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How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples

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An ethics essay is a type of academic writing that explores ethical issues and dilemmas. Students should evaluates them in terms of moral principles and values. The purpose of an ethics essay is to examine the moral implications of a particular issue, and provide a reasoned argument in support of an ethical perspective.

Writing an essay about ethics is a tough task for most students. The process involves creating an outline to guide your arguments about a topic and planning your ideas to convince the reader of your feelings about a difficult issue. If you still need assistance putting together your thoughts in composing a good paper, you have come to the right place. We have provided a series of steps and tips to show how you can achieve success in writing. This guide will tell you how to write an ethics paper using ethical essay examples to understand every step it takes to be proficient. In case you don’t have time for writing, get in touch with our professional essay writers for hire . Our experts work hard to supply students with excellent essays.

What Is an Ethics Essay?

An ethics essay uses moral theories to build arguments on an issue. You describe a controversial problem and examine it to determine how it affects individuals or society. Ethics papers analyze arguments on both sides of a possible dilemma, focusing on right and wrong. The analysis gained can be used to solve real-life cases. Before embarking on writing an ethical essay, keep in mind that most individuals follow moral principles. From a social context perspective, these rules define how a human behaves or acts towards another. Therefore, your theme essay on ethics needs to demonstrate how a person feels about these moral principles. More specifically, your task is to show how significant that issue is and discuss if you value or discredit it.

Purpose of an Essay on Ethics

The primary purpose of an ethics essay is to initiate an argument on a moral issue using reasoning and critical evidence. Instead of providing general information about a problem, you present solid arguments about how you view the moral concern and how it affects you or society. When writing an ethical paper, you demonstrate philosophical competence, using appropriate moral perspectives and principles.

Things to Write an Essay About Ethics On

Before you start to write ethics essays, consider a topic you can easily address. In most cases, an ethical issues essay analyzes right and wrong. This includes discussing ethics and morals and how they contribute to the right behaviors. You can also talk about work ethic, code of conduct, and how employees promote or disregard the need for change. However, you can explore other areas by asking yourself what ethics mean to you. Think about how a recent game you watched with friends started a controversial argument. Or maybe a newspaper that highlighted a story you felt was misunderstood or blown out of proportion. This way, you can come up with an excellent topic that resonates with your personal ethics and beliefs.

Ethics Paper Outline

Sometimes, you will be asked to submit an outline before writing an ethics paper. Creating an outline for an ethics paper is an essential step in creating a good essay. You can use it to arrange your points and supporting evidence before writing. It also helps organize your thoughts, enabling you to fill any gaps in your ideas. The outline for an essay should contain short and numbered sentences to cover the format and outline. Each section is structured to enable you to plan your work and include all sources in writing an ethics paper. An ethics essay outline is as follows:

• Background information
• Thesis statement
• Restate thesis statement
• Summarize key points
• Final thoughts on the topic

Using this outline will improve clarity and focus throughout your writing process.

Ethical Essay Structure

Ethics essays are similar to other essays based on their format, outline, and structure. An ethical essay should have a well-defined introduction, body, and conclusion section as its structure. When planning your ideas, make sure that the introduction and conclusion are around 20 percent of the paper, leaving the rest to the body. We will take a detailed look at what each part entails and give examples that are going to help you understand them better.  Refer to our essay structure examples to find a fitting way of organizing your writing.

Ethics Paper Introduction

An ethics essay introduction gives a synopsis of your main argument. One step on how to write an introduction for an ethics paper is telling about the topic and describing its background information. This paragraph should be brief and straight to the point. It informs readers what your position is on that issue. Start with an essay hook to generate interest from your audience. It can be a question you will address or a misunderstanding that leads up to your main argument. You can also add more perspectives to be discussed; this will inform readers on what to expect in the paper.

Ethics Essay Introduction Example

You can find many ethics essay introduction examples on the internet. In this guide, we have written an excellent extract to demonstrate how it should be structured. As you read, examine how it begins with a hook and then provides background information on an issue. 

Imagine living in a world where people only lie, and honesty is becoming a scarce commodity. Indeed, modern society is facing this reality as truth and deception can no longer be separated. Technology has facilitated a quick transmission of voluminous information, whereas it's hard separating facts from opinions.

In this example, the first sentence of the introduction makes a claim or uses a question to hook the reader.

Ethics Essay Thesis Statement

An ethics paper must contain a thesis statement in the first paragraph. Learning how to write a thesis statement for an ethics paper is necessary as readers often look at it to gauge whether the essay is worth their time.

When you deviate away from the thesis, your whole paper loses meaning. In ethics essays, your thesis statement is a roadmap in writing, stressing your position on the problem and giving reasons for taking that stance. It should focus on a specific element of the issue being discussed. When writing a thesis statement, ensure that you can easily make arguments for or against its stance.

Ethical Paper Thesis Example

Look at this example of an ethics paper thesis statement and examine how well it has been written to state a position and provide reasons for doing so:

The moral implications of dishonesty are far-reaching as they undermine trust, integrity, and other foundations of society, damaging personal and professional relationships. 

The above thesis statement example is clear and concise, indicating that this paper will highlight the effects of dishonesty in society. Moreover, it focuses on aspects of personal and professional relationships.

Ethics Essay Body

The body section is the heart of an ethics paper as it presents the author's main points. In an ethical essay, each body paragraph has several elements that should explain your main idea. These include:

• A topic sentence that is precise and reiterates your stance on the issue.
• Evidence supporting it.
• Examples that illustrate your argument.
• A thorough analysis showing how the evidence and examples relate to that issue.
• A transition sentence that connects one paragraph to another with the help of essay transitions .

When you write an ethics essay, adding relevant examples strengthens your main point and makes it easy for others to understand and comprehend your argument. 

Body Paragraph for Ethics Paper Example

A good body paragraph must have a well-defined topic sentence that makes a claim and includes evidence and examples to support it. Look at part of an example of ethics essay body paragraph below and see how its idea has been developed:

Honesty is an essential component of professional integrity. In many fields, trust and credibility are crucial for professionals to build relationships and success. For example, a doctor who is dishonest about a potential side effect of a medication is not only acting unethically but also putting the health and well-being of their patients at risk. Similarly, a dishonest businessman could achieve short-term benefits but will lose their client’s trust.

Ethics Essay Conclusion

A concluding paragraph shares the summary and overview of the author's main arguments. Many students need clarification on what should be included in the essay conclusion and how best to get a reader's attention. When writing an ethics paper conclusion, consider the following:

• Restate the thesis statement to emphasize your position.
• Summarize its main points and evidence.
• Final thoughts on the issue and any other considerations.

You can also reflect on the topic or acknowledge any possible challenges or questions that have not been answered. A closing statement should present a call to action on the problem based on your position.

Sample Ethics Paper Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph restates the thesis statement and summarizes the arguments presented in that paper. The sample conclusion for an ethical essay example below demonstrates how you should write a concluding statement.  

In conclusion, the implications of dishonesty and the importance of honesty in our lives cannot be overstated. Honesty builds solid relationships, effective communication, and better decision-making. This essay has explored how dishonesty impacts people and that we should value honesty. We hope this essay will help readers assess their behavior and work towards being more honest in their lives.

In the above extract, the writer gives final thoughts on the topic, urging readers to adopt honest behavior.

How to Write an Ethics Paper?

As you learn how to write an ethics essay, it is not advised to immediately choose a topic and begin writing. When you follow this method, you will get stuck or fail to present concrete ideas. A good writer understands the importance of planning. As a fact, you should organize your work and ensure it captures key elements that shed more light on your arguments. Hence, following the essay structure and creating an outline to guide your writing process is the best approach. In the following segment, we have highlighted step-by-step techniques on how to write a good ethics paper.

1. Pick a Topic

Before writing ethical papers, brainstorm to find ideal topics that can be easily debated. For starters, make a list, then select a title that presents a moral issue that may be explained and addressed from opposing sides. Make sure you choose one that interests you. Here are a few ideas to help you search for topics:

• Review current trends affecting people.
• Think about your personal experiences.
• Study different moral theories and principles.
• Examine classical moral dilemmas.

Once you find a suitable topic and are ready, start to write your ethics essay, conduct preliminary research, and ascertain that there are enough sources to support it.

2. Conduct In-Depth Research

Once you choose a topic for your essay, the next step is gathering sufficient information about it. Conducting in-depth research entails looking through scholarly journals to find credible material. Ensure you note down all sources you found helpful to assist you on how to write your ethics paper. Use the following steps to help you conduct your research:

• Clearly state and define a problem you want to discuss.
• This will guide your research process.
• Develop keywords that match the topic.
• Begin searching from a wide perspective. This will allow you to collect more information, then narrow it down by using the identified words above.

3. Develop an Ethics Essay Outline

An outline will ease up your writing process when developing an ethic essay. As you develop a paper on ethics, jot down factual ideas that will build your paragraphs for each section. Include the following steps in your process:

• Review the topic and information gathered to write a thesis statement.
• Identify the main arguments you want to discuss and include their evidence.
• Group them into sections, each presenting a new idea that supports the thesis.
• Write an outline.
• Review and refine it.

Examples can also be included to support your main arguments. The structure should be sequential, coherent, and with a good flow from beginning to end. When you follow all steps, you can create an engaging and organized outline that will help you write a good essay.

4. Write an Ethics Essay

Once you have selected a topic, conducted research, and outlined your main points, you can begin writing an essay . Ensure you adhere to the ethics paper format you have chosen. Start an ethics paper with an overview of your topic to capture the readers' attention. Build upon your paper by avoiding ambiguous arguments and using the outline to help you write your essay on ethics. Finish the introduction paragraph with a thesis statement that explains your main position.  Expand on your thesis statement in all essay paragraphs. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence and provide evidence plus an example to solidify your argument, strengthen the main point, and let readers see the reasoning behind your stance. Finally, conclude the essay by restating your thesis statement and summarizing all key ideas. Your conclusion should engage the reader, posing questions or urging them to reflect on the issue and how it will impact them.

5. Proofread Your Ethics Essay

Proofreading your essay is the last step as you countercheck any grammatical or structural errors in your essay. When writing your ethic paper, typical mistakes you could encounter include the following:

• Spelling errors: e.g., there, they’re, their.
• Homophone words: such as new vs. knew.
• Inconsistencies: like mixing British and American words, e.g., color vs. color.
• Formatting issues: e.g., double spacing, different font types.

While proofreading your ethical issue essay, read it aloud to detect lexical errors or ambiguous phrases that distort its meaning. Verify your information and ensure it is relevant and up-to-date. You can ask your fellow student to read the essay and give feedback on its structure and quality.

Ethics Essay Examples

Writing an essay is challenging without the right steps. There are so many ethics paper examples on the internet, however, we have provided a list of free ethics essay examples below that are well-structured and have a solid argument to help you write your paper. Click on them and see how each writing step has been integrated. Ethics essay example 1

Ethics essay example 2

Ethics essay example 3

Ethics essay example 4

College ethics essay example 5

Ethics Essay Writing Tips

When writing papers on ethics, here are several tips to help you complete an excellent essay:

• Choose a narrow topic and avoid broad subjects, as it is easy to cover the topic in detail.
• Ensure you have background information. A good understanding of a topic can make it easy to apply all necessary moral theories and principles in writing your paper.
• State your position clearly. It is important to be sure about your stance as it will allow you to draft your arguments accordingly.
• When writing ethics essays, be mindful of your audience. Provide arguments that they can understand.
• Integrate solid examples into your essay. Morality can be hard to understand; therefore, using them will help a reader grasp these concepts.

Bottom Line on Writing an Ethics Paper

Creating this essay is a common exercise in academics that allows students to build critical skills. When you begin writing, state your stance on an issue and provide arguments to support your position. This guide gives information on how to write an ethics essay as well as examples of ethics papers. Remember to follow these points in your writing:

• Create an outline highlighting your main points.
• Write an effective introduction and provide background information on an issue.
• Include a thesis statement.
• Develop concrete arguments and their counterarguments, and use examples.
• Sum up all your key points in your conclusion and restate your thesis statement.

Contact our academic writing platform and have your challenge solved. Here, you can order essays and papers on any topic and enjoy top quality. 

Daniel Howard is an Essay Writing guru. He helps students create essays that will strike a chord with the readers.

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Principles of Clinical Ethics and Their Application to Practice

An overview of ethics and clinical ethics is presented in this review. The 4 main ethical principles, that is beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice, are defined and explained. Informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality spring from the principle of autonomy, and each of them is discussed. In patient care situations, not infrequently, there are conflicts between ethical principles (especially between beneficence and autonomy). A four-pronged systematic approach to ethical problem-solving and several illustrative cases of conflicts are presented. Comments following the cases highlight the ethical principles involved and clarify the resolution of these conflicts. A model for patient care, with caring as its central element, that integrates ethical aspects (intertwined with professionalism) with clinical and technical expertise desired of a physician is illustrated.

Highlights of the Study

• Main principles of ethics, that is beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice, are discussed.
• Autonomy is the basis for informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality.
• A model to resolve conflicts when ethical principles collide is presented.
• Cases that highlight ethical issues and their resolution are presented.
• A patient care model that integrates ethics, professionalism, and cognitive and technical expertise is shown.

Introduction

A defining responsibility of a practicing physician is to make decisions on patient care in different settings. These decisions involve more than selecting the appropriate treatment or intervention.

Ethics is an inherent and inseparable part of clinical medicine [ 1 ] as the physician has an ethical obligation (i) to benefit the patient, (ii) to avoid or minimize harm, and to (iii) respect the values and preferences of the patient. Are physicians equipped to fulfill this ethical obligation and can their ethical skills be improved? A goal-oriented educational program [ 2 ] (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) has been shown to improve learner awareness, attitudes, knowledge, moral reasoning, and confidence [ 3 , 4 ].

Goals of ethics education

Ethics, Morality, and Professional Standards

Ethics is a broad term that covers the study of the nature of morals and the specific moral choices to be made. Normative ethics attempts to answer the question, “Which general moral norms for the guidance and evaluation of conduct should we accept, and why?” [ 5 ]. Some moral norms for right conduct are common to human kind as they transcend cultures, regions, religions, and other group identities and constitute common morality (e.g., not to kill, or harm, or cause suffering to others, not to steal, not to punish the innocent, to be truthful, to obey the law, to nurture the young and dependent, to help the suffering, and rescue those in danger). Particular morality refers to norms that bind groups because of their culture, religion, profession and include responsibilities, ideals, professional standards, and so on. A pertinent example of particular morality is the physician's “accepted role” to provide competent and trustworthy service to their patients. To reduce the vagueness of “accepted role,” physician organizations (local, state, and national) have codified their standards. However, complying with these standards, it should be understood, may not always fulfill the moral norms as the codes have “often appeared to protect the profession's interests more than to offer a broad and impartial moral viewpoint or to address issues of importance to patients and society” [ 6 ].

Bioethics and Clinical (Medical) Ethics

A number of deplorable abuses of human subjects in research, medical interventions without informed consent, experimentation in concentration camps in World War II, along with salutary advances in medicine and medical technology and societal changes, led to the rapid evolution of bioethics from one concerned about professional conduct and codes to its present status with an extensive scope that includes research ethics, public health ethics, organizational ethics, and clinical ethics.

Hereafter, the abbreviated term, ethics, will be used as I discuss the principles of clinical ethics and their application to clinical practice.

The Fundamental Principles of Ethics

Beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice constitute the 4 principles of ethics. The first 2 can be traced back to the time of Hippocrates “to help and do no harm,” while the latter 2 evolved later. Thus, in Percival's book on ethics in early 1800s, the importance of keeping the patient's best interest as a goal is stressed, while autonomy and justice were not discussed. However, with the passage of time, both autonomy and justice gained acceptance as important principles of ethics. In modern times, Beauchamp and Childress' book on Principles of Biomedical Ethics is a classic for its exposition of these 4 principles [ 5 ] and their application, while also discussing alternative approaches.

Beneficence

The principle of beneficence is the obligation of physician to act for the benefit of the patient and supports a number of moral rules to protect and defend the right of others, prevent harm, remove conditions that will cause harm, help persons with disabilities, and rescue persons in danger. It is worth emphasizing that, in distinction to nonmaleficence, the language here is one of positive requirements. The principle calls for not just avoiding harm, but also to benefit patients and to promote their welfare. While physicians' beneficence conforms to moral rules, and is altruistic, it is also true that in many instances it can be considered a payback for the debt to society for education (often subsidized by governments), ranks and privileges, and to the patients themselves (learning and research).

Nonmaleficence

Nonmaleficence is the obligation of a physician not to harm the patient. This simply stated principle supports several moral rules − do not kill, do not cause pain or suffering, do not incapacitate, do not cause offense, and do not deprive others of the goods of life. The practical application of nonmaleficence is for the physician to weigh the benefits against burdens of all interventions and treatments, to eschew those that are inappropriately burdensome, and to choose the best course of action for the patient. This is particularly important and pertinent in difficult end-of-life care decisions on withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, medically administered nutrition and hydration, and in pain and other symptom control. A physician's obligation and intention to relieve the suffering (e.g., refractory pain or dyspnea) of a patient by the use of appropriate drugs including opioids override the foreseen but unintended harmful effects or outcome (doctrine of double effect) [ 7 , 8 ].

The philosophical underpinning for autonomy, as interpreted by philosophers Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), and accepted as an ethical principle, is that all persons have intrinsic and unconditional worth, and therefore, should have the power to make rational decisions and moral choices, and each should be allowed to exercise his or her capacity for self-determination [ 9 ]. This ethical principle was affirmed in a court decision by Justice Cardozo in 1914 with the epigrammatic dictum, “Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body” [ 10 ].

Autonomy, as is true for all 4 principles, needs to be weighed against competing moral principles, and in some instances may be overridden; an obvious example would be if the autonomous action of a patient causes harm to another person(s). The principle of autonomy does not extend to persons who lack the capacity (competence) to act autonomously; examples include infants and children and incompetence due to developmental, mental or physical disorder. Health-care institutions and state governments in the US have policies and procedures to assess incompetence. However, a rigid distinction between incapacity to make health-care decisions (assessed by health professionals) and incompetence (determined by court of law) is not of practical use, as a clinician's determination of a patient's lack of decision-making capacity based on physical or mental disorder has the same practical consequences as a legal determination of incompetence [ 11 ].

Detractors of the principle of autonomy question the focus on the individual and propose a broader concept of relational autonomy (shaped by social relationships and complex determinants such as gender, ethnicity and culture) [ 12 ]. Even in an advanced western country such as United States, the culture being inhomogeneous, some minority populations hold views different from that of the majority white population in need for full disclosure, and in decisions about life support (preferring a family-centered approach) [ 13 ].

Resistance to the principle of patient autonomy and its derivatives (informed consent, truth-telling) in non-western cultures is not unexpected. In countries with ancient civilizations, rooted beliefs and traditions, the practice of paternalism ( this term will be used in this article, as it is well-entrenched in ethics literature, although parentalism is the proper term ) by physicians emanates mostly from beneficence. However, culture (a composite of the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious or social group) is not static and autonomous, and changes with other trends over passing years. It is presumptuous to assume that the patterns and roles in physician-patient relationships that have been in place for a half a century and more still hold true. Therefore, a critical examination of paternalistic medical practice is needed for reasons that include technological and economic progress, improved educational and socioeconomic status of the populace, globalization, and societal movement towards emphasis on the patient as an individual, than as a member of a group. This needed examination can be accomplished by research that includes well-structured surveys on demographics, patient preferences on informed consent, truth-telling, and role in decision-making.

Respecting the principle of autonomy obliges the physician to disclose medical information and treatment options that are necessary for the patient to exercise self-determination and supports informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality.

Informed Consent

The requirements of an informed consent for a medical or surgical procedure, or for research, are that the patient or subject (i) must be competent to understand and decide, (ii) receives a full disclosure, (iii) comprehends the disclosure, (iv) acts voluntarily, and (v) consents to the proposed action.

The universal applicability of these requirements, rooted and developed in western culture, has met with some resistance and a suggestion to craft a set of requirements that accommodate the cultural mores of other countries [ 14 ]. In response and in vigorous defense of the 5 requirements of informed consent, Angell wrote, “There must be a core of human rights that we would wish to see honored universally, despite variations in their superficial aspects …The forces of local custom or local law cannot justify abuses of certain fundamental rights, and the right of self-determination on which the doctrine of informed consent is based, is one of them” [ 15 ].

As competence is the first of the requirements for informed consent, one should know how to detect incompetence. Standards (used singly or in combination) that are generally accepted for determining incompetence are based on the patient's inability to state a preference or choice, inability to understand one's situation and its consequences, and inability to reason through a consequential life decision [ 16 ].

In a previously autonomous, but presently incompetent patient, his/her previously expressed preferences (i.e., prior autonomous judgments) are to be respected [ 17 ]. Incompetent (non-autonomous) patients and previously competent (autonomous), but presently incompetent patients would need a surrogate decision-maker. In a non-autonomous patient, the surrogate can use either a substituted judgment standard (i.e., what the patient would wish in this circumstance and not what the surrogate would wish), or a best interests standard (i.e., what would bring the highest net benefit to the patient by weighing risks and benefits). Snyder and Sulmasy [ 18 ], in their thoughtful article, provide a practical and useful option when the surrogate is uncertain of the patient's preference(s), or when patient's preferences have not kept abreast of scientific advances. They suggest the surrogate use “substituted interests,” that is, the patient's authentic values and interests, to base the decision.

Truth-Telling

Truth-telling is a vital component in a physician-patient relationship; without this component, the physician loses the trust of the patient. An autonomous patient has not only the right to know (disclosure) of his/her diagnosis and prognosis, but also has the option to forgo this disclosure. However, the physician must know which of these 2 options the patient prefers.

In the United States, full disclosure to the patient, however grave the disease is, is the norm now, but was not so in the past. Significant resistance to full disclosure was highly prevalent in the US, but a marked shift has occurred in physicians' attitudes on this. In 1961, 88% of physicians surveyed indicated their preference to avoid disclosing a diagnosis [ 19 ]; in 1979, however, 98% of surveyed physicians favored it [ 20 ]. This marked shift is attributable to many factors that include − with no order of importance implied − educational and socioeconomic progress, increased accountability to society, and awareness of previous clinical and research transgressions by the profession.

Importantly, surveys in the US show that patients with cancer and other diseases wish to have been fully informed of their diagnoses and prognoses. Providing full information, with tact and sensitivity, to patients who want to know should be the standard. The sad consequences of not telling the truth regarding a cancer include depriving the patient of an opportunity for completion of important life-tasks: giving advice to, and taking leave of loved ones, putting financial affairs in order, including division of assets, reconciling with estranged family members and friends, attaining spiritual order by reflection, prayer, rituals, and religious sacraments [ 21 , 22 ].

In contrast to the US, full disclosure to the patient is highly variable in other countries [ 23 ]. A continuing pattern in non-western societies is for the physician to disclose the information to the family and not to the patient. The likely reasons for resistance of physicians to convey bad news are concern that it may cause anxiety and loss of hope, some uncertainty on the outcome, or belief that the patient would not be able to understand the information or may not want to know. However, this does not have to be a binary choice, as careful understanding of the principle of autonomy reveals that autonomous choice is a right of a patient, and the patient, in exercising this right, may authorize a family member or members to make decisions for him/her.

Confidentiality

Physicians are obligated not to disclose confidential information given by a patient to another party without the patient's authorization. An obvious exception (with implied patient authorization) is the sharing necessary of medical information for the care of the patient from the primary physician to consultants and other health-care teams. In the present-day modern hospitals with multiple points of tests and consultants, and the use of electronic medical records, there has been an erosion of confidentiality. However, individual physicians must exercise discipline in not discussing patient specifics with their family members or in social gatherings [ 24 ] and social media. There are some noteworthy exceptions to patient confidentiality. These include, among others, legally required reporting of gunshot wounds and sexually transmitted diseases and exceptional situations that may cause major harm to another (e.g., epidemics of infectious diseases, partner notification in HIV disease, relative notification of certain genetic risks, etc.).

Justice is generally interpreted as fair, equitable, and appropriate treatment of persons. Of the several categories of justice, the one that is most pertinent to clinical ethics is distributive justice . Distributive justice refers to the fair, equitable, and appropriate distribution of health-care resources determined by justified norms that structure the terms of social cooperation [ 25 ]. How can this be accomplished? There are different valid principles of distributive justice. These are distribution to each person (i) an equal share, (ii) according to need, (iii) according to effort, (iv) according to contribution, (v) according to merit, and (vi) according to free-market exchanges. Each principle is not exclusive, and can be, and are often combined in application. It is easy to see the difficulty in choosing, balancing, and refining these principles to form a coherent and workable solution to distribute medical resources.

Although this weighty health-care policy discussion exceeds the scope of this review, a few examples on issues of distributive justice encountered in hospital and office practice need to be mentioned. These include allotment of scarce resources (equipment, tests, medications, organ transplants), care of uninsured patients, and allotment of time for outpatient visits (equal time for every patient? based on need or complexity? based on social and or economic status?). Difficult as it may be, and despite the many constraining forces, physicians must accept the requirement of fairness contained in this principle [ 26 ]. Fairness to the patient assumes a role of primary importance when there are conflicts of interests. A flagrant example of violation of this principle would be when a particular option of treatment is chosen over others, or an expensive drug is chosen over an equally effective but less expensive one because it benefits the physician, financially, or otherwise.

Conflicts between Principles

Each one of the 4 principles of ethics is to be taken as a prima facie obligation that must be fulfilled, unless it conflicts, in a specific instance, with another principle. When faced with such a conflict, the physician has to determine the actual obligation to the patient by examining the respective weights of the competing prima facie obligations based on both content and context. Consider an example of a conflict that has an easy resolution: a patient in shock treated with urgent fluid-resuscitation and the placement of an indwelling intravenous catheter caused pain and swelling. Here the principle of beneficence overrides that of nonmaleficence. Many of the conflicts that physicians face, however, are much more complex and difficult. Consider a competent patient's refusal of a potentially life-saving intervention (e.g., instituting mechanical ventilation) or request for a potentially life-ending action (e.g., withdrawing mechanical ventilation). Nowhere in the arena of ethical decision-making is conflict as pronounced as when the principles of beneficence and autonomy collide.

Beneficence has enjoyed a historical role in the traditional practice of medicine. However, giving it primacy over patient autonomy is paternalism that makes a physician-patient relationship analogous to that of a father/mother to a child. A father/mother may refuse a child's wishes, may influence a child by a variety of ways − nondisclosure, manipulation, deception, coercion etc., consistent with his/her thinking of what is best for the child. Paternalism can be further divided into soft and hard .

In soft paternalism, the physician acts on grounds of beneficence (and, at times, nonmaleficence) when the patient is nonautonomous or substantially nonautonomous (e.g., cognitive dysfunction due to severe illness, depression, or drug addiction) [ 27 ]. Soft paternalism is complicated because of the difficulty in determining whether the patient was nonautonomous at the time of decision-making but is ethically defensible as long as the action is in concordance with what the physician believes to be the patient's values. Hard paternalism is action by a physician, intended to benefit a patient, but contrary to the voluntary decision of an autonomous patient who is fully informed and competent, and is ethically indefensible.

On the other end of the scale of hard paternalism is consumerism, a rare and extreme form of patient autonomy, that holds the view that the physician's role is limited to providing all the medical information and the available choices for interventions and treatments while the fully informed patient selects from the available choices. In this model, the physician's role is constrained, and does not permit the full use of his/her knowledge and skills to benefit the patient, and is tantamount to a form of patient abandonment and therefore is ethically indefensible.

Faced with the contrasting paradigms of beneficence and respect for autonomy and the need to reconcile these to find a common ground, Pellegrino and Thomasma [ 28 ] argue that beneficence can be inclusive of patient autonomy as “the best interests of the patients are intimately linked with their preferences” from which “are derived our primary duties to them.”

One of the basic and not infrequent reasons for disagreement between physician and patient on treatment issues is their divergent views on goals of treatment. As goals change in the course of disease (e.g., a chronic neurologic condition worsens to the point of needing ventilator support, or a cancer that has become refractory to treatment), it is imperative that the physician communicates with the patient in clear and straightforward language, without the use of medical jargon, and with the aim of defining the goal(s) of treatment under the changed circumstance. In doing so, the physician should be cognizant of patient factors that compromise decisional capacity, such as anxiety, fear, pain, lack of trust, and different beliefs and values that impair effective communication [ 29 ].

The foregoing theoretical discussion on principles of ethics has practical application in clinical practice in all settings. In the resource book for clinicians, Jonsen et al. [ 30 ] have elucidated a logical and well accepted model (Table ​ (Table2), 2 ), along the lines of the systematic format that practicing physicians have been taught and have practiced for a long time (Chief Complaint, History of Present Illness, Past History, pertinent Family and Social History, Review of Systems, Physical Examination and Laboratory and Imaging studies). This practical approach to problem-solving in ethics involves:

• Clinical assessment (identifying medical problems, treatment options, goals of care)
• Patient (finding and clarifying patient preferences on treatment options and goals of care)
• Quality of life (QOL) (effects of medical problems, interventions and treatments on patient's QOL with awareness of individual biases on what constitutes an acceptable QOL)
• Context (many factors that include family, cultural, spiritual, religious, economic and legal).

Application of principles of ethics in patient care

Using this model, the physician can identify the principles that are in conflict, ascertain by weighing and balancing what should prevail, and when in doubt, turn to ethics literature and expert opinion.

Illustrative Cases

There is a wide gamut of clinical patient encounters with ethical issues, and some, especially those involving end-of-life care decisions, are complex. A few cases (Case 1 is modified from resource book [ 30 ]) are presented below as they highlight the importance of understanding and weighing the ethical principles involved to arrive at an ethically right solution. Case 6 was added during the revision phase of this article as it coincided with the outbreak of Coronavirus Infectious Disease-2019 (COVID-19) that became a pandemic rendering a discussion of its ethical challenges necessary and important.

A 20-year old college student living in the college hostel is brought by a friend to the Emergency Department (ED) because of unrelenting headache and fever. He appeared drowsy but was responsive and had fever (40°C), and neck rigidity on examination. Lumbar puncture was done, and spinal fluid appeared cloudy and showed increased white cells; Gram stain showed Gram-positive diplococci. Based on the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, appropriate antibiotics were begun, and hospitalization was instituted. Although initial consent for diagnosis was implicit, and consent for lumbar puncture was explicit, at this point, the patient refuses treatment without giving any reason, and insists to return to his hostel. Even after explanation by the physician as to the seriousness of his diagnosis, and the absolute need for prompt treatment (i.e., danger to life without treatment), the patient is adamant in his refusal.

Comment . Because of this refusal, the medical indications and patient preferences (see Table ​ Table2) 2 ) are at odds. Is it ethically right to treat against his will a patient who is making a choice that has dire consequences (disability, death) who gives no reason for this decision, and in whom a clear determination of mental incapacity cannot be made (although altered mental status may be presumed)? Here the principle of beneficence and principle of autonomy are in conflict. The weighing of factors: (1) patient may not be making a reasoned decision in his best interest because of temporary mental incapacity; and (2) the severity of life-threatening illness and the urgency to treat to save his life supports the decision in favor of beneficence (i.e., to treat).

A 56-year old male lawyer and current cigarette smoker with a pack-a-day habit for more than 30 years, is found to have a solitary right upper lobe pulmonary mass 5 cm in size on a chest radiograph done as part of an insurance application. The mass has no calcification, and there are no other pulmonary abnormalities. He has no symptoms, and his examination is normal. Tuberculosis skin test is negative, and he has no history of travel to an endemic area of fungal infection. As lung cancer is the most probable and significant diagnosis to consider, and early surgical resection provides the best prospects for cure, the physician, in consultation with the thoracic surgeon, recommends bronchoscopic biopsy and subsequent resection. The patient understands the treatment plan, and the significance of not delaying the treatment. However, he refuses, and states that he does not think he has cancer; and is fearful that the surgery would kill him. Even after further explanations on the low mortality of surgery and the importance of removing the mass before it spreads, he continues to refuse treatment.

Comment . Even though the physician's prescribed treatment, that is, removal of the mass that is probably cancer, affords the best chance of cure, and delay in its removal increases its chance of metastases and reaching an incurable stage − the choice by this well informed and mentally competent patient should be respected. Here, autonomy prevails over beneficence. The physician, however, may not abandon the patient and is obligated to offer continued outpatient visits with advice against making decision based on fear, examinations, periodic tests, and encouragement to seek a second opinion.

A 71-year-old man with very severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with pneumonia, sepsis, and respiratory failure. He is intubated and mechanically ventilated. For the past 2 years, he has been on continuous oxygen treatment and was short of breath on minimal exertion. In the past 1 year, he had 2 admissions to the ICU; on both occasions he required intubation and mechanical ventilation. Presently, even with multiple antibiotics, intravenous fluid hydration, and vasopressors, his systolic blood pressure remains below 60 mm Hg, and with high flow oxygen supplementation, his oxygen saturation stays below 80%; his arterial blood pH is 7.0. His liver enzymes are elevated. He is anuric, and over next 8 h his creatinine has risen to 5 mg/dL and continues to rise. He has drifted into a comatose state. The intensivist suggests discontinuation of vasopressors and mechanical ventilation as their continued use is futile. The patient has no advance care directives or a designated health-care proxy.

Comment . The term “futility” is open to different definitions [ 31 ] and is often controversial, and therefore, some experts suggest the alternate term, “clinically non-beneficial interventions” [ 32 ]. However, in this case the term futility is appropriate to indicate that there is evidence of physiological futility (multisystem organ failure in the setting of preexisting end stage COPD, and medical interventions would not reverse the decline). It is appropriate then to discuss the patient's condition with his family with the goal of discontinuing life-sustaining interventions. These discussions should be done with sensitivity, compassion and empathy. Palliative care should be provided to alleviate his symptoms and to support the family until his death and beyond in their bereavement.

A 67-year old widow, an immigrant from southern India, is living with her son and his family in Wisconsin, USA. She was experiencing nausea, lack of appetite and weight loss for a few months. During the past week, she also had dark yellow urine, and yellow coloration of her skin. She has basic knowledge of English. She was brought to a multi-specialty teaching hospital by her son, who informed the doctor that his mother has “jaundice,” and instructed that, if any serious life-threatening disease was found, not to inform her. He asked that all information should come to him, and if there is any cancer not to treat it, since she is older and frail. Investigations in the hospital reveals that she has pancreatic cancer, and chemotherapy, while not likely to cure, would prolong her life.

Comment . In some ancient cultures, authority is given to members of the family (especially senior men) to make decisions that involve other members on marriage, job, and health care. The woman in this case is a dependent of her son, and given this cultural perspective, the son can rightfully claim to have the authority to make health-care decisions for her. Thus, the physician is faced with multiple tasks that may not be consonant. To respect cultural values [ 33 ], to directly learn the patient's preferences, to comply with the American norm of full disclosure to the patient, and to refuse the son's demands.

The principle of autonomy provides the patient the option to delegate decision-making authority to another person. Therefore, the appropriate course would be to take the tactful approach of directly informing the patient (with a translator if needed), that the diagnosed disease would require decisions for appropriate treatment. The physician should ascertain whether she would prefer to make these decisions herself, or whether she would prefer all information to be given to her son, and all decisions to be made by him.

A 45-year-old woman had laparotomy and cholecystectomy for abdominal pain and multiple gall stones. Three weeks after discharge from the hospital, she returned with fever, abdominal pain, and tenderness. She was given antibiotics, and as her fever continued, laparotomy and exploration were undertaken; a sponge left behind during the recent cholecystectomy was found. It was removed, the area cleansed, and incision closed. Antibiotics were continued, and she recovered without further incident and was discharged. Should the surgeon inform the patient of his error?

Comment . Truth-telling, a part of patient autonomy is very much applicable in this situation and disclosure to patient is required [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The mistake caused harm to the patient (morbidity and readmission, and a second surgery and monetary loss). Although the end result remedied the harm, the surgeon is obligated to inform the patient of the error and its consequences and offer an apology. Such errors are always reported to the Operating Room Committees and Surgical Quality Improvement Committees of US Hospitals. Hospital-based risk reduction mechanisms (e.g., Risk Management Department) present in most US hospitals would investigate the incident and come up with specific recommendations to mitigate the error and eliminate them in the future. Many institutions usually make financial settlements to obviate liability litigation (fees and hospital charges waived, and/or monetary compensation made to the patient). Elsewhere, if such mechanisms do not exist, it should be reported to the hospital. Acknowledgment from the hospital, apologies from the institution and compensation for the patient are called for. Whether in US or elsewhere, a malpractice suit is very possible in this situation, but a climate of honesty substantially reduces the threat of legal claims as most patients trust their physicians and are not vindictive.

The following scenario is at a city hospital during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic: A 74-year-old woman, residing in an assisted living facility, is brought to the ED with shortness of breath and malaise. Over the past 4 days she had been experiencing dry cough, lack of appetite, and tiredness; 2 days earlier, she stopped eating and started having a low-grade fever. A test for COVID-19 undertaken by the assisted living facility was returned positive on the morning of the ED visit.

She, a retired nurse, is a widow; both of her grown children live out-of-state. She has had hypertension for many years, controlled with daily medications. Following 2 strokes, she was moved to an assisted living facility 3 years ago. She recovered most of her functions after the strokes and required help only for bathing and dressing. She is able to answer questions appropriately but haltingly, because of respiratory distress. She has tachypnea (34/min), tachycardia (120/min), temperature of 101°F, BP 100/60 and 90% O 2 saturation (on supplemental O 2 of 4 L/min). She has dry mouth and tongue and rhonchi on lung auscultation. Her respiratory rate is increasing on observation and she is visibly tiring.

Another patient is now brought in by ambulance; this is a 22-year-old man living in an apartment and has had symptoms of “flu” for a week. Because of the pandemic, he was observing the recommended self-distancing, and had no known exposure to coronavirus. He used saline gargles, acetaminophen, and cough syrup to alleviate his sore throat, cough, and fever. In the past 2 days, his symptoms worsened, and he drove himself to a virus testing station and got tested for COVID-19; he was told that he would be notified of the results. He returned to his apartment and after a sleepless night with fever, sweats, and persistent cough, he woke up and felt drained of all strength. The test result confirmed COVID-19. He then called for an ambulance.

He has been previously healthy. He is a non-smoker and uses alcohol rarely. He is a second-year medical student. He is single, and his parents and sibling live hundreds of miles away.

On examination, he has marked tachypnea (>40/min), shallow breathing, heart rate of 128/min, temperature of 103°F and O 2 saturation of 88 on pulse oximetry. He appears drowsy and is slow to respond to questions. He is propped up to a sitting position as it is uncomfortable for him to be supine. Accessory muscles of neck and intercostals are contracting with each breath, and on auscultation, he has basilar crackles and scattered rhonchi. His O 2 saturation drops to 85 and he is in respiratory distress despite nebulized bronchodilator treatment.

Both of these patients are in respiratory failure, clinically and confirmed by arterial blood gases, and are in urgent need of intubation and mechanical ventilation. However, only one ventilator is available; who gets it?

Comment . The decision to allocate a scarce and potentially life-saving equipment (ventilator) is very difficult as it directly addresses the question “Who shall live when not everyone can live? [ 5 ]. This decision cannot be emotion-driven or arbitrary; nor should it be based on a person's wealth or social standing. Priorities need to be established ethically and must be applied consistently in the same institution and ideally throughout the state and the country. The general social norm to treat all equally or to treat on a first come, first saved basis is not the appropriate choice here. There is a consensus among clinical ethics scholars, that in this situation, maximizing benefits is the dominant value in making a decision [ 37 ]. Maximizing benefits can be viewed in 2 different ways; in lives saved or in life-years saved; they differ in that the first is non-utilitarian while the second is utilitarian. A subordinate consideration is giving priority to patients who have a better chance of survival and a reasonable life expectancy. The other 2 considerations are promoting and rewarding instrumental value (benefit to others) and the acuity of illness. Health-care workers (physicians, nurses, therapists etc.) and research participants have instrumental value as their work benefits others; among them those actively contributing are of more value than those who have made their contributions. The need to prioritize the sickest and the youngest is also a recognized value when these are aligned with the dominant value of maximizing benefits. In the context of COVID-19 pandemic, Emanuel et al. [ 37 ] weighed and analyzed these values and offered some recommendations. Some ethics scholars opine that in times of a pandemic, the burden of making a decision as to who gets a ventilator and who does not (often a life or death choice) should not be on the front-line physicians, as it may cause a severe and life-long emotional toll on them [ 35 , 36 ]. The toll can be severe for nurses and other front-line health-care providers as well. As a safeguard, they propose that the decision should rest on a select committee that excludes doctors, nurses and others who are caring for the patient(s) under consideration [ 38 ].

Both patients described in the case summaries have comparable acuity of illness and both are in need of mechanical ventilator support. However, in the dominant value of maximizing benefits the two patients differ; in terms of life-years saved, the second patient (22-year-old man) is ahead as his life expectancy is longer. Additionally, he is more likely than the older woman, to survive mechanical ventilation, infection, and possible complications. Another supporting factor in favor of the second patient is his potential instrumental value (benefit to others) as a future physician.

Unlike the other illustrative cases, the scenario of these 2 cases, does not lend itself to a peaceful and fully satisfactory resolution. The fairness of allocating a scarce and potentially life-saving resource based on maximizing benefits and preference to instrumental value (benefit to others) is open to question. The American College of Physicians has stated that allocation decisions during resource scarcity should be made “based on patient need, prognosis (determined by objective scientific measure and informed clinical judgment) and effectiveness (i.e., likelihood that the therapy will help the patient to recover), … to maximize the number of patients who will recover” [ 39 ].

This review has covered basics of ethics founded on morality and ethical principles with illustrative examples. In the following segment, professionalism is defined, its alignment with ethics depicted, and virtues desired of a physician (inclusive term for medical doctor regardless of type of practice) are elucidated. It concludes with my vision of an integrated model for patient care.

The core of professionalism is a therapeutic relationship built on competent and compassionate care by a physician that meets the expectation and benefits a patient. In this relationship, which is rooted in the ethical principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence, the physician fulfills the elements shown in Table ​ Table3. 3 . Professionalism “demands placing the interest of patients above those of the physician, setting and maintaining standards of competence and integrity, and providing expert advice to society on matters of health” [ 26 , 40 ].

Physicians obligations

Drawing on several decades of experience in teaching and mentoring, I envisage physicians with qualities of both “heart” and “head.” Ethical and humanistic values shape the former, while knowledge (e.g., by study, research, practice) and technical skills (e.g., medical and surgical procedures) form the latter. Figure ​ Figure1 1 is a representation of this model. Morality that forms the base of the model and ethical principles that rest on it were previously explained. Virtues are linked, some more tightly than others, to the principles of ethics. Compassion, a prelude to caring, presupposes sympathy, is expressed in beneficence. Discernment is especially valuable in decision-making when principles of ethics collide. Trustworthiness leads to trust, and is a needed virtue when patients, at their most vulnerable time, place themselves in the hands of physicians. Integrity involves the coherent integration of emotions, knowledge and aspirations while maintaining moral values. Physicians need both professional integrity and personal integrity, as the former may not cover all scenarios (e.g., prescribing ineffective drugs or expensive drugs when effective inexpensive drugs are available, performing invasive treatments or experimental research modalities without fully informed consent, any situation where personal monetary gain is placed over patient's welfare). Conscientiousness is required to determine what is right by critical reflection on good versus bad, better versus good, logical versus emotional, and right versus wrong.

Integrated model of patient care.

In my conceptualized model of patient care (Fig. ​ (Fig.1), 1 ), medical knowledge, skills to apply that knowledge, technical skills, practice-based learning, and communication skills are partnered with ethical principles and professional virtues. The virtues of compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, and conscientiousness are the necessary building blocks for the virtue of caring. Caring is the defining virtue for all health-care professions. In all interactions with patients, besides the technical expertise of a physician, the human element of caring (one human to another) is needed. In different situations, caring can be expressed verbally and non-verbally (e.g., the manner of communication with both physician and patient closely seated, and with unhurried, softly spoken words); a gentle touch especially when conveying “bad news”; a firmer touch or grip to convey reassurance to a patient facing a difficult treatment choice; to hold the hand of a patient dying alone). Thus, “caring” is in the center of the depicted integrated model, and as Peabody succinctly expressed it nearly a hundred years ago, “The secret of the care of the patient is caring for the patient” [ 41 ].

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

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• Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on October 18, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on May 9, 2024.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to

• protect the rights of research participants
• enhance research validity
• maintain scientific or academic integrity

Table of contents

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research objectives with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

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Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process , so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

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Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

You make sure to provide all potential participants with all the relevant information about

• what the study is about
• the risks and benefits of taking part
• how long the study will take
• your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection . For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

• Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
• Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
• Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
• Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources or counseling or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine academic integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

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Guidance on writing ethics essays

INTRODUCTION

In the introduction, you should clarify the title and expand on it, by saying how you will answer the question. For example:

“The issue of respect for faiths in healthcare is important because we live in a multi-cultural society, where people of many faiths will be encountered on a day to day basis. In this essay I will show why respect for autonomy means we have to show respect to religious faiths.”

My handy hint would be not to write the introduction until after you have finished the essay. It should act as a route map for the essay and be about 200 words long.

THE ESSAY PROPER

In the body of the essay you should give the information the question asks for. The questions set have two separate strands – you will need to address them both.

The first strand is identifying the ethical issues.

Explain the relevant principles (the principles are the most important aspect for you) and how they apply in the specific situation given. Don’t just make a list, or explain all the principles in great detail, instead explain what the principle implies for the people affected.

Remember: some issues such as confidentiality and consent might involve more than one principle, and no situation is only ever about one cut and dried issue. Often it isn’t possible (or wise) to include everything in detail, so it is perfectly okay to say

“There are many issues affecting different people. The doctor has to pay attention to the duty of care, the patient has responsibilities to themselves and their family, and there is also confidentiality from the staff and resource issues for the Trust. I am going to concentrate on what happens when a patient’s misunderstandings interfere with treatment”

This way you show awareness of many issues but can concentrate on the one or two you think are most important / interesting.

You should also consider points of view besides the one you personally believe. You might like to do this by writing something like:

“There are two points of view when it comes to a patient refusing treatment. Some people argue that a patient has the right to decide what happens to them for any reason, because it is their body. Others say that a health care professional has a duty to do the best for the health of their patient.”

(You could then expand on this by mentioning the arguments for a patient’s right to chose and the health professional’s duty.)

If there are additional pieces of thinking, include them after you have laid out the main points... relate them to clinical issues or important moral ones.

“Even if a patient has the right to decide what happens to themselves, should they have the right to decide for others... such as their children?”

The second strand of the ethics essay is asking for an argument.

It is making a claim or asking for a point of view to be JUSTIFIED, by you. Arguments need to be logical, even if the ethics can’t be ‘proven’ like a scientific theory. For a good argument you should:

a) Argue in favour of something : for ethical reasons – clinical and legal things might be something you should take into account- after all prognosis is a relevant factor but not an ethical issue in itself

b) Present the counter arguments (things that go against the point of view or against the arguments in favour)

c) Show how the points in favour still outweigh the negatives (or, if they can’t)

d) Propose solutions or amendments (if any are possible)

e) Draw these elements together to make a summary

There might be several different parts to a, b and c before you get to d and e!! However, don’t try and do too many at once. You should pick the two most relevant and go through those,

In very sketchy terms, you would want to lay out an argument something like this: (This is very simplified – don’t copy it, I’ll know ) a) The patient should be a Doctor’s main concern, as it is a duty the doctor has taken on by entering the profession

b) but this can’t happen in the real world due to financial constraints! There isn’t enough of everything to go round!

c) A doctor can’t worry about everyone else otherwise his patient will suffer

d) On a day to day basis the doctor has to prioritise the person in front of him, but can’t make demands for equipment to be taken from someone else

e) It is appropriate for a doctor to focus on the patient in front of him/her, but sometimes there will be times he/she can’t do everything. CONCLUSIONS The conclusion needs to do two things... it needs to ANSWER THE QUESTION (YES, both parts) and to mention how your argument got to this point. Don’t put any new information in your conclusion.

It is okay to add a caveat or exclusion to the answer ... indeed this is often very useful.

How to Write an Ethics Paper or Essay With Tips and Examples

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An ethics essay is one type of essays that students write to present their ideas about what is good or bad, right or wrong, white or black, and approved or prohibited in terms of various theories, approaches, techniques, practices, actions, behaviors, responsibilities, morals, results, obligations, virtues, and others, developing essential writing skills. When writing an ethics paper, students should understand that such an essay differs from other assignments, and it focuses on elaborating on issues with ethical or moral implications in philosophy. Basically, this elaboration entails writers arguing for a stand on an ethical or moral issue. Moreover, when writing such a composition, students should follow a basic essay structure: introduction-body-conclusion. In each of these sections, learners should capture critical elements, such as a thesis statement in the introduction part, topic sentences in body paragraphs, and a thesis restatement in the conclusion part. Hence, students need to learn how to write a good ethics paper or essay to demonstrate their knowledge of philosophy by using ethical and moral sides of an issue.

General Aspects

Academic writing is a broad discipline that exposes students to critical skills, including interpretation, explanation, reflection, and analysis of many essay topics. Basically, essay writing is one of the academic exercises that enable students to build these skills. One of the essay types that students write is a research paper on ethics. In this case, writers begin a research paper about ethics by introducing an assigned topic, explaining its significance, and presenting a clear thesis statement. When writing ethics essays in philosophy, students address issues related to morality, such as aspects of right and wrong or good and bad. Then, such concepts of ethics and morals underlie the importance of the right behaviors. In various settings, such as workplaces, humans establish codes of ethics and conduct to guide behavior. Therefore, when writing such compositions, a student’s focus is on how humans embrace or disregard good morals in society.

What Is an Ethics Paper and Its Purpose

According to its definition, an ethics paper is a written work that examines moral issues, ethical dilemmas, and contradicting cases, exploring questions of right and wrong. The primary purpose of writing an ethics paper is to examine and analyze various ethical theories, apply them to real-life situations, and present well-reasoned arguments to support a specific viewpoint on an author (Baron et al., 2014). Through this process, such a work aims to stimulate critical thinking and ethical reasoning analysis, helping people to understand different moral perspectives and refine their own beliefs. By examining the lens of ethical principles and their applications, such essays contribute to academic discourse, guide professional practices, and enhance moral awareness. At the individual level, people learn how to reflect on their values and the implications of their choices (Gorichanaz, 2023). Besides, an ethics paper typically includes an introduction with a thesis statement, a literature review, arguments and counterarguments, an analysis, and a conclusion. In terms of pages and words, the length of such a work can vary based on specific course requirements, topic’s complexity, guidelines provided by the instructor or institution, and academic levels:

High School

• Pages: 2-5 pages
• Words: 500-1250 words

College (Undergraduate)

• Pages: 5-10 pages
• Words: 1250-2500 words

University (Advanced Undergraduate or Honors)

• Pages: 10-15 pages
• Words: 2500-3750 words

Master’s

• Pages: 20-30 pages
• Words: 5000-7500 words
• Pages: 30-50 pages or more
• Words: 7500-12,500+ words

1. Defining Features or Characteristics

Like all other types of papers , an ethics essay has unique features that define it as an academic text. Writing ethics involves explaining and evaluating moral principles, applying them to specific situations, and providing reasoned arguments supported by evidence (Stichler, 2014). To some extent, these features influence an essay structure of a paper. Basically, the first feature is proof of the importance of a topic. In this case, students show this importance by constructing essay topics as challenging issues facing society, hence talking about it. Then, the second characteristic is a thesis statement, and learners in philosophy formulate them to shed light on a topic. Further on, the third feature is arguments that support a thesis, and the fourth characteristic is possible counterarguments. Moreover, the fifth feature is a rebuttal, where writers insist on the strengths of their arguments while acknowledging possible or real counterarguments. In turn, the sixth characteristic is a sum-up of an ethics paper. Here, authors emphasize a thesis statement by justifying arguments in their favor that they provide in a written document. Therefore, to write a professional ethics paper, people clearly define a specific moral issue, use relevant ethical theories, provide reasoned arguments, and cite scholarly sources (Stichler, 2014). In turn, an argument can be considered as an ethical argument if this statement meets certain criteria that distinguish it from other types of claims. Here are key characteristics that make an argument an ethical argument:

• Moral Principles: The argument is based on moral principles or ethical theories and involves considerations of right and wrong, justice, fairness, duty, virtue, or other good/bad concepts.
• Normative Statements: Moral claims include normative statements, which prescribe how people ought to act rather than merely describing how they do act.
• Reasoned Justifications: The statement provides reasoned justifications for its claims, relying on logical reasoning rather than emotional appeals or mere opinions.
• Universalizability: Philosophical approaches often aim for universalizability, meaning the principles applied in the argument should be applicable to all similar situations, not just the specific case being discussed.
• Consideration of Stakeholders: The argument takes into account the impact on all relevant stakeholders, considering how the actions or policies will affect different individuals or groups.
• Ethical Theories and Principles: The claim often references established moral theories and principles, such as utilitarianism (maximizing overall happiness), deontology (duty-based ethics), virtue ethics (focusing on character), or rights-based approaches.
• Consistency: Strong arguments strive for consistency, ensuring moral principles applied are coherent and do not lead to contradictory conclusions in different situations.
• Moral Language: The sentence uses moral language, such as “right,” “wrong,” “ought,” “duty,” “rights,” “justice,” “virtue,” and others, to articulate its points.
• Impartiality: It often requires impartiality, and key decisions should not be biased by personal interests but should consider the perspective of others affected.
• Ethical Reflection: The claim involves ethical reflection, encouraging critical examination of moral beliefs and assumptions to arrive at a well-reasoned conclusion.

2. How Does an Ethics Paper Differ From Other Essays

There are many types of essays that students write under a discipline of philosophy. Basically, each essay type has unique characteristics, and they distinguish it from other papers. For an ethics essay, these characteristics include addressing a moral issue, using an ethical lens to make arguments regarding a controversial matter, or explaining a dilemma (Jansen & Ellerton, 2018). Ideally, this type of paper focuses on elaborating on ethics and morality. In contrast, a narrative essay focuses on telling the writer’s story, while an informative essay focuses on educating the audience concerning a topic. Moreover, while some papers, like narrative or college application essays, utilize the first-person language, an ethics essay takes a formal approach to a third-person language. As a result, a good ethics paper clearly defines a particular moral problem, applies relevant ethical theories, presents balanced arguments, and provides well-reasoned conclusions.

3. How to Know if Students Need to Write an Ethics Paper or Essay

Generally, before students write some types of papers, they first consider the department or tutor’s requirements. Basically, these requirements can provide direct instructions, including a research topic, an essay outline, or a grading rubric (Baron et al., 2014). In this case, the latter helps students to understand the basic expectations of educational departments or tutors. Therefore, when students do not get direct instructions about their ethics topics, they can always know what type of essay they need to write by reading grading essay rubric requirements. For ethics papers, such prompts require students to take a stand on an issue of profound ethical or moral implications, such as fraud. In turn, key elements that tell students that they need to write an ethics paper or essay include providing an ethical argument, elaborating on a moral dilemma, or expounding on ethical and legal implications.

4. How Do Students Know if They Need to Write an Ethics Paper by Looking at an Essay Topic

Students consider the instructions given by departments or tutors when writing essays. Basically, these instructions provide directions on essay topics, and students should address them when writing their papers. When writing an ethics paper, students can know that they need to write this type of essay by looking at the department or tutor’s topic. Moreover, this ethics topic may require people to provide valid arguments concerning a matter, elaborate on a moral dilemma, or state whether an issue is ethical or legal (Deaton, 2019). In turn, a central message of a topic should require students to address an issue via a philosophical lens. As a result, to write an ethical dilemma paper, people describe a specific moral problem, discuss conflicting values, analyze possible solutions using philosophical theories, and conclude with a reasoned decision.

5. The Meaning of an Ethical Argument, Ethical Dilemma, and Ethical v. Legal Implications

Key elements that define an ethics paper include ethical arguments, moral dilemmas, and ethical and legal implications. For example, the term “ethical arguments” refers to a concept of taking a stand on an issue with moral implications and defending it (Baines, 2009). In this case, writers make relevant arguments to support their perspectives on an issue raising moral questions, such as fraud. Then, the term “ethical dilemma” refers to a situation where individuals find themselves whenever they face an issue raising ethical or moral questions, such as bribery (Baines, 2009). Moreover, authors are torn between two options, with one option having severe moral implications. In turn, the term “ethical versus legal implications” refers to a situation where a writer has to decide whether an issue, such as bribery, needs ethical or legal redress (Baines, 2009). Hence, ethical dilemmas mean the complexity of making moral decisions and require a balance between conflicting values and principles, while some examples of them are:

Examples of Ethical & Moral Themes

• Ethical Dimensions of Artificial Intelligence: Concerns and Potential Solutions
• The Ethics and Legality of Child Adoption
• The Pros and Cons of Taking Vitamin Supplements
• Plastic Surgery and the Pursuit of Beauty
• Human Cloning: Is It Ethical?
• Death Penalty: Key Pros and Cons
• Abortion as an Intervention Against Teen Pregnancy
• Is Voting a Moral or Legal Duty?
• Does Driving an Electric Car Indicate Responsible Citizenship?
• Social Media Use and Privacy
• Should Schools Enact Anti-Bullying Policies?
• Does Social Media Use Enhance or Undermine Socialization?
• Combating Music Piracy: Should Governments Get Involved?
• Organic Foods vs. Processed Foods: Which Is Healthier?
• Global Warming and the Extinction of Animal and Plant Species
• Should Politics and Church Separate?
• Is It Justified to Bribe to Avoid a Legal Penalty?
• Should Nurses Be Allowed to Assist Terminally Ill Patients to End Their Lives?
• Corporate Fraud: Who Should Take Responsibility?
• Is Corporate Social Responsibility a Humanitarian or Commercial Concept?

Ethics Paper Format

Note: This ethics paper format is general, while some sections can be added, deleted, or combined with each other depending on the scope, requirements, instructions, and purpose.

Ethics Paper Outline

Like any other essay, an ethics paper follows a specific structure that underscores its outline. Basically, this structure comprises three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion. When writing these sections, students must ensure they address all the essential defining features stated previously in their ethics essays or papers. When doing so, writers should confirm that the introduction and conclusion sections take 10 percent of the total word count of an ethics paper or essay, while the body, which is the main text, should be 80 percent. Hence, an essay outline of an ethics paper should look as below:

I. Introduction

A. Hook sentence. B. Background information on an ethical dilemma. C. Writer’s claim – A thesis statement covering a moral part.

II. Body Paragraphs

A. Argument

• state a position of an argument;
• support this position with evidence;
• explain how this evidence is right toward this argument and evidence;
• conclude why this argument is valid.

B. Counterargument

• provide a counterargument to a position in the first body paragraph;
• include evidence that supports this counterargument, being opposite to an argument in the previous section;
• explain how this counterargument and evidence in this paragraph are correct by using an opposite perspective;
• finish why this counterargument is valid for this case.

C. Rebuttal

• define the weaknesses of a counterargument;
• cover credible evidence that supports such weaknesses;
• write how these weaknesses make a counterargument irrelevant;
• end with a statement that explains why a counterargument is not valid compared to an argument.

III. Conclusion

A. Restate a thesis. B. Sum up on the argument, counterargument, and rebuttal. C. State a paper’s final claim with a moral lesson.

Explaining Each Section of an Ethics Paper Structure

When writing the introduction section, authors of an ethics paper should be brief and concise. Here, students should inform the audience about the purpose of writing by accurately expounding on an ethical issue they intend to address (Baron et al., 2014). In essence, this aspect means highlighting their stand concerning an issue. Moreover, formulating a thesis statement helps to accomplish this goal. In this case, writers frame their minds and structure their compositions via the use of arguments, and they defend their stand on an issue of profound moral implications. Notably, when writing the introduction part, which signals the start of an ethical paper or essay, learners should begin with a hook to grab the readers’ attention. This sentence can be a popular misconception or a question that writers intend to answer when writing an ethics paper or essay. In turn, the next examples of starters can help writers to begin their ethical analysis and set the stage for a thorough exploration of the topic:

• Moral implications of [issue] are complex and involve different considerations, such as … .
• One of the most pressing ethical questions surrounding [issue] is whether … .
• From the perspective of deontological ethics, [action] can be viewed as … .
• A utilitarian approach to [issue] would suggest … .
• The principle of autonomy plays a crucial role in the debate over [issue], as it emphasizes … .
• In considering the ethical dimensions of [issue], it is important to weigh the potential benefits against … .
• The controversy over [issue] highlights the tension between [value 1] and [value 2] … .
• Philosophical lenses, such as [theory 1], [theory 2], and [theory 3] provide a framework for understanding [issue] by focusing on … .
• The debate over [issue] raises significant moral concerns, including … .
• Examining [issue] through the lens of [ethical theory] reveals … .

II. Body Section

When writing the body of an ethics paper or essay, students should use a thesis statement as a reference point. In other words, they should use a thesis statement to come up with several ideas or arguments in defense of their stand on an assigned ethical or moral issue identified in the introduction part (Deaton, 2019). Basically, rules of academic writing dictate that students should begin each body paragraph with a topic sentence, whose purpose is to introduce a claim or idea they intend to elaborate on in the section. Then, it is advisable that, when writing the body section, learners should use different paragraphs to separate arguments logically. Moreover, students should follow a sandwich rule when writing every body paragraph of an ethics paper or essay. In turn, such a paragraph structure means providing a claim, supporting it with evidence, explaining its relevance to the paper’s thesis, and ending with a transition sentence to be connected with the next paragraph logically.

The conclusion part is the last section of an ethics paper. In particular, an ethics essay should capture several themes in this section. Firstly, writers should restate a thesis statement. Secondly, they should summarize the main points made in body paragraphs. Further on, this aspect means summarizing the writer’s arguments for their stands toward an issue with moral implications (Baines, 2009). In turn, authors should reiterate the paper’s topic and state why it was essential to address an ethical or moral issue. Besides, students need to avoid providing new information in this section.

Example of an Ethics Paper

Topic – Euthanasia: Is It Ethical?

I. Introduction Sample

Terminal illness is a condition of profound pain and suffering for those affected, including the patients and their families. Today, some scientists support euthanasia, the aspect of assisting terminally ill patients in ending their lives. While health professionals should do everything to help their patients to avoid suffering, assisting them in ending their lives is unethical and immoral.

II. Examples of Body Paragraphs

Life is a sacred thing, and no human being has any justification for ending it, regardless of whose it is. For example, the premise of a debate about euthanasia, which refers to assisted suicide, is the prevalence of terminal illnesses that subject individuals to a life of pain, suffering, and dependence. Without any hope of recovery, some individuals have opted to end their lives with the help of their loved ones or health professionals. While there is every reason to empathize with these individuals’ fate, there is no basis for supporting their desire to end their lives. In turn, the sanctity of life does not allow human beings to end life, no matter the circumstances.

If there seems to be no hope of recovery, ending life is counterproductive in an age of significant scientific and technological advancements. Basically, scientists are working round the clock to find cures for incurable diseases that have proven to be a threat to humanity. For example, today, smallpox is no longer a threat because a cure is found (Persson, 2010). Therefore, the fact that there may be no cure for a disease today does not mean that there will not be a cure tomorrow. Naturally, human beings rely on hope to overcome moments of darkness, such as a terminal illness diagnosis. Nonetheless, it is the effort of the scientific community that has always brought hope to humanity. In this light, there is no ethical or moral justification for euthanasia.

Euthanasia is not only a solution to terminal illness but also a sign of hopelessness and despair. When patients take the root of assisted suicide, it means that they give up on looking for alternatives in dealing with a problem. In this case, the fact that a terminal illness does not have a cure does not imply that it cannot be managed. Moreover, individuals who love a terminally ill person, such as family members and friends, hope to spend more time with them before an inevitable time happens. As such, terminally ill patients should use their families and health professionals to live longer. In essence, this aspect reflects true humanity – standing firm and determining amid of insurmountable odds. On that truth alone, euthanasia is an idea that deserves no thought or attention.

III. Conclusion Sample

There is nothing more devastating than a terminal illness diagnosis. Basically, such news punctures the hope of many individuals, families, and communities. Nonetheless, patients should not lose hope and despair to the point of wanting to end their lives because of being diagnosed with a terminal illness. Because life is sacred and there is always a higher probability of medical breakthroughs in an age of scientific and technological advancement, euthanasia is an unethical and immoral solution to a terminal illness.

Persson, S. (2010). Smallpox, syphilis, and salvation: Medical breakthroughs that changed the world . East Gosford, New South Wales: Exisle Publishing.

Essay writing is an essential academic exercise that enables students to develop writing skills. When writing an ethics paper or essay, students focus on taking a stand on an issue with ethical or moral implications. In this case, writers create a thesis statement that expresses their perspective on a moral issue, which can be an ethical dilemma. In the main text, authors provide arguments that defend their thesis statements. Hence, when writing an ethics paper or essay, students should master the following tips:

• Develop the introduction-body-conclusion paper outline.
• Introduce an assigned topic briefly and concisely in the introduction section.
• Write a strong thesis statement covering a moral problem.
• Use separate body paragraphs to introduce and defend arguments.
• Ensure to provide a counterargument and a rebuttal.
• Restate a central thesis statement in the conclusion section, including a summary of the main points (arguments that defend the paper’s thesis).

Baines, B. K. (2009). Ethical wills: Putting your values on paper . Da Capo Press.

Baron, P., Poxon, B., & Jones, L. (2014). How to write ethics and philosophy essays . PushMe Press.

Deaton, M. (2019). Ethics in a nutshell: The philosopher’s approach to morality in 100 pages . Notaed Press.

Gorichanaz, T. (2023). A compass for what matters: Applying virtue ethics to information behavior. Open Information Science , 7 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1515/opis-2022-0151

Jansen, M., & Ellerton, P. (2018). How to read an ethics paper. Journal of Medical Ethics , 44 (12), 810–813. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2018-104997

Stichler, J. F. (2014). The ethics of research, writing, and publication. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal , 8 (1), 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/193758671400800103

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The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Your environment. your health., what is ethics in research & why is it important, by david b. resnik, j.d., ph.d..

December 23, 2020

The ideas and opinions expressed in this essay are the author’s own and do not necessarily represent those of the NIH, NIEHS, or US government.

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?

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One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but interpret, apply, and balance them in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences. For example, two people could agree that murder is wrong but disagree about the morality of abortion because they have different understandings of what it means to be a human being.

Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers have urged citizens to disobey laws they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of protesting laws or expressing political viewpoints.

Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming , one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.

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Many different disciplines, institutions , and professions have standards for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. See Glossary of Commonly Used Terms in Research Ethics and Research Ethics Timeline .

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research , such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating , falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.

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Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work , such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship , copyright and patenting policies , data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public . For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values , such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies have ethics rules for funded researchers.

• National Institutes of Health (NIH)
• National Science Foundation (NSF)
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
• Singapore Statement on Research Integrity
• American Chemical Society, The Chemist Professional’s Code of Conduct
• Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science)
• American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
• Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors)
• Nuremberg Code
• World Medical Association's Declaration of Helsinki

Ethical Principles

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address*:

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Transparency

Disclose methods, materials, assumptions, analyses, and other information needed to evaluate your research.

Accountability

Take responsibility for your part in research and be prepared to give an account (i.e. an explanation or justification) of what you did on a research project and why.

Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for Colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2015. Responsible Conduct of Research, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press).

Ethical Decision Making in Research

Although codes, policies, and principles are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and act ethically in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. For example, consider the following case:

The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects. Tom has almost finished the experiment for Dr. Q. He has only 5 mice left to test. However, he really wants to finish his work in time to go to Florida on spring break with his friends, who are leaving tonight. He has injected the drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all of the tests. He therefore decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5 additional results.

Many different research ethics policies would hold that Tom has acted unethically by fabricating data. If this study were sponsored by a federal agency, such as the NIH, his actions would constitute a form of research misconduct , which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" (or FFP). Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethical are viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember, however, that misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive : honest errors related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct. Also, reasonable disagreements about research methods, procedures, and interpretations do not constitute research misconduct. Consider the following case:

Dr. T has just discovered a mathematical error in his paper that has been accepted for publication in a journal. The error does not affect the overall results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. The journal has just gone to press, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears in print. In order to avoid embarrassment, Dr. T decides to ignore the error.

Dr. T's error is not misconduct nor is his decision to take no action to correct the error. Most researchers, as well as many different policies and codes would say that Dr. T should tell the journal (and any coauthors) about the error and consider publishing a correction or errata. Failing to publish a correction would be unethical because it would violate norms relating to honesty and objectivity in research.

There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are sometimes referred to as " other deviations " from acceptable research practices and include:

• Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors
• Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors
• Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor
• Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper
• Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal
• Using data, ideas, or methods you learn about while reviewing a grant or a papers without permission
• Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper
• Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your research
• Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your work
• Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work
• Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the field
• Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita
• Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest
• Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students
• Failing to keep good research records
• Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time
• Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission
• Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors
• Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
• Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board
• Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment
• Wasting animals in research
• Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution's biosafety rules
• Sabotaging someone's work
• Stealing supplies, books, or data
• Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
• Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs
• Owning over $10,000 in stock in a company that sponsors your research and not disclosing this financial interest
• Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits

These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal in some cases. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable debate about the definition of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are not satisfied with the government's narrow definition that focuses on FFP. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus.

Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical or moral dilemmas . Consider the following case:

Dr. Wexford is the principal investigator of a large, epidemiological study on the health of 10,000 agricultural workers. She has an impressive dataset that includes information on demographics, environmental exposures, diet, genetics, and various disease outcomes such as cancer, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and ALS. She has just published a paper on the relationship between pesticide exposure and PD in a prestigious journal. She is planning to publish many other papers from her dataset. She receives a request from another research team that wants access to her complete dataset. They are interested in examining the relationship between pesticide exposures and skin cancer. Dr. Wexford was planning to conduct a study on this topic.

Dr. Wexford faces a difficult choice. On the one hand, the ethical norm of openness obliges her to share data with the other research team. Her funding agency may also have rules that obligate her to share data. On the other hand, if she shares data with the other team, they may publish results that she was planning to publish, thus depriving her (and her team) of recognition and priority. It seems that there are good arguments on both sides of this issue and Dr. Wexford needs to take some time to think about what she should do. One possible option is to share data, provided that the investigators sign a data use agreement. The agreement could define allowable uses of the data, publication plans, authorship, etc. Another option would be to offer to collaborate with the researchers.

The following are some step that researchers, such as Dr. Wexford, can take to deal with ethical dilemmas in research:

What is the problem or issue?

It is always important to get a clear statement of the problem. In this case, the issue is whether to share information with the other research team.

What is the relevant information?

Many bad decisions are made as a result of poor information. To know what to do, Dr. Wexford needs to have more information concerning such matters as university or funding agency or journal policies that may apply to this situation, the team's intellectual property interests, the possibility of negotiating some kind of agreement with the other team, whether the other team also has some information it is willing to share, the impact of the potential publications, etc.

What are the different options?

People may fail to see different options due to a limited imagination, bias, ignorance, or fear. In this case, there may be other choices besides 'share' or 'don't share,' such as 'negotiate an agreement' or 'offer to collaborate with the researchers.'

How do ethical codes or policies as well as legal rules apply to these different options?

The university or funding agency may have policies on data management that apply to this case. Broader ethical rules, such as openness and respect for credit and intellectual property, may also apply to this case. Laws relating to intellectual property may be relevant.

Are there any people who can offer ethical advice?

It may be useful to seek advice from a colleague, a senior researcher, your department chair, an ethics or compliance officer, or anyone else you can trust. In the case, Dr. Wexford might want to talk to her supervisor and research team before making a decision.

After considering these questions, a person facing an ethical dilemma may decide to ask more questions, gather more information, explore different options, or consider other ethical rules. However, at some point he or she will have to make a decision and then take action. Ideally, a person who makes a decision in an ethical dilemma should be able to justify his or her decision to himself or herself, as well as colleagues, administrators, and other people who might be affected by the decision. He or she should be able to articulate reasons for his or her conduct and should consider the following questions in order to explain how he or she arrived at his or her decision:

• Which choice will probably have the best overall consequences for science and society?
• Which choice could stand up to further publicity and scrutiny?
• Which choice could you not live with?
• Think of the wisest person you know. What would he or she do in this situation?
• Which choice would be the most just, fair, or responsible?

After considering all of these questions, one still might find it difficult to decide what to do. If this is the case, then it may be appropriate to consider others ways of making the decision, such as going with a gut feeling or intuition, seeking guidance through prayer or meditation, or even flipping a coin. Endorsing these methods in this context need not imply that ethical decisions are irrational, however. The main point is that human reasoning plays a pivotal role in ethical decision-making but there are limits to its ability to solve all ethical dilemmas in a finite amount of time.

Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science

Do U.S. research institutions meet or exceed federal mandates for instruction in responsible conduct of research? A national survey

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Most academic institutions in the US require undergraduate, graduate, or postgraduate students to have some education in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) . The NIH and NSF have both mandated training in research ethics for students and trainees. Many academic institutions outside of the US have also developed educational curricula in research ethics

Those of you who are taking or have taken courses in research ethics may be wondering why you are required to have education in research ethics. You may believe that you are highly ethical and know the difference between right and wrong. You would never fabricate or falsify data or plagiarize. Indeed, you also may believe that most of your colleagues are highly ethical and that there is no ethics problem in research..

If you feel this way, relax. No one is accusing you of acting unethically. Indeed, the evidence produced so far shows that misconduct is a very rare occurrence in research, although there is considerable variation among various estimates. The rate of misconduct has been estimated to be as low as 0.01% of researchers per year (based on confirmed cases of misconduct in federally funded research) to as high as 1% of researchers per year (based on self-reports of misconduct on anonymous surveys). See Shamoo and Resnik (2015), cited above.

Clearly, it would be useful to have more data on this topic, but so far there is no evidence that science has become ethically corrupt, despite some highly publicized scandals. Even if misconduct is only a rare occurrence, it can still have a tremendous impact on science and society because it can compromise the integrity of research, erode the public’s trust in science, and waste time and resources. Will education in research ethics help reduce the rate of misconduct in science? It is too early to tell. The answer to this question depends, in part, on how one understands the causes of misconduct. There are two main theories about why researchers commit misconduct. According to the "bad apple" theory, most scientists are highly ethical. Only researchers who are morally corrupt, economically desperate, or psychologically disturbed commit misconduct. Moreover, only a fool would commit misconduct because science's peer review system and self-correcting mechanisms will eventually catch those who try to cheat the system. In any case, a course in research ethics will have little impact on "bad apples," one might argue.

According to the "stressful" or "imperfect" environment theory, misconduct occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints encourage people to commit misconduct, such as pressures to publish or obtain grants or contracts, career ambitions, the pursuit of profit or fame, poor supervision of students and trainees, and poor oversight of researchers (see Shamoo and Resnik 2015). Moreover, defenders of the stressful environment theory point out that science's peer review system is far from perfect and that it is relatively easy to cheat the system. Erroneous or fraudulent research often enters the public record without being detected for years. Misconduct probably results from environmental and individual causes, i.e. when people who are morally weak, ignorant, or insensitive are placed in stressful or imperfect environments. In any case, a course in research ethics can be useful in helping to prevent deviations from norms even if it does not prevent misconduct. Education in research ethics is can help people get a better understanding of ethical standards, policies, and issues and improve ethical judgment and decision making. Many of the deviations that occur in research may occur because researchers simply do not know or have never thought seriously about some of the ethical norms of research. For example, some unethical authorship practices probably reflect traditions and practices that have not been questioned seriously until recently. If the director of a lab is named as an author on every paper that comes from his lab, even if he does not make a significant contribution, what could be wrong with that? That's just the way it's done, one might argue. Another example where there may be some ignorance or mistaken traditions is conflicts of interest in research. A researcher may think that a "normal" or "traditional" financial relationship, such as accepting stock or a consulting fee from a drug company that sponsors her research, raises no serious ethical issues. Or perhaps a university administrator sees no ethical problem in taking a large gift with strings attached from a pharmaceutical company. Maybe a physician thinks that it is perfectly appropriate to receive a $300 finder’s fee for referring patients into a clinical trial.

If "deviations" from ethical conduct occur in research as a result of ignorance or a failure to reflect critically on problematic traditions, then a course in research ethics may help reduce the rate of serious deviations by improving the researcher's understanding of ethics and by sensitizing him or her to the issues.

Finally, education in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple with the ethical dilemmas they are likely to encounter by introducing them to important concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas. Scientists must deal with a number of different controversial topics, such as human embryonic stem cell research, cloning, genetic engineering, and research involving animal or human subjects, which require ethical reflection and deliberation.

Essay on Ethics

Introduction to Ethics

In today’s complex and interconnected world, ethics serve as the moral compass guiding individuals and organizations through their myriad choices. Ethics provide a framework for evaluating right and wrong, helping us navigate the often murky waters of decision-making. Consider the case of a pharmaceutical company deliberating whether to release a new drug without thorough testing. The decision involves balancing potential profits with the well-being of patients, highlighting the ethical dilemmas inherent in many modern scenarios. This essay delves into the significance of ethics, exploring its evolution, principles, and practical applications across various domains, aiming to equip readers with the tools to make informed and ethical choices in their personal and professional lives.

Key Concepts in Ethics

• Ethical Relativism : This concept posits that ethical principles are not universal but somewhat dependent on cultural norms and individual beliefs. It suggests that what is considered ethical can vary between cultures and societies.
• Utilitarianism : Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory emphasizing the greatest good for the most significant number. It evaluates actions based on their outcomes and seeks to maximize overall happiness or well-being.
• Deontology : Deontology is an ethical theory that assesses actions as inherently moral or immoral, disregarding their outcomes. It is often associated with duty, rights, and justice principles.
• Virtue Ethics : Virtue ethics highlights the cultivation of positive character traits, known as virtues, that are essential for ethical conduct. Individuals need to develop virtues like honesty, courage, and compassion.
• Ethical Dilemma : An ethical dilemma occurs when an individual must choose between two or more conflicting moral principles, knowing that adhering to one principle may mean transgressing another.
• Morality : Morality pertains to the principles that differentiate between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. The system of values and principles of conduct guides individuals’ choices and actions.
• Ethical Code : A moral code consists of principles or rules that dictate the conduct of individuals or professionals. It offers a structure for making ethical decisions and guiding behavior.
• Ethical Decision-Making : Ethical decision-making entails assessing and selecting options in accordance with ethical principles. It often requires considering the rights and interests of all stakeholders involved.

Ethical Principles

• Respect for Autonomy : This principle underscores the significance of individuals’ autonomy and right to make their own decisions and choices. It involves respecting their capacity for self-determination and freedom of choice.
• Beneficence : The principle of beneficence entails the obligation to do good and promote the well-being of others. It entails engaging in actions that benefit others and prevent harm.
• Non-Maleficence : Non-maleficence is the principle of avoiding causing harm to others. It emphasizes the importance of avoiding actions that could cause harm or injury to others.
• Justice : The principle of justice involves treating individuals fairly and equitably. It requires that benefits and burdens be distributed fairly and impartially.
• Fidelity : Fidelity, or faithfulness, is the principle of keeping promises and fulfilling commitments. It involves being trustworthy and honoring agreements made with others.
• Veracity : Veracity is the principle of honesty and truthfulness. It involves being truthful in all interactions and not deceiving or misleading others.
• Confidentiality : The principle of confidentiality involves respecting the privacy and confidentiality of information shared by others. It requires keeping sensitive information private and only disclosing it with permission or when necessary.
• Integrity : Integrity is the principle of acting by moral and ethical principles. It involves honesty, fairness, and consistency in one’s actions and decisions.

Building an Ethical Culture

• Lead by Example : Leaders have a crucial responsibility in molding an organization’s culture. They should model ethical behavior and decision-making to set the tone for the entire organization.
• Communicate Ethical Expectations : Clearly communicate the organization’s values, ethical standards, and expectations to all employees. Ensure that these values are incorporated into the organization’s mission and vision.
• Provide Ethics Training : Offer regular training sessions on ethics and compliance to educate employees about ethical principles and best practices. Include case studies and scenarios to help employees apply ethical principles to real-world situations.
• Establish Ethical Codes and Policies : Develop and implement written codes of conduct and ethics policies that outline expected behavior and guide ethical decision-making. Ensure that these policies are readily available and consistently updated.
• Encourage Open Communication : Establish a workplace atmosphere that encourages employees to address ethical issues or predicaments without hesitation openly. Provide multiple channels, such as hotlines or anonymous reporting systems, for employees to report unethical behavior.
• Reward Ethical Behavior : Acknowledge and reward employees who exhibit ethical behavior and adhere to ethical standards. This reinforces the importance of ethics within the organization.
• Address Ethical Violations Promptly : Investigate and address any instances of unethical behavior or violations of ethical standards promptly and fairly. Take appropriate disciplinary action when necessary to maintain the integrity of the organization.
• Encourage Ethical Decision-Making : Foster a culture encouraging employees to consider ethical implications in their decision-making processes. Provide support and guidance to help employees navigate ethical dilemmas.
• Monitor and Evaluate : Consistently monitor and assess the organization’s ethical culture and adherence to ethical standards. Use surveys, audits, and feedback mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of ethics initiatives.
• Continuous Improvement : Continuously review and improve ethics programs and initiatives based on feedback and lessons learned. Be flexible and adjust to variations in the surroundings beyond your control while addressing ethical dilemmas as they emerge.

Ethics in Various Contexts

• Business Ethics : In business, ethics guide decision-making regarding fair practices, corporate social responsibility, and the treatment of employees, customers, and stakeholders.
• Medical Ethics : Medical ethics govern the conduct of healthcare professionals, ensuring patient autonomy, confidentiality, beneficence, and non-maleficence.
• Environmental Ethics : Environmental ethics address moral principles concerning the environment and natural resources, guiding sustainable practices and conservation efforts.
• Technology Ethics : Technology ethics involve the responsible development and use of technology, considering its impact on society, privacy, and human rights.
• Legal Ethics : Legal ethics govern the conduct of lawyers and judges, ensuring fairness, honesty, and confidentiality in legal proceedings.
• Journalistic Ethics : Journalistic ethics dictate standards of accuracy, fairness, and integrity in reporting and guide journalists’ conduct in news gathering and dissemination.
• Engineering Ethics : Engineering ethics focus on the ethical responsibilities of engineers, including safety, environmental impact, and adherence to professional standards.
• Research Ethics : Research ethics ensure the integrity of scientific research, including principles of informed consent, data integrity, and respect for research subjects.
• Educational Ethics : Educational ethics guide the conduct of educators, emphasizing fairness, respect, and integrity in teaching and academic practices.
• Political Ethics : Political ethics govern the behavior of politicians and government officials, ensuring transparency, honesty, and accountability in governance.
• Personal Ethics : Personal ethics guide individual behavior, encompassing values, beliefs, and principles that shape how one interacts with others and makes decisions.

Ethical Decision-Making in Personal Life

• Reflect on Values : Take time to reflect on your personal values and beliefs. Consider what matters most to you and how these values influence your decision-making process.
• Consider Consequences : Consider the potential outcomes of your actions on both yourself and others. Consider both short-term and long-term effects and how they align with your values.
• Seek Information : Gather relevant information about the situation to make an informed decision. Consider different perspectives and consult trusted sources if needed.
• Evaluate Alternatives : Explore your options and evaluate their ethical implications. Consider how each option aligns with your values and the potential impact on others.
• Consult Others : Seek advice and input from trusted friends, family members, or mentors. Discussing your concerns with others can provide valuable insights and perspectives.
• Listen to Your Conscience : Consider your inner voice or conscience when making decisions. Trust your instincts and intuition, as they often provide valuable guidance.
• Act with Integrity : Choose the option most aligned with your values and principles, even if it is difficult or unpopular. Act with honesty, sincerity, and integrity in all your interactions.
• Reflect on Your Decision : After making a decision, take time to reflect on the process and outcome. Consider what you learned from the experience and how you can apply it to future decision-making.

Ethical Responsibility in a Globalized World

• Respect Cultural Diversity : Recognize and respect cultural differences and diversity in values, beliefs, and practices across different countries and regions. Avoid imposing ethnocentric perspectives and strive for cultural sensitivity in all interactions.
• Promote Human Rights : Uphold universal human rights principles, such as dignity, equality, and freedom, in all global activities and operations. Ensure that business practices and policies do not infringe upon the human rights of individuals or communities.
• Environmental Stewardship : Acknowledge the interconnectedness of environmental issues and the global community. Take responsibility for minimizing environmental impact and promoting sustainability practices across borders.
• Fair Trade Practices : Global businesses should engage in ethical and fair trade practices, ensuring safe working conditions, fair compensation, and respect for workers’ rights across the entire supply chain. Avoid exploitation and unfair labor practices.
• Combat Corruption : Take a stand against corruption and bribery in all forms, including within business practices, government interactions, and partnerships. Promote transparency, accountability, and integrity in global business dealings.
• Support Economic Development : Contribute to sustainable economic development and poverty alleviation in global communities through responsible business investments, partnerships, and philanthropic initiatives.
• Responsible Technology Use : Ethically develop and deploy technology solutions that benefit global society while minimizing potential harms. Examine the worldwide social, cultural, and ethical ramifications of technological advancements.
• Global Health Equity : Promote access to healthcare, medicine, and public health initiatives globally, ensuring equitable distribution and affordability for all populations, particularly those in underserved regions.
• Crisis Response and Humanitarian Aid : Demonstrate ethical responsibility in times of crisis, such as natural disasters, conflicts, or pandemics, by providing humanitarian aid, relief efforts, and support to affected communities regardless of geographic location.
• Partnerships for Sustainable Development : Collaborate with governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders to address global challenges collectively and foster sustainable development goals that prioritize the well-being of people and the planet.

Contemporary Ethical Issues

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• Artificial Intelligence and Ethics : As AI becomes more prevalent in society, questions arise regarding its ethical use, including privacy, bias, and accountability.
• Climate Change : Ethical considerations surrounding climate change encompass issues of justice, intergenerational equity, and responsibility for both mitigating and adapting to its impacts.
• Data Privacy and Security : As personal data collection and use increases, ethical concerns arise regarding data protection and responsible handling by corporations and governments.
• Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology : Ethical concerns in genetic engineering revolve around issues such as genetic privacy, the utilization of gene editing tools like CRISPR, and the repercussions of genetic modification for forthcoming generations.
• Social Media and Misinformation : The spread of misinformation and the manipulation of social media platforms raise ethical questions about technology companies’ roles in moderating content and protecting user rights.
• Healthcare Access and Equity : Ethical issues in healthcare include access to affordable care, equitable resource distribution, and the prioritization of certain populations for treatment or research.
• Workplace Diversity and Inclusion : Ethical considerations in the workplace involve promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion and addressing issues of discrimination and bias in hiring, promotion, and organizational culture.
• Artificial Intelligence and Jobs : AI’s increasing automation of jobs raises ethical questions about the impact on employment, income inequality, and the retraining of displaced workers.
• Globalization and Labor Practices : Ethical issues in globalization include concerns about sweatshop labor, child labor, and multinational corporations’ exploitation of workers in developing countries.
• Ethical Use of Big Data : The collection and analysis of large datasets raise ethical questions about consent, privacy, and the potential for misuse of data for surveillance or discriminatory purposes.

Ethics are crucial in guiding our behavior and decision-making across all facets of life, encompassing personal choices and global responsibilities. Embracing ethical principles such as respect, integrity, and fairness can help individuals and organizations create a more just and sustainable world. It is essential to reflect on our values continuously, consider the consequences of our actions, and strive to act in accordance with ethical standards. Building an ethical culture requires commitment and effort, but the rewards are profound, leading to greater trust, cooperation, and a positive impact on society as a whole.

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Ethics: its Meaning, Principles, and Importance

This essay about ethics explores its role in guiding human conduct, morality, and interactions. It delves into various ethical paradigms throughout history, including virtue ethics, deontological ethics, and utilitarianism. The essay also discusses contemporary ethical dilemmas in fields like bioethics and environmental ethics, as well as the importance of ethics in professional contexts. Ethics serves as a fundamental framework for navigating moral complexities, from personal decisions to global challenges, ensuring equitable and righteous outcomes in an ever-evolving world.

How it works

Ethics represents a facet of philosophy delving into fundamental inquiries concerning human conduct, morality, and the delineation of right and wrong. It entails scrutinizing the principles governing individual and collective behaviors, furnishing a framework for comprehending the manner in which individuals should exist, act, and engage with one another. Despite often being linked with professional ethics or moral comportment, ethics transcends specific domains, proffering a roadmap for navigating the intricacies of human civilization.

At its nucleus, ethics entails comprehending and evaluating human conduct in terms of justice, equity, and virtue.

Philosophers across epochs have endeavored to elucidate diverse approaches to ethical deliberation. Among the earliest and most influential ethical paradigms stands Aristotle’s virtue ethics, which accentuates the nurturing of moral character attributes or virtues like fortitude, rectitude, and moderation. Aristotle posited that by fostering these virtues, individuals could attain eudaimonia, or human flourishing, perceived as life’s ultimate pursuit.

In contradistinction to virtue ethics, deontological ethics, espoused by Immanuel Kant, revolves around rules and obligations. Kant contended that moral actions should align with universal principles that one could consistently apply to all individuals sans contradiction. For instance, an individual advocating for truthfulness should be willing to witness truth-telling become a universal precept. Kantian ethics is distinguished by the concept of the categorical imperative, positing that individuals ought to act in manners amenable to universal laws.

Utilitarianism, another pivotal ethical framework, adopts a divergent approach. Forged by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, utilitarianism champions actions maximizing aggregate happiness or well-being, spotlighting outcomes over intentions. In utilitarian calculus, an action is deemed morally commendable if it engenders the greatest benefit for the greatest number of individuals. This variant of consequentialism finds applications across diverse spheres, from public policy to economics.

Beyond these archetypal ethical theories, contemporary ethics grapples with pressing modern quandaries. Bioethics tackles ethical conundrums in medicine and biological exploration, contemplating patient rights, the ramifications of genetic manipulation, and the ethical allocation of scarce resources. Environmental ethics scrutinizes the moral obligations humans bear toward the ecosystem, wildlife, and posterity, oft advocating for sustainable practices and preservation.

Ethics also assumes a pivotal role in professional milieus, where it is frequently codified into a corpus of norms dubbed professional ethics. Professions such as jurisprudence, medicine, journalism, and engineering have devised ethical codes to steer practitioners in rendering decisions not only legally compliant but also morally defensible. These directives aid in fostering trust between professionals and the populace, ensuring that their deeds align with broader societal anticipations.

The significance of ethics cannot be overstated. In an era of escalating interconnectivity, ethical deliberations underpin decisions impacting entire communities and polities. Ethical frameworks facilitate the negotiation of moral quandaries posed by technological breakthroughs, globalization, and societal metamorphosis. For instance, issues like data confidentiality, artificial intelligence, and climate transformation all present conundrums necessitating ethical scrutiny to ensure equitable and righteous outcomes.

Furthermore, ethics shapes our personal existences, guiding us in discerning the optimal course of action in scenarios challenging our value systems. The principles we espouse steer our relationships, aspirations, and obligations, both individually and communally.

In summation, ethics furnishes an elemental framework for comprehending how humans ought to comport themselves, whether steered by virtues, precepts, or repercussions. It permeates every facet of human existence, from individual choices to international policies. Through engagement with ethical precepts, individuals and societies can aspire toward impartiality, rectitude, and an enhanced quality of life for all. A grasp of ethics is imperative in navigating the vicissitudes of our swiftly evolving world, ensuring that advancement and advancement are congruent with shared values and the collective welfare.

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Introduction of moral codes

• Problems of divine origin
• Nonhuman behaviour
• Kinship and reciprocity
• Anthropology and ethics
• The Middle East
• Ancient Greece
• The Epicureans
• Ethics in the New Testament
• St. Augustine
• St. Thomas Aquinas and the Scholastics
• Machiavelli
• The first Protestants
• Early intuitionists: Cudworth, More, and Clarke
• Shaftesbury and the moral sense school
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The term ethics may refer to the philosophical study of the concepts of moral right and wrong and moral good and bad, to any philosophical theory of what is morally right and wrong or morally good and bad, and to any system or code of moral rules, principles, or values. The last may be associated with particular religions , cultures, professions, or virtually any other group that is at least partly characterized by its moral outlook.

Traditionally, ethics referred to the philosophical study of morality, the latter being a more or less systematic set of beliefs, usually held in common by a group, about how people should live. Ethics also referred to particular philosophical theories of morality. Later the term was applied to particular (and narrower) moral codes or value systems. Ethics and morality are now used almost interchangeably in many contexts, but the name of the philosophical study remains ethics .

Ethics matters because (1) it is part of how many groups define themselves and thus part of the identity of their individual members, (2) other-regarding values in most ethical systems both reflect and foster close human relationships and mutual respect and trust, and (3) it could be “rational” for a self-interested person to be moral, because his or her self-interest is arguably best served in the long run by reciprocating the moral behaviour of others.

No. Understood as equivalent to morality, ethics could be studied as a social-psychological or historical phenomenon, but in that case it would be an object of social-scientific study, not a social science in itself. Understood as the philosophical study of moral concepts, ethics is a branch of philosophy , not of social science.

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ethics , the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles.

(Read Britannica’s biography of this author, Peter Singer.)

How should we live? Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge, virtue , or the creation of beautiful objects? If we choose happiness, will it be our own or the happiness of all? And what of the more particular questions that face us: is it right to be dishonest in a good cause? Can we justify living in opulence while elsewhere in the world people are starving? Is going to war justified in cases where it is likely that innocent people will be killed? Is it wrong to clone a human being or to destroy human embryos in medical research? What are our obligations, if any, to the generations of humans who will come after us and to the nonhuman animals with whom we share the planet?

Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the fundamental issues of practical decision making , and its major concerns include the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong .

The terms ethics and morality are closely related. It is now common to refer to ethical judgments or to ethical principles where it once would have been more accurate to speak of moral judgments or moral principles. These applications are an extension of the meaning of ethics. In earlier usage, the term referred not to morality itself but to the field of study, or branch of inquiry, that has morality as its subject matter. In this sense, ethics is equivalent to moral philosophy.

Although ethics has always been viewed as a branch of philosophy , its all-embracing practical nature links it with many other areas of study, including anthropology , biology , economics , history , politics , sociology , and theology . Yet, ethics remains distinct from such disciplines because it is not a matter of factual knowledge in the way that the sciences and other branches of inquiry are. Rather, it has to do with determining the nature of normative theories and applying these sets of principles to practical moral problems.

This article, then, will deal with ethics as a field of philosophy, especially as it has developed in the West. For coverage of religious conceptions of ethics and the ethical systems associated with world religions, see Buddhism ; Christianity ; Confucianism ; Hinduism ; Jainism ; Judaism ; Sikhism .

The origins of ethics

Mythical accounts.

When did ethics begin and how did it originate? If one has in mind ethics proper—i.e., the systematic study of what is morally right and wrong—it is clear that ethics could have come into existence only when human beings started to reflect on the best way to live. This reflective stage emerged long after human societies had developed some kind of morality, usually in the form of customary standards of right and wrong conduct . The process of reflection tended to arise from such customs, even if in the end it may have found them wanting. Accordingly, ethics began with the introduction of the first moral codes .

Virtually every human society has some form of myth to explain the origin of morality. In the Louvre in Paris there is a black Babylonian column with a relief showing the sun god Shamash presenting the code of laws to Hammurabi (died c. 1750 bce ), known as the Code of Hammurabi . The Hebrew Bible ( Old Testament ) account of God’s giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (flourished 14th–13th century bce ) on Mount Sinai might be considered another example. In the dialogue Protagoras by Plato (428/427–348/347 bce ), there is an avowedly mythical account of how Zeus took pity on the hapless humans, who were physically no match for the other beasts. To make up for these deficiencies, Zeus gave humans a moral sense and the capacity for law and justice , so that they could live in larger communities and cooperate with one another.

That morality should be invested with all the mystery and power of divine origin is not surprising. Nothing else could provide such strong reasons for accepting the moral law. By attributing a divine origin to morality, the priesthood became its interpreter and guardian and thereby secured for itself a power that it would not readily relinquish. This link between morality and religion has been so firmly forged that it is still sometimes asserted that there can be no morality without religion. According to this view, ethics is not an independent field of study but rather a branch of theology ( see moral theology ).

There is some difficulty, already known to Plato, with the view that morality was created by a divine power. In his dialogue Euthyphro , Plato considered the suggestion that it is divine approval that makes an action good . Plato pointed out that, if this were the case, one could not say that the gods approve of such actions because they are good. Why then do they approve of them? Is their approval entirely arbitrary? Plato considered this impossible and so held that there must be some standards of right or wrong that are independent of the likes and dislikes of the gods. Modern philosophers have generally accepted Plato’s argument, because the alternative implies that if, for example, the gods had happened to approve of torturing children and to disapprove of helping one’s neighbours, then torture would have been good and neighbourliness bad.

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How to Write a Personal Ethics Statement—And Why Every Professional Should

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What is a Personal Ethics Statement?

Personal ethics are your guidelines for forming relationships, overcoming challenges, and decision- making. A personal ethics statement is a one-page essay that gives a picture of your core values and what potential supervisors, colleagues, or clients can expect from working with you. It can be useful when you’re applying for school , just starting out in your career, looking for a new job, trying to expand your client base, or advancing your career.  

In this article we will discuss personal ethics—which should not be mistaken for professional ethics. Personal ethics relate to the values you hold in personal relationships and daily life, an whereas professional ethics relate to how you conduct yourself in business settings, deals, and professional relationships.  

An important part of your personal ethics statement is identifying your personal beliefs and personal values. Some code of ethics examples include integrity, selflessness, honesty, loyalty, equality, fairness, empathy, respect, and self-respect. This article is a complete resource for forming your personal ethics and transforming them into a compelling personal ethics statement.

Professional Impacts of Personal Ethics

There are many occasions your personal ethics will play a role in your behavior in professional settings. No matter your line of work, it’s important that you maintain unshakable personal ethics in your professional relationships and how you interact in the workplace.

Business Ethics

Business ethics are the practices and policies put into place to ensure people and resources are treated ethically in business dealings. While you’re making decisions in business to benefit a company, you must consider the impact of those decisions on others. Developing your personal code of conduct will help support you in upholding your company policies in the workplace, which will help you maintain personal integrity, as well as avoid potential business scandals . Learn about how to be an ethical leader in a business setting.

With a career in information technology, part of your job involves having access to private or confidential information. Your moral compass plays a significant role in keeping this type of information safe, especially since cyber-attacks—which happen every 39 seconds on average—are so prevalent in modern society. Having a career in IT immerses you in the world of cyber security , where ethical behavior and policy adherence are essential.

Healthcare Ethics

In the healthcare field, you’re responsible for human lives, so it’s no wonder that strong professional competence and integrity are important in how you carry yourself at work. There are plenty of complex issues, regulations, and compliance policies that you’ll encounter in a hospital or care facility, which demands that you seek the guidance of your personal ethics.

Teaching Ethics

Strong moral values are a necessary component of being a teacher. When your job is to sculpt young minds, you have must take responsibility for setting a strong example for them. Part of this is keeping students safe, part of this is treating all students equally and without discrimination. Part of this is creating healthy boundaries between your students and your personal life . If you build a personal ethics statement, you have a north star to look towards in this professional setting as you encounter ethical dilemmas. If you’re planning to become a teacher, you should also consider writing a teaching philosophy statement.

How Do I Write a Personal Ethics Statement?

There are five essential steps to writing—and perfecting—your personal ethics statement: 

1. Know your audience. 

The first step to writing an effective personal ethics statement is knowing and understanding the audience you’re writing for. This one-page piece of writing is supposed to influence the reader, so keeping the motivations and sentiments of your audience in mind while writing is important to completing your goal. Once you know your audience, whether it be an admissions counselor or a potential employer, then you can choose words and reference practices and policies that resonate with them and meet any guidelines in place.  

2. Choose your goals. 

There are two important types of goals to think about when building your personal ethics statement: your short-term and long-term goals. For example, your short-term goal may be getting into college, while your long-term goal is becoming a software engineer. Once you identify these, then you can phrase your personal ethics in terms of how they relate to your desired career path. To build off the previous example, if you aspire to be a software engineer, you can talk about personal ethics that relate to cyber security or the hard work required to get to your desired goal. 

3. Determine your influences. 

What influences the decisions you make? This is an essential step in determining your code of ethics because every choice you make is influenced by internal and external factors. One factor that affects everyone is personal traits. Your personality plays a crucial role in the decisions you make and how you carry yourself with others. Another factor is the people in your life who have helped in shaping who you are today. A third example is momentous events. Everyone experiences wonderful, pivotal moments in their life, as well as tragic and traumatic moments. All these factors play a role in your personal ethics, and they should be included in your personal ethics statement. 

4. Identify your beliefs and practices. 

This step is about writing down examples of how you move through the world and the core beliefs you live by. Compelling stories elicit emotional reactions from your audience and prove that you put your personal ethics into daily practice. Examples are essential to creating a strong personal ethics statement. 

5. Name your “why.”  

Why did you choose the ethical principles that you did? Confidently answering this question and providing details is essential to the authenticity of the statement. Decide why your personal ethics are important to you, how your life experiences brought you to those ethics, and how you’ll continue to keep them at the center of your decisions going forward. This step is important to making sure your audience walks away with a clear understanding of what ethical standards are important to you and why. 

What Should I Include in a Personal Ethics Statement?

Your personal ethics statement should consist of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.  

Start your personal ethics statement with a one- to two-paragraph introduction. Use the introduction to talk about the life experiences that helped form your ethical background. Maybe you had a major injury in your childhood that resulted in lifelong ability differences, and this made you an advocate for accessibility. Find a personal story that will engage your reader and provide a foundation for your statement.

In the body of your personal ethics statement—about two or three paragraphs—you should list each of the ethical principles that are central in your life. This is your opportunity to make sure the reader knows your core beliefs. If you have a personal mantra, include it here. In this section, true life examples are your friend.

What Should I not Include in a Personal Ethics Statement?

Since a personal ethics statement is a deeply personal piece of writing, it’s important to be honest and authentic. The last thing you want to do is include fake life experiences just to make a point. This also isn’t an opportunity to profess all your life’s mistakes. You are human and your personal ethics statement should reflect that, but in a positive and inspiring light.  

How to Conclude

Every personal ethics statement should have a strong conclusion. Sum it all up in a final paragraph where you explain how your core values make you a great person to have in a professional organization or an excellent candidate for an academic program.

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Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Ethics and Moral Philosophy — Ethics

Essays on Ethics

📚🤔 importance of writing an ethics essay 🤔📚.

Ethics are like the moral compass that guides our decisions and actions. Writing an essay about ethics helps us delve deeper into this fascinating topic and understand its significance in our lives. It allows us to explore different perspectives and engage in meaningful discussions. Plus, it's an opportunity to flex our writing skills! So, let's dive into the world of ethics essays together! 🌍💭

💡 Ethics Essay Topics for Deep Thinkers 💡

When choosing a topic for your ethics essay, it's crucial to find something that truly captures your interest. The best essays are the ones where you're genuinely passionate about the subject. So, take a moment to think about what ethical issues matter most to you. Is it animal rights? Climate change? Workplace ethics? Once you've identified your area of focus, you're ready to explore some potential essay topics! Here are a few ideas to get your creative juices flowing:

💥 Ethics Argumentative Essay 💥

An ethics argumentative essay presents a clear stance on a controversial ethical issue. It requires you to provide solid evidence and persuasive arguments to support your viewpoint. Here are 10 exciting topics to consider:

• Is euthanasia morally acceptable under certain circumstances?
• Should animal testing be banned for cosmetic purposes?
• Is it ethical to use performance-enhancing drugs in sports?
• Should the death penalty be abolished?
• Is genetic engineering morally justified?
• Should businesses prioritize profit over environmental sustainability?
• Is it ethical to consume meat in a world plagued by climate change?
• Should individuals have the right to privacy in the age of surveillance?
• Is it morally permissible to lie in certain situations?
• Should the government regulate the use of social media to protect user privacy?

💥 Ethics Cause and Effect Essay 💥

An ethics cause and effect essay explores the consequences of certain ethical actions or decisions. It delves into the ripple effects and explores the interconnectedness of ethical choices. Take a look at these 10 intriguing topics:

• The impact of social media on ethical behavior
• The consequences of ethical violations in the workplace
• The effects of ethical consumerism on the environment
• The relationship between ethical leadership and employee satisfaction
• The repercussions of unethical advertising on society
• The consequences of ethical relativism in international relations
• The impact of ethical decision-making on personal relationships
• The effects of ethical education on youth development
• The relationship between ethical behavior and corporate reputation
• The consequences of ethical dilemmas in healthcare settings

💥 Ethics Opinion Essay 💥

An ethics opinion essay allows you to express your personal thoughts and beliefs on an ethical issue. It encourages introspection and reflection, giving you the freedom to express your own values. Here are 10 thought-provoking topics to consider:

• Is it morally wrong to lie to protect someone's feelings?
• Should individuals be held responsible for the ethical behavior of their family members?
• Is it ethical to eat meat in a world where factory farming exists?
• Should businesses prioritize their social responsibility over profit?
• Is it morally right to intervene in the cultural practices of other countries?
• Should individuals have the right to refuse medical treatment based on personal beliefs?
• Is it ethical to use animals for scientific research if it leads to medical advancements?
• Should celebrities be held to higher ethical standards?

📜 Thesis Statement Examples 📜

Here are a few thesis statement examples to inspire your ethics essay:

• 1. "In today's complex world, ethical dilemmas surround us. This essay delves into the moral challenges we face in various aspects of our lives, offering insight into the importance of ethical decision-making."
• 2. "Exploring the ethical dimensions of our actions and choices is essential for personal growth and societal progress. This essay advocates for a deeper understanding of ethics as a guiding force in our lives."
• 3. "Ethics is not just a philosophical concept; it's a practical framework that shapes our daily decisions. This essay investigates the role of ethics in navigating the complexities of modern life, emphasizing its significance in fostering a just and harmonious society."

📝 Introduction Paragraph Examples 📝

Here are some introduction paragraph examples for your ethics essay:

• 1. "In a world where moral dilemmas and ethical questions abound, the study of ethics takes on a vital role. This essay embarks on a journey to explore the multifaceted aspects of ethics, from its philosophical foundations to its practical applications in our daily lives."
• 2. "The concept of ethics is as old as human civilization itself, yet its relevance remains undiminished. This essay opens the door to the realm of ethics, inviting readers to contemplate the values that guide our actions and decisions in an ever-evolving world."
• 3. "Ethics is the compass that steers us through the turbulent waters of moral ambiguity. As we embark on this essay, we embark on a quest to unravel the intricacies of ethical reasoning, exploring the diverse perspectives that shape our understanding of right and wrong."

🔚 Conclusion Paragraph Examples 📝

Here are some conclusion paragraph examples for your ethics essay:

• 1. "In conclusion, ethics is not a mere academic pursuit; it's a guiding light that illuminates our path through life. By embracing ethical principles and engaging in thoughtful reflection, we can navigate the complexities of our world with integrity and compassion."
• 2. "As we draw the curtains on this essay, we are reminded that ethics is not a static concept but a dynamic force that evolves with society. Let us carry forward the lessons learned and continue to champion the values that foster a more ethical and harmonious world."
• 3. "Ethics is the cornerstone of a just and equitable society. This essay has explored the depths of ethical reasoning, from its philosophical roots to its practical applications. It is our collective responsibility to uphold the principles of ethics and strive for a world guided by moral integrity."

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Ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide human behavior and decision-making, determining what is considered right or wrong, good or bad. It encompasses the study of ethical theories and frameworks, as well as the application of these principles to various domains, including personal conduct, professional practices, and social interactions.

The origin of ethics can be traced to ancient civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, where early thinkers sought to understand and define concepts of right and wrong, virtue and vice, and the principles that guide human behavior. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the groundwork for ethical theories that continue to influence ethical thought today. Socrates emphasized the importance of self-examination and moral inquiry, while Plato explored the concept of the "good" and the ideal forms. Aristotle, known for his virtue ethics, focused on cultivating virtuous character traits to lead a flourishing life. Throughout history, various religious and philosophical traditions have contributed to the development of ethical theories. Religious texts such as the Bible, the Quran, and the teachings of Confucius have provided moral guidance for their respective communities. In the Middle Ages, Christian theologians like Thomas Aquinas merged Greek philosophy with Christian theology, shaping the field of Christian ethics. During the Enlightenment era, thinkers such as Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill revolutionized ethical thought. Kant's deontological ethics emphasized moral duties and the importance of rationality, while Mill's utilitarianism focused on maximizing overall happiness and minimizing suffering. The history of ethics is marked by ongoing debates, reinterpretations, and new perspectives. In contemporary times, ethics continues to evolve and respond to the complexities of our globalized and diverse world.

1. Consequentialism: Consequentialist ethics focuses on the outcomes or consequences of actions. The moral value of an action is determined by the overall good or happiness it produces. Utilitarianism, a prominent consequentialist theory, posits that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. 2. Deontological Ethics: Deontological ethics emphasizes moral duties and principles rather than the consequences of actions. According to this approach, certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes. Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative, which emphasizes universal moral principles, is a well-known deontological framework. 3. Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics focuses on the development of virtuous character traits and moral virtues. It emphasizes the importance of cultivating qualities such as honesty, compassion, courage, and justice. Rather than focusing on specific actions, virtue ethics encourages individuals to embody these virtues and live a virtuous life. 4. Ethics of Care: The ethics of care emphasizes the importance of relationships, empathy, and compassion in ethical decision-making. It recognizes the interconnectedness of individuals and highlights the moral responsibility to care for and nurture others. This approach values empathy, attentiveness, and responsiveness to the needs of others, particularly in personal relationships and caregiving roles.

1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher who developed the concept of virtue ethics. His works, such as "Nicomachean Ethics," emphasized the importance of cultivating virtuous character traits to live a fulfilling and morally upright life. Aristotle believed that virtue was the mean between extremes, and he explored various virtues such as courage, justice, and temperance. 2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): Kant was a German philosopher who made significant contributions to deontological ethics. His work, particularly in "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" and "Critique of Practical Reason," introduced the concept of the categorical imperative, which emphasized universal moral principles and the inherent value of human beings. Kant's ethical theories focused on duty, rationality, and the intention behind actions. 3. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Mill was an influential philosopher and advocate of utilitarianism, a consequentialist ethical theory. In his book "Utilitarianism," Mill argued that actions should be judged based on their ability to maximize overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. He emphasized the importance of individual rights, the pursuit of happiness, and the consideration of long-term consequences. 4. Carol Gilligan (1936-present): Gilligan is an American ethicist and psychologist known for her work on the ethics of care. In her groundbreaking book "In a Different Voice," she criticized traditional ethical theories for neglecting the moral perspectives and experiences of women. Gilligan highlighted the significance of relationships, empathy, and care in ethical decision-making, emphasizing the value of nurturing and interconnectedness.

1. Consequentialism: Consequentialist ethics focuses on the outcomes or consequences of actions. It asserts that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences, with the aim of maximizing overall well-being or happiness. Utilitarianism, a prominent consequentialist theory, suggests that actions should be judged based on their ability to produce the greatest amount of happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. 2. Deontology: Deontological ethics, in contrast to consequentialism, places emphasis on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, regardless of their consequences. It focuses on moral duties, obligations, and principles that should guide behavior. Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is a key deontological principle that asserts that individuals should act in a way that they would want their actions to be universally applicable. 3. Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics centers around the cultivation of moral character and virtues. It suggests that a morally good person will naturally make good choices. Virtue ethicists emphasize the development of virtues such as honesty, compassion, courage, and justice, and believe that ethical behavior stems from embodying these virtues and striving for excellence in character.

Ethics is a vital subject to explore and write an essay about due to its profound impact on human behavior, decision-making, and the overall well-being of society. Ethics provides a framework for evaluating what is right and wrong, guiding individuals and organizations in making ethical choices. By examining ethical theories, concepts, and principles, one can delve into the complexities of moral dilemmas and explore the underlying values and principles that shape human conduct. Writing an essay on ethics allows individuals to critically analyze ethical issues, engage in ethical reasoning, and develop a deeper understanding of moral principles. It prompts thoughtful reflection on the consequences of actions, the moral responsibilities we hold, and the ethical implications of our choices. Furthermore, studying ethics fosters empathy, respect for others, and an appreciation for diversity, ultimately contributing to a more compassionate and just society. Exploring ethical topics in an essay enables individuals to explore real-world ethical challenges, such as environmental ethics, business ethics, medical ethics, and social justice. It encourages the development of ethical leadership, ethical decision-making skills, and ethical awareness, which are essential in navigating complex ethical landscapes.

1. Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean Ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.). Hackett Publishing. 2. Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2019). Principles of biomedical ethics. Oxford University Press. 3. Bentham, J. (1789). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Oxford University Press. 4. Kant, I. (1785). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals (M. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. 5. MacIntyre, A. (1981). After virtue: A study in moral theory. University of Notre Dame Press. 6. Mill, J. S. (1863). Utilitarianism. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. 7. Noddings, N. (2002). Starting at home: Caring and social policy. University of California Press. 8. Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press. 9. Singer, P. (1993). Practical ethics. Cambridge University Press. 10. Solomon, R. C. (1993). The ethics of care and empathy. In M. A. Slote & M. L. Murphy (Eds.), Friendship and moral psychology (pp. 184-200). Rowman & Littlefield.

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Ethical Principles, Essay Example

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The ethical principles involved in this case relate to the 17 year old’s right to privacy and nurse’s responsibility to hold information shared in confidence. However, the nurse has an added responsibility for reporting all cases of abuse. She can choose to do so to the police or a provider who can intervene and make conditions safer for the client (American Nurses Association, 2015). The client does not want her father to get into any trouble. Hence, it would appear that the nurse is faced with an ethical dilemma

While it appears that the nurse has no options since the 17 year old seems to be in an abusive dilemma and chooses the lesser two evils, the nurse ought to act in the best interest of the child. In my opinion, the nurse’s obligation to report the incident overrides the obligation to maintain confidentiality. As such, I believe based on the prevailing circumstances of the child not wanting to be in foster care a social worker should be contacted to visit and counsel the family in the presence of Lora.

Depending on the abuse severity Lora could be removed from the home into temporary DCF custody. The matter could be taken to court and a judge makes a decision for her to be moved to the residence of a grandparent or another close relative who is willing to take responsibility for her safety (Health and Human Services, 2015). Lora’s autonomy does not outweigh the nurse’s responsibility to report the abusive situation.  I would not report it to the police, but an agency that would look at the pros and con and make the best decision for Lora’s safety.

American Nurses Association (2015).Code of Ethics for Nurses. Retrieved on November 12 th , 2015 from http://www.nursingworld.org/CodeofEthics

Health and Human Services (2015) Department of Children and Families: Child Abuse. Retrieved on November 12 th , 2015 from  http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dcf/

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Deserted: The U.S. Military's Sexual Assault Crisis as a Cost of War

Over the past decade, the U.S. military has implemented policies to promote gender equality, notably lifting the ban on women in combat roles in 2013 and opening all military jobs to women by 2016. Yet, even as U.S. military policy reforms during the “War on Terror” appear to reflect greater equality, violent patterns of abuse and misogyny continued within military workplaces.

This author of this report found that sexual assault prevalence in the military is likely two to four times higher than official government estimations. Based on a comparison of available data collected by the U.S. Department of Defense to independent data, the research estimates there were 75,569 cases of sexual assault in 2021 and 73,695 cases in 2023. On average, over the course of the war in Afghanistan, 24 percent of active-duty women and 1.9 percent of active-duty men experienced sexual assault. The report highlights how experiences of gender inequality are most pronounced for women of color, who experience intersecting forms of racism and sexism and are one of the fastest-growing populations within the military. Independent data also confirm queer and trans service members’ disproportionately greater risk for sexual assault.

The report notes that during the post-9/11 wars, the prioritization of force readiness above all else allowed the problem of sexual assault to fester, papering over internal violence and gender inequalities within military institutions.

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Diagnostic evaluation of the contribution of complementary training subjects in the self-perception of competencies in ethics, social responsibility, and sustainability in engineering students.

1. Introduction

2. theoretical framework, 3. review of related research, 4. materials and methods, 4.1. study population, 4.2. instrument, 4.3. data analysis technique, 5.1. descriptive statistics, 5.2. analysis of competencies in ers vs. courses taken, 5.3. relationship of ers competencies with sociodemographic variables, 6. discussion, 7. conclusions, 8. future work, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Yepes, S.M.; Montes, W.F.; Herrera, A. Diagnostic Evaluation of the Contribution of Complementary Training Subjects in the Self-Perception of Competencies in Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability in Engineering Students. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7069. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167069

Yepes SM, Montes WF, Herrera A. Diagnostic Evaluation of the Contribution of Complementary Training Subjects in the Self-Perception of Competencies in Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability in Engineering Students. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7069. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167069

Yepes, Sara María, Willer Ferney Montes, and Andres Herrera. 2024. "Diagnostic Evaluation of the Contribution of Complementary Training Subjects in the Self-Perception of Competencies in Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability in Engineering Students" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7069. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167069

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Ethical Principles in Healthcare Essay

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It is correct that public health policies often do not align with the personal preferences of people, such as the desire to smoke cigarettes, yet they still rely on ethical principles. Specifically, the ethics utilized as a part of health policies are universal, so they aim at promoting good for the majority of people (Anne Scott, 2017). Thus, the principles of beneficence, respect of persons, and justice guide policies in a way which makes them beneficial for the largest number of people. Essentially, it is a utilitarian approach, which inherently implies discrimination of certain minorities, such as those preferring smoking and overeating (Reichlin, 2021). For instance, the principle of respect of persons cannot be applied individually because it can lead to conflicts. A person who smokes cigarettes actually can disrespect people who cannot tolerate smoking. Since smoking is considered to be harmful in society, public health policies do not consider the need to respect smokers to a point where their preferred cigarettes are kept at an affordable price.

As for the issue of high healthcare costs, it is absolutely correct that it is an ethical problem since it directly affects the ability of people to receive much-needed treatment. Currently, many people who are considered poor face healthcare disparities, including in the form of being subject to biased attitudes on the part of medical personnel (Fitzgerald & Hurst, 2017). Essentially, the need to lower healthcare costs and make hospitals a place of equality is exceptionally important, yet the solution for the problem must be more complex than the Affordable Care Act. For instance, research shows that a considerable factor leading to high healthcare costs is waste (Shrank et al., 2019). If the government were to introduce additional laws concerning aspects such as waste or taxes for providers, it would positively influence a reduction in prices. As a result, lower healthcare prices would correspond to ethical principles of justice and equality for everyone.

Anne Scott, P. (2017). Nursing and the ethical dimension of practice. In P. Anne Scott (Ed.), Key concepts and issues in nursing ethics (pp. 1–13). Frankfurt, Germany: Springer.

Fitzgerald, C. & Hurst, S. (2017). Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: A systematic review. BMC Medical Ethics, 18 (19), 1–18. Web.

Reichlin, M. (2021). Prioritarianism in health-care: Resisting the reduction to utilitarianism. Diametros: A Journal of Philosophy, 18 (69), 20–32. Web.

Shrank, W., Rogstad, T., & Parekh, N. (2019). Waste in the US health care system: Estimated costs and potential for savings. JAMA, 322 (15), 1501–1509. Web.

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Three Studies of MDMA Treatment Retracted by Scientific Journal

The psychedelic treatment, for PTSD, was rejected last week by government regulators.

Doses of MDMA, also known as Ecstasy, in street form. Researchers have been testing the drug as a treatment for PTSD. Credit... Universal History Archive, via Getty Images

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By Andrew Jacobs

• Aug. 12, 2024

The journal Psychopharmacology has retracted three papers about MDMA-assisted therapy based on what the publication said was unethical conduct at one of the study sites where the research took place.

Several of the papers’ authors are affiliated with Lykos Therapeutics, the drug company whose application for MDMA-assisted therapy to treat post-traumatic stress disorder was rejected last week by the Food and Drug Administration.

The company said the research in the retracted papers was not part of its application to the F.D.A.

In declining to approve Lykos’s application, the agency cited concerns about missing data and problems with the way the company’s study was designed, according to a statement released by Lykos on Friday.

The F.D.A. has asked Lykos to conduct an additional clinical trial of its MDMA-assisted therapy, which would have been the first psychedelic medicine to win approval by federal regulators. Lykos has said it would appeal the decision.

The journal retraction was first reported by Stat, the health and medical news website.

On Sunday, Lykos said that it disagreed with Psychopharmacology’s decision and that it would file an official complaint with the Committee on Publication Ethics, a nonprofit that sets guidelines for academic publications.

“The articles remain scientifically sound and present important contributions to the study of potential treatments for PTSD,” the company said in the statement.

The incident cited by Psychopharmacology has been well documented.

In 2015, an unlicensed Canadian therapist who took part in the trial engaged in a sexual relationship with a participant after the conclusion of the trial’s dosing sessions.

In civil court documents , the patient, Meaghan Buisson, said she was sexually assaulted by the therapist, Richard Yensen, who at the time was working alongside his wife, a licensed therapist.

Mr. Yensen has said the relationship was consensual and initiated by Ms. Buisson. Six months after the final session, she moved from Vancouver to Cortes Island, in British Columbia, where the couple lived, according to court documents .

The relationship between patient and practitioner continued for more than a year, the documents said. Professional associations in both Canada and the United States prohibit sexual relationships between psychologists and patients for at least two years after their final session.

The incident helped highlight some of the challenges associated with psychedelic medicine, which can render patients especially vulnerable during dosing sessions.

For that reason, most clinical trials involving psychedelic compounds require the presence of two mental health professionals. (Lykos’s trials with MDMA require only one of the practitioners to be licensed.)

The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, or MAPS, is the nonprofit that carried out the research and later created Lykos to market its proprietary MDMA-assisted therapy. The association publicly acknowledged the incident in 2019, adding that it had been reported to the F.D.A. and to Canadian health authorities.

The company acknowledged on Sunday that it had failed to notify Psychopharmacology about the violations, but it said that the oversight should have been addressed through a correction, not a retraction.

Andrew Jacobs is a Times reporter focused on how healthcare policy, politics and corporate interests affect people’s lives. More about Andrew Jacobs

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