how to find primary research articles

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Peer Review and Primary Literature: An Introduction: Is it Primary Research? How Do I Know?

• Scholarly Journal vs. Magazine
• Peer Review: What is it?
• Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles
• Primary Journal Literature
• Is it Primary Research? How Do I Know?

Components of a Primary Research Study

As indicated on a previous page, Peer-Reviewed Journals also include non -primary content. Simply limiting your search results in a database to "peer-reviewed" will not retrieve a list of only primary research studies.

Learn to recognize the parts of a primary research study. Terminology will vary slightly from discipline to discipline and from journal to journal.  However, there are common components to most research studies.

When you run a search, find a promising article in your results list and then look at the record for that item (usually by clicking on the title). The full database record for an item usually includes an abstract or summary--sometimes prepared by the journal or database, but often written by the author(s) themselves. This will usually give a clear indication of whether the article is a primary study.  For example, here is a full database record from a search for family violence and support in SocINDEX with Full Text :

Although the abstract often tells the story, you will need to read the article to know for sure. Besides scanning the Abstract or Summary, look for the following components: (I am only capturing small article segments for illustration.)

Look for the words METHOD or METHODOLOGY . The authors should explain how they conducted their research.

NOTE: Different Journals and Disciplines will use different terms to mean similar things. If instead of " Method " or " Methodology " you see a heading that says " Research Design " or " Data Collection ," you have a similar indicator that the scholar-authors have done original research.

Look for the section called RESULTS . This details what the author(s) found out after conducting their research.

Charts , Tables , Graphs , Maps and other displays help to summarize and present the findings of the research.

A Discussion indicates the significance of findings, acknowledges limitations of the research study, and suggests further research.

References , a Bibliography or List of Works Cited indicates a literature review and shows other studies and works that were consulted. USE THIS PART OF THE STUDY! If you find one or two good recent studies, you can identify some important earlier studies simply by going through the bibliographies of those articles.

A FINAL NOTE:  If you are ever unclear about whether a particular article is appropriate to use in your paper, it is best to show that article to your professor and discuss it with them.  The professor is the final judge since they will be assigning your grade.

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Peer-review and primary research.

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Primary research or a primary study refers to a research article that is an author’s original research that is almost always published in a peer-reviewed journal. A primary study reports on the details, methods and results of a research study. These articles often have a standard structure of a format called IMRAD, referring to sections of an article: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. Primary research studies will start with a review of the previous literature, however, the rest of the article will focus on the authors’ original research. Literature reviews can be published in peer-reviewed journals, however, they are not primary research.

Primary studies are part of primary sources but should not be mistaken for primary documents. Primary documents are usually original sources such as a letter, a diary, a speech or an autobiography. They are a first person view of an event or a period. Typically, if you are a Humanities major, you will be asked to find primary documents for your paper however, if you are in Social Sciences or the Sciences you are most likely going to be asked to find primary research studies. If you are unsure, ask your professor or a librarian for help.

A primary research or study is an empirical research that is published in peer-reviewed journals. Some ways of recognizing whether an article is a primary research article when searching a database:

1. The abstract includes a research question or a hypothesis,  methods and results.

2. Studies can have tables and charts representing data findings.

3. The article includes a section for "methods” or “methodology” and "results".

4. Discussion section indicates findings and discusses limitations of the research study, and suggests further research.

5. Check the reference section because it will refer you to the studies and works that were consulted. You can use this section to find other studies on that particular topic.

The following are not to be confused with primary research articles:

- Literature reviews

- Meta-analyses or systematic reviews (these studies make conclusions based on research on many other studies)

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How to identify peer reviewed journals, how to identify primary research articles.

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• Peer Reviewed Journals Quiz How do I know if a journal is peer reviewed? What is peer review, anyway? Take this short quiz to test your knowledge and perhaps learn something new!
• Primary Research Articles Quiz How do I know if an article is a primary or secondary research article? Are there search techniques that will help me find them? Take this short quiz to test your knowledge and perhaps learn something new!

You must get all answers correct to submit the quiz!

Peer review is defined as “a process of subjecting an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field” ( 1 ). Peer review is intended to serve two purposes:

• It acts as a filter to ensure that only high quality research is published, especially in reputable journals, by determining the validity, significance and originality of the study.
• Peer review is intended to improve the quality of manuscripts that are deemed suitable for publication. Peer reviewers provide suggestions to authors on how to improve the quality of their manuscripts, and also identify any errors that need correcting before publication.

How do you determine whether an article qualifies as being a peer-reviewed journal article?

• If you're searching for articles in certain databases, you can limit your search to peer-reviewed sources simply by selecting a tab or checking a box on the search screen.
• If you have an article, an indication that it has been through the peer review process will be the publication history , usually at the beginning or end of the article.
• If you're looking at the journal itself, go to the  editorial statement or instructions to authors  (usually in the first few pages of the journal or at the end) for references to the peer-review process.
• Lookup the journal by title or ISSN in the ProQuest Source Evaluation Aid . 
• Careful! Not all information in a peer-reviewed journal is actually reviewed. Editorials, letters to the editor, book reviews, and other types of information don't count as articles, and may not be accepted by your professor.

What about preprint sites and ResearchGate?

• A preprint is a piece of research that has not yet been peer reviewed and published in a journal. In most cases, they can be considered final drafts or working papers. Preprint sites are great sources of current research - and most preprint sites will provide a link to a later, peer-reviewed version of an article. 
• ResearchGate is a commercial social networking site for scientists and researchers to share papers, ask and answer questions, and find collaborators. Members can upload research output including papers, chapters, negative results, patents, research proposals, methods, presentations, etc. Researchers can access these materials, and also contact members to ask for access to material that has not been shared, usually because of copyright restrictions. There is a filter to limit results to articles, but it can be difficult to determine the publication history of ResearchGate items and whether they have been published in peer reviewed sources.

A primary research article reports on an empirical research study conducted by the authors. The goal of a primary research article is to present the result of original research that makes a new contribution to the body of knowledge. 

Characteristics:

• Almost always published in a peer-reviewed journal
• Asks a research question or states a hypothesis or hypotheses
• Identifies a research population
• Describes a specific research method
• Tests or measures something
• Often (but not always) structured in a standard format called IMRAD: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion
• Words to look for as clues include: analysis, study, investigation, examination, experiment, numbers of people or objects analyzed, content analysis, or surveys.

To contrast, the following are not primary research articles (i.e., they are secondary sources):

• Literature reviews/Review articles
• Meta-Analyses (studies that arrive at conclusions based on research from many other studies)
• Editorials & Letters
• Dissertations

Articles that are NOT primary research articles may discuss the same research, but they are not reporting on original research, they are summarizing and commenting on research conducted and published by someone else. For example, a literature review provides commentary and analysis of research done by other people, but it does not report the results of the author's own study and is not primary research.

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What is Primary Research and How do I get Started?

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Primary research is any type of research that you collect yourself. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and ethnographic research. A good researcher knows how to use both primary and secondary sources in their writing and to integrate them in a cohesive fashion.

Conducting primary research is a useful skill to acquire as it can greatly supplement your research in secondary sources, such as journals, magazines, or books. You can also use it as the focus of your writing project. Primary research is an excellent skill to learn as it can be useful in a variety of settings including business, personal, and academic.

But I’m not an expert!

With some careful planning, primary research can be done by anyone, even students new to writing at the university level. The information provided on this page will help you get started.

What types of projects or activities benefit from primary research?

When you are working on a local problem that may not have been addressed before and little research is there to back it up.

When you are working on writing about a specific group of people or a specific person.

When you are working on a topic that is relatively new or original and few publications exist on the subject.

You can also use primary research to confirm or dispute national results with local trends.

What types of primary research can be done?

Many types of primary research exist. This guide is designed to provide you with an overview of primary research that is often done in writing classes.

Interviews: Interviews are one-on-one or small group question and answer sessions. Interviews will provide a lot of information from a small number of people and are useful when you want to get an expert or knowledgeable opinion on a subject.

Surveys: Surveys are a form of questioning that is more rigid than interviews and that involve larger groups of people. Surveys will provide a limited amount of information from a large group of people and are useful when you want to learn what a larger population thinks.

Observations: Observations involve taking organized notes about occurrences in the world. Observations provide you insight about specific people, events, or locales and are useful when you want to learn more about an event without the biased viewpoint of an interview.

Analysis: Analysis involves collecting data and organizing it in some fashion based on criteria you develop. They are useful when you want to find some trend or pattern. A type of analysis would be to record commercials on three major television networks and analyze gender roles.

Where do I start?

Consider the following questions when beginning to think about conducting primary research:

• What do I want to discover?
• How do I plan on discovering it? (This is called your research methods or methodology)
• Who am I going to talk to/observe/survey? (These people are called your subjects or participants)
• How am I going to be able to gain access to these groups or individuals?
• What are my biases about this topic?
• How can I make sure my biases are not reflected in my research methods?
• What do I expect to discover?

Finding Primary Research Articles in the Sciences: Home

• Advanced Search-Databases
• Primary vs. Secondary
• Analyzing a Primary Research Article
• MLA, APA, and Chicago Style

This guide goes over how to find and analyze primary research articles in the sciences (e.g. nutrition, health sciences and nursing, biology, chemistry, physics, sociology, psychology). In addition, the guide explains how to tell the difference between a primary source and a secondary source in scientific subject areas.

If you are looking for how to find primary sources in the humanities and social sciences, such as direct experience accounts in newspapers, diaries, artwork and so forth, please see   Finding Primary Sources in the Humanities and Social Sciences . 

Recommended Databases

To get started, choose one of the databases below.  Once you log in, enter your search terms to start looking for primary articles. 

• Link to all Polk State College Library databases

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You must log in to use library databases and eBooks. When prompted to log in, enter your Passport credentials. 

If you have trouble, try  resetting your Passport pin , sending an email to  [email protected] ,  or calling the Help Desk at 863.292.3652 . 

You can also get help from Ask a Librarian . 

Search Tips

Keep your search terms simple.

• No need to type full sentences into the database search box.  Limit your search to 2-3 words.
• There is no need to type "research article" into the search box.

Use the "Advanced Search" feature of the database.

• This will allow you to limit your search to only peer reviewed articles or a certain time frame (for example: 2013 or later).
• Click the red tab above for tips on advanced search strategies .

Re-read the assignment guidelines often

• Does this article satisfy the scope of the assignment (e.g. a study focused on nutrition)?
• Does it meet the criteria for the assignment (e.g. an original research article)?

Not finding what you are looking for?

• Ask a Librarian!

Search and Find a Primary Research Article

Are you looking for a primary research journal article if so, that is an article that reports on the results of an original research study conducted by the authors themselves. .

You can use the library's databases to search for primary research articles.  A research article will almost always be published in a peer-reviewed journal. Therefore, it is a good idea to limit your results to peer-reviewed articles. Click on the  Advanced Search-Databases tab at the top of this guide for instructions. 

The following is _not_ primary research:

Review articles are studies that arrive at conclusions after looking over other studies. Therefore, review articles are not  primary (think "first") research.  There are a variety of review articles, including:

• Literature Reviews
• Systematic Reviews
• Meta-Analyses 
• Scoping Reviews
• Topical Reviews
• A review/assessment of the evidence

Having trouble?  Look for a  method section within the article. If the method section includes the process used to conduct the research, how the data was gathered and analyzed and any limitations or ethical concerns to the study, then it is most likely a primary research article. For example: a research article will describe the number of people (e.g. 175 adults with celiac disease) who participated in the study and who were used to collect data.

If the method section describes how the authors found articles on a topic using search terms or databases , then it is mostly likely a secondary review article and not primary research. If there is no method section, it is not a primary research article.

Other sections in a journal: 

Your search may yield these items, too. You can skip these because they are not full write-ups of research:

• Conference Proceedings 
• Symposium Publications

Example of a primary research article found in the Library's Academic Search Complete database : (these authors conducted an original research study)

• Lumia et al. (2015) Lumia, M., Takkinen, H., Luukkainen, P., Kaila, M., Lehtinen, J. S., Nwaru, B. I., Tuokkola, J., Niemelä, O., Haapala, A., Ilonen, J., Simell, O., Knip, M., Veijola, R., & Virtanen, S. M. (2015). Food consumption and risk of childhood asthma. Pediatric Allergy & Immunology, 26(8), 789–796. https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12352

Example of a secondary article found in the Library's Academic Search Complete database : (these authors are reviewing the work of other authors)

• Rachmah et al. (2022) Rachmah, Q., Martiana, T., Mulyono, Paskarini, I., Dwiyanti, E., Widajati, N., Ernawati, M., Ardyanto, Y. D., Tualeka, A. R., Haqi, D. N., Arini, S. Y., & Alayyannur, P. A. (2022). The effectiveness of nutrition and health intervention in workplace setting: A systematic review. Journal of Public Health Research, 11(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphr.2021.2312

How do I know if this article is primary?

You've found an article in the library databases but how do you know if it's primary .

Look for these sections: (terminology may vary)

• abstract  - summarizes paper in one paragraph, states the purpose of the study
• methods  - explaining how the experiment was conducted (note: if the method section discusses how a search was conducted that is _not_ primary research) 
• results  - detailing what happened and providing raw data sets (often as tables or graphs)
• conclusions  - connecting the results with theories and other research
• references  - to previous research or theories that influenced the research

Scan the article you found to see if it includes the sections above. You don't have to read the full article (yet). Look for the clues highlighted in the images below. 

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Identifying Primary and Secondary Research Articles

• Primary and Secondary

Primary Research Articles

Primary research articles report on a single study. In the health sciences, primary research articles generally describe the following aspects of the study:

• The study's hypothesis or research question
• Some articles will include information on how participants were recruited or identified, as well as additional information about participants' sex, age, or race/ethnicity
• A "methods" or "methodology" section that describes how the study was performed and what the researchers did
• Results and conclusion section

Secondary Research Articles

Review articles are the most common type of secondary research article in the health sciences. A review article is a summary of previously published research on a topic. Authors who are writing a review article will search databases for previously completed research and summarize or synthesize those articles,  as opposed to recruiting participants and performing a new research study.

Specific types of review articles include:

• Systematic Reviews
• Meta-Analysis
• Narrative Reviews
• Integrative Reviews
• Literature Reviews

Review articles often report on the following:

• The hypothesis, research question, or review topic
• Databases searched-- authors should clearly describe where and how they searched for the research included in their reviews
• Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis should provide detailed information on the databases searched and the search strategy the authors used.Selection criteria-- the researchers should describe how they decided which articles to include
• A critical appraisal or evaluation of the quality of the articles included (most frequently included in systematic reviews and meta-analysis)
• Discussion, results, and conclusions

Determining Primary versus Secondary Using the Database Abstract

Information found in PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and other databases can help you determine whether the article you're looking at is primary or secondary.

Primary research article abstract

• Note that in the "Objectives" field, the authors describe their single, individual study.
• In the materials and methods section, they describe the number of patients included in the study and how those patients were divided into groups.
• These are all clues that help us determine this abstract is describing is a single, primary research article, as opposed to a literature review.
• Primary Article Abstract

Secondary research/review article abstract

• Note that the words "systematic review" and "meta-analysis" appear in the title of the article
• The objectives field also includes the term "meta-analysis" (a common type of literature review in the health sciences)
• The "Data Source" section includes a list of databases searched
• The "Study Selection" section describes the selection criteria
• These are all clues that help us determine that this abstract is describing a review article, as opposed to a single, primary research article.
• Secondary Research Article

• Primary vs. Secondary Worksheet

Full Text Challenge

Can you determine if the following articles are primary or secondary?

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Primary Research Article

Review article.

Identifying and creating an APA style citation for your bibliography: 

• Author initials are separated by a period
• Multiple authors are separated by commas and an ampersand (&)  
• Title format rules change depending on what is referenced
• Double check them for accuracy 

Identifying and creating an APA style in-text citation: 

• eg. (Smith, 2022) or (Smith & Stevens, 2022) 

The structure of this changes depending on whether a direct quote or parenthetical used:

Direct Quote: the citation must follow the quote directly and contain a page number after the date

eg. (Smith, 2022, p.21)

Parenthetical: the page number is not needed

For more information, take a look at Harvard Library's Citation Styles guide !

A primary research article typically contains the following section headings:

"Methods"/"Materials and Methods"/"Experimental Methods"(different journals title this section in different ways)

"Results"

"Discussion"

If you skim the article, you should find additional evidence that an experiment was conducted by the authors themselves.

Primary research articles provide a background on their subject by summarizing previously conducted research, this typically occurs only in the Introduction section of the article.

Review articles do not report new experiments. Rather, they attempt to provide a thorough review of a specific subject by assessing either all or the best available scholarly literature on that topic.

Ways to identify a review article: 

• Author(s) summarize and analyze previously published research 
• May focus on a specific research question, comparing and contrasting previously published research 
• Overview all of the research on a particular topic 
• Does not contain "methods" or "results" type sections
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NUR 3165 - Nursing Research

• Nursing Databases
• Research Article Basics
• - Practice 1

Finding Primary Research Articles - Overview

• - Practice 2
• Quantitative/Qualitative/Mixed Methods
• - Practice 3
• How to Find Full Text Articles
• Terminology

There are several ways to locate primary research articles as you will see in the following practice exercises (see next page). Here are some tips to consider while looking for original research studies:

Tip #1 - Incorporate subject headings into your search

Subject headings are terms that are part of a controlled vocabulary used to describe the contents tagged inside the article record. These terms can be found in each of the CINAHL Detailed Records under Major Subjects and Minor Subjects. So, if you see the ultimate article, look to see what terms it is tagged with and add them to the search in the appropriate line if relevant. For example,(MH "Emergency Service") is the medical subject heading used for Emergency Department!

To search for possible subject headings, try putting a keyword in a new search and check the Suggest Subject Terms  box. The asterisk covers any number of characters (i.e., nurs* yields nurse, nurses, and nurses at the same time). Quotation marks around two or more terms searches them as a phrase.

Try it out! Place the term  Hospital Acquired Infection  in CINAHL, check the Suggest Subject Terms box and click search to see the subject heading for this term!

Tip #2 - Check the research article box

Databases like CINAHL allow you to select Research Article to retrieve research articles in your search.

Tip #3 - Sections of the Research Article to look for

When reading an article, make sure to look inside the abstract (and the full text) and scan for sections contained in many primary research studies such as  Introduction, Participants, Methods, Results and Discussion! Look at those sections to see if the researchers are working directly with the participants and conducting original research.

See the next section for additional tips!

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PubMed: Find Research Articles

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Finding Comparative Effectiveness Research

Comparative effectiveness research is the conduct and synthesis of research comparing the benefits and harms of different interventions and strategies to prevent, diagnose, treat and monitor health conditions in "real world" settings.

Two specialized resources are available to inform comparative effectiveness research:

Comparative Effectiveness Research  on the PubMed Topic-Specific Queries page. Provides specialized PubMed searches of published research and research in progress to help inform investigations of comparative effectiveness.

• Medline Plus  is the world’s largest medical library, it brings you information about diseases, conditions, and wellness issues in language you can understand. MedlinePlus offers reliable, up-to-date health information, anytime, anywhere, for free.

3 Ways to Find Research Articles in PubMed

1. filter (limit) to article type.

Most citations in PubMed are for journal articles. However, you may limit your retrieval based on the type of material the article represents. Use the Filters on the Results page sidebar and look at the Article Types checklist which contains a list of frequently searched publication types.

For example, choose Randomized Controlled Trial or Clinical Trial or Meta-Analysis from the list.

2. PubMed Clinical Queries 

Enter your search terms and evidence-filtered citations will appear under Clinical Study Categories. Systematic Reviews or Medical Genetics. The Clinical Queries link is found on the PubMed home page or under the More Resources drop-down at the top of the Advanced Search page.

The resulting retrieval in PubMed Clinical Queries can be further refined using PubMed's Filters, e.g., English language, humans.

3. Limit to Articles with Structured Abstracts

Many abstracts that are added to PubMed include section labels such as BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVE, METHODS, RESULTS, and CONCLUSIONS. These 'structured' abstracts appear in many different article types such as review articles, original research, and practice guidelines and facilitate skimming of citations for relevance and specific information such as research design within the Methods section.  The presence of structured abstracts in citations are a searchable feature in PubMed.  To limit to citations containing structured abstracts, include the term hasstructuredabstract in the search box.

For example: valerian AND sleep AND hasstructuredabstract

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Identify Primary Sources in the Sciences

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Primary Sources in the Sciences

What is a primary source in the sciences.

A primary source is information or literature about original research provided or written by the original researcher. Examples of primary sources include...  

• Experimental data
• Laboratory notes
• Conference Proceedings
• Technical Reports
• Some peer-reviewed scientific journal articles of original research

How can I identify a primary article?

In the primary article, the authors will write about research that they did and the conclusions they made. Some key areas in the article to look for are similar to those found in a lab report including... 

• A research problem statement , or description of what the researchers are trying to discover or determine with their research,
• Background information about previously published research on the topic,
• Methods where the author tells the reader what they did, how they did it, and why,
• Results where the author explains the outcomes of their research   

Sometimes scholarly journals will include review articles, which summarize published research on a topic but do not contain new results from original research. Even though these sources are scholary, they are NOT primary articles.

How do I know if my source is scholarly?

Along with being a primary source, it is frequently important that you know if your source is scholarly and appropriate for academic research. Some traits of scholarly articles are...

• Citations to work done by others
• Language is often serious and technical
• Images are usually charts, graphs, or otherwise informative, rather than glossy photographs or advertisments
• Authors' names are given, along with their affilitions with university, research institutions, etc.
• Date of publication is given, frequently along with the date on which the articles was submitted for peer review
• "About" or "instructions for authors" link on the journal's Web site indicates that the journal is peer reviewed or describes its peer review process

Finding Primary Articles

The best place to look for primary, scientific articles are journal databases provided by the library. These database contain millions of articles, most of them primary articles from scholarly journals. 

 Many of these databases allow you to refine you search to only articles or peer-reviewed journals, however, you still need to look at the article to determine if it is scholarly and contains original research.

• VCU Libraries' Databases List
• Research Guides to Locate Databases by Subject
• Ask Us! Chat, phone, email, or text VCU Libraries for advice on the best databases for your topic.

Secondary Sources in the Sciences

Secondary sources in the sciences are about the research and discoveries of other people, usually with the goal of providing an overview of the topic that allows readers to quickly become familar with topic.

Some examples of secondary sources are...

• Review articles
• Scientific encyclopedias
• Last Updated: Jan 30, 2023 10:09 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.vcu.edu/science-primary-sources

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Methodology

• Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on January 14, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.

Primary research is a research method that relies on direct data collection , rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research .

Primary research is often used in qualitative research , particularly in survey methodology, questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews . While quantitative primary research does exist, it’s not as common.

Table of contents

When to use primary research, types of primary research, examples of primary research, advantages and disadvantages of primary research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study . The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you.

Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.

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Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

• Surveys and questionnaires
• Observational studies
• Interviews and focus groups

Surveys and questionnaires collect information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. They are a solid choice if your research topic seeks to investigate something about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with the most basic ones first.

Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , observational studies are often a good stopgap.

There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies , cohort studies, and case-control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design—just beware of confounding variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.

Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different. Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups involve two or more people—one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the questions.

There are 3 main types of interviews:

• Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order.
• Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the interviewee’s previous answers.
• Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined questions and off-the-cuff questions.

While interviews are a rich source of information, they can also be deceptively challenging to do well. Be careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and delivery while asking questions.

Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small sample size means that external validity is low.

Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics.

Primary research is a great choice for many research projects, but it has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of primary research

Advantages include:

• The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the “nitty-gritty” of your topic . You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing that.
• You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it is objective, reliable , and valid .
• The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with like-minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for replication or discussion purposes.

Disadvantages of primary research

Disadvantages include:

• In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your own high-quality primary research.
• Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring secondary research to bolster it.
• Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias . Bias can manifest on the part of the researcher as observer bias , Pygmalion effect , or demand characteristics . It can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

The 3 main types of primary research are:

Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control and randomization.

In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.

In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .

In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .

In randomization , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

• You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
• You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g. choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods )

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

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Science Writing

• Primary Research Articles
• Review Articles
• Citing in the Sciences

What is a primary research article? 

If you're writing an empirical article (also known as a primary research article) then you're doing original, typically experimental, research -- you are creating new knowledge and will have original findings. These primary research articles will always have a methodology section where you describe how you conducted your study. It will typically be structured like this: 

• Introduction

Methodology

How to Write a Primary Research Article

The introduction will include: 

• A review of the literature (background on your topic & what other research has been done)
• The question this study will be answering, and why it's important
• Your approach to answering the question, and your hypothesis

Things to avoid: 

• Excessive length
• Leaving out the justification for the study

The methods section is where you detail the materials and experimental approaches that you used in your study. It should be detailed, particularly if the method you're using is novel. A general guideline is that you want to include enough detail so that other researchers could replicate your experiment. When writing it, you should arrange everything chronologically and can use subsections where appropriate. 

• Switching tenses (it should be in past tense)
• Insufficient detail
• Omitting the purpose of the experiment

The results section will include data and your interpretation of the data (but it won't tie it in to the overall literature or bigger implications -- that's what the discussion section is for). You should include your main findings, any other important findings, and your control results. Most data should be in figures or tables, with the text being used to summarize and explain the data. The results section should be organized in a logical way -- for instance, from most important to least important findings. 

Things to Avoid: 

• Inexact language ("significance" means something very particular in science)
• Including irrelevant data 
• Excessive detail (don't include results from anything not discussed in the methods section)

The discussion section will answer your research question by stating and interpreting your findings, including their relevance, meaning, and context. You should tie in elements from your earlier literature review to explain what is new and impactful about your work. The discussion section is also where you can talk about possible limitations of your study and suggest future work that can be done. It should be organized in a way that moves from specific to broad, introducing your particular findings first and then moving to a more general perspective. 

• Restating your results section
• Making conclusions outside of the scope of your findings 
• Criticizing other studies

The conclusion may be the last paragraph of the discussion section, or it can be pulled out into its own section. Either way it should be about a paragraph in length and should recap the most important results and significance of your findings. 

• Introducing large ideas not already covered in the paper 
• Excessive length -- conclusion should be brief 

Examples of Primary Research Articles

• Experimental Exposure to Urban and Pink Noise Affects Brain Development and Song Learning in Zebra Finches
• Effect of an Enteric-Coated Fish Oil Preparation on Relapses in Crohn's Disease
• The Effect of Intrinsic Crumpling on the Mechanics of Free-Standing Graphene

Instruction & Research Librarian

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• Next: Citing in the Sciences >>

Life, Society & Drugs: Appropriate Sources

• What sources are appropriate?
• Scholarly sources and peer review
• Tips for reading scientific papers
• How do I identify a primary research article?
• How do I find an internationally focused article?
• Recommended resources
• How can I cite my sources properly?
• How do I choose or develop a research topic?
• Wrapping up

Understanding Primary Research in the Sciences

• How do I identify a primary research article? This link will take you to the YouTube page where the video is stored. Captions and transcripts are included.

Primary sources in the sciences are typically academic journals. In them, the authors present their "primary" or original research. You may have heard of primary sources before in a history class, and the same idea applies here. A primary source is all about proximity. The authors should have firsthand experience with the content. In the sciences, that means that they conducted the research themselves.

Identifying Primary Research Articles

Here are five common components of primary research articles in the sciences. Check your source for these to help determine if you are looking at a primary source.

1. Written by experts who did the research

In a primary source, the authors report on research they conducted themselves. The best way to determine this is to read the introduction of the paper where the authors will explain what they are presenting. If the authors report only about someone else’s research or a different study, it is not primary. 

2. Reports on original research

This is closely tied to the first component. Did the authors of the article study something "new?" Did they delve into an issue to explore it further? Look for keywords in the abstract and introduction that tell you that the authors studied something. Keywords to look for include: "measured," "analyzed," and "investigated."

3. Describes how the authors did their study

A primary research article will describe the methods used to conduct the study. It ought to be detailed enough that the study could be replicated. Many primary research articles follow a common format with particular section headings. One of these is "methodology" or "methods." The methodology section is where the authors will explain how they did their study. Looking for this section heading is a good way to check for this factor. Even if this specific heading is missing, your article should still explain this to be primary.

4. Describes the study's results

The article should also clearly explain the results or outcomes of the research. Often you will see statistics, graphs, and/or tables in the article. These depictions of data in primary research articles will differ from the "decorative" images you may see in popular sources. Headings to look at for this factor include "results," "findings," and "discussion."

5. Always includes references

Finally, your primary research article will always include references. These could look like footnotes, a references section, or a works cited at the end of the article. Many articles that are not primary research articles - and even some that are not scholarly - include references. Do not make your decision of whether your article is primary or not based on this factor alone.

Primary Source Examples

• Burgo, Jose Luis, et al. “Cost of Provision of Opioid Substitution Therapy Provision in Tijuana, Mexico.”   Harm Reduction Journal , vol. 15, no. 1, May 2018, pp. 1–8.  ProQuest Central , https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-018-0234-x.
• Sharma, Shridhar, et al. “Substance Use and Criminality among Juveniles-under-Enquiry in New Delhi.”   Indian Journal of Psychiatry , vol. 58, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 178–182.  CINAHL Complete , https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.183791.

Secondary Source Examples

• Palinkas, Lawrence A. “Opioid Use Epidemic in Mexico: Global Solutions to a Global Problem.”   American Journal of Public Health,  vol. 109, no. 1, Jan. 2019. pp. 26–27.  CINAHL Complete, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304833
• Szalavitz, Maia, and Khary K. Rigg. “ The Curious (Dis)Connection between the Opioid Epidemic and Crime.”   Substance Use & Misuse , vol. 52, no. 14, Dec. 2017, pp. 1927–1931.  APA PsycInfo , https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1376685.

How can I learn more about identifying primary sources?

To learn more about primary research articles in the sciences, watch the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries' short video (1 min, 37 sec) on the topic.

• Primary Research Articles in the Sciences This link will take you to the YouTube page where the video is stored. There are closed captions and transcripts included.
• << Previous: Tips for reading scientific papers
• Next: How do I find an internationally focused article? >>
• Last Updated: Sep 6, 2024 4:02 PM
• URL: https://libguides.slcc.edu/HLTH1050

Primary Sources: What They Are and Where to Find Them

What is a primary source.

• Finding Primary Sources in the UWRF Library

A primary source is an original object or document created during the time under study.   Primary sources vary by discipline and can include historical and legal documents, diaries, letters, family records, speeches, interviews, autobiographies, film, government documents, eye witness accounts, results of an experiment, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. In the natural and social sciences, the results of an experiment or study are typically found in scholarly articles or papers delivered at conferences, so those articles and papers that present the original results are considered primary sources.  

A secondary source is something written about a primary source. Secondary sources include comments on, interpretations of, or discussions about the original material. You can think of secondary sources as second-hand information. If I tell you something, I am the primary source. If you tell someone else what I told you, you are the secondard source. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that evaluate or criticize someone else's original research.

Research versus Review

Scientific and other peer reviewed journals are excellent sources for primary research sources. However, not every article in those journals will be an article with original research. Some will include book reviews and other materials that are more obviously secondary sources . More difficult to differentiate from original research articles are review articles . Both types of articles will end with a list of References (or Works Cited). Review articles are often as lengthy or even longer that original research articles. What the authors of review articles are doing is analysing and evaluating current research or investigations related to a specific topic, field, or problem. They are not primary sources since they review previously published material. They can be helpful for identifying potentially good primary sources, but they aren't primary themselves. Primary research articles can be identified by a commonly used format. If an article contains the following elements, you can count on it being a primary research article. Look for sections entitled Methods (sometimes with variations, such as Materials and Methods), Results (usually followed with charts and statistical tables), and Discussion . You can also read the abstract to get a good sense of the kind of article that is being presented. If it is a review article instead of a research article, the abstract should make that clear. If there is no abstract at all, that in itself may be a sign that it is not a primary resource. Short research articles, such as those found in Science and similar scientific publications that mix news, editorials, and forums with research reports, may not include any of those elements. In those cases look at the words the authors use, phrases such as "we tested," "we used," and "in our study, we measured" will tell you that the article is reporting on original research.

Primary or Secondary: You Decide

The distinction between types of sources can get tricky, because a secondary source may also be a primary source. DoVeanna Fulton's book on slave narratives, for example, can be looked at as both a secondary and a primary source. The distinction may depend on how you are using the source and the nature of your research. If you are researching slave narratives, the book would be a secondary source because Fulton is commenting on the narratives. If your assignment is to write a book review of Speaking Power , the book becomes a primary source, because you are commenting, evaluating, and discussing DoVeanna Fulton's ideas.

You can't always determine if something is primary or secondary just because of the source it is found in. Articles in newspapers and magazines are usually considered secondary sources. However, if a story in a newspaper about the Iraq war is an eyewitness account, that would be a primary source. If the reporter, however, includes additional materials he or she has gathered through interviews or other investigations, the article would be a secondary source. An interview in the Rolling Stone with Chris Robinson of the Black Crowes would be a primary source, but a review of the latest Black Crowes album would be a secondary source. In contrast, scholarly journals include research articles with primary materials, but they also have review articles that are not, or in some disciplines include articles where scholars are looking at primary source materials and coming to new conclusions.

For your thinking and not just to confuse you even further, some experts include tertiary sources as an additional distinction to make. These are sources that compile or, especially, digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list or briefly summarize or, from an even further removed distance, repackage ideas. This is the reason that you may be advised not to include an encyclopedia article in a final bibliography.

The above material was adapted from the excellent explanation written by John Henderson found on Ithaca College's library website http://www.ithacalibrary.com/sp/subjects/primary and is used with permission.

• Next: Finding Primary Sources in the UWRF Library >>
• Last Updated: Nov 8, 2023 3:51 PM
• URL: https://libguides.uwrf.edu/primarysources

A Guide to Primary Scientific Articles

What is a primary scientific article.

• How do I find primary scientific articles?
• How do I read primary scientific articles?

A primary scientific article is a report on the results of an experiment by the person or group who performed it. Primary scientific articles usually contain high-level vocabulary and original data, often presented in tables and charts.

Typically, a primary scientific article has the following sections:.

Articles with those components indicate that the author is presenting original research or data. Sometimes scholarly journals or databases also include review articles, which summarize published research on a topic but do not contain new results from original research. Even though these sources are scholarly, they are NOT primary articles.

• Next: How do I find primary scientific articles? >>
• Last Updated: Aug 29, 2024 3:57 PM
• URL: https://micds.libguides.com/scientificarticles

Top of page

Program Teachers

Finding primary sources.

The Library of Congress makes millions of unique primary sources available online to everyone, everywhere. There are a few different ways to discover the best primary sources for you.

Select from a curated set

Primary Source Sets – Each set collects primary sources on a specific frequently-taught topic, along with historical background information and teaching ideas.

Free to Use and Reuse Sets – Batches of primary sources on engaging topics.

U.S. History Primary Sources Timeline – Explore important topics and moments in U.S. history through historical primary sources from the Library’s collections.

Search the online collections

Successful searches of the online collections of the Library of Congress, as with any archival research institution, begin with an understanding of what is likely to be found. Many considerations, including copyright, collection strengths, and how materials were acquired, factor into what can be digitized and made available online. The Library’s online collections are extensive, but they do have limits, and are strongest in the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century.

Use the search box at the top of the Library of Congress home page . A few tips:

• Before starting your search take a moment to make a list of possible search terms.
• Remember that different words or phrases may have been used to describe events or items in the past. For example: In the past the flu was sometimes known as the grippe.
• People or places may have been identified differently or may have used different names previously. For example: Eleanor Roosevelt may be known as Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt.
• There may be different spellings for names or places during the period you’re researching.
• Use the drop-down menu to the left of the search box to select a format, like Maps, before you search.
• To the left you will see a list of ways to narrow your search results. Scroll to the bottom to Access Condition and select “Available Online.”
• Scroll back to the top and narrow your search results using the facets to the left of your search results, like Date and Location.
• Select “Gallery” or “Grid” to change how you view the results. You can:
• increase the number of items you see at one time at the bottom of the page;
• change how the results are organized so they can be seen chronologically or in alphabetical order.
• Find an item that is of interest? On the item page look to the right and find the subject headings listed. You can click on those to see what other items are listed under that same subject heading.
• Explore related items at the bottom of the page.
• Additional search tips can be found on the Library’s Search Help page .

Explore online resources

Congress.gov – Explore current and historic information on bills, laws and the legislative branch of the government.

Chronicling America – Access historic newspapers from all fifty states and the District of Columbia for accounts of historic and everyday events as reported at the time they happened.

Check with the experts

Teaching with the Library blog – Short (500 words or less) posts featuring primary sources and teaching ideas.

Other Library blogs offer tips on finding Library resources, suggestions for other search terms or research ideas, and expert secondary information.

Today in History – Provides information and links to primary sources about a specific event in history.

Research Guides - In-depth guides to Library resources on a wide variety of topics.

Ask a Librarian – Send a question to a Library of Congress reference librarian. We're happy to help!

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Reading Science: Navigating Scientific Articles

The organization of a scientific article.

Primary research articles are typically organized into sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and discussion (called IMRD).

Identify key elements

You may need to read an article several times in order to gain an understanding of it, but you can start by identifying key elements in a quick survey before you read.

Can you find?

• What was the purpose of the study? (in the introduction)
• Was the hypothesis supported? (in the discussion)
• What can you learn from the figures? Do you see trends? (in the results)
• How might the results be used in the future? What comes next? (in the discussion/conclusion)
• What were the limitations of the study? (in the discussion/conclusion)
• How was the experiment conducted? (in the materials and methods)
• How does this study build on previous research? (in the introduction)

Examples of key elements in a scientific paper

Files and links

• Scientific articles with Learning Lens annotations
• NPR: Her incredible sense of smell is helping scientists find new ways to diagnose disease
• Discovery of volatile biomarkers of Parkinson’s disease from sebum
• Worksheet Activity

Contact me.

• Last Updated: Sep 3, 2024 2:22 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uiowa.edu/ReadingScience

× Indigenous People's Weekend: The Libraries will be closed from Saturday - Monday, October 12 - 14 . Sherrill Library and Moriarty Library will reopen on Tuesday, October 15 at 10am. Enjoy the holiday!

× sherrill library will be closed from may 18 - september 2 due to construction. services by appointment: research consultations, library instruction, pick up appointments moriarty library will be open through august 31, monday - friday from 10am-6pm. closed weekends and holidays. as always, our web resources are available 24/7. questions our chat and ask us services are available monday-friday, 10am-6pm., × the libraries will be closed for memorial day weekend from friday-monday, may 24-27. enjoy the holiday, × spring break: monday, 03/13/2023 - sunday, 03/19/2023: library pickups are by appointment. need an appointment email us at sherrill library: [email protected] or moriarty library: [email protected], × alert mm/dd/yyyy: something is broken please contact us with questions., × alert 12/14/2023: ebsco allsearch is unavailable. we are working to fix this as quickly as we can. in the meanwhile, please try searching for articles from our proquest central database and for ebooks and books from our flo catalog . we're very sorry for the inconveniance. --> × welcome back our remote services guide has everything you need to know about library services we're offering this semester, including research help, study spaces, and more for other campus plans, see the lesley university covid-19 response. any other questions ask us, × welcome back our remote services guide has everything you need to know about library services we're offering this semester, including research help, study spaces, and more any other questions ask us, finding and using primary resources.

• Where to Find Primary Resources
• How to Find Primary Resources
• Interpreting Primary Resources
• Advanced Primary Resource Research Tools
• Front Matter
• Collection Inventory
• Understanding Linear Feet
• Citing Primary Resources

Primary sources are those created contemporaneously to whatever period a researcher is studying. In contrast to secondary sources, they don't provide any analysis on a given topic after the fact; instead, they reflect on information or events as they unfolded (for example, a newspaper article, from the time of a particular historical event, discussing the historical event as it happened). Primary sources are especially useful for researchers because they reveal how certain topics and ideas were understood during a specific time and place. The particular primary sources you might use in your research, as well as how you find them, can vary a lot based on your field of study. This guide aims to provide helpful information on where to go about searching for primary sources

What is a primary resource .

Each academic discipline or field defines and uses primary sources differently. Therefore, the definition of a primary source is contextual and dependent on that specific discipline or field of inquiry. Furthermore, any definition of primary sources also includes distinguishing them from secondary sources. Some disciplines use the term tertiary sources which typically include all three types (primary & secondary).

The  humanities  and the arts define primary sources as text, images, artifacts, and architecture (any material) that conveys the experience or life at time they are from. 

The  sciences  define primary sources as original research. The  social sciences  define primary sources similar to both the humanities, sciences, and author created data/evidence. They depend on the nature of the inquiry and research methodology. 

The  health sciences  define primary sources as original research.

Examples of Primary Resources

Walden  by Henry David Thoreau published in 2016, is a primary resource as the text was written in 1897, and offers insight into life in rural Massachusetts in the late 19th century. 

Rembrandt van Rijn, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp ,  1632. This painting is a good visual example of medical history in 17th century Holland. 

Ledgers of imports and exports, 1731, Held by The National Archives, Kew Gardens. This is a digital scan of an original ledger of imports and exports to London in 1731. This can give us a general idea of what trade looks like in 18th-Century England.

Tapestry Room from Croome Court, Various artists/makers,  1763–71, Metropolitan Museum of Art. This was designed in 1763–1771, . Around 1902 the ninth Earl sold the tapestries and seating to a Parisian dealer. The Samuel H. Kress Foundation purchased the ceiling, floor, chimneypiece, chair rails, doors and door surrounds in 1949; they were donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in 1958. This room provides insight as to what an 18th-century Country house room might look, and help historians understand domestic life. 

• Next: Where to Find Primary Resources >>
• Last Updated: Sep 5, 2024 1:50 PM
• URL: https://research.lesley.edu/c.php?g=1400378

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Primary Research Articles

• Library vs. Google
• Background Reading
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• Evaluating Sources
• Citing Sources
• Need more help?

How Can I Find Primary Research Articles?

Many of the recommended databases in this subject guide contain primary research articles (also known as empirical articles or research studies). Search in databases like ScienceDirect  and MEDLINE .

Primary Research Articles: How Will I Know One When I See One?

Primary research articles  to conduct and publish an experiment or research study, an author or team of authors designs an experiment, gathers data, then analyzes the data and discusses the results of the experiment. a published experiment or research study will therefore  look  very different from other types of articles (newspaper stories, magazine articles, essays, etc.) found in our library databases. the following guidelines will help you recognize a primary research article, written by the researchers themselves and published in a scholarly journal., structure of a primary research article typically, a primary research article has the following sections:.

• The author summarizes her article
• The author discusses the general background of her research topic; often, she will present a literature review, that is, summarize what other experts have written on this particular research topic
• The author describes the study she designed and conducted
• The author presents the data she gathered during her experiment
• The author offers ideas about the importance and implications of her research findings, and speculates on future directions that similar research might take
• The author gives a References list of sources she used in her paper

The structure of the article will often be clearly shown with headings: Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion.

A primary research article will almost always contains statistics, numerical data presented in tables. Also, primary research articles are written in very formal, very technical language.

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• Last Updated: Aug 1, 2024 5:09 PM
• URL: https://libguides.umgc.edu/science

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Library Chat

Nabb research center.

Looking for primary sources related to Salisbury University, local history, family genealogy, or the Eastern Shore? Visit the Nabb Research Center, located on the fourth floor of the Academic Commons!

• Nabb Center Collections
• Nabb Center Finding Aid Portal The Finding Aid Portal provides descriptions of the Nabb Research Center’s archival collections, as well as their affiliated artifacts, to help facilitate access to the materials.

Library Databases

• JSTOR (including ARTSTOR) This link opens in a new window After searching, use the "Primary source content" limiters on the left side of the screen to see primary documents, images, audio files, books, and more.
• Archives Unbound This link opens in a new window Archives Unbound presents topically-focused digital collections of historical documents that support the research and study needs of college & university scholars & students.
• American Historical Periodicals (American Antiquarian Society). This link opens in a new window A highly comprehensive primary source history of the American experience that spans four centuries with multiple perspectives on the thought, culture, and society of North America.
• Black Freedom Struggle in the United States: Challenges and Triumphs in the Pursuit of Equality This link opens in a new window Contains over 3,000 documents focused on different phases of Black Freedom from the 1700s to present.
• Slavery in America and the World: History, Culture & Law This link opens in a new window Includes hundreds of pamphlets and books written about slavery— defending it, attacking it or simply analyzing it, including an expansive slavery collection of mostly pre-Civil War materials.
• Japanese-American Relocation Camp Newspapers: Perspectives on Day-to-Day Life This link opens in a new window This collection documents life in the internment camps.
• Archives of Sexuality and Gender: LGBTQ History and Culture since 1940, Parts I and II This link opens in a new window This primary source database includes content on the social, political, health, and legal issues impacting LGBTQ communities around the world, such as the gay rights movement, activism, the HIV/AIDS crisis, and marginalization within the LGBTQ community.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000: Scholar's Edition This link opens in a new window Organized around the history of women in social movements in the U.S. between 1600 and 2000, this vast collection of documents also includes book, film, and website reviews, notes from the archives, and teaching tools.
• Victoria Research Web This link opens in a new window Dedicated to the scholarly study of nineteenth-century Britain, and to aiding researchers, teachers, and students in their investigations of any and all aspects of this fascinating period.

Online Primary Sources

Most states and countries keep primary documents related to their history, culture, and people. If you're working on a project related to a specific place, Google "country national archives". 

• Maryland State Archives This link opens in a new window The central depository for Maryland government records from 1634 onward. Colonial, executive, legislative, and judicial records; county probate, land, and court records; church records; business records; state publications and reports; and special collections of private papers, maps, photos, and newspapers.
• National Archives NextGen Catalog The National Archives holds historical U.S. government documents (federal, congressional, and presidential records), many of which are digitized and available to the public.
• Library of Congress Search box located in the top right. The Library of Congress maintains a massive online repository that includes articles, maps, musical scores, legislation, film, photographs, and thousands of other historical US documents.
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University Library

American Environmental History

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Article Indexes

Environmental history journals.

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The principal database for identifying scholarly journal articles in U.S. history is America: History and Life :

• America: History and Life The main article database for researching American history. Use to find journal articles, book reviews, and dissertations on all periods of North American history. Includes some links to full text. Complements Historical Abstracts . Indexes publications from 1964-present.

For journal articles on the history of Central and South America, use Historical Abstracts:

• Historical Abstracts Journal articles, book reviews, and dissertations on all aspects of world history, excluding North America, from 1450. Includes links to the full text of some articles. Complements America: History and Life . Indexes publications from 1954-present.

Article indexes for environmental science:

• CAB Abstracts This link opens in a new window CAB Abstracts is a bibliographic database covering research and development literature in the fields of agriculture, forestry, aspects of human health, human nutrition, animal health, and the management and conservation of natural resources from 1910 to date. Also available on the CABI Digital Library platform .
• Web of Science (Core Collection) This link opens in a new window Web of Science indexes core journal articles, conference proceedings, data sets, and other resources in the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities.
• GreenFILE This link opens in a new window GreenFILE offers well-researched but accessible information covering all aspects of human impact on the environment. Its collection of scholarly, government and general-interest titles include content on the environmental effects of individuals, corporations and local/national governments, and what can be done on each level to minimize negative impact. Topics covered include global warming, green building, pollution, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy, recycling, and more. GreenFILE is multidisciplinary by nature and draws on the connections between the environment and a variety of disciplines such as agriculture, education, law, health and technology. Use GreenFILE in the NEW EBSCO user interface . more... less... Alternate Access Link
• Scopus This link opens in a new window Scopus is the largest abstract and citation database including peer-reviewed titles from international publishers, Open Access journals, conference proceedings, trade publications and quality web sources. Subject coverage includes: Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Engineering; Life and Health Sciences; Social Sciences, Psychology and Economics; Biological, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.

Article indexes for activism (including environmental activism:

• Alternative Press Index and Alternative Press Index Archive Identifies articles from alternative newspapers, magazines and journals. Indexes publications from 1969-present. Alternative Press Index file actually only covers 1991-present. To add 1969-1990, you must click "Choose Databases" above search box, and select Alternative Press Index Archive as well. more... less... Alternative Press Index Archive file covers 1969-1990, and the Alternative Press Index file covers 1991-current.
• Alt-Press Watch 1970-present; mostly United States. Over 670,000 articles from 200 alternative press titles, predominantly news weeklies.
• Left Index Identifies articles written from a leftist political, economic, social or cultural perspective. Includes some retrospective coverage of historically significant left wing publications like the People (New York, N.Y. : 1891). Indexes publications from 1982-present.

For more alternative press sources, see our Guide to the Alternative Press:

• Guide to Alternative Press
• Arcadia: Explorations in Environmental History "Arcadia: Explorations in Environmental History is an open-access, peer-reviewed publication platform for short, illustrated, and engaging environmental histories. Embedded in a particular time and place, each story focuses on a site, event, person, organization, or species as it relates to nature and human society. By publishing digitally on the Environment & Society Portal, Arcadia promotes accessibility and visibility of original research in global environmental history and cognate disciplines."
• Environmental History "Environmental History (EH) is the world’s leading scholarly journal in environmental history and the journal of record in the field. Scholarship published in EH explores the changing relationships between humans and the environment over time. This interdisciplinary journal brings together insights from geography, anthropology, the natural sciences, science and technology studies, political ecology, and many other disciplines to inform historical scholarship."
• International Review of Environmental History "International Review of Environmental History takes an interdisciplinary and global approach to environmental history. It publishes on all thematic and geographical topics of environmental history, but especially encourages articles with perspectives focused on or developed from the southern hemisphere and the ‘Global South’. This includes but is not limited to Australasia, East and South East Asia, Africa and South America. International Review of Environmental History’s editorial board includes historians, scientists and geographers, as well as scholars from other backgrounds, who work on environmental history and related disciplines, such as ecology, garden history and landscape studies. The methodological breadth of International Review of Environmental History distinguishes it from other environmental history journals, as does its attempt to draw together cognate research areas in garden history and landscape studies. The journal’s goal is to be read across disciplines, not just within history. "
• Journal for the History of Environment and Society "The Journal for the History of Environment and Society aims to be a leading online and open-access periodical that covers all aspects of environmental history conceived in its broadest sense. The journal encourages high-quality scholarship which focuses on relations between environmental changes and social-historical context. Interregional and international comparative articles receive special attention. Because of the interdisciplinary nature of the discipline, papers should be accessible for scholars from all disciplines in the field, which will also ensure their accessibility to a wider audience. Geographically, the Journal focuses primarily – but not exclusively – on North-West Europe (including areas that had historical relations with that broad region). Articles with a more general geographic scope can also be published in the Journal."
• Resilience: Journal of the Environmental Humanities "Resilience is a digital, peer-reviewed journal that provides a forum for scholars from across humanities disciplines to speak to one another about their shared interest in environmental issues and to plot out an evolving conversation about what the humanities contribute to living and thinking sustainably in a world of dwindling resources. The focus on narrative skill, critical thinking, historicity, culture, aesthetics and ethics central to the humanities and to humanistic social sciences provides a crucial research complement to the endeavors of scientists in addressing current planetary crises, and the mission of Resilience is to share that perspective with a broad academic audience."
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