The Line of Control arbitrarily bifurcates Neelum valley, Kashmir into Pakistan and India. While the border attempts to constrain and categorize, the daily movements and flows of human and more-than-human bodies via " unofficial " routes and routines generate an understanding of Kashmir that is not dependent on geopolitics. Neelum as sculpted and carved by the masculine gaze such as those of the nation-state and humanitarians-indicates closure. But the intrusion of interconnected bodies through the valley's vast landscapes suggest a continuous reworking and reopening of its borders. These mobilities are stitched in the material inconveniences and intimacies of daily life in the valley. They are sustained by affective entanglements between human and more-than-human bodies constituting mutual processes of emplacement that are paradoxically unbounded and generative. In these movements and flows are analytical and philological opportunities to articulate fully formed visions of Kashmir. But this necessitates the location of theory and methodology as mutually constitutive within our literary genres (not outside of them) to elaborate narrative writing as praxis.

Cambridge University Press

Mohita Bhatia

Resisting Occupation in Kashmir

The last decade has been a transformative period in Kashmir, the hotly contested and densely militarized border territory located high in the Himalayan mountains between India and Pakistan. Suppressed and unheard, Kashmiri political aspirations were subordinated to larger geopolitical concerns—by opposing governments laying claim to Kashmir, by security experts promoting bilateral peace settlements in the region, and by academic researchers studying the conflict. But since 2008, Kashmiris who grew up in the midst of armed insurgency and counterinsurgency warfare have been deploying new strategies for challenging India's state and military apparatus and projecting their legal and political claims for freedom from Indian rule to global audiences. Resisting Occupation in Kashmir analyzes the social and legal logic of India's occupation of Kashmir in relation to colonialism, militarization, power, democracy, and sovereignty. It also traces how Kashmiri youth are drawing on the region's long history of armed rebellion against Indian domination to reimagine the freedom struggle in the twenty-first century. Resisting Occupation in Kashmir presents new ways of thinking and writing about Kashmir that cross conventional boundaries and point toward alternative ways of conceptualizing the past, present, and future of the region. The volume brings together junior and senior scholars from various disciplinary backgrounds who have conducted extensive fieldwork during the past decade in various regions of Kashmir. The contributors, many of whom were born and raised during the peak of the conflict in the 1990s, offer ethnographically grounded perspectives on contemporary social, legal, and political life in ways that demonstrate the multiplicity of experiences of Kashmiri communities. The essays highlight the ways in which this scholarly orientation—built through collaboration and dialogue across different kinds of borders—offers a new critical approach to Kashmir studies at this transformative and generative moment.

Policy Perspectives

Rabia Aamir

The relevance of undertaking a historiographic analysis in the context of historically disputed territory of Indian Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (IOJ&K) cannot be denied in the wake of revocation of Article 370 and 35A by India on August 5, 2019. This arbitrary decision has opened a recurring dimension of the dispute, which needs to be addressed in a wider perspective. This paper, therefore, calls for environmental justice or eco-postcolonial ethic for IOJ&K — a perspective, which is important by virtue of its definition only. Eco-postcolonial ethic, defined as a standpoint that brings forth the need to understand the expression of resistance against the oppression of colonizing powers in this postcolonial age, can be one possible way of determining a future course of action vis-a-vis Kashmir dispute. While the context of studying Kashmir in an Indian Pakistani conflict holds its own importance, shifting some frames of reference that incorporate the eco-postcolonial ethic of Kashmir, this paper examines the dispute from the perspective of ‘deceptions’1 or interpellations in the context of Kashmir’s history. This historiographic study of some old as well as contemporary texts, besides providing a basic understanding of Kashmir’s background and the recurring pattern of its strategic political moves, also helps us belie all the fabricated rhetoric and propaganda that has been lobbied for three quarters of a century. Keywords: Kashmir, South Asia’s Palestine, Environmental Ethics, Environmental Justice, Historiography.

Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies

Dilnaz Boga

This work challenges the mainstream media’s notions of presenting the region of India-administered Kashmir and enables one to view the culturally diverse, shifting frontier through a different lens. The paper challenges the representation of Kashmir in the mainstream national and international print media, which serve as an instrument and power’s pedagogical tool for the public. The media is used to shape people’s imagination and elicit certain political or apolitical positions as well as reinforce predispositions and behaviours according to agenda. Hence, the media’s perspective needs to be examined closely. This work replaces the framework of ethnonationalism, which contours the media’s representation of Kashmir, with an alternative framework of civic nationalism, which will bring about a different understanding of the region for the public. This framework not only unravels the conflict from twelfth century onwards, but also illuminates historical reasons for the present-day conflict, which is a vital component in conflict resolution. Unpacking the theory of Civic Nationalism and presenting evidence of Kashmir’s diversity by delving into the heterogenous region’s social, economic, cultural, and political spaces, the paper aims to unravel this comprehensive framework which counters the hegemonic, pedagogical national and international medias’ narratives on the conflict. The authors not only attempt to enliven aspects of the region’s social history and contextualise/reframe the oppressed people’s movement for self- determination from the Civic Nationalism framework, but also decode the present-day conflict by unravelling its root causes.

Rekha Chowdhary

Debolina Majumder

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A Look into the Conflict Between India and Pakistan over Kashmir

The region of Kashmir is one of the most volatile areas in the world. The nations of India and Pakistan have fiercely contested each other over Kashmir, fighting three major wars and two minor wars. It has gained immense international attention given the fact that both India and Pakistan are nuclear powers and this conflict represents a threat to global security.

Historical Context

To understand this conflict, it is essential to look back into the history of the area. In August of 1947, India and Pakistan were on the cusp of independence from the British. The British, led by the then Governor-General Louis Mountbatten, divided the British India empire into the states of India and Pakistan. The British India Empire was made up of multiple princely states (states that were allegiant to the British but headed by a monarch) along with states directly headed by the British. At the time of the partition, princely states had the right to choose whether they were to cede to India or Pakistan. To quote Mountbatten, “Typically, geographical circumstance and collective interests, et cetera will be the components to be considered [1] . In general, the Muslim majority states went to Pakistan while the Hindu majority states went to India, although India was a secular nation.

However, Kashmir was a peculiar case. While the majority of the population was Muslim, the ruler was a Hindu, Maharaja Hari Singh. However, this was not the only such case. The state of Junagadh was also faced with such a conflict.  The ruler of Junagadh [2] was a Muslim, who wished to accede to Pakistan, against the wishes of his people. Mountbatten recommended that Junagadh should go to India not only because it was a largely populated state but also because it was completely surrounded by India. However, the ruler ceded to Pakistan. India, enraged, annexed Junagadh on the pretext that the Pakistani Prime minister Muhammed Ali Jinnah stated that Hindus and Muslims could not live in one nation and because they feared riots [3] .

However, when it came to the region of Kashmir, the situation unfolded differently. Although Kashmir was a Muslim majority state headed by a Hindu ruler, Mountbatten recommended that Kashmir should go to India. [4] This had to do with India being a secular state. But Hari Singh decided that Kashmir would be independent, at least for a while, because he feared that the Kashmiri Muslims would not be happy with India while the Hindus and Sikhs would not be happy in Pakistan [5] . During this period of ambivalence in Kashmir, there were outbursts of riots in certain districts of Kashmir against the ruler. This eventually led to Pakistani tribesmen and militia crossing into Kashmir, in an attempt to take over the city of Srinagar, whilst looting and plundering the region [6] . Hari Singh made a plea to India to aid him against this anarchy and in doing so ceded Kashmir to India. This led to the First Indo-Pakistani War, also known as the First Kashmir War that was fought between the Indian soldiers and the Pakistani tribesmen. In 1948, Pakistani armed forces entered the war. Towards the end of 1948, both sides solidified their positions in Kashmir. A ceasefire agreement was made and a line of control (LOC) was established [7] . India was left with roughly two-thirds of Kashmir, while Pakistan obtained control over a third of the region of Kashmir. This marked the first of the many wars and conflicts between these two nations over Kashmir.

The establishment of the LOC in 1948, however, was insufficient. The United Nations then played the role of the mediator. On the 21 st of April, 1948, the Security Council passed and adopted resolution 47 [8] . A commission of five members (this commission was initially established by resolution 39) was to go to the Indian subcontinent and aid India and Pakistan in restoring peace in Kashmir. Additionally, the commission was supposed to help these countries prepare for a plebiscite to decide Kashmir’s accession. A three-step process was also recommended to ease tensions:

• All Pakistani nationals who entered Kashmir to fight were to be evacuated
• India was to gradually reduce its forces in the region
• India was to appoint a referendum administrator who was nominated by the UN

India accepted this resolution. However, Pakistan rejected it. This led to no withdrawal of troops and no referendum being held. Further International negotiations were attempted in the form of the Dixon plan among others. However, these too failed as every time either India or Pakistan rejected the terms.

Kashmir’s Importance

The primary reason for this conflict between the two nations is due to how valuable Kashmir is in terms of national security, geography and resources [9] .

The largely important Indus River flows through Kashmir. The Indus River is extremely crucial to agriculture in Pakistan. It is especially important in the lower Indus valley region, where rainfall is uncommon. Similarly, India depends on the Indus for irrigation. Hence, the Indus and its tributaries are highly sought after. The nation that controls this region effectively can cut off the water supply to the other. To manage these fears and ensure a fair distribution of the water from this river, the Indus Water Treaty [10] came into existence on the 19 th of September, 1960. Under this treaty, India has control over the eastern tributaries of Beas, Ravi and Sutlej, while Pakistan has control over the western rivers of Indus, Chenab and Jhelum. India has roughly 16% of the total water carried by the river while Pakistan has the rest. However, while this treaty is in place, Pakistan still fears that in a potential conflict, India could cut off the supply, since they control the region of Kashmir through which the Indus flows. But it is important to note that in the previous wars, India did not choke off the water supply. Yet, from Pakistan’s standpoint, the possibility remains, making Kashmir precious to them. Additionally, the glaciers provide immense amounts of freshwater to the region [11] .

The Kashmiri Rivers and water bodies also have the potential to generate hydroelectricity at great magnitudes. The state of Jammu and Kashmir largely depends on hydroelectricity for its power demands. At the moment, Kashmir only produces around 3000 megawatts of electricity. However, the region has the potential to produce up to 16,000 megawatts of power. The Indian administration is looking to tap into this, making Kashmir an important region. The region is also home to a plethora of resources such as uranium, gold, oil and natural gas.

From a geopolitical standpoint, Kashmir is vital as well. Kashmir serves as a bridge between South Asia and Central Asia. For India, it is the only direct route to Central Asia and through Central Asia to Europe. It plays a key role in the Belt and Road initiative. More importantly, it is key for the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) [12] . The CPEC is a large-scale bilateral undertaking involving the development of infrastructure in Pakistan, the establishment of transportation networks between China and Pakistan and the creation of numerous energy projects. Many of these projects run through the Pakistan administered Kashmir. Pakistan aims at directly connecting itself with both Central Asia and China through Kashmir.

Kashmir is a central piece between three nuclear nations: India, Pakistan and China. At the moment, of the original territory of Kashmir, India has control over roughly 55% of the total area, Pakistan controls 30% of the land and China controls 15% of it.

Kashmir from the Indian Viewpoint

According to India, Kashmir in its entirety belongs to India, and both Pakistan and China are falsely laying claim on Indian territories. India views the instrument of accession that was signed by Maharaja Hari Singh as legally binding, hence legally and fairly giving India Kashmir.

As mentioned, Kashmir is India’s only path to Central Asia. India does not have access to Central Asian and European countries directly through the land without it.

It is also extremely important to India’s national security [13] . The Siachen Glacier is the only barrier between Pakistan and China. In the face of a conflict, without Kashmir, China and Pakistan could combine forces, gravely endangering India. With India’s straining relationships with both China and Pakistan, it has become wary of this.

Additionally, in 1963, Pakistan ceded the Shaksgam valley and Gilgitto China. This region was originally a part of Pakistan administered Kashmir [14] . Some claim that this was done in order to undermine India and in order to allow Chinese military presence in Kashmir. While India does not accept this, it is nonetheless threatened. With China and Pakistan strengthening ties, increasing Chinese and Pakistani troops has made this region increasingly important.

There has also been a surge of Indian nationalism lately, especially with the nationalist Bhartiya Janata Party coming to power in 2014 with Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the helm [15] . Since the inception of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the region and India have faced numerous terrorist attacks, both by outside terrorist groups and by local insurgents. In 2001, insurgents from this region along with terrorists from outside attacked the Indian Parliament, killing many. There have been many incidents such as this. The result of this has been the deaths of thousands of civilians and Indian soldiers. This has led to feelings of resentment amongst the Indian people. Since many of these terrorists have their camps in Pakistan, this anger is directed towards Pakistan [16] . The Indian people have been longing for these deaths to stop and for the government to decisively deal with these acts of terror. The Indian people have also developed feelings of anger and resentment towards primarily Pakistan but also China for illegally taking over their territory. They believe Kashmir in its entirety belongs to India and severe action must be taken.

Kashmir from the Pakistani Viewpoint

Historically, Pakistan believes that Kashmir was illegitimately ceded to India by a ruler who did not represent the people. Additionally, since a majority of the Muslim majority states went to Pakistan, they believe Kashmir should belong to them.

 However, Kashmir is also important to Pakistan for strategic reasons [17] . As mentioned, Kashmir has a plethora of resources. Moreover, Pakistan is largely dependent on the Kashmiri Rivers. If India has complete control over Kashmir, it could potentially paralyze Pakistani agriculture and induce droughts.

Kashmir is the only direct link between Pakistan and China. China being a strong ally makes this important, both for military reasons and for economic development. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor goes through Kashmir as well. Losing Kashmir would deny this direct link to Pakistan. This direct link with China has been largely beneficial in terms of economic development.

Additionally, if India has complete control over Kashmir, India could move a large number of troops to the edge of the border, posing a large threat to Pakistani security. Losing Kashmir would not only cut off access to help from China but also have Indian troops present very close to important cities in Pakistan. This could prove devastating in the time of conflict. Hence, Pakistan believes they will be at the mercy of India if Kashmir is lost.

The general view of the people on this issue seems to be against India. Many are sympathetic towards the Kashmiris and believe that the people’s lives can be bettered by Kashmir joining Pakistan. However, there is a sizable population that is rather tired of this conflict and criticized the government for investing a lot of its resources in the Kashmiri conflict.

The Pakistani administration has maintained the view that Pakistan cannot lose Kashmir. They maintain that India has no legal or moral right over Kashmir and that Kashmir is rightly theirs. Subsequently, they are calling for UN mediation in the region.

Kashmir from the Kashmir viewpoint

The Kashmiri perspective is one that has been largely ignored. This conflict is one that has stemmed due to the fact that there are those that believe Maharaja Hari Singh ceding Kashmir to India was unlawful as he did not represent the majority. Before the partition, Kashmir had approximately 4 million people. Of these, around 70% were Muslims, 25% were Hindus, and the remaining 5% were Buddhists and Sikhs [18] .

Even before the time of the partition, there was a rising movement against the ruler. The Muslim Conference led by Sheik Abdullah denounced the Maharaja and claimed that he was a danger to Islam. However, later on, the Conference lost its steam and lost a majority of its followers, causing Abdullah to embrace secularism. Abdullah remained a prominent leader. Later on, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the future prime minister of Pakistan, and Abdullah became fierce adversaries. This relationship with Jinnah led him to become an ally of the Indian leaders.

After the partition of India and Pakistan, Kashmir signed a standstill agreement with both the nations while they decided their fate. However, with the Pakistani tribesmen attacking India, Abdullah, as a representative to the Maharaja, went to India and sought its help, leading to Kashmir being ceded to India.

Before the invasion, the situation in Kashmir was ambivalent. There were many who willed for Kashmir’s independence. However, there were also those who willed to go to either India or Pakistan. Later on, in 1953, Abdullah was arrested for trying to create an independent Kashmir and having clandestine meetings with foreign powers. In 1954, the Kashmiri Constituent Assembly ratified Kashmir’s accession to India.

But peace did not ensue. [19] A divide arose amongst the people of Kashmir. There are also reports that indicate that many of the Kashmiri officials had become corrupt. In 1965, Pakistan invaded Kashmir, following a military coup that overthrew the democratic government. The result of this was the rise of anti-Pakistan feelings in Kashmir. By this time, Kashmiri leaders seemed to have changed their tune, with many contents with their accession to India.

Beginning in 1980, there was a rapid Islamization of Kashmir. Names of cities were changed and propaganda was spread. Those of other religions were denounced as ‘spies’ or ‘outsiders.’ There is evidence suggesting nations like Saudi Arabia influenced and aided this spread. This was the beginning of the violence in the region.

The first large-scale act of violence was the exodus of the Kashmiri Hindus [20] . Thousands of Kashmiri Hindus were killed and forced to flee by Muslim mobs and Hindu temples were destroyed. Before this exodus, there were about 600,000 Hindus living in the region. By the end of it, there were only around 2000 to 3000 remaining. There was a spread of radical Islam, where violence was encouraged against those of other religions. Children were recruited by insurgency groups and trained in violence. People were encouraged to sell their belongings in order to finance the purchases of weapons. Thus, began the coming decades of violence and propaganda led by insurgency groups.

Since then, the violence and bloodshed in this region have only continued. Insurgent groups, terrorist organizations, Pakistani forces and Indian forces have constantly found themselves in conflict, leading to the deaths of thousands. As a result, there has been a significant increase in the number of military personnel and equipment in the region. There has also been a steady rise in domestic terrorism. [21]

On the other hand, this combination of military personnel, insurgents and terrorists have resulted in human rights violations. Allegations have included the suppression of freedom of speech mass homicides, kidnappings, torture and sexual violence amongst others. The accused have included insurgent and terrorist groups, the Pakistani military, and the Indian military. More recently, the Indian government had completely cut off all means of communications and detained political leaders as a preemptive move to maintain law and order after the amendment of article 370 (explained in more detail in the following section). While the Indian government claims to have done it for the preservation of peace, many have criticized this as a violation of human rights. In fact, internet services were cut for 213 days. International and domestic actors including organizations like Amnesty International have called for an end of human rights abuses in Kashmir [22] . 

At the moment, it is safe to say, the Kashmiri people are tired of the decades of conflict and violence [23] . On one hand, there are constant attacks by insurgent groups and terrorist organizations. On the other, there is an increased presence of military troops. There are reports of human rights violations by these troops. The Kashmiri people want an end to this constant violence by all the groups present. Increasingly, more Kashmiris are in support of the referendum that was supposed to have taken place during the partition. Additionally, there is an increasing number of people in support of an independent Kashmir.

Recent Events

On the 14 th of February, 2019, a convoy of vehicles carrying India’s Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) was attacked by a suicide bomber in Pulwama, killing 40 CRPF troops. Jaish-e-Mohammed, a Pakistan based terrorist group. India blamed Pakistan to be responsible for the attack. However, Pakistan denied any involvement with the attack [24] .

Immediately, tensions flared between the two countries. In response to the attack, Indian fighter jets crossed the border and bombed the alleged Jaish-E-Mohammed bases in the Pakistani town of Balakot. Pakistan retaliated by conducting an airstrike on India, but there were no casualties. During a dogfight, an Indian fighter plane was shot down and the pilot who landed in Pakistan was captured. The world was at its edge, and the two nations were at the brink of war. However, after negotiations, the tensions were eased and the pilot was returned to India.

In October of 2019, the Indian government led by Narendra Modi revoked Article 370 of the Indian Constitution [25] . Article 370 was intended to be a temporary provision that gave the state of Jammu and Kashmir a special status. According to this, Jammu and Kashmir were allowed a certain degree of autonomy [26] . Jammu and Kashmir was allowed to have its own constitution, the ability to create its own laws and its own flag. However, the government of India would have control over matters such as defense and foreign affairs. Due to this, Indians from other states were not allowed to buy land or settle in this state. Additionally, if a woman marries someone from an outside state, she loses her property rights.

The Modi government argued that this was intended to be a temporary provision and that it has been seven decades since. They also claimed that the article is discriminatory in nature and that it hindered development. Consequently, after returning for a second term, Modi amended this article. The state of Jammu and Kashmir has now lost its special rights. The region is now broken up into the ‘union territories’ or federally administered areas of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.

However, this move was largely controversial. Anticipating intense reactions to this and citing the perseveration of law and order, the Indian government mobilized large numbers of military personnel into the region. Communication systems such as the internet were cut off. The chief minister of the state and other prominent political leaders were detained preemptively. News agencies were curfewed and the entire region was under lockdown. Human rights groups have criticized these moves as human rights violations. Pakistan strongly condemned this decision and said that it will exercise all possible options to counter the illegal steps.” Pakistan withdrew its ambassador to India and suspended trade.

Moreover, this move served to strain the already strained relation with Kashmir. Many Kashmiris were enraged by the restrictions placed on them, leading to more anti-India sentiments. To add to this, many Kashmiris believe that this is the Hindu nationalist government’s attempt to make Kashmir a Hindu state.

But, the international response to this move was largely favorable to India. Many nations expressed their support and remarked that this was a situation of India dealing with its internal matters.

Future Outlook and Conflict Resolution

Both India and Pakistan strongly believe that Kashmir rightfully belongs to them. It is hard to discredit either side’s arguments. Additionally, Kashmir is incredibly valuable to both nations. It is hard to imagine, that either country would willingly surrender Kashmir. It is certain that thousands of Kashmiris and soldiers have faced and continue to face atrocities. There are also reports of human rights violations in the region. In both Pakistan and India there is increasing sympathy for the Kashmiris. However, at the current moment, there is little hope for change in this region.

Of late, India has gained a lot of international support as well. Rapidly growing as an economy and as a military power, India has become a desirable ally and trade partner for many. We can look to the amendment of Article 370 as an example of this. Most nations were in support of India’s decision. We can speculate that going forward this international support will only continue. India faces little international pressure to renegotiate the terms of Kashmir with Pakistan. Pakistan on the other hand was under scrutiny. Multiple nations have called for Pakistan to withdraw its support of terrorist activities and funding terrorist organizations. Pakistan certainly faces the brunt of international scrutiny in this matter.

India has little reason to withdraw from this conflict. Kashmir is very valuable to India. Future plans of channeling hydroelectricity and the abundance of natural resources make it so. Additionally, with nationalist and anti -Pakistan sentiments rising in India, a majority of the people would not want to lose Kashmir. The Modi nationalist government’s persona of being hard negotiators and tough and decisive on foreign matters was a significant factor in them winning the elections. In fact, Modi’s overwhelming victory for his second term is credited by many to his swift and decisive retaliation on the terrorist camps in Pakistan. To add to this, India has not faced severe economic or political repercussions due to the Kashmiri conflict. Hence, in the coming future, given the current events, it is extremely unlikely that India will change its stance on Kashmir. On the contrary, India seems to be moving towards completely integrating Kashmir into itself.

Similarly, Pakistan is unlikely to change its stance. Kashmir is very valuable to Pakistan. Its beneficial relationship with China depends on it. Kashmir is the key to important rivers that fuel Pakistani agriculture. Although Pakistan has been under international scrutiny, there has not been significant pressure. While Pakistan may be weaker in terms of military strength, it too is a nuclear power. In the case of a war, mutually assured destruction is a guarantee. Additionally, China has had straining relations with India as well and is an ally. Hence, the chances of an Indian invasion are low. Although the Pakistani economy is declining, losing Kashmir would only serve to damage the economy.

Although there is a cry for independence in Kashmir, it is unclear as to whether it is a majority. Additionally, there are fears around the world that an independent Kashmir would not last. An independent Kashmir would be surrounded by three nuclear states and plagued with multiple terrorist organizations. It would be bound to rely on one of the three powers. Analysts predict that an independent Kashmir would quickly crumble under anarchy and terrorism. There are fears that such a nation would simply become another terrorist-ruled state. Both India and Pakistan are unlikely to let this happen.

It is unlikely that we will see a referendum either [27] . It would be reasonable to believe that a fair referendum would be hard to achieve. Additionally, the Kashmiri sentiments seemed to have changed, during the partition, a sizable portion of Kashmiri were pro- India. However, given the current events and the surge of anti-India sentiments amongst the Kashmiris, it is hard to say which side the Kashmiris are leaning towards. India has no reason to change its position on Kashmir. Hence, since their victory is not guaranteed through a referendum, they would have little reason to call for a referendum. India has wanted no international involvement in this matter.

However, the plight of the Kashmiris is heard more than ever now. In both countries, there is a rising demographic that wants to end the loss of lives and sorrow that Kashmir has become synonymous with. As the world is increasing the measures taken against terrorism, we can hope that Kashmir too can one day be free of it. The global stage is keeping a close watch on Kashmir and many organizations are going in to better the situation. Some are calling to make the line of control the official border. While this is certainly more likely than India or Pakistan entirely giving up Kashmir, the odds still remain low. For reasons described, it is hard to see this happen especially, in the absence of a mutually hurting stalemate. Both nations are likely to drag out this issue until they no longer can. Either way, while the future looks bleak, the hope that there will be an improvement still remains.

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PTI / Updated: Aug 5, 2019. “Jammu Kashmir Article 370: Govt Revokes Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir, Bifurcates State into Two Union Territories: India News – Times of India.” The Times of India , Times of India, 5 Aug. 2019, timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/article-370-to-be-scrapped-jk-will-ceases-to-be-a-state-2-union-territories-created/articleshow/70531899.cms.

“Pulwama attack: India will ‘completely isolate’ Pakistan”. BBC. 16 February 2019.

Razdan, Omkar, The Trauma of Kashmir: The Untold Reality, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1999

 “The Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits.” EFSAS , www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/the-exodus-of-kashmiri-pandits/.

Waldman, Amy. “Kashmir Massacre May Signal the Coming of Widespread Violence.” The New York Times , The New York Times, 25 Mar. 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/03/25/world/kashmir-massacre-may-signal-the-coming-of-widespread-violence.html?auth=linked-google .

Water Sharing Conflicts Between Countries, and Approaches to Resolving Them” (PDF). Honolulu: Global Environment and Energy in the 21st century. p. 98.

  Whitehead, Andrew (Autumn 2004), “Kashmir’s Conflicting Identities (Book Reviews)”, History Workshop Journal,  58 : 335–340, doi:10.1093/hwj /58.1.335, JSTOR 25472773

Wolpert, Stanley. “Potential Solutions to the Kashmir Conflict.” India and Pakistan Continued Conflict or Cooperation? , 2010, pp. 94–105., doi:10.1525/California /9780520266773.003.0011.

[1] Korbel, Josef. “Danger in Kashmir.” Foreign Affairs , vol. 32, no. 3, 1954, p. 482., doi:10.2307/20031046.

[2] Ali, Rao Farman. “Kashmir: A Century Struggle (1846-1948).” SSRN Electronic Journal , 2015. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2625479.

[3]   Lorne J. Kavic (1967). India’s Quest for Security: Defence Policies, 1947-1965. University of California Press. pp. 32–. GGKEY:FN05HYT73UF.

[4] Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India 2010, p. 108.

[5] Ankit, Rakesh (April 2010), “Pandit Ramchandra Kak: The Forgotten Premier of Kashmir”,  Epilogue , Epilogue -Jammu Kashmir,  4  (4): 36–39

[6] Copland, Ian (February 1991), “The Princely States, the Muslim League, and the Partition of India in 1947”,  The International History Review ,  13  (1): 38–69, doi:10.1080/07075332.1991.9640572, JSTOR 40106322

[7] Who changed the face of ’47 war?”. Times of India. 14 August 2005. Archived from the original on 1 June 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2005.

[8] Bose, Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace 2003, pp. 27–28.

[9] Chandra, S. (2011). Addressing Kashmir. Strategic Analysis,35 (2), 304-307. doi:10.1080/09700161.2011.542928

[10] Patricia Bauer. “Indus Waters Treaty:India-Pakistan [1960]”.  Encyclopedia Britannica website

[11] Water Sharing Conflicts Between Countries, and Approaches to Resolving Them” (PDF). Honolulu: Global Environment and Energy in the 21st century. p. 98.

[12]  “CPEC investment pushed from $55b to $62b – The Express Tribune”. 12 April 2017.  Archived  from the original on 13 April 2017.

[13] Dhall, Pinky. “Strategic Importance of Kashmir: A Conflict between India and Pakistan.” Strategic Importance of Kashmir: a Conflict Between India and Pakistan – Ignited Minds Journals , ignited.in/a/56157.

[14] Ahmed, Ishtiaq (1998), State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia, A&C Black, p. 148, ISBN 978-1-85567-578-0 : “As a friendly gesture some territory in the northern areas was surrendered to China and a treaty was signed which stated that there were no border disputes between the two countries.”

[15] “Lok Sabha Election results 2019: EC declares results of all 542 seats, BJP wins 303”.  Zee News . 25 May 2019.

[16] “Pakistan, India meet on Kashmir”. CNN. 18 April 2005. Retrieved 2 February 2010.

[17]  “Kashmir jugular vein of Pakistan: Durrani”. DAWN.COM. 16 December 2006 . Retrieved  9 April  2018 .

[18] Brush, J. E. (1949). “The Distribution of Religious Communities in India”.  Annals of the Association of American Geographers .  39  (2): 81–98. doi:10.1080/00045604909351998

[19] Ganguly, Šumit. “Explaining the Kashmir Insurgency: Political Mobilization and Institutional Decay.” International Security , vol. 21, no. 2, 1996, pp. 76–107., doi:10.1162/isec.21.2.76.

[20] “The Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits.” EFSAS , www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/the-exodus-of-kashmiri-pandits/.

[21] Hajni, Mehraj. “The Kashmir Conflict: A Kashmiri Perspective.” ResearchGate , Unknown, 1 Jan. 2008, www.researchgate.net/publication/43645724_The_Kashmir_Conflict_A_Kashmiri_Perspective.

[22] Munshi, Miraj-U-Din. “A Kashmiri Perspective I.”  Asian Affairs , vol. 22, no. 1, 1995, pp. 20–27.  JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/30172267. Accessed 20 June 2020.

[23]   Whitehead, Andrew (Autumn 2004), “Kashmir’s Conflicting Identities (Book Reviews)”, History Workshop Journal,  58 : 335–340, doi:10.1093/hwj/58.1.335, JSTOR 25472773

[24]  “Pulwama attack: India will ‘completely isolate’ Pakistan”. BBC. 16 February 2019.

[25] K. Venkataramanan (5 August 2019), “How the status of Jammu and Kashmir is being changed”,  The Hindu

[26] Akhtar, Rais; Kirk, William,  Jammu and Kashmir, State, India , Encyclopaedia Britannica

[27] Wolpert, Stanley. “Potential Solutions to the Kashmir Conflict.” India and PakistanContinued Conflict or Cooperation? , 2010, pp. 94–105., doi:10.1525/california/9780520266773.003.0011.

Written at: University of Southern California Written for: Douglas Becker Date written: June 2020

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The Genesis of Kashmir Dispute

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Kashmir Issue – Understand the multiple dimensions

Last updated on July 9, 2024 by Alex Andrews George

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Was Kashmir an independent nation? Learn the history of Kashmir

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Kashmir, and adjacent areas like Gilgit, Jammu, and Ladakh – were part of the different empires at different times. Over the years, this area was under the control of Hindu rulers, Muslim emperors, Sikhs, Afghans, and Britishers.

During the period before AD 1000, Kashmir was an important center of Buddhism and Hinduism. Many dynasties like  Gonanditya,  Karkota, and Lohara ruled Kashmir and surrounding areas of North-western India.

The Hindu dynasty rule which extended until 1339 was replaced by the Muslim rule by Shah Mir who became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the  Shah Mir dynasty . A few centuries later, the last independent ruler Yusuf Shah Chak was deposed by the Mugul emperor Akbar the Great.

Akbar conquered Kashmir in 1587, making it part of the Mughal Empire . Subsequently, the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb expanded the empire further.

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Thus, it can be seen that under the Mughal rule, which extended nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, Kashmir was an integral part of India – however, not an independent nation .

Also read : Ladakh Statehood

Kashmir Region – After the Mughals

Aurangzeb’s successors were weak rulers. Later Mughals failed to retain Kashmir. After Mughal rule , it passed to Afghan, Sikh, and Dogra rule.

In 1752, Kashmir was seized by the Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali. The Afghan Durrani Empire ruled Kasmir from the 1750s until 1819 when Sikhs , under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir and ended the Muslim rule.

By the early 19th century, Sikhs under Maharaja Renjith Singh took control of Kashmir. He had earlier annexed Jammu. The Sikhs ruled Kashmir until they were defeated by the British (First Anglo-Sikh War) in 1846.

After that Kashmir became a princely state of the British Empire – under the Dogra Dynasty.

Jammu and Kashmir – as a princely state of the British Empire

Maharaja Gulab Singh of the Dogra Dynasty signed the ‘Treaty of Amritsar’ with the British East India Company in 1846. Under this treaty, he paid Rs. 75 lakhs to the East India Company in 1846 in exchange for Kashmir and some other areas.  Jammu and Kashmir as a single entity was unified and founded (1846).

Zorawar Singh, a General in the Dogra Anny later led many campaigns in the northern areas like Ladakh, Baltistan, Gilgit, Hunza, and Yagistan, consolidating smaller principalities. He expanded the dominions of Maharaja Gulab Singh.

However, Jammu and Kashmir, from 1846 until 1947, remained a princely state ruled by the Jamwal Rajput Dogra Dynasty. Like all other princely states in India then, Kashmir too enjoyed only partial autonomy, as the real control was with the British.

Also read: Special Category Status

The ruler’s stand (at the time of Partition)

During the time of partition of British India (1947), Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was a Princely State. Britishers had given all princely states a choice – either to join India to join Pakistan or even to remain independent.

The ruler of Kashmir during that time (1947) was Maharaja Hari Singh, the great-grandson of Maharaja Gulab Singh. He was a Hindu who ruled over a majority-Muslim princely state.

He did not want to merge with India or Pakistan.

Hari Singh tried to negotiate with India and Pakistan to have an independent status for his state. He offered a proposal of a Standstill Agreement to both the Dominion, pending a final decision on the State’s accession. On August 12, 1947, the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir sent identical communications to the Governments of India and Pakistan.

Pakistan accepted the offer and sent a communication to J&K Prime Minister on August 15, 1947. It read, “The Government of Pakistan agrees to have Standstill Agreement with Jammu and Kashmir for the continuation of existing arrangements …”

India advised the Maharaja to send his authorized representative to Delhi for further discussion on the offer.

What were the Kashmiri people’s aspirations in 1947?

Kashmiri people took part extensively in the Indian Nationalist Movement. They not only wanted to get rid of British rule but also never wanted to be under the rule of the Dogra dynasty once the nationalist movement achieved its mission. The Kashmiris had preferred democracy to monarchy.

Jammu and Kashmir was always a secular state – with a history of Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh rule. Even though the majority population was Muslims, it then had a significant Hindu population as well.

India in 1947 had suggested conducting a plebiscite to know the aspirations of Kashmiri people. With tall leaders of Jammu and Kashmir like Sheik Abdullah on its side, cherishing the common values – secularism, democracy, and pan-India nationalism – India was confident to win the Plebiscite if it was held in 1947.

India’s stand with Junagadh, another princely state, was also to conduct a plebiscite. In 1947, upon the independence and partition of India, the last Muslim ruler of the Junagadh state, Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III, decided to merge Junagadh into the newly formed Pakistan. The majority of the population were Hindus. The conflict led to many revolts and also a plebiscite, resulting in the integration of Junagadh into India.

However, the Pakistan attack on Kashmir in October 1947 changed all dynamics. The exact aspirations of Kashmiri People at that time is still unknown – as a plebiscite or referendum was never held.

The Pakistan Invasion of Kashmir in 1947

Pakistan, though entered into a Standstill Agreement with Jammu and Kashmir, had an eye on it. It broke the Standstill Agreement by sponsoring a tribal militant attack in Kashmir in October 1947.

Pashtun raiders from Pakistan invaded Kashmir in October 1947 and took control over a large area. Hari Singh appealed to the Governor General of free India, Lord Mountbatten for assistance.

India assured help on the condition Hari Singh should sign the Instrument of Accession. Maharaja Hari Singh signed the instrument of accession with India (1947). It was also agreed that once the situation normalized, the views of the people of J&K will be ascertained about their future.

Jammu and Kashmir signs the Instrument of Accession with India

The Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947 in Srinagar.

As soon as the accession documents were signed, the Indian Armed Force took over the stage to repulse Pakistan-supported tribal assault.

Indian and Pakistani forces thus fought their first war over Kashmir in 1947-48.

India successfully drove out most of the Pak-supported tribal militants from Kashmir occupation. However, one part of the State came under Pakistani control. India claims that this area is under illegal occupation. Pakistan describes this area as ‘ Azad Kashmir ’. India however, does not recognize this term. India uses the term Pak-occupied Kashmir (PoK) for the area of Kashmir under the control of Pakistan.

India brings the United Nations (UN) into the picture

India referred the dispute to the United Nations Security Council on 1 January 1948. Following the set-up of the  United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) , the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948.

The UN Resolution was non-binding on India and Pakistan. However, this is what the UN resolution mentioned:

UN Resolution on Jammu and Kashmir

The UN resolutions clearly said :

• Pakistan is the aggressor in the state.
• Pakistan has to vacate all occupied territory in the state and hand over the vacated territory to India.
• India has to remove all its forces leaving aside enough to maintain law and order.
• India to conduct a plebiscite in the state.

Why has no Plebiscite or Referendum been held in Kashmir yet?

• The state of Jammu and Kashmir is defined as it existed on or before the invasion of Pakistan on 22nd October 1947. This includes the present territory of Pak-occupied Kashmir (POK), Gilgit, Baltistan, Jammu, Laddhak, and Kashmir Valley.
• Pakistan asked for time to vacate its occupation but it never complied.
• As nearly one-third of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is still under the occupation of Pakistan, it is a non-compliance of conditions leading to the plebiscite.

Sheikh Abdullah’s movement – Formal incorporation of Kashmir into the Indian Union

Kashmir’s first political party, the Muslim Conference, was formed in 1925, with Sheikh Abdullah as president. Later, in 1938, it was renamed as National Conference . The National Conference was a secular organization and had a long association with Congress. Sheikh Abdullah was a personal friend of some of the leading nationalist leaders including Nehru.

National Conference started a popular movement to get rid of the Maharaja. Sheikh Abdullah was the leader.

After Maharaja Hari Singh signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the Government of India, Sheikh Abdullah took over as the Prime Minister of the State of J&K (the head of the government in the State was then called Prime Minister) in March 1948.

Sheikh Abdullah was against Jammu and Kashmir joining Pakistan. However, he took a pro-referendum stance and delayed the formal accession to India. The pro-Indian authorities dismissed the state government and arrested Prime Minister Sheikh Abdullah.

The new Jammu and Kashmir government ratified the accession to India. In 1957, Kashmir was formally incorporated into the Indian Union.

Kashmir Issue – External Disputes

Externally, ever since 1947, Kashmir remained a major issue of conflict between India and Pakistan (and between India and China to a minor extent).

Pakistan has always claimed that the Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan. The conflict resulted in 3 main wars between India and Pakistan – 1947, 1965, and 1971. A war-like situation erupted in 1998 as well (Kargil war).

Pakistan was not only the illegal occupant of the Kashmir region. China too started claiming parts of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

By the 1950s, China started to gradually occupy the eastern Kashmir (Aksai Chin) . In 1962, India fought a war with China over its encroachments, however, China defeated India. To make matters worse, Pakistan ceded the Trans-Karakoram Tract of Kashmir (Saksham Valley) to China.

Kashmir Issue – Internal Disputes

Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir within the Indian Union.

Kashmir was given autonomy and a special status by Article 370 of the Indian Constitution . Articles like 370, 371, 35A , etc are connected with privileges given to Jammu and Kashmir.

What is the special status given to Jammu and Kashmir?

• Article 370 gives greater autonomy to Jammu and Kashmir compared to the other States of India.
• The State has its own Constitution.
• All provisions of the Indian Constitution do not apply to the State.
• Laws passed by the Parliament apply to J&K only if the State agrees.
• Non-Kashmiri Indians cannot buy property in Kashmir.

This special status has provoked two opposite reactions.

A section feels that Article 370 is not needed!

There is a section of people outside of J&K that believes that the special status of the State conferred by Article 370 does not allow full integration of the State with India. This section feels that Article 370 should, therefore, be revoked and J&K should be like any other State in India.

Another section feels that Article 370 is not enough!

Another section, mostly Kashmiris, believes that the autonomy conferred by Article 370 is not enough.

Major Grievances of Kashmiris:

Kashmiris have expressed at least three major grievances.

• First, the promise that Accession would be referred to the people of the State after the situation created by tribal invasion was normalized, has not been fulfilled. They demand a ‘Plebiscite’ at the earliest.
• Secondly, there is a feeling that the special federal status guaranteed by Article 370, has been eroded in practice. This has led to the demand for restoration of autonomy or ‘Greater State Autonomy’.
• Thirdly, it is felt that democracy which is practised in the rest of India has not been similarly institutionalised in the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

Politics since 1948 – Conflict between the Kashmir State Government and the Central Government of India

After taking over as the Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah initiated major land reforms and other policies that benefited ordinary people. But there was a growing difference between him and the central government about his position on Kashmir’s status. He was dismissed in 1953 and kept in detention for several years.

The leadership that succeeded him did not enjoy as much popular support and was able to rule the State mainly due to the support of the Centre. There were serious allegations of malpractices and rigging in various elections.

During most of the period between 1953 and 1974, the Congress party exercised a lot of influence on the politics of the State. A truncated National Conference (minus Sheikh Abdullah) remained in power with the active support of Congress for some time but later it merged with the Congress.

Thus Congress gained direct control over the government in the State.

In the meanwhile, there were several attempts to reach an agreement between Sheikh Abdullah and the Government of India.

Finally, in 1974 Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief Minister of the State.

The Revival of National Conference (1977)

He revived the National Conference which was elected with a majority in the assembly elections held in 1977.

Sheikh Abdullah died in 1982 and the leadership of the National Conference went to his son, Farooq Abdullah, who became the Chief Minister.

But he was soon dismissed by the Governor and a breakaway faction of the National Conference came to power for a brief period.

The dismissal of Farooq Abdullah’s government due to the intervention of the Centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir. The confidence that Kashmiris had developed in the democratic processes after the accord between Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Abdullah, received a setback.

The feeling that the Centre was intervening in the politics of the State was further strengthened when the National Conference in 1986 agreed to have an electoral alliance with the Congress, the ruling party in the Centre.

1987 Assembly Elections, Political Crisis, and Insurgency

It was in this environment that the 1987 Assembly election took place. The official results showed a massive victory for the National Conference-Congress alliance and Farooq Abdullah returned as Chief Minister.

However, it was widely believed that the results did not reflect the popular choice and that the entire election process was rigged.

A popular resentment had already been brewing in the State against the inefficient administration since the early 1980s. This was now augmented by the commonly prevailing feeling that democratic processes were being undermined at the behest of the Centre. This generated a political crisis in Kashmir which became severe with the rise of the insurgency.

By 1989, the State had come into the grip of a militant movement mobilized around the cause of a separate Kashmiri nation.

The insurgents got moral, material, and military support from Pakistan. The balance of influence had decisively tilted in Pakistan’s favor by the late 1980s, with people’s sympathy no longer with the Indian Union as it had been in 1947-48, 1965 or 1971.

The terrorists and militants drove out almost all the Hindus from the Kashmir valley, ensuring that a future plebiscite (if it happens) would be meaningless.

India imposed the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) in Jammu and Kashmir in 1990.

For several years, the State was under President’s rule and effectively under the control of the armed forces . Throughout the period from 1990, Jammu and Kashmir experienced violence at the hands of the insurgents and through army action.

1990 and Beyond – Growing Trust Deficit

After 1987, the pro-India sentiments of Kashmiri people tilted heavily towards Kashmiri Separatism. Pakistan, of course, added fuel to the fire – by giving moral and financial support to terrorists, militants, and insurgents. As a result, Kashmir frequently witnessed violence, curfew, stone-pelting, and firing between the troops of India and Pakistan across the Line of Control (LoC).

Thousands of soldiers, civilians, and militants have been killed in the uprising and the Indian crackdown since 1989.

Even though state elections were conducted, Kashmir did not return to normalcy before 1987 .

Assembly elections in the State were held only in 1996 in which the National Conference led by Farooq Abdullah came to power with a demand for regional autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir.

J&K experienced a very fair election in 2002. The National Conference failed to win a majority and was replaced by the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress coalition government.

In 2015, India’s ruling BJP party was sworn into government in Indian-administered Kashmir for the first time in coalition with the local People’s Democratic Party, with the latter’s Mufti Mohammad Sayeed as chief minister (followed by Mehbooba Mufti because of the death of her father and party founder). However, this coalition didn’t last for long.

Even though the Government of India is taking many steps to stop the insurgency and bring Kashmir back to normalcy, terrorist attacks like that in Pulwama have seriously hindered the peace process.

The Current Stand of India – Regarding the Kashmir Question

• No more mediation with the UN or any other other third parties.
• India and Pakistan should resolve issues through bilateral talks as agreed by the Simla Agreement.
• No Plebiscite in Kashmir unless Pakistan reverses the situation back to what was in 1947 (territory and demographics).

Who are the Kashmir Separatists?

• All Parties Hurriyat Conference
• Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front
• Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami
• Lashkar-e-Taiba
• Jaish-e-Mohammed
• Hizbul Mujahideen
• Harkat-ul-Mujahideen
• Ansar Ghazwat-ul-Hind Flag.png Ansar Ghazwat-ul-Hind (Since 2017)

What do Separatists demand?

Separatist politics which surfaced in Kashmir from 1989 has taken different forms and is made up of various strands.

• There is one strand of separatists who want a separate Kashmiri nation, independent of India and Pakistan.
• Then some groups want Kashmir to merge with Pakistan.
• Besides these, there is a third strand which wants greater autonomy for the people of the state within the Indian union .

Demand for intra-state autonomy

Even though the name of the state is Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), it comprises three social and political regions: Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh.

• Jammu – The Jammu region is a mix of foothills and plains, of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs and speakers of various languages.
• Kashmir – Kashmir Valley is the heart of the Kashmir region. The people are Kashmiri-speaking and are mostly Muslims. There is also a small Kashmiri-speaking Hindu minority.
• Ladakh – The Ladakh region is mountainous, and has a very small population which is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims. Ladakh is divided into two main regions – Leh and Kargil.

It should also be noted that out of the 3 main administrative divisions – Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh – insurgency and demand for independence is high only in the Kashmir Valley. Most of the people in Jammu and Ladakh still wish to be part of India, even though they demand autonomy differently. They often complain of neglect and backwardness. The demand for intra-state autonomy is as strong as the demand for State autonomy in the regions of Jammu and Ladakh.

Article 370: Changes made via Presidential order of 2019

On 5 August 2019, Home Minister Amit Shah announced in the  Rajya Sabha  (upper house of the Indian Parliament) that the President of India had issued  The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 2019 (C.O. 272) under Article 370, superseding the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954.

The order stated that all the provisions of the Indian Constitution applied to Jammu and Kashmir.

While the 1954 order specified that only some articles of the Indian constitution to apply to the state, the new order removed all such restrictions.

This in effect meant that the separate Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir stood abrogated.

The President issued the order with the “concurrence of the Government of State of Jammu and Kashmir”, which meant the Governor appointed by the Union government.

Change of status: Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019

After the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian constitution in 2019, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which contained provisions that dissolved the state and reorganized it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east.

The two union territories came into existence on 31 October 2019, which was celebrated as National Unity Day.

The union territory of Jammu and Kashmir was proposed to have a legislature under the bill whereas the union territory of Ladakh is proposed to not have one.

Urge for Peace

The initial period of popular support for militancy has now given way to the urge for peace.

The Centre has started negotiations with various separatist groups. Instead of demanding a separate nation, most of the separatists in the dialogue are trying to re-negotiate a relationship of the State with India.

The Kashmir issue – has multiple dimensions – external and internal; inter-state as well as intra-state. Not even the separatists are on the same ground – their demands are different.

The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir which was under the control of British India – is now not entirely with India. Pakistan and China too now occupy a significant portion of the territories of the erstwhile princely state.

Of course, the Kashmir problem also includes the issue of Kashmiri identity known as Kashmiriyat. However, almost every state in India has its own identity – Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, or Kerala. However, the people in each of these states even when seeing themselves as Tamilians, Kannadagans, Bengalis or Malayalis are also able to see the bigger picture – they identify themselves as Indians.

Jammu and Kashmir is one of the living examples of plural society and politics. Not only are there diversities of all kinds (religious, cultural, linguistic, ethnic, tribal) but there are also divergent political aspirations.

Unfortunately, from the perspective of the youth of Kashmir, there is a growing trust deficit. It’s a hard reality that Jammu and Kashmir never functioned like other Indian states since its accession to India. It had given higher autonomy initially, however, it got eroded in practice.

The first step to solving the Kashmir issue is to identify the problems behind the alienation of Kashmir. Here are some of them:

• Mishandling of the Kashmir Issue by the successive Central governments of India – which includes frequent dismissal of State Assemblies.
• The state governments of Kashmir failed to distribute the benefits of growth and development to every area of Kashmir.
• The terrorist and military outfits in Pakistan have been distancing the youth of Kashmir from the democratic form of the Indian government.
• The regular presence of the Indian Armed Force or CAPF in the Kashmir interiors, and the misuse of provisions like ASFPA.

To find a solution to the Kashmir issue – all stakeholders should be considered.

What is the need of the hour is proper integration of Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh with India. Integration should not be seen in a limited dimension of territory. India should be able to win the hearts of the people of Kashmir.

Only time can tell about the success of the changes made concerning the provisions of Article 370.

Kashmir was and still is an integral part of India. It has a plural and secular culture – just like the rest of India. Urgent steps should be taken to bridge the gaps of trust deficit in the minds of Kashmiri youth. All Kashmiris should get the due share in the growth story of India. Like all other states in India, there should be adequate political autonomy in Jammu and Kashmir.

Violence, terrorism, and killings are never the answer – be it on any side. What do you think?

Read: Ladakh statehood

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About Alex Andrews George

Alex Andrews George is a mentor, author, and social entrepreneur. Alex is the founder of ClearIAS and one of the expert Civil Service Exam Trainers in India.

He is the author of many best-seller books like 'Important Judgments that transformed India' and 'Important Acts that transformed India'.

A trusted mentor and pioneer in online training , Alex's guidance, strategies, study-materials, and mock-exams have helped many aspirants to become IAS, IPS, and IFS officers.

Reader Interactions

March 6, 2019 at 6:50 pm

The separatist themselves don’t want this situation to have a positive outcome as it will subsequently deteriorate/hamper their “political” stance which they’ve nurtured since a long time.

February 11, 2023 at 7:29 pm

I never seen a article like this…its amazing date wise i m from Kashmir i nvr understand Kashmir isssue , Kashmir history from beginning…but today i understand full 🌝 thanks to the author of this article 😊

March 6, 2019 at 7:30 pm

As long as radical brainwashed of youth continues…nothing can be done, first shut down all those radical institutions & then bring education that teaches about secularism & India’s beauty & achievements!

March 6, 2019 at 7:43 pm

kashmiri youth mind are washed out by these separatist…and some militant group ..work opportunity should be given to the youths of kashmir alike other states of india ….Empty mind see only a way to destruction…..

March 6, 2019 at 11:58 pm

The real situation of J&K can be assessed only by hearing the voices of the common people, the constitutional arrangements like Article 370, Article 35A & IoA must be respected to keep the relationship intact.

March 18, 2019 at 11:34 pm

Common people with normal situation ab toh majority Muslim log ka hi hai…. pehle un hinduwo ko bulo jinko waha se bhga diya gya …tb na brabar ka faisla hoga

March 7, 2019 at 9:52 am

there is another angle to look into this dispute and that is religion. religion play a major role in building and developing the behaviour of the society.

March 7, 2019 at 10:31 am

Yes, I do agree that wars, disputes, killing will no longer be a way to provide an efficient solution to Kashmir issue.

March 8, 2019 at 12:21 pm

wonderful article….!! what i believe is ..us Indians should stand together for Kashmir… and make people of Kashmir know that though we are 1000’s of kilometers away we still stand for them will be their strength…Apart from all the political drama they should know that a simple spark in kashmir will cause a wildfire in kanyakumari.. The role of govt here is the root cause of all the issues if u ask me .. what were you doing while the kidnapper lure the kid with the candy …? now indian govt should respect the kashmiri’s give them the hope and gain trust.. a lot of bloodshed ,mutilated bodies , power abuse , women abuse … give them hope …show them we love them .. youth from other states understand the kashmiris show them the support.. show them why they should be a part of india …

March 8, 2019 at 5:20 pm

For the violence to stop in Kashmir and preventing this problem to further aggravate development plans, projects should be well reached in the state so that the youth is engaged in something productive rather than destructive work. First of all, the politicisation of the State situation should be avoided.

March 13, 2019 at 11:31 pm

This is not the solution of problem,but give the right of people.As it is mentioned is article that Kashmir was a princely state,it has right to what they want,the Kashmir dispute has only one solution come India and Pakistan forward and give rights to Jammu and Kashmir people what they want,and destroy this illegal occupied.

March 14, 2019 at 2:54 pm

Further plubicite may useful for kashmiris yo choose their will…

March 27, 2019 at 7:14 pm

Your assumption of Kashmir being an integral part of India because the it was a part of The Mughal Empire is akin to the assumption that India is an integral part of Great Britain because it was a British colony once. That is ridiculous! The problem would not be solved till India accepts the fact that Kashmir is not an integral part of India. You cannot blame Pakistan for it then because Pakistan was as much ‘India’ once as new India is. So morally, historically, Politically and logically, by your argument, Pakistan is nowhere wrong to claim Kashmir for itself!

April 7, 2019 at 6:48 pm

but chirag The Government of Pakistan agrees to have Standstill Agreement with Jammu and Kashmir but india didn’t. So, Pakistan is wrong as it was a the first one who attack….in 1947 october after that indian government helps J&K and our military took over the charge.

April 7, 2019 at 9:33 pm

state politician are taking due benefit of the prevailing situation in jammu kashmir. They are making their vote bank at the cost of common public. Center should make efforts to ground level development through job creation employment generation education and overall development of state. mare education is not solution even the highly educated students after getting no source of income has diverted their route which mislead the other growing youth. Stone pelting is source of income for some public because they are paid for this for which politicians and other extremists are responsible as they bargain with center for normalcy of situation.

July 10, 2019 at 10:56 am

all is messed up because of british government gave 3 choice instead of two

August 2, 2019 at 2:47 am

Very good article, Alex! 🙂

August 9, 2019 at 8:30 pm

The only thing matters is that J&K belongs to India, anyone can claim it but won’t get even a stone of it. (At least till the plebiscite is done with all the Kashmiris taking part including the one who had left or removed from Kashmir). They do deserve to take their own decision with all due respect but including all the Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Buddhists.

August 14, 2019 at 6:31 pm

This is the best article I have ever read……!!! Really helpful in making a notes on Kashmir…..Thankyou very much…..!!!!!!

August 19, 2019 at 6:42 pm

Now the minds of kashmir people have been washed with the continuous presence of separatists and the Pak sponsored terrorism. No more plebiscites are needed to be given to these people. Indian government and the constitution is supreme. They have revoked 370 to bring the J & K into mainstream for all round development of J&K and its people. Pak does not have any right to interfere in our affairs, since its accession to India.

January 24, 2020 at 9:12 pm

Really good notes, grateful thanks to clearias team

February 9, 2020 at 6:21 pm

If Indian government wanted to integrated Kashmir into Indian Union, they should behave like human towards Kashmiri people who suffered from torture, disappearance, rapped by Indian Army from decades. Even Kashmiri youth experience torture, mob lynching by rest of indian people and although India wanted to integrate land of Kashmir not the people.

March 30, 2020 at 12:07 am

Can I download all of this in pdf format?

April 22, 2020 at 9:16 pm

Thank you sir

May 21, 2020 at 1:25 pm

It’s a very good article and has explained the J&K issue as easily as possible yet maintained the details. My look over the recent amendments on the J&K issue has changed, and it looks like a step that will work for the people in the long run (however not in the short term).

September 14, 2020 at 12:23 pm

Now come to know more about J & K issue… Contents of several book in one article.. Separatists,militants,terrorists, defunct politicians should be treated hard with central / State agencies … Hope for peace not only in valley… But in all parts including jammu,Kashmir & Ladakh……

October 27, 2020 at 12:44 am

I have a simple question. Even if both Pakistan and India want and agree on something. Should that be the solution, or should it be what the people want. To me, whether you like it or not, its the right of the Kashmiris to decide what they want for their future. Give them that right, thats the only fair solution.

And if you are not bothered by what is fair then the alternative is to go with the powerful and war is the way to find who is stronger.

March 21, 2022 at 3:38 pm

This Article is Baseless and Far From Ground Reality of Our Kashmir Nation , Kashmir Is not a integral or Vein of Any Nation wether is India or Pakistan , Kashmir Is Independent Before Birth of India or Pakistan.. Due to Continues occupation by Non Kashmirs Wehter is Muslim or Non Muslims , We Kashmirs Fight against the Occupation From years, still we are under Occupation joinlty by India paksitain and China ,, We Kashmirs are Peaceful Community between three Nation , we Lost more then 1 lakh we are wintess of crimes done by Non Kashmirs, we kashmiri Never agaist any Pakistain or India , but we never allow any indian or pakitain Interfercne in out kashmir , due to interference of India and Pakistan is responsible for destruction of our kashmir nation , We Peaple of kashmir never accept any occupation , 1000 political Drama playing by tri nation till date in our kashmir..

we Kashmiri appeal to Good and responsible Citizen of India and Pakistaini , both-side people are misguided regarding the Kashmir nation, the Ground Reality is different.. we Kashmiri respect both side nation as guest , we welcome every country peoples visit our kashmir people but we never accept India and pakistain occupation and we never forget the crimes of India and pakistain .

April 27, 2023 at 5:08 pm

Please update your notes. This is brilliantly done.

July 26, 2023 at 7:08 pm

Unbiased, good analysis and effectively presented. Hope the powers to be can affect the policy ideas presented here. Thanks!

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