college history assignment

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In This Section

• Classroom Materials: Digitized Primary Sources

Classroom Materials: Rubrics and Syllabi

• Classroom Materials: Sample Assignments
• Classroom Materials: Teaching Modules
• Classroom Materials: History Skills
• Classroom Materials: Reflections on Teaching
• Classroom Materials: History Lessons and Background Materials

Many of these rubrics and syllabi were designed by participants in the Tuning or Bridging Cultures programs as they rethought their approach to teaching the history survey course by focusing on specific skills in the classroom or by working to bring Atlantic and Pacific history into the US history survey.

For Tuning materials specific to the institution type (such as two-year public/private or four-year public/private) or degree program, visit the Tuning Resources main page. For more about Bridging Cultures, check out the Bridging Cultures Resources page, where you'll find resources sorted by institution and course focus.

Sample Course Syllabus for Recent American History, Delta College

Saint vincent college history department goals and assessment, timothy kelly, department chair, history rubric, regis university, student progress evaluation worksheet, new college of florida, sample rubric, new college of florida, lecture topics for first half of american history survey.

Brittany Adams focuses on incorporating more regional history into the early survey. She also emphasizes the importance of de-centering the British colonial narrative when teaching students who identify more with western US history, as do many of her students at UC Irvine.

Honors 2111 US History Survey Course Description and Syllabus

Shannon Bontrager not only incorporated global contexts into his survey, but he also used non-traditional and digital pedagogical tools to engage his students.

US Environmental History Course Topics through the Civil War (Santa Monica Coll.)

Foundations of american history syllabus.

Sarah Grunder offers a detailed syllabus and two sample assignments, in which students use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on the circulation of commodities, peoples, and ideas throughout those worlds.

Themes in the Social History of the United States: Migration and American Civilization, 1830s to 1960s

Syllabus for a survey of social history, focusing upon the American experience. The course explores changes in the family, work, sex roles, mobility, migration, urbanization, and industrialization.

United States History I: US History to the Civil War

An introduction to the methods of historical inquiry focusing on the study of American history from the beginnings through the American Civil War.

Ethnicity and American Cultures Topics Through the 19th Century

A syllabus by Leslie Kawaguchi that begins with the peopling of North America and ends with the establishment of the U.S. and the 1790 immigration policy that provided naturalization to “free white persons” despite the cultural, racial, and ethnic diversity of the colonial period.

Resources for Teaching American and Hawaiian History

This course revises traditional understandings of American history and examines issues of race, gender, and class in understanding the histories and contemporary experiences of Native Hawaiians, Asians, and Pacific Islanders to foster greater multi-cultural respect and understanding.

Introduction to Ethnic Studies: Lecture and Assignment Schedule

Details about the readings and lectures included in an Introduction to Ethnic Studies class taught by Kelli Nakamura at Kapi'olani Community College. The course revises traditional understandings of American history and examines issues of race, gender, and class in understanding the histories and contemporary experiences of Native Hawaiians, Asians, and Pacific Islanders to foster greater multi-cultural respect and understanding.

Discovering American Social History on the Web

Dan Kallgren developed several sample assignments for use in his undergraduate survey course "United States History Since the Civil War," in the spring of 2000. Assignments can be used inidividually or in series, as each is accompanied by suggested reading and primary sources.

Social Science Laboratories via the Web: Active Learning with Data

To encourage the use of social science data in history, Russel Van Wyk has compiled a useful guide that shows how to use quantitative analysis of texts, demographic data, an interactive historical atlas module, and Geographic Information Services (GIS) to teach undergraduate students.

World Civilizations: The Ancient Period to 500 CE

In David Smith's project, students use world history methods (Big Picture, Diffusion, Syncretism, Comparison, and Common Phenomena) to interpret secondary and primary materials. Primary material is handled through directed reading questions that focus on three classics: the Odyssey, the Ramayana and the Analects.

Syllabus: United States History Since the Civil War

Syllabus from Dan Kallgren's survey of American history since the end of the Civil War. The syllabus includes several digital primary source projects, all of which are hosted on separate pages as part of Kallgren's "Discovering America Social History on the Web" module.

Introduction to Ethnic Studies: Course Description and Syllabus

A course description and syllabus for an Intro to Ethnic Studies course taught by Kelli Nakamura at Kapi'olani Community Coll. that explores basic concepts and theories for analyzing dynamics of ethnic group experiences, particularly those represented in Hawai‘i, and their relation to colonization, immigration, gender, problems of identity, racism, and social class.

Teaching Difficult Legal or Political Concepts: Using Online Primary Sources in Writing Assignments

Sue C. Patrick's shares syllabi from her United States History and Western Civilization courses, which include assignments and links to digital primary sources. She also reviews a number of digital primary sources for the benefit of other instructors interested in using them in the classroom.

United States History through the Civil War Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for a United States History through the Civil War course. The syllabus includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

United States History from the Civil War to the Present Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for her United States History from the Civil War to the Present course, which includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

Resources for Tuning the History Discipline

Since the first phase of the AHA's Tuning project began in 2012, faculty participants from history departments around the country have reviewed many aspects of their home-department curricula. As a result of their efforts, the AHA is now able to offer examples of revised curricular materials from a broad range of institutions.

Here you will find different sorts of documents produced by faculty for their local needs. Resources include rubrics, assignments, statements of course outcomes and degree requirements, survey questions for history majors or alumni, and other types of materials. The most common format for these resources is the degree specification, a detailed statement about the history degree program at a particular institution.

The degree specification communicates the purpose, characteristics, career pathways, and educational style of each program, as well as delineating core learning proficiencies for students who successfully complete the degree at that institution. The process of creating these statements differed from place to place, but in general faculty collaborated on identifying goals for their degree programs. Each degree specification, therefore, is the result of cooperation and discussion among disciplinary faculty about what their students understand, know, and are able to do at the end of that institution's history program. The language is intended for a general, non-specialist, non-academic audience, including beginning college students who may consider majoring in history.

We have sorted this wealth of documents by the type of institution where they were developed. You can also navigate to each resource by individual faculty participant (alphabetically by institution name). We expect that these will serve as models and catalysts for conversation and curricular reform. We hope to add resources to these pages as faculty either complete new materials or revise preliminary efforts as a result of ongoing consultation with their colleagues.

For questions and feedback, please contact AHA Special Projects Coordinator Julia Brookins by email at [email protected]. For a broader discussion of these and other teaching and learning issues in history, please join the Teaching and Learning community on communities.historians.org .

The National History Center’s New Teaching Decolonization Resource Collection

The National History Center's new Teaching Decolonization Resource Collection provides resources for instructors at any level to teach about decolonization.

Evaluating without Grading

In this version of a specifications grading system, each individual assignment is evaluated on a pass/fail basis. This creates multiple pathways for students to move through the assignments and earn a final grade by “unlocking” different levels of various assignments. Assignment by Luke Clossey and Esther Souman.

Unessay Assignment Sheet

Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Caley Horan

Departments

As taught in.

• American History
• Modern History

Learning Resource Types

American history since 1865.

For our first paper assignment, you will be asked to write a short essay that responds to the following prompt:

The historian Eric Foner argues that Reconstruction should be understood as an “unfinished revolution.” 1 In what ways, if any, were the American Civil War and the Reconstruction period that followed revolutionary, and for whom? What was left “unfinished” by Reconstruction?

Essays should present an original argument that responds to the above prompt. This argument should be unique (of your own making) and should reflect careful and serious engagement with course materials. It should also be clearly expressed and organized, so a reader would have no problem understanding both the overall argument and its progression through your essay. In crafting your argument, you should draw on lecture, discussion, and secondary source readings (materials assigned for Lecture 2). Evidence in support of this argument should be drawn from at least three primary sources (materials assigned for Lecture 3).

Essays should be approximately 1250 words in length (please include a word count at the end of your essay), double-spaced, and written in a 12 point font. They should include page numbers, properly formatted footnotes with accurate citations, and a title that reflects the paper’s argument. All sources should be cited using the Chicago Manual of Style (see the Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide ). For an example of what citations in Chicago format look like, see the footnote at the bottom of this page.

Essays will be evaluated according to:

• The quality of the analysis and argument presented
• The strength of the evidence marshaled in support of that argument
• The clarity and quality of written expression (this includes style, grammar, and proper citation)

Essay #1 is due during Lecture 5.  

1 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper Collins,1988).

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How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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Course Resources

Discussions and assignments.

The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students’ needs.

If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), the assignments will automatically be loaded into the assignment tool. The assignment pages within each module link to the live assignment page. You can view them below or throughout the course. There is at least one discussion and one assignment ready to be used in every module of the course. We do not recommend assigning them all, however, and recommend selecting those that work best for you . If you choose to assign the capstone project (explained below), we suggest excluding some of the other assignments so that students have sufficient time to prepare for their capstone work.

To make edits or customized versions of the assignments, we recommend copying and pasting the discussion or assignment text directly into your LMS discussion or assignment page in order to make changes.

Capstone Project

The capstone project is an optional comprehensive assignment that could be assigned to students to complete progressively through the course. The assignment is divided into 3 to 4 pieces and culminates in students creating a PechaKucha presentation.

For this capstone project, students will pick a reformer or activist involved with a progressive or social movement between 1877 and 2000. They will evaluate and analyze the ideas, agenda, strategies, and effectiveness of the work done by their chosen reformer or activist in order to make a claim and present on their findings in the form of a PechaKucha presentation (or another pre-approved format). PechaKucha presentations follow a 20×20 presentation format, meaning that a presenter chooses 20 images and speaks about each image for 20 seconds (totaling 6 minutes at 40 seconds).

The capstone project components are shared as assignments that link to Google Documents. You can make a copy of those documents to customize them. To do so, open the Google Doc and choose “File -> Make a copy” to create your own version.

• Part 0: Social Media Activism  (also found as an assignment in Module 5)
• Part 1: Research and Annotated Bibliography
• Part 2: Draft PechaKucha Outline
• Part 3: Submit Final PechaKucha Presentation
• Assignments. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Pencil Cup. Authored by : IconfactoryTeam. Provided by : Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/pencil-cup/628840/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

• Lesson Plans
• Teacher's Guides
• Media Resources

Advanced Placement U.S. History Lessons

The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton December 26, 1776 by John Trumbull.

Wikimedia Commons

EDSITEment brings online humanities resources directly to the classroom through exemplary lesson plans and student activities. EDSITEment develops AP level lessons based on primary source documents that cover the most frequently taught topics and themes in American history. Many of these lessons were developed by teachers and scholars associated with the City University of New York and Ashland University.

Guiding Questions

What does it mean to form "a more perfect union"?

What makes American democracy unique?

What is the proper role of government in relation to the economy and civil liberties?

To what extent is the U.S. Constitution a living document?

To what extent have civil rights been established for all in the United States?

How have technology and innovation influenced culture, politics, and economics in U.S. history?

What role should the United States government and its citizens play in the world?

Magna Carta: Cornerstone of the U.S. Constitution —Magna Carta served to lay the foundation for the evolution of parliamentary government and subsequent declarations of rights in Great Britain and the United States. In attempting to establish checks on the king's powers, this document asserted the right of "due process" of law.  

Images of the New World —How did the English picture the native peoples of America during the early phases of colonization of North America? This lesson plan enables students to interact with written and visual accounts of this critical formative period at the end of the 16th century, when the English view of the New World was being formulated, with consequences that we are still seeing today.

Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the Spanish Mission in the New World —In this Picturing America lesson, students explore the historical origins and organization of Spanish missions in the New World and discover the varied purposes these communities of faith served. Focusing on the daily life of Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, the lesson asks students to relate the people of this community and their daily activities to the art and architecture of the mission.

Colonizing the Bay —This lesson focuses on John Winthrop’s historic "Model of Christian Charity" sermon which is often referred to by its "City on a Hill" metaphor. Through a close reading of this admittedly difficult text, students will learn how it illuminates the beliefs, goals, and programs of the Puritans. The sermon sought to inspire and to motivate the Puritans by pointing out the distance they had to travel between an ideal community and their real-world situation.

Mapping Colonial New England: Looking at the Landscape of New England —The lesson focuses on two 17th century maps of the Massachusetts Bay Colony to trace how the Puritans took possession of the region, built towns, and established families on the land. Students learn how these New England settlers interacted with the Native Americans, and how to gain information about those relationships from primary sources such as maps.

William Penn’s Peaceable Kingdom —By juxtaposing the different promotional tracts of William Penn and David Pastorius, students understand the ethnic diversity of Pennsylvania along with the "pull” factors of migration in the 17th century English colonies.

Understanding the Salem Witch Trials —In 1691, a group of girls from Salem, Massachusetts accused an Indian slave named Tituba of witchcraft, igniting a hunt for witches that left 19 men and women hanged, one man pressed to death, and over 150 more people in prison awaiting a trial. In this lesson, students explore the characteristics of the Puritan community in Salem, learn about the Salem Witchcraft Trials, and try to understand how and why this event occurred.

Religion in 18th-Century America —This curriculum unit, through the use of primary documents, introduces students to the First Great Awakening, as well as to the ways in which religious-based arguments were used both in support of and against the American Revolution.

• Lesson 1: The First Great Awakening
• Lesson 2: Religion and the Argument for American Independence
• Lesson 3: Religion and the Fight for American Independence

C ommon Sense : The Rhetoric of Popular Democracy —This lesson looks at Tom Paine and at some of the ideas presented in Common Sense , such as national unity, natural rights, the illegitimacy of the monarchy and of hereditary aristocracy, and the necessity for independence and the revolutionary struggle.

"An Expression of the American Mind”: Understanding the Declaration of Independence —This lesson plan looks at the major ideas in the Declaration of Independence, their origins, the Americans’ key grievances against the King and Parliament, their assertion of sovereignty, and the Declaration’s process of revision. Upon completion of the lesson, students will be familiar with the document’s origins, and the influences that produced Jefferson’s "expression of the American mind.”

The American War for Independence —The decision of Britain's North American colonies to rebel against the Mother Country was an extremely risky one. In this unit, consisting of three lesson plans, students learn about the diplomatic and military aspects of the American War for Independence.

• Lesson 1: The War in the North, 1775–1778
• Lesson 2: The War in the South, 1778–1781
• Lesson 3: Ending the War, 1783

Choosing Sides: The Native Americans' Role in the American Revolution —Native American groups had to choose the loyalist or patriot cause—or somehow maintain a neutral stance during the Revolutionary War. Students analyze maps, treaties, congressional records, first-hand accounts, and correspondence to determine the different roles assumed by Native Americans in the American Revolution and understand why the various groups formed the alliances they did.

What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader? —What combination of experience, strategy, and personal characteristics enabled Washington to succeed as a military leader? In this unit, students read the Continental Congress's resolutions granting powers to General Washington, and analyze some of Washington's wartime orders, dispatches, and correspondence in terms of his mission and the characteristics of a good general.

• Lesson 1: What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader? What Are the Qualities of a Good Military Leader?
• Lesson 2: What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader? Powers and Problems
• Lesson 3: What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader? Leadership in Victory and Defeat
• Lesson 4: What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader? Leadership in Victory: One Last Measure of the Man

Slavery and the American Founding: The "Inconsistency not to be excused ” —This lesson focuses on the views of the founders as expressed in primary documents from their own time and in their own words. Students see that many of the major founders opposed slavery as contrary to the principles of the American Revolution. Students gain a better understanding of the views of many founders, even those who owned slaves – including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson – who looked forward to a time when slavery would no longer mar the American Republic.

Taking Up Arms and the Challenge of Slavery in the Revolutionary Era —Was the American Revolution inevitable? This lesson is designed to help students understand the transition to armed resistance and the contradiction in the Americans’ rhetoric about slavery through the examination of a series of documents.

Slavery in the Colonial North —This Closer Reading composed by Historic Hudson Valley in New York provides resources and an overview of how their historic site tells the story of the 23 enslaved Africans who were the only full-time, year round residents of the Manor, and whose forced labor was the backbone of the Philips’s international trading empire. Their "People Not Property" interactive documentary website offers multimedia resources and access to primary sources about Northern slavery. 

Democracy in America : Alexis de Tocqueville's Introduction —Tocqueville’s sojourn in America led to the writing of the reflection on equality and freedom known as Democracy in America . This great book remains arguably one of the two most important books on America political life, the Federalist Papers being the other one.

The Constitutional Convention of 1787 —The delegates at the 1787 Convention faced a challenge as arduous as those who worked throughout the 1780s to initiate reforms to the American political system. In this unit, students examine the roles that key American founders played in creating the Constitution, and the challenges they faced in the process.

• Lesson 1: The Road to the Constitutional Convention
• Lesson 2: The Question of Representation at the 1787 Convention
• Lesson 3: Creating the Office of the Presidency

The Federalist and Anti-federalist Debates on Diversity and the Extended Republic —In this unit, students will examine some of the most important arguments of those opposing or supporting the Constitution. They will learn why Anti-federalists believed that a large nation could not long preserve liberty and self-government and why Federalists such as James Madison believed that a large nation was vital to promote justice and the security of rights for all citizens, majority and minority alike.

• Lesson 1: Anti-federalist Arguments Against "A Complete Consolidation ”
• Lesson 2: The Federalist Defense of Diversity and "Extending the Sphere ”

Ratifying the Constitution —This lesson introduces students to the vigorous debates surrounding the ratification of the Constitution that took place in the state conventions.

The Creation of the Bill of Rights: "Retouching the Canvas " —This lesson will focus on the arguments either for or against the addition of a Bill of Rights between 1787 and 1789.

Washington and the Whiskey Rebellion —Students weigh the choices Washington faced in the nation’s first Constitutional crisis by following events through his private diary.

John Marshall, Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review—How the Court Became Supreme —If James Madison was the "father" of the Constitution" John Marshall was the "father of the Supreme Court"—almost single-handedly clarifying its powers. This new lesson is designed to help students understand Marshall's brilliant strategy in issuing his decision on Marbury v. Madison , the significance of the concept of judicial review, and the language of this watershed case.

The First American Party System: Events, Issues, and Positions —Fear of factionalism and political parties was deeply rooted in Anglo-American political culture before the American Revolution. Leaders such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson hoped their new government, founded on the Constitution, would be motivated instead by a common intent, a unity. But political parties did form in the United States, with their beginnings in Washington's cabinet.

• Lesson 1: The First American Party System: U.S. Political Parties: The Principle of Legitimate Opposition
• Lesson 2: The First American Party System: A Documentary Timeline of Important Events (1787–1800)
• Lesson 3: The First American Party System: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans: The Platforms They Never Had

Certain Crimes Against the United States: The Sedition Act —As the end of the 18th century drew near, relations between the United States and France were deteriorating. In 1797 President Adams expressed his concern about the possibility of war with France and dissension at home caused by France and its supporters. At the same time, two opposing political parties were developing in the U.S., with Thomas Jefferson-led Democratic-Republicans tending to sympathize with France in foreign policy. Their loyalty was called into question by the Federalists. It was a dangerous time both for the security of the young Republic and the freedoms its citizens enjoyed.

• Lesson 1: From the President's Lips: The Concerns that Led to the Sedition (and Alien) Act
• Lesson 2: The Debate in Congress on the Sedition Act
• Lesson 3: George Washington on the Sedition Act
• Lesson 4: Thomas Jefferson on the Sedition Act
• Lesson 5: Consequences of the Sedition Act

James Madison: From Father of the Constitution to President —Even in its first 30 years of existence, the U.S. Constitution had to prove its durability and flexibility in a variety of disputes. More often than not, James Madison, the "Father of the Constitution," took part in the discussion.

• Lesson 1: James Madison: Madison Was There
• Lesson 2: James Madison: The Second National Bank—Powers Not Specified in the Constitution
• Lesson 3: James Madison: Raising an Army: Balancing the Power of the States and the Federal Government
• Lesson 4: James Madison: Internal Improvements Balancing Act: Federal/State, Executive/Legislative

The Monroe Doctrine: Origin and Early American Foreign Policy —Monroe brought a vision of an expanded America to his presidency—a vision that helped facilitate the formulation of what has become known as the Monroe Doctrine. In this unit, students review the Monroe Doctrine against a background of United States foreign relations in the early years of the republic.

• Lesson 1: The Monroe Doctrine: U.S. Foreign Affairs (circa 1782–1823) and James Monroe
• Lesson 2: The Monroe Doctrine: President Monroe and the Independence Movement in South America
• Lesson 3: The Monroe Doctrine: A Close Reading
• Lesson 4: The Monroe Doctrine: Whose Doctrine Was It?

The Election Is in the House: The Presidential Election of 1824 —The presidential election of 1824 represents a watershed in American politics. The collapse of the Federalist Party and the illness of the "official candidate" of the Democratic-Republicans led to a slate of candidates who were all Democratic-Republicans. This led to the end of the Congressional Caucus system for nominating candidates, and eventually, the development of a new two-party system in the United States. In this unit, students read an account of the election from the Journal of the House of Representatives, analyze archival campaign materials, and use an interactive online activity to develop a better understanding of the election of 1824 and its significance.

• Lesson 1: The Election Is in the House: The Denouement
• Lesson 2: The Election Is in the House: 1824: The Candidates and the Issues
• Lesson 3: The Election Is in the House: Was There a Corrupt Bargain?

The 1828 Campaign of Andrew Jackson and the Growth of Party Politics —Changes in voting qualifications and participation, the election of Andrew Jackson, and the formation of the Democratic Party—due largely to the organizational skills of Martin Van Buren—all contributed to making the election of 1828 and Jackson’s presidency a watershed in the evolution of the American political system. In this unit, students analyze changes in voter participation and regional power, and review archival campaign documents reflecting the dawn of politics as we know it during the critical years from 1824 to 1832.

• Lesson 1: The 1828 Campaign of Andrew Jackson: Expansion of the Voting Base
• Lesson 2: The 1828 Campaign of Andrew Jackson: Changes in Voting Participation
• Lesson 3: The 1828 Campaign of Andrew Jackson: Territorial Expansion and the Shift of Power
• Lesson 4: The 1828 Campaign of Andrew Jackson: Issues in the Election of 1828 (and Beyond)

The Campaign of 1840: William Henry Harrison and Tyler, Too —After the debacle of the one-party presidential campaign of 1824, a new two-party system began to emerge. Strong public reaction to perceived corruption in the vote in the House of Representatives, as well as the popularity of Andrew Jackson, allowed Martin Van Buren to organize a Democratic Party that resurrected a Jeffersonian philosophy of minimalism in the federal government. What issues were important to the presidential campaign of 1840? Why is the campaign of 1840 often cited as the first modern campaign?

• Lesson 1: The Campaign of 1840: The Whigs, the Democrats, and the Issues
• Lesson 2: The Campaign of 1840: The Candidates
• Lesson 3: The Campaign of 1840: The Campaign

Was There an Industrial Revolution? Americans at Work Before the Civil War —In this lesson, students explore the First Industrial Revolution in early nineteenth-century America. By reading and comparing first-hand accounts of the lives of workers before the Civil War, students prepare for a series of guided role-playing activities designed to help them make an informed judgment as to whether the changes that took place in manufacturing and distribution during this period are best described as a 'revolution' or as a steady evolution over time.

Was There an Industrial Revolution? New Workplace, New Technology, New Consumers —In this lesson, students explore the First Industrial Revolution in early nineteenth-century America. Through simulation activities and the examination of primary historical materials, students learn how changes in the workplace and less expensive goods led to the transformation of American life.

Life in the North and South 1847–1861: Before Brother Fought Brother —Curriculum Unit overview. More Americans lost their lives in the Civil War than in any other conflict. How did the United States arrive at a point at which the South seceded and some families were so fractured that brother fought brother?

• Lesson 1: Factory vs. Plantation in the North and South
• Lesson 2: People and Places in the North and South
• Lesson 3: A Debate Against Slavery
• Lesson 4: Life Before the Civil War
• Lesson 5: Women's Lives Before the Civil War

A House Dividing: The Growing Crisis of Sectionalism in Antebellum America —In this unit, students will trace the development of sectionalism in the United States as it was driven by the growing dependence upon, and defense of, black slavery in the southern states.

• Lesson 1: An Early Threat of Secession: The Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Nullification Crisis
• Lesson 2: Slavery's Opponents and Defenders
• Lesson 3: The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: Popular Sovereignty and the Political Polarization over Slavery
• Lesson 4: Abraham Lincoln, the 1860 Election, and the Future of the American Union and Slavery

From Courage to Freedom —In 1845 Frederick Douglass published what was to be the first of his three autobiographies: the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself .

• Lesson 1: From Courage to Freedom: The Reality behind the Song
• Lesson 2: From Courage to Freedom: Slavery's Dehumanizing Effects
• Lesson 3: From Courage to Freedom

What to the Slave is the Fourth of July? —A student activity. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) was a former slave who became the greatest abolitionist orator of the antebellum period. During the Civil War he worked tirelessly for the emancipation of the four million enslaved African Americans.

The American Civil War: A "Terrible Swift Sword ” —This curriculum unit introduces students to important questions pertaining to the war: strengths and weaknesses of each side at the start of the conflict; the two turning points of the war-the concurrent battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg—as well as the morality of the Union's use of "total war" tactics against the population of the South; Abraham Lincoln's wartime leadership.

• Lesson 1: On the Eve of War: North vs. South
• Lesson 2: The Battles of the Civil War
• Lesson 3: Abraham Lincoln and Wartime Politics

Abraham Lincoln on the American Union: "A Word Fitly Spoken ” —By examining Lincoln's three most famous speeches—the Gettysburg Address and the First and Second Inaugural Addresses—in addition to a little known fragment on the Constitution, union, and liberty, students trace what these documents say regarding the significance of union to the prospects for American self-government.

• Lesson 1: Fragment on the Constitution and Union (1861)—The Purpose of the American Union
• Lesson 2: The First Inaugural Address (1861)—Defending the American Union
• Lesson 3: The Gettysburg Address (1863)—Defining the American Union
• Lesson 4: The Second Inaugural Address (1865)—Restoring the American Union

The Emancipation Proclamation: Freedom's First Steps —Why was the Emancipation Proclamation important? While the Civil War began as a war to restore the Union, not to end slavery, by 1862 President Abraham Lincoln came to believe that he could save the Union only by broadening the goals of the war. students can explore the obstacles and alternatives we faced in making the journey toward "a more perfect Union."

The Red Badge of Courage : A New Kind of Courage —In The Red Badge of Courage , Stephen Crane presents war through the eyes —and thoughts —of one soldier. The narrative’s altered point of view and stylistic innovations enable a heightened sense of realism while setting the work apart from war stories written essentially as tributes or propaganda.

The Battle Over Reconstruction —This curriculum unit of three lessons examines the social, political and economic conditions of the southern states in the aftermath of the Civil War and shows how these factors helped to shape the Reconstruction debate as well as the subsequent history of American race relations.

• Lesson 1: The Battle Over Reconstruction: The Aftermath of War
• Lesson 2: The Battle Over Reconstruction: The Politics of Reconstruction
• Lesson 3: The Battle Over Reconstruction: The Aftermath of Reconstruction

The Industrial Age in America: Robber Barons or Captains of Industry?

The Industrial Age in America: Sweatshops, Steel Mills and Factories

The Birth of an American Empire —America emerges as a world power after the Spanish American War and asserting itself on the world scene.

• Lesson 1: The Question of an American Empire
• Lesson 2: The Spanish-American War
• Lesson 3: The Matter of the Philippines
• Lesson 4: Imperialism and the Open Door

United States Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology —In this curriculum unit, students reconsider the events leading to U.S. entry into World War I through the lens of archival documents.

• Lesson 1: United States Entry into World War I: Two Diametrically Opposed Views
• Lesson 2: United States Entry into World War I: Some Hypotheses About U.S. Entry
• Lesson 3: United States Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology of World War I

The United States and Europe: From Neutrality to War, 1921–1941 —Over the two decades between World War I and World War II, Americans pursued strategies aimed at preventing another war. In this four lesson unit, students use primary sources and an interactive map to examine the rise of antiwar sentiment and legislation in the United States and the main arguments used by both sides as to whether the United States should enter the war or remain neutral.

• Lesson 1: Postwar Disillusionment and the Quest for Peace, 1921–1929
• Lesson 2: Legislating Neutrality, 1934–1939
• Lesson 3: U.S. Neutrality and the War in Europe, 1939–1940
• Lesson 4: The Great Debate: Internationalists vs. Isolationists

African-American Soldiers in World War I: The 92nd and 93rd Divisions —Late in 1917, the War Department created two all-black infantry divisions. The 93rd Infantry Division received unanimous praise for its performance in combat, fighting as part of France’s 4th Army. In this lesson, students combine their research in a variety of sources, including firsthand accounts, to develop a hypothesis evaluating.

African-American Soldiers After World War I: Had Race Relations Changed? —In this lesson, students view archival photographs, combine their efforts to comb through a database of more than 2,000 archival newspaper accounts about race relations in the United States, and read newspaper articles written from different points of view about post-war riots in Chicago.

The Great War: Evaluating the Treaty of Versailles —Was the Treaty of Versailles, which formally concluded World War I, a legitimate attempt by the victorious powers to prevent further conflict, or did it place an unfair burden on Germany? This lesson helps students respond to the question in an informed manner. Activities involve primary sources, maps, and other supporting documents related to the peace process and its reception by the German public and German politicians.

The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations —American foreign policy continues to resonate with the issues surrounding the debate over U.S. entry into the League of Nations—collective security versus national sovereignty, idealism versus pragmatism, the responsibilities of powerful nations, and the use of force to accomplish idealistic goals, the idea of America. Understanding the debate over the League and the consequences of its ultimate failure provides insight into international affairs in the years since the end of the Great War and beyond. In this lesson, students read the words and listen to the voices of some central participants in the debate over the League of Nations.

• Lesson 1: The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations: League of Nations Basics
• Lesson 2: The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations: Disagreement Over the League
• Lesson 3: The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations: Five Camps: From Voices of Consent to Voices of Dissent

Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Policy —Curriculum Unit. The influence of President Woodrow Wilson on American foreign policy has been profound and lasting. Using a variety of primary sources, students analyze the origins of the ambitious foreign policy that came to be known as Wilsonianism and compare it with important alternative traditions in American foreign policy.

The Origins of "Wilsonianism ”

"To Elect Good Men”: Woodrow Wilson and Latin America

Wilson and American Entry into World War I

Fighting for Peace: The Fate of Wilson's Fourteen Points

Birth of a Nation, the NAACP, and the Balancing of Rights —In this lesson students learn how Birth of a Nation reflected and influenced racial attitudes, and they analyze and evaluate the efforts of the NAACP to prohibit showing of the film.  

NAACP's Anti-Lynching Campaigns: The Quest for Social Justice in the Interwar Years —Curriculum Unit Overview: During the years 1909 to 1939, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People sought passage of anti-lynching legislation. Although this proposed legislation failed to become law, much can be learned by examining the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign about how Americans in the interwar period understood the federal system, interpreted the Constitution, and responded to calls for social justice.

• Lesson 1: NAACP’s Anti-Lynching Campaign in the 1920s

FDR's Fireside Chats: The Power of Words —In this lesson which focuses on two of FDR's Fireside Chats, students gain a sense of the dramatic effect of FDR's voice on his audience, see the scope of what he was proposing in these initial speeches, and make an overall analysis of why the Fireside Chats were so successful.

The Social Security Act —This lesson engages students in the debate over the Social Security Act that engrossed the nation during the 1930s.

African-Americans and the New Deal’s Civilian Conservation Corps —The Civilian Conservation Corps, a New Deal recovery and relief program provided more than a quarter of a million young black men with jobs during the Depression. By examining primary source documents students analyze the impact of this program on race relations in America and assess the role played by the New Deal in changing them.

FDR and the Lend-Lease Act —This lesson shows students how broadly the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941 empowered the federal government—particularly the President—and asks students to investigate how FDR promoted the program in speeches and then in photographs.

Eleanor Roosevelt and the Rise of Social Reform in the 1930s —This lesson asks students to explore the various roles that Eleanor Roosevelt a key figure in several of the most important social reform movements of the twentieth century took on, among them: First Lady, political activist for civil rights, newspaper columnist and author, and representative to the United Nations.

Worth a Thousand Words: Depression-Era Photographs —Spend a day with a model American family and the photographer who molded our view of their lives.

Freedom by the Fireside: The Legacy of FDR's "Four Freedoms" Speech —One of the most famous political speeches on freedom in the twentieth century was delivered by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in his 1941 State of the Union message to Congress.This lesson examines some of the nuances and ambiguities inherent in the rhetorical use of "freedom." The objective is to encourage students to glimpse the broad range of hopes and aspirations that are expressed in the call of—and for—freedom.

Dust Bowl Days —Students will be introduced to this dramatic era in our nation's history through photographs, songs and interviews with people who lived through the Dust Bowl.

NAACP Lesson 2: NAACP's Anti-Lynching Campaign in the 1930s

From Neutrality to War: The United States and Europe, 1921–1941 —Curiculum unit overview. Over the two decades between World War I and World War II, Americans pursued strategies aimed at preventing another war. In this four lesson unit, students use primary sources and an interactive map to examine the rise of antiwar sentiment and legislation in the United States and the main arguments used by both sides as to whether the United States should enter the war or remain neutral.

The Road to Pearl Harbor: The United States and East Asia, 1915-1941 —Curiculum unit overview. Although most Americans were shocked by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the outbreak of war between the two countries came as no surprise to most observers of international affairs. Using contemporary documents, students explore the rise of animosity between the United States and Japan from its origins in World War I and culminating two decades later in the Pearl Harbor attack.

• Lesson 1: The Growth of U.S.-Japanese Hostility, 1915–1932
• Lesson 2: America and the Sino-Japanese Conflict, 1933–1939
• Lesson 3: Japan's "Southern Advance” and the March toward War, 1940–1941
• Lesson 4: The Failure of Diplomacy, September-December 1941

"The Proper Application of Overwhelming Force”: The United States in World War II —After learning that the Japanese had attacked Pearl Harbor, thus ensuring that the United States would enter World War II, Prime Minister Winston Churchill breathed a sigh of relief. "Hitler's fate was sealed," he would later recall. "Mussolini's fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they would be ground to powder. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force." In this unit, students examine the role that the United States played in bringing about this victory.

• Lesson 1: Turning the Tide in the Pacific, 1941–1943
• Lesson 2: Turning the Tide in Europe, 1942–1944
• Lesson 3: Victory in Europe, 1944–1945
• Lesson 4: Victory in the Pacific, 1943–1945

American Diplomacy in World War II —This four-lesson curriculum unit examine the nature of what Winston Churchill called the "Grand Alliance" between the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union in opposition to the aggression of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

• Lesson 1: How "Grand” and "Allied” was the Grand Alliance?
• Lesson 2: How to Win a World War
• Lesson 3: Victory and the New Order in Europe
• Lesson 4: The New Order for "Greater East Asia”

On the Home Front —Learning about World War II American efforts helps students gain some perspective regarding the U.S. response to the conflict generated by the September 11th terrorist attacks.

Norman Rockwell, Freedom of Speech —Know It When You See It —This lesson plan highlights the importance of First Amendment rights by examining Norman Rockwell’s painting of The Four Freedoms. Students discover the First Amendment in action as they explore their own community and country through newspapers, art, and role playing.

The Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1949 —Since the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, Soviet leaders had been claiming that communism and capitalism could never peacefully coexist. Agreements regarding the postwar world were reached at Yalta and Potsdam, but the Soviets wasted no time in violating them. Harry Truman believed that the proper means of responding to an international bully was a credible threat of force.

• Lesson 1: Sources of Discord, 1945–1946
• Lesson 2: The Strategy of Containment, 1947–1948
• Lesson 3: The Formation of the Western Alliance, 1948–1949

Witch Hunt or Red Menace? Anticommunism in Postwar America, 1945–1954 —Americans emerged from World War II as the only major combatant to avoid having its homeland ravaged by war, the U.S. economy was clearly the strongest in the world, and, of course, the United States was the only country in the world to possess that awesome new weapon, the atomic bomb. However, over the next five years relations between the United States and the Soviet Union went from alliance to Cold War.

• Lesson 1: Soviet Espionage in America
• Lesson 2: The House Un-American Activities Committee
• Lesson 3: The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

Dramatizing History in Arthur Miller's The Crucible —By closely reading historical documents and attempting to interpret them, students consider how Arthur Miller interpreted the facts of the Salem witch trials and how he successfully dramatized them in his play, The Crucible. As they explore historical materials, such as the biographies of key players (the accused and the accusers) and transcripts of the Salem Witch trials themselves, students will be guided by aesthetic and dramatic concerns: In what ways do historical events lend themselves (or not) to dramatization? What makes a particular dramatization of history effective and memorable?

"Police Action”: The Korean War, 1950–1953 —In 1950, North Korean forces, armed mainly with Soviet weapons, invaded South Korea in an effort to reunite the peninsula under communist rule. This lesson will introduce students to the conflict by having them read the most important administration documents related to it.

"The Missiles of October”: The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 —Most historians agree that the world has never come closer to nuclear war than it did during a thirteen-day period in October 1962, after the revelation that the Soviet Union had stationed several medium-range ballistic missiles in Cuba. This lesson examines how this crisis developed, how the Kennedy administration chose to respond, and how the situation was ultimately resolved.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and Escalation of the Vietnam War —In August 1964, a small military engagement off the coast of North Vietnam helped escalate the involvement of the United States in Vietnam; the Vietnam War would become the longest military engagement in American history.

Building Suburbia: Highways and Housing in Postwar America —The postwar United States experienced a dramatic economic boom—and a dramatic reorientation of American ideals of the home.

Competing Voices of the Civil Rights Movement —When most people think of the Civil Rights Movement in America, they think of Martin Luther King, Jr. Delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963. But "the Movement" achieved its greatest results due to the competing strategies and agendas of diverse individuals. This unit presents the views of several important black leaders who shaped the debate over how to achieve freedom and equality in our nation.

• Lesson 1: Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nonviolent Resistance
• Lesson 2: Black Separatism or the Beloved Community? Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Profiles in Courage: To Kill A Mockingbird and the Scottsboro Boys Trial —Students study select court transcripts and other primary source material from the second Scottsboro Boys Trial of 1933, a continuation of the first trial in which two young white women wrongfully accused nine African-American youths of rape.

JFK, LBJ, and the Fight for Equal Opportunity in the 1960s —This lesson provides students with an opportunity to study and analyze the innovative legislative efforts of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson in the social and economic context of the 1960s.

The Kennedy Administration and the Civil Rights Movement —Students learn how civil rights activists, state and local officials in the South, and the Administration of President Kennedy come into conflict during the early 1960s.

Freedom Riders and the Popular Music of the Civil Rights Era —The American civil rights movement incorporated a variety of cultural elements in their pursuit of political and legal equality under law. This lesson will highlight the role of music as a major influence through the use of audio recordings, photographs, and primary documents.

Twelve Angry Men: Trial by Jury as a Right and as a Political Institution — Twelve Angry Men , originally written for television by Reginald Rose in 1954 and subsequently adapted for stage (1955), film (1957) and television again (1997), effectively conveys the central importance of the right to a jury trial afforded by Article III of the Constitution as well as Amendments V, VI, and XIV.

Building Suburbia: Highways and Housing in Postwar America

The Election of Barack Obama 44th President of the United States —In this lesson, students put Barack Obama’s election as the first African-American President of the United States in historical context by studying two of his speeches and reviewing some of the history of African-American voting rights.

How to Write a History Research Paper

• How do I pick a topic?
• But I can’t find any material…

Research Guide

Writing guide.

See also: How to Write a Good History Essay

1. How do I pick a topic?

Picking a topic is perhaps the most important step in writing a research paper. To do it well requires several steps of refinement. First you have to determine a general area in which you have an interest (if you aren’t interested, your readers won’t be either). You do not write a paper “about the Civil War,” however, for that is such a large and vague concept that the paper will be too shallow or you will be swamped with information. The next step is to narrow your topic. Are you interested in comparison? battles? social change? politics? causes? biography? Once you reach this stage try to formulate your research topic as a question. For example, suppose that you decide to write a paper on the use of the films of the 1930’s and what they can tell historians about the Great Depression. You might turn that into the following question: “What are the primary values expressed in films of the 1930’s?” Or you might ask a quite different question, “What is the standard of living portrayed in films of the 1930’s?” There are other questions, of course, which you could have asked, but these two clearly illustrate how different two papers on the same general subject might be. By asking yourself a question as a means of starting research on a topic you will help yourself find the answers. You also open the door to loading the evidence one way or another. It will help you decide what kinds of evidence might be pertinent to your question, and it can also twist perceptions of a topic. For example, if you ask a question about economics as motivation, you are not likely to learn much about ideals, and vice versa.

2. But I can’t find any material…

No one should pick a topic without trying to figure out how one could discover pertinent information, nor should anyone settle on a topic before getting some background information about the general area. These two checks should make sure your paper is in the realm of the possible. The trick of good research is detective work and imaginative thinking on how one can find information. First try to figure out what kinds of things you should know about a topic to answer your research question. Are there statistics? Do you need personal letters? What background information should be included? Then if you do not know how to find that particular kind of information, ASK . A reference librarian or professor is much more likely to be able to steer you to the right sources if you can ask a specific question such as “Where can I find statistics on the number of interracial marriages?” than if you say “What can you find on racial attitudes?”

Use the footnotes and bibliographies of general background books as well as reference aids to lead you to special studies. If Carleton does not have the books or sources you need, try ordering through the library minitex. Many sources are also available on-line.

As your research paper takes shape you will find that you need background on people, places, events, etc. Do not just rely on some general survey for all of your background. Check the several good dictionaries of biography for background on people, or see if there is a standard book-length biography. If you are dealing with a legal matter check into the background of the judges who make the court decision and the circumstances surrounding the original incident or law. Try looking for public opinions in newspapers of the time. In other words, each bit of information you find should open the possibility of other research paths.

Learn to use several research techniques. You cannot count on a good research paper coming from browsing on one shelf at the library. A really pertinent book may be hidden in another section of the library due to classification quirks. The Readers’ Guide (Ref. A13 .R4) is not the only source for magazine articles, nor the card catalog for books. There are whole books which are listings of other books on particular topics. There are specialized indexes of magazine articles. Modern History Journals are indexed in the Social Studies and Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .R282) before 1976 After 1976 use the Social Sciences Index (REF A13 .S62) and the Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .H85). See also Historical Abstracts (Ref. D1 .H5). Reference Librarians would love to help you learn to use these research tools. It pays to browse in the reference room at the library and poke into the guides which are on the shelves. It also pays to browse the Internet.

3. Help! How do I put this together?

A. preliminary research:.

If you do not already have a general background on your topic, get the most recent good general source on the topic and read it for general orientation. On the basis of that reading formulate as clearly focused question as you can. You should generally discuss with your professor at that point whether your question is a feasible one.

B. Building a Basic Bibliography:

Use the bibliography/notes in your first general source, MUSE, and especially Historical Abstracts on cd-rom in the Library Reading Room (the computer farthest to the left in the front row as you walk past the Reference Desk — or ask there). If there is a specialized bibliography on your topic, you will certainly want to consult that as well, but these are often a bit dated.

C. Building a Full Bibliography:

Read the recent articles or chapters that seem to focus on your topic best. This will allow you to focus your research question quite a bit. Use the sources cited and/or discussed in this reading to build a full bibliography. Use such tools as Historical Abstracts (or, depending on your topic, the abstracts from a different field) and a large, convenient computer-based national library catalog (e.g. the University of California system from the “Libs” command in your VAX account or the smaller University of Minnesota library through MUSE) to check out your sources fully. For specific article searches “Uncover” (press returns for the “open access”) or possibly (less likely for history) “First Search” through “Connect to Other Resources” in MUSE can also be useful.

D. Major Research:

Now do the bulk of your research. But do not overdo it. Do not fall into the trap of reading and reading to avoid getting started on the writing. After you have the bulk of information you might need, start writing. You can fill in the smaller gaps of your research more effectively later.

A. Outline:

Write a preliminary thesis statement, expressing what you believe your major argument(s) will be. Sketch out a broad outline that indicates the structure — main points and subpoints or your argument as it seems at this time. Do not get too detailed at this point.

B. The First Draft:

On the basis of this thesis statement and outline, start writing, even pieces, as soon as you have enough information to start. Do not wait until you have filled all the research gaps. Keep on writing. If you run into smaller research questions just mark the text with a searchable symbol. It is important that you try to get to the end point of this writing as soon as possible, even if you leave pieces still in outline form at first and then fill the gaps after you get to the end.

Critical advice for larger papers: It is often more effective not to start at the point where the beginning of your paper will be. Especially the introductory paragraph is often best left until later, when you feel ready and inspired.

C. The Second Draft:

The “second draft” is a fully re-thought and rewritten version of your paper. It is at the heart of the writing process.

First, lay your first draft aside for a day or so to gain distance from it. After that break, read it over with a critical eye as you would somebody else’s paper (well, almost!). You will probably find that your first draft is still quite descriptive, rather than argumentative. It is likely to wander; your perspective and usually even the thesis seemed to change/develop as you wrote. Don’t despair. That is perfectly normal even for experienced writers (even after 40 years and a good deal of published work!). You will be frustrated. But keep questioning your paper along the following lines: What precisely are my key questions? What parts of my evidence here are really pertinent to those questions (that is, does it help me answer them)? How or in what order can I structure my paper most effectively to answer those questions most clearly and efficiently for my reader?

At this point you must outline your paper freshly. Mark up your first draft, ask tough questions whether your argument is clear and whether the order in which you present your points is effective! You must write conceptually a new paper at this point, even if you can use paragraphs and especially quotes, factual data in the new draft.

It is critical that in your new draft your paragraphs start with topic sentences that identify the argument you will be making in the particular paragraph (sometimes this can be strings of two or three paragraphs). The individual steps in your argument must be clearly reflected in the topic sentences of your paragraphs (or a couple of them linked).

D. The Third or Final Draft:

You are now ready to check for basic rules of good writing. This is when you need to check the diction, that is, the accuracy and suitability of words. Eliminate unnecessary passive or awkward noun constructions (active-voice, verbal constructions are usually more effective); improve the flow of your transitions; avoid repetitions or split infinitives; correct apostrophes in possessives and such. Make the style clear and smooth. Check that the start of your paper is interesting for the reader. Last but not least, cut out unnecessary verbiage and wordiness. Spell-check and proof-read.

– Diethelm Prowe, 1998

History in Public: Race, Gender, and Campus Memory

Professor monica l. mercado | bryn mawr college department of history (spring 2016).

Assignments

During the semester, students will be responsible for four formal writing assignments connecting public history theory and method to their interests in campus histories. All written assignments are due by noon (12pm) Fridays unless otherwise noted, as follows:

• Archives reflection paper | Due Friday, February 12
• Documenting Bryn Mawr history survey | Due Friday, March 18
• Public History proposal topic and bibliography | Due Friday, April 8
• Final Project: A Public History Proposal for Bryn Mawr College | Due Friday, May 13 by 12:30pm (senior deadline: 5:00pm, Saturday, May 7)

Assignments 3 & 4:  A Public History Proposal for Bryn Mawr College

• 1 page abstract + bibliography due Friday, April 8 (10%)
• 10-12 page proposal paper** due Saturday, May 9 by 5 pm (seniors) / Friday, May 13 by 12:30pm (25%) 

Your public history blank slate?

What would be an effective public history project on Bryn Mawr’s campus (literal or virtual)? Drawing on our shared course readings and original research into Bryn Mawr College histories, you will use this final paper to propose a meaningful project of your choosing. You will be evaluated on your ability to make connections and note contrasts among course readings and use these findings to identify problems in the area of campus histories, generate analytical questions, and develop an original proposal that uses public history to convey the historical significance of your questions.

The final project will incorporate three major pieces: imagination (that is, what is your idea? what campus history topic deserves further research?), illustration (example(s) of potential research), and conversation with the fields of public history and/or archives.

** papers may take many forms; each student will meet with me individually in late April to discuss the format that best suits their final project topic.

Assignment 2: Bryn Mawr College History Survey, due March 18 (list+ 2-3 pages)

Campus Center, photo by Shaina Robinson.

Public historians are often tasked with collecting data to assess the significance of historic areas or further understanding of how local histories are commemorated. In what ways is Bryn Mawr’s history manifested in physical forms (plaques, statues, names etc.) on campus and how aware are students of these landmarks? These historic signals tell stories and point out facts.

For your second formal writing assignment, your task is collect a list** of visible traces of Bryn Mawr College History on campus. Paired with your list (of at least 5-10 items), you will submit a short essay reflecting on one of the items on your list and the history it relates. The best papers will draw selectively from Bryn Mawr research resources and digital collections , and our shared readings on public history, monuments, and memorials to illustrate your own argument and experience of surveying the visible histories embedded on Bryn Mawr’s campus.

** Your list should name each “trace” you discover, as well as the following details to the extent you can determine (or questions you want to ask): location, type, date, creator, historic use, current use, notes and/or photos (optional).

Assignment 1: Archives Reflection Paper, due February 12 (2-3 pages) In her 2004 article, “ Documenting Communities of Practice ,” Karen F. Gracy argues:

creators of documents, users of documents, and archivists form a community of practice – the archival environment – for which social interaction creates meaning and defines values .

This community of practice often intersects with the work of public history.

For your first formal writing assignment, your task is to reflect on a site visit(s) to the Bryn Mawr College Archives, the Library Company of Philadelphia, and/or the John J. Wilcox, Jr. Archives at the William Way Community Center. In addition to thinking critically about the materials you encounter in the archive, you will aim to cultivate a critical awareness of the archival environments we encounter. The best papers will draw selectively from our shared readings to illustrate your own argument and experience of the archive(s).

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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