research topic related to physical education

Physical Education Research Paper Topics

In this guide on physical education research paper topics , we explore a wide range of subjects that delve into the field of physical education. Whether you’re a student studying education or a researcher in the field, this comprehensive list of topics is designed to inspire and guide you in your research endeavors. From examining the impact of physical activity on academic performance to analyzing the effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education, these research paper topics offer a diverse range of areas to explore.

100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics

Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics. These topics span various areas of interest, from the impact of physical education on mental health to the integration of technology in physical education curricula. Each category contains 10 stimulating and thought-provoking physical education research paper topics, providing you with a wide range of options to explore and develop your research.

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Physical Education Curriculum and Instruction

• The integration of technology in physical education curricula.
• The impact of standardized testing on physical education programs.
• Strategies for promoting inclusivity and diversity in physical education classes.
• The role of assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• The effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education.
• Examining the relationship between physical education and academic performance.
• Addressing gender disparities in physical education participation and achievement.
• Incorporating cultural competency in physical education curricula.
• The influence of teacher-student relationships on student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the role of outdoor education in physical education programs.

Physical Activity and Health

• Investigating the effects of physical activity on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between physical activity and obesity rates among children and adolescents.
• Analyzing the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
• Investigating the psychological benefits of regular physical activity.
• The impact of physical activity interventions on sedentary behavior.
• Examining the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function.
• Analyzing the influence of physical activity on sleep patterns.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in promoting healthy aging.
• Investigating the socio-economic factors influencing physical activity participation.

Sports Psychology and Performance

• Understanding the psychological factors influencing sports performance.
• Examining the role of motivation in sports participation and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of imagery and visualization techniques on athletic performance.
• Investigating the effects of stress and anxiety on sports performance.
• Exploring the psychological benefits of team sports participation.
• The influence of leadership styles on team cohesion and performance.
• Analyzing the role of self-confidence in sports performance.
• Understanding the psychological challenges faced by athletes with disabilities.
• Investigating the relationship between personality traits and sports performance.
• Exploring the effects of psychological interventions on sports performance enhancement.

Exercise Physiology and Biomechanics

• Investigating the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise.
• Analyzing the biomechanics of specific movements in sports and exercise.
• Exploring the effects of different training modalities on muscle strength and endurance.
• The role of nutrition in exercise performance and recovery.
• Investigating the effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiovascular fitness.
• Analyzing the biomechanical factors influencing running gait and performance.
• Exploring the physiological responses to altitude training.
• Investigating the effects of aging on exercise capacity and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of environmental factors on exercise performance.
• Understanding the role of genetics in exercise physiology and performance.

Adapted Physical Education

• Examining the benefits and challenges of inclusive physical education programs.
• The role of assistive technology in facilitating physical education for individuals with disabilities.
• Investigating the effectiveness of adapted physical education interventions.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social inclusion in adapted physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive physical education on self-esteem and self-efficacy.
• Understanding the experiences and perceptions of individuals with disabilities in physical education.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting adapted physical education.
• Examining the professional development needs of physical education teachers in inclusive settings.
• Analyzing the influence of policy and legislation on the provision of adapted physical education.
• Exploring the role of peer support in enhancing the participation of individuals with disabilities in physical education.

Physical Education Pedagogy and Teacher Training

• Investigating the impact of professional development programs on physical education teacher effectiveness.
• Exploring the use of technology in enhancing physical education pedagogy.
• Analyzing the role of reflection and self-assessment in physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the factors influencing physical education teacher job satisfaction.
• Understanding the challenges faced by physical education teachers in multicultural classrooms.
• Examining the relationship between teacher-student interaction and student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring effective strategies for managing behavior in physical education classes.
• Analyzing the impact of mentoring and coaching on physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the influence of school climate on physical education teacher motivation and performance.
• Exploring the integration of social-emotional learning in physical education curricula.

Physical Education Policy and Advocacy

• Analyzing the impact of policy on the provision of physical education in schools.
• Investigating the role of advocacy organizations in promoting quality physical education programs.
• Understanding the factors influencing physical education policy adoption and implementation.
• Examining the relationship between physical education policies and student health outcomes.
• Analyzing the impact of budgetary constraints on the quality of physical education programs.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting physical education initiatives.
• Exploring strategies for promoting physical education policy reform.
• Understanding the influence of parental involvement on physical education policy and practice.
• Analyzing the effects of policy changes on physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Investigating the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders towards physical education policies.

Assessment and Evaluation in Physical Education

• Analyzing the effectiveness of different assessment methods in physical education.
• Investigating the use of technology in assessing physical education outcomes.
• Exploring the role of self-assessment and peer assessment in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of authentic assessment in physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of assessment practices on student motivation and engagement in physical education.
• Investigating the alignment between physical education curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
• Exploring the role of formative assessment in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• Understanding the influence of standardized testing on physical education assessment practices.
• Investigating the relationship between assessment practices and equity in physical education.
• Analyzing the use of data-driven decision-making in improving physical education programs.

Physical Education and Technology

• Investigating the use of wearable devices in monitoring physical activity and fitness levels.
• Exploring the impact of virtual reality and augmented reality in physical education.
• Analyzing the role of mobile applications in promoting physical activity and health.
• Understanding the benefits and challenges of online physical education courses.
• Investigating the use of gamification in enhancing student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the influence of exergaming on physical activity participation.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of technology-mediated feedback in physical education.
• Investigating the role of social media in promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles.
• Understanding the integration of technology in physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Exploring the ethical considerations of using technology in physical education.

Physical Education and Social Justice

• Analyzing the relationship between physical education and social inequality.
• Investigating the experiences and perceptions of marginalized groups in physical education.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social justice in physical education curricula.
• Understanding the role of physical education in fostering cultural competence and inclusion.
• Investigating the impact of gender norms on physical education experiences.
• Analyzing the influence of socioeconomic status on access to quality physical education.
• Exploring the intersectionality of race, gender, and physical education experiences.
• Investigating the role of physical education in promoting social-emotional well-being and resilience.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive policies and practices on social justice in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of integrating social justice in physical education pedagogy.

The comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics presented here is just the beginning of your research journey. Delve into the categories, choose a topic that resonates with your interests, and embark on a fascinating exploration of the subject matter. Remember to consider the relevance, significance, and feasibility of your chosen topic, and conduct thorough research to develop a well-informed and insightful research paper. Whether you seek to uncover the benefits of physical activity or analyze the effectiveness of different teaching methods, these topics will inspire you to expand your understanding of physical education and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Physical Education Research Guide

Welcome to the world of physical education research! This page serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers in the field of education who are eager to explore the realm of physical education through the lens of research papers. Physical education plays a vital role in promoting health, wellness, and overall development among individuals of all ages. It encompasses a wide range of physical education research paper topics, from the impact of physical activity on academic performance to the effectiveness of various teaching approaches in physical education.

The primary objective of this page is to provide you with a comprehensive overview of physical education research paper topics. By delving into these topics, you will gain a deeper understanding of the key issues, theories, and practices within the field. The list of topics is categorized into 10 distinct categories, each offering 10 diverse and thought-provoking research paper ideas. Whether you’re interested in exploring the role of technology in physical education or investigating the social and cultural aspects of sports, you’ll find a wealth of ideas to spark your curiosity and fuel your research journey.

In addition to the extensive list of research paper topics, this page also offers expert advice on how to choose the most appropriate topic for your research project. Selecting a compelling and relevant research topic is essential to ensure the success of your study. Our expert guidance will provide you with valuable insights and practical tips to help you navigate through the multitude of options and select a topic that aligns with your interests, research goals, and academic requirements.

Furthermore, we understand that crafting a research paper can be a challenging task. To support your academic journey, we offer custom writing services that allow you to order a personalized research paper on any physical education topic of your choice. Our team of expert degree-holding writers possesses the knowledge and expertise to deliver high-quality, well-researched papers that meet your specific needs. With our commitment to in-depth research, customized solutions, and adherence to formatting styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard, we strive to provide you with a seamless and professional writing experience.

So, whether you’re a student embarking on a research project or a researcher seeking new avenues of exploration, this page is designed to inspire, inform, and empower you in your quest for knowledge in the field of physical education. Let us embark on this exciting journey together as we delve into the fascinating world of physical education research paper topics.

Choosing a Physical Education Topic

When it comes to choosing a research paper topic in the field of physical education, it is crucial to select a subject that aligns with your interests, addresses a relevant issue, and allows for meaningful exploration. To help you make an informed decision, here are ten expert tips on selecting the right physical education research paper topic:

• Identify your passion : Consider the aspects of physical education that you find most fascinating and meaningful. Are you interested in exploring the impact of technology on physical education, the role of physical education in promoting mental health, or the relationship between physical activity and academic performance? By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, you will be more motivated to dive deep into the research and produce an exceptional paper.
• Stay updated with current literature : Regularly review the latest research articles, books, and journals in the field of physical education. This will help you identify emerging trends, controversial topics, and gaps in existing knowledge, enabling you to choose a research topic that is current and relevant.
• Consider the target population : Physical education encompasses various age groups and populations, including children, adolescents, adults, and individuals with special needs. Reflect on which population interests you the most and tailor your research topic accordingly. For example, you may explore the effectiveness of physical education programs for children with disabilities or the impact of physical activity interventions on older adults’ well-being.
• Delve into emerging areas : Explore emerging areas within physical education that are gaining attention, such as inclusive education, adaptive physical education, or the integration of technology in teaching and learning. By choosing a topic in these emerging areas, you can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Address local or global issues : Consider researching topics that address local or global issues in physical education. For instance, you may examine the impact of socio-cultural factors on physical education participation rates in a specific community or analyze the effects of globalization on physical education curriculum development.
• Consult with experts : Seek guidance from professors, academic advisors, or professionals in the field of physical education. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research topics, and help you narrow down your focus based on their expertise and experience.
• Conduct a literature review : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a comprehensive literature review to identify existing studies, theories, and gaps in knowledge. This will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing body of literature.
• Consider research feasibility : Assess the availability of data sources, research methods, and potential challenges associated with your chosen topic. Ensure that you have access to relevant data, research participants (if applicable), and the necessary resources to carry out your study successfully.
• Balance novelty and significance : Strive to find a balance between selecting a novel and unique topic while ensuring its significance within the field of physical education. Aim to choose a topic that adds value to the existing knowledge and has the potential to influence practice or policy in a meaningful way.
• Reflect on personal and professional goals : Consider how your chosen research topic aligns with your personal and professional goals. Will it contribute to your academic and career development? Does it align with your long-term aspirations within the field of physical education? Selecting a topic that resonates with your goals will enhance your motivation and dedication throughout the research process.

Remember, the process of choosing a research paper topic in physical education is iterative. Be open to exploring different ideas, seeking feedback from experts, and refining your topic based on the available resources and research feasibility. By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, addresses a relevant issue, and has the potential for significant impact, you will be well-equipped to embark on a successful research journey in the field of physical education.

How to Write a Physical Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of physical education requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization of ideas. Here are some essential steps to guide you through the process of writing a compelling and well-structured physical education research paper:

• Understand the assignment : Familiarize yourself with the requirements and guidelines provided by your instructor or educational institution. Pay attention to the research question, formatting style, word count, and any specific instructions or expectations.
• Conduct thorough research : Begin by conducting extensive research on your chosen topic. Utilize various sources such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and databases to gather relevant and reliable information. Take detailed notes and ensure that you cite your sources accurately.
• Develop a strong thesis statement : Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that captures the main objective or argument of your research paper. The thesis statement should guide your research and provide a roadmap for the rest of your paper.
• Outline your paper : Create a well-organized outline to structure your research paper. Divide it into sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Outline the main points and supporting evidence you will include in each section.
• Write a compelling introduction : Begin your paper with an engaging introduction that grabs the reader’s attention and provides background information on the topic. Clearly state the purpose of your research, introduce the key concepts, and present your thesis statement.
• Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Dedicate a section of your paper to reviewing relevant literature on the topic. Summarize and analyze existing studies, theories, and perspectives related to your research question. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Describe your research methodology : Explain the research design, methods, and procedures you used to collect and analyze data. Provide a clear description of the participants, materials, and instruments used. Justify the appropriateness of your chosen methods for addressing your research question.
• Present your findings : Share the results of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, or charts to present quantitative data and provide detailed descriptions for qualitative data. Analyze and interpret the findings in relation to your research question.
• Discuss the implications and significance : Analyze the implications of your findings and their significance in the field of physical education. Discuss how your research contributes to the existing knowledge, addresses the research question, and impacts practice or policy.
• Conclude your paper effectively : Summarize the main points of your research paper in the conclusion section. Restate your thesis statement and highlight the key findings and implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and suggest areas for further research.
• Revise and edit : Review your research paper thoroughly for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure proper citation of sources using the required formatting style.
• Seek feedback : Before submitting your final paper, seek feedback from peers, professors, or mentors. Incorporate their suggestions and revisions to improve the overall quality of your research paper.

By following these steps and dedicating sufficient time to each stage of the writing process, you can produce a well-researched and well-structured physical education research paper that effectively contributes to the field.

Order a Custom Research Paper

When it comes to writing a research paper in the field of physical education, it is understandable that you may encounter challenges or time constraints. In such cases, you may consider utilizing professional writing services to order a custom education research paper tailored to your specific needs. Our company offers a range of writing services to assist students like you in achieving their academic goals. Here are the key benefits of ordering a custom education research paper from our services:

• Expert degree-holding writers : Our team of writers consists of highly qualified professionals with advanced degrees in the field of education. They have extensive knowledge and experience in conducting research and writing academic papers, ensuring the highest quality of work.
• Custom written works : We understand the importance of originality in academic writing. Each research paper we deliver is custom-written from scratch, tailored to your specific requirements and guidelines. Our writers conduct thorough research and utilize credible sources to ensure the uniqueness and authenticity of your paper.
• In-depth research : Our writers have access to a wide range of academic resources and databases, enabling them to conduct in-depth research on your chosen topic. They will gather relevant and up-to-date information to support the arguments and claims in your research paper.
• Custom formatting : Our writers are well-versed in various formatting styles commonly used in academic writing, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will ensure that your research paper adheres to the required formatting guidelines.
• Top quality and customized solutions : We prioritize quality and strive to deliver research papers that meet the highest standards. Our writers pay attention to every detail of your requirements and instructions, ensuring a customized solution that reflects your unique perspective and academic level.
• Flexible pricing : We understand that as a student, you may have budget constraints. That’s why we offer flexible pricing options to accommodate your financial needs. Our pricing structure is transparent and competitive, ensuring that you receive excellent value for your investment.
• Short deadlines : If you are facing a tight deadline, our writing services can assist you. We offer short turnaround times, allowing you to place an order with a deadline as short as 3 hours. Our efficient and dedicated team will ensure that your research paper is delivered to you promptly, without compromising on quality.
• Timely delivery : We understand the importance of meeting deadlines. Our writing services prioritize timely delivery, ensuring that you receive your completed research paper within the agreed-upon timeframe.
• Absolute privacy : We prioritize the privacy and confidentiality of our clients. Your personal information and the details of your order will be handled with the utmost confidentiality and will not be shared with any third parties.
• Easy order tracking : Our user-friendly platform allows you to easily track the progress of your order. You can communicate directly with your assigned writer, providing clarifications or additional instructions as needed.
• 24/7 support : Our customer support team is available 24/7 to address any questions or concerns you may have throughout the process. We are here to provide prompt and reliable assistance whenever you need it.
• Money-back guarantee : We are committed to your satisfaction. If, for any reason, you are not satisfied with the quality of the delivered research paper, we offer a money-back guarantee, ensuring that you have a risk-free experience.

Ordering a custom education research paper from our writing services can provide you with the support and expertise you need to excel in your academic endeavors. Our professional writers will work closely with you to ensure that your research paper meets your expectations and fulfills the requirements of your assignment. Take advantage of our services and experience the benefits of a well-crafted and meticulously researched education research paper.

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To take advantage of our writing services, simply visit our website and place an order. Our user-friendly platform makes it easy to submit your paper details and provide any specific instructions or guidelines. You will have the opportunity to select a writer who specializes in physical education or related fields, ensuring that your research paper is in capable hands.

By choosing iResearchNet, you can benefit from our expert degree-holding writers, customized solutions, and in-depth research. We guarantee top-quality work that is formatted according to your preferred style, whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard.

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Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Published by Grace Graffin at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On July 9, 2024

Due to the growing importance of physical education, a majority of educational institutions have introduced it as a subject that students can choose as their major for their graduation. However, what comes with it is submitting a dissertation to complete your degree.

As a student of physical education, you might be in limbo as to which topic you should choose for your dissertation that is unique and relevant. After all, your future is dependent on it. Choosing the right dissertation topic is the first step toward writing a powerful dissertation that is accepted by your professors.

When choosing a physical education dissertation topic, you need to keep in mind that the topic is current, unique and adds value to what you have learned. To help you with the process of choosing the right topic, this blog contains a list of physical education dissertation topics.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question, aim and objectives, literature review, and the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

You can review step by step guide on how to write your dissertation here .

Also read: Education dissertation topics , healthcare dissertation topics , and nursing dissertation topics .

Latest Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the impacts of improving physical education in schools on the development of children’s confidence, endurance and quick integration capability..

Research Aim: The present study aims to investigate the impacts of improving physical education in schools for developing children’s confidence, endurance, and quick integration capability.

Objectives:

• To analyse the importance of physical education in schools for proper growth of children.
• To examine how advanced physical education in schools helps children to develop their confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity.
• To recommend what can be involved in physical education for improvement that may help develop confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity of children.

Topic 2: Analysing different types of fine motor activities to help myriad health issues – a study on autistic children in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explain different types of fine motor activities that help address various health issues, as this study will specifically focus on autistic children in the UK.

• To share comprehensive knowledge about different types of fine motor activities.
• To explain the benefits of practising fine motor activities in addressing different health issues referring to the problem of autism in children in the UK.
• To provide a set of recommendations for the advancement of fine motor activities to address the health problem of autistic children in the UK.

Topic 3: Examining the significance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the significance of integrating physical education into the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

• To explain the benefits of physical education in school for the growth of students.
• To comprehend the importance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.
• To share ideas about how physical education can be integrated and practised in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Topic 4: A study on the use of health rate monitors and health tracking to support the practices of advanced physical education.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the usefulness of heath rate monitors and health tracking that support the practices of advanced physical education.

• To describe the usefulness of health rate monitors and health tracking equipment.
• To interpret the role of health monitors and health tracking to support improved practices in physical education.
• To recommend strategies for how health rate monitors and health tracking can be used to get the best possible results in physical education.

Topic 5: Exploring the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK – a study on people’s changing behaviour during lockdown.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explore the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK and will focus on people’s changing behaviour during the lockdown.

• To explain the effectiveness of computer-based fitness programs and their health benefits.
• To examine how computer-based fitness programs are becoming an increasing trend and popular during the lockdown.
• To suggest strategies for advanced computer-based fitness programs that can help address the changing behaviour of people during the lockdown.

More Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: modern physical education versus the traditional physical education – a comparison.

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to compare the traditional physical education programs and the ones in place today. The research will start by talking about the traditional physical education programs and then introduce the ones that are being practised today. It will then move towards comparing programs one by one. The research will use a secondary data collection method to analyse already published data and conclude which physical education is better.

Topic 2: Assessing the Impact of Physical Education on Mental Health

Research Aim: This research will aim to explore the impact of physical education on mental health. There is a lot of evidence that physical education has a positive impact on the mental health of individuals, and this research will aim to assess the impact of the same. Existing research will be analysed in order to do an in-depth study into the impact of physical education on mental health.

Topic 3: Analysing Student Behavior and Engagement in Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Physical Education classes have been a part of the academic system for years now; however, the understanding and concept of this education are changing. More and more institutions are now emphasising these classes and promoting physical education among students. This research will explore student behaviour and engagement in physical education classes and will suggest effective ways to enhance and increase engagement.

Topic 4: Planning Physical Education Programs to Produce Effective Results

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to understand how physical education programs should be planned in order to produce results that are effective for students. The study will assess currently planned programs in order to evaluate how these should be changed for the better and how they can help produce effective results.

Topic 5: Role of Teachers in Enhancing Students’ Engagement in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim : Teachers always play an important role in academics. This research will explore how important teachers are in physical education in enhancing students’ engagement towards exercise. Given the benefits of physical education, it is essential for teachers to make sure that the right strategies are devised to drive students’ engagement, and the same will be assessed and analysed in this research. The study will also provide effective strategies that teachers should implement in order to produce effective results from student engagement.

Topic 6: Should Physical Education Lessons Differ for Males and Females?

Research Aim: A lot is argued about the physical education curriculum and that lessons should differ for males and females. This research will deep dive into the different lessons that are offered, and based on the analysis, the research will conclude if lessons should differ for males and females. The study will be based on secondary data.

Topic 7: Do Physical Education Classes Promote the Importance of a Healthy Lifestyle?

Research Aim: It is believed that physical education classes promote a healthy lifestyle; however, there is no authentic evidence. This research will aim to prove whether physical education promotes a healthy lifestyle or not. In either case, the research will analyse the impact of physical education on individuals’ lifestyles and how it helps them improve their way of living.

Topic 8: Physical Education and Technology – How Well do the Two Integrate?

Research Aim: Just like other forms of education, physical education and technology integrate well together. With the help of technology, physical education is offered using various aids, for example, visual aids, online classes, examples videos available online and much more. This research will assess how well physical education is offered with the help of technology and how it helps individuals gain access to effective lessons.

Topic 9: Assessing the Effectiveness of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Online physical education classes have emerged popular in the past year. With the pandemic’s major reason, virtual classes have opened a new avenue for physical education classes. This research will aim to assess how effective virtual physical education classes have been and how they have helped in enhancing students’ engagement and interest in these classes.

Topic 10: Accountability in Physical Education Lessons – How do Students Respond?

Research Aim: Just like all other classes hold students responsible and accountable for their learning, physical education should also follow the same pattern. While a lot of people argue against this, this research will weigh both sides. It will discuss and assess the pros and cons of holding students accountable for their physical education and will also talk about how students respond to accountability in these classes.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic 11: Devising Strategies for Different Levels of Physical Education

Research Aim: This research will discuss the various strategies that are needed for devising physical education lessons for different classes. The study will talk about how different grades require a different level of physical education and will then present useful strategies that teachers can devise according to the grade and students’ age.

Topic 12: Should Universities Include Physical Education Lessons in their Curriculum?

Research Aim: Usually, physical education is not a part of universities’ curriculum. It is found in schools’ curricula or colleges, at best. This research will argue whether physical education should be introduced in all universities or not. It will present arguments for both sides, and based on the debate, the study will conclude as to whether introducing physical education in all universities’ curriculum is feasible or not.

Topic 13: Assessing Different Physical Education Teaching Styles and their Impact on Students

Research Aim: Just like the regular subject teachers, physical education teachers also have their own style, and each teacher is different from the other. This research will talk about the set of characteristics and traits that a physical education teacher should possess in order to produce results. The study will also assess the impact of different teaching styles on students to give an in-depth idea as to which style is effective and should be adopted.

Topic 14: Exploring the Challenges in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education comes with its own set of challenges. Not all students are interested in taking these classes; some of them are irregular, some do not respond well, and others do not take instructions seriously. On the flip side, there are challenges related to the instructors as well. This research will discuss challenges on both sides of the coin and will suggest how these challenges can be handled effectively.

Topic 15: Understanding the association between Counseling and Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education is often linked to mental health. A lot of people argue that physical education is essential for people seeking help for their mental health. Thus, this research will go a step ahead and will aim to understand the relationship between counselling and physical education. It will aim to conduct interviews with people who are attending counselling sessions as well as physical education lessons to improve their mental health.

Topic 16: Diet, Physical Education, and Health – How are the three interlinked?

Research Aim: A common misconception is that physical education is all about exercise and sports. This research will aim to bust this myth and show how diet and overall health (mental and physical) are linked to physical education. The study will discuss how the three go hand-in-hand and how one leads to another.

Topic 17: Does Physical Education Enhance Students’ Academic Career?

Research Aim: While physical education does improve an individual’s well-being, does it enhance a student’s academic career as well? This research will aim to understand the same. This thesis will explore how physical education can or cannot help a student achieve his/her academic goals.

Topic 18: Impact of Physical Education on Personality Development – An Analysis

Research Aim: Physical education builds character and develops an individual’s personality, as well. This research will analyse the same and understand how physical education helps in personality development and why educational institutions emphasise and include physical education in their curriculum. The study will assess students who are a part of physical education lessons versus students who are only involved in academics and will then compare the results.

Topic 19: Studying the Impact of Introducing Physical Education in Students’ Early Years

Research Aim: Physical education should be introduced early in a student’s academic life. This is argued by a lot of physical education proponents. This research will study this claim and find out how effective it is for students to be introduced to physical education early in their academic life.

Topic 20: Comparing the Benefits and Challenges of Physical Education

Research Aim: Not many people favour physical education as a subject in schools and colleges. This research will aim to compare the benefits and challenges of physical education lessons by discussing the pros and cons. It will then conclude whether physical education is beneficial for students or not.

Topic 21: The Role of Gender in Employing Physical Education

Research Aim: This research investigates the influence of gender on employment patterns, opportunities, and challenges within the field of physical education. The study focuses on understanding disparities and potential strategies for achieving greater gender equity in employment.

Topic 22: The Impact of Physical Education in Reducing Obesity in Students

Research Aim: This study examines the effectiveness of physical education programs in reducing obesity among students. The research also explores the various components of these programs, such as curriculum design, duration, intensity, and extracurricular support. It aims to identify the key factors that contribute to successful obesity reduction outcomes and to provide evidence-based recommendations for optimising physical education interventions to combat obesity effectively in school-aged children.

Topic 23: Exploring the Impact of Visual Aids in PE Teaching

Research Aim: This study investigates the impact of incorporating visual aids in physical education (PE) teaching practices. It seeks to explore how visual aids, like videos influence student engagement and the overall effectiveness of PE instruction. Additionally, the research aims to identify best practices for integrating visual aids into PE curriculum and pedagogy. It offers insights to enhance teaching methods and improve the learning experience for students in physical education settings.

Topic 24: Investigating the Impact of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: This research investigates the impact of virtual physical education (PE) classes on student engagement and physical activity levels. It seeks to explore how virtual PE instruction affects achieving learning outcomes comparable to traditional in-person classes. The study further examines virtual PE’s potential benefits and challenges, including accessibility, technology integration, and instructor-student interactions. 

Topic 25: An Analysis of the Physical and Mental Health of Students After PE

Research Aim: This study aims to conduct an analysis of the physical and mental health outcomes of students following participation in physical education (PE) classes. It explores the immediate and long-term effects of PE on physical fitness, cardiovascular health, mental well-being, and academic performance. Additionally, it explores factors influencing these outcomes, such as the intensity and duration of PE sessions and instructor effectiveness. 

Topic 26: Exploring the Need for Physical Education at the College Level to Improve the Mental Health of Students

Research Aim: This research explores the importance of physical education (PE) programs at the college level in enhancing the mental health of students. It investigates the benefits of incorporating physical activity into college curricula, including its impact on stress reduction, mood regulation, and overall psychological well-being. The research also identifies barriers and facilitators to implementing PE initiatives in higher education settings and assesses student attitudes and perceptions towards such programs. 

Topic 27: Investigating How Physical Activity Can Improve the Immune System in Adults

Research Aim: This study investigates the relationship between physical activity and immune system function in adults. It explores the impact of regular exercise on various aspects of immune function, including immune cell activity and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Additionally, the research examines mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effects of physical activity, such as changes in inflammation levels and metabolic health.

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Articles on Physical education

Displaying 1 - 20 of 39 articles.

Too many disabled young people are missing out on PE – here’s how that could change

Janine Coates , Loughborough University and Lesley Sharpe , University of Lincoln

In sports-mad Australia, new research suggests physical education can be undervalued at school

Casey Peter Mainsbridge , University of New England ; Cassandra Iannucci , Deakin University ; John Williams , University of Canberra , and Shane Pill , Flinders University

Thanks to Paris 2024, my kid wants to be an Olympian. What do I do now?

Alberto Filgueiras , CQUniversity Australia

New government guidance for PE lets teachers and pupils down

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Alan Thomson , University of Central Lancashire , and Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire

Is exercise really good for the brain? Here’s what the science says

Matthieu P. Boisgontier , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa and Boris Cheval , Université de Genève

Girls should get the chance to play football at school – but PE needs a major rehaul for all students

Shrehan Lynch , University of East London

School playgrounds are getting squeezed: here are 8 ways to keep students active in small spaces

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University ; Jessica Amy Sears , Charles Sturt University , and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Outdoor education has psychological, cognitive and physical health benefits for children

Jean-Philippe Ayotte-Beaudet , Université de Sherbrooke and Felix Berrigan , Université de Sherbrooke

London’s Olympic legacy: research reveals why £2.2 billion investment in primary school PE has failed teachers

Vicky Randall , University of Winchester and Gerald Griggs

How sport can help young people to become better citizens

Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania and Casey Peter Mainsbridge , University of Tasmania

Missing out on PE during lockdowns means students will be playing  catch-up

Jora Broerse , Victoria University ; Cameron Van der Smee , Federation University Australia , and Jaimie-Lee Maple , Victoria University

Disabled children still face exclusion in PE – here’s what needs to change

Tom Gibbons , Teesside University and Kevin Dixon , Northumbria University, Newcastle

Taking the circus to school: How kids benefit from learning trapeze, juggling and unicycle in gym class

Marion Cossin , Université de Montréal

Thinking of choosing a health or PE subject in years 11 and 12? Here’s what you need to know

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Aussie kids are some of the least active in the world. We developed a cheap school program that gets results

Taren Sanders , Australian Catholic University ; Chris Lonsdale , Australian Catholic University ; David Lubans , University of Newcastle ; Michael Noetel , The University of Queensland , and Philip D Parker , Australian Catholic University

When men started to obsess over  six-packs

Conor Heffernan , The University of Texas at Austin

PE can do much more than keep children fit – but its many benefits are often overlooked

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire , and Robin Taylor , University of Central Lancashire

Distance learning makes it harder for kids to exercise, especially in low-income communities

Katelyn Esmonde , Johns Hopkins University and Keshia Pollack Porter , Johns Hopkins University

Kids need physical education – even when they can’t get it at school

Collin A. Webster , University of South Carolina

Learning through adventure: the many skills that can be taught outside the classroom

Gary Stidder , University of Brighton

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Senior Lecturer in Health and Physical Education, University of Tasmania

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Lecturer in Physical Education & Sport / Course Leader MA in Physical Education and School Sport, University of Central Lancashire

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Reader in Sports Science (Clinical Physiology), University of Essex

Senior Lecturer in Personal Devlopment, Health and Physical Education, University of New England

Assistant Professor of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science

Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, University of Edinburgh

Senior University Lecturer in Dietary Public Health Research, University of Cambridge

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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Physical Education and Sports: A Backbone of the Entire Community in the Twenty-First Century

Jean de dieu habyarimana, etienne tugirumukiza.

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Correspondence: [email protected]

Received 2022 May 27; Accepted 2022 Jun 9; Collection date 2022 Jun.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

The current state of physical inactivity of people can be traced back to the people who have been denied their fundamental human right to physical education and participation in school sports (PES). Growing up without the fundamental human right to free movement and participation in sports activities enabled students to stay physically inactive. The purpose of this study was to explore what is currently known about the role of PES in all areas of human development and SDGs and to raise awareness about PES, which has been shown to be on the decline. To increase the study’s overall efficacy, an external desk research approach was employed to gather relevant information published online: reports, policies, charters, recommendations, and other relevant articles from various electronic databases and websites of international organizations responsible for PES, culture, and health. PES benefits are discussed in all domains of human development, including physical and mental health, cognitive, psychosocial, and moral benefits. Contrary to its importance to human growth as a whole, PES has been sidelined since the end of the twentieth century. An awareness of the subject of PES has thus been raised as a backbone of the entire community in the twenty-first century, so as to translate the promises and policies of PES into realities and practices.

Keywords: Physical Education and Sports, cognitive, physical, affective, health, social, moral, culture, SDGs

1. Introduction

One of the most significant current discussions in physical exercises and public health is that a decline in PES leads to a corresponding decline in physical activity (PA), which contributes to an increase in hypokinetic diseases among school-aged children and adolescents. PES (a planned, sequential K–12 standards-based program with written curricula and appropriate instruction designed to develop the motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence), according to SHAPE America [ 1 ], has the potential to make distinctive contributions to the development of children’s fundamental movement skills and physical competences, as well as support the development of social skills and behaviors, self-esteem, and preschool attitudes, and in certain circumstances, academic and cognitive development, according to Bailey [ 2 ].

The overall goal of PES is to make its pedagogical approach of educating the body to be permanent by teaching children about movement and developing the necessary skills to become proficient in many kinds of PA, as stated by Guedes [ 3 ], as well as to develop the patterns and interest in PA, which are essential for healthy development and lay the foundations for adult healthy lifestyle, as reported by ICSSPE [ 4 ]. According to SHAPE America [ 1 ], the purpose of PES is to develop the motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence. In other words, UNESCO [ 5 ] elucidated that PES should be effectively implemented in order to provide a platform for broad social inclusion and develop the skills and knowledge necessary to define new forms of global citizenship. In this regard, UNESCO [ 6 ] proclaimed that the practice and full participation in PES is a fundamental human right for all. In this light, Wright et al. [ 7 ] substantiated that the school setting remains one of the conducive environments for promoting a physically active lifestyle among children and adolescents.

However, as stated by UNESCO [ 5 ], Weedon et al. [ 8 ], and Louis [ 9 ], PES is on the decline. PES declination has been strongly evidenced by UNESCO [ 10 ] in its survey conducted in all regions across the globe, revealing that (a) PES is being replaced by core subjects such as mathematics, the science subjects, language, arts, etc.; (b) PES-allocated curriculum time is being diverted to such core subjects; (c) PES teachers are being assigned other duties, such as logistics; and (d) PES is being replaced by cleaning or sending students home. On a related note, UNESCO [ 10 ] has stated that PES has lower esteem and status compared to other subjects. This was especially noticeable in North America, Africa, and the Middle East, with 77%, 69%, and 65%, respectively. Subsequently, the average time allocated to PES in primary and secondary schools remains low, i.e., 97 and 99 min, as against an ideal of 120 and 180 min in primary and secondary schools, respectively. Apart from insufficient curriculum time allocation, cancellation of PES lessons has also been reported to the extent of 100% in North America, 65% in both Africa and the Middle East, and 52% in Latin America/Caribbean, according to UNESCO [ 10 ].

On account of this PES downturn, the prevalence of global physical inactivity among children and youth has been observed to be particularly high. For instance, the findings of a research study conducted by Guthold et al. [ 11 ] reported that 81% of adolescents were not physically active, of which 77.6% and 84.7% were boys and girls, respectively. Another example of what Guthold et al. [ 11 ] meant is that observed by Kimm et al. [ 12 ], who reported a 100% and 64% decline in habitual leisure-time PA for African-American girls and White girls by the age of 16 or 17 years old, respectively. From this standpoint, it was noted that such a decline in PA increases with age, particularly in high-income countries, according to Hallal et al. [ 13 ] and Corder et al. [ 14 ]. More recently, Remmers et al. [ 15 ], Telama and Yang [ 16 ], and Caspersen et al. [ 17 ] published research studies that show that PA decline occurs between the ages of 12 and 13 years onwards. At this point, it is worth noting that Aubert et al. [ 18 ] observed that more than 70% of youngsters in various countries do not meet the PA level needed for a healthy life. Increasingly important is the fact that only 20% of the world’s adolescents are physically active, according to WHO [ 19 ].

In a similar vein, it has been pointed out that one in four, equivalent to 23% of adults, and three in four, equivalent to 81%, of adolescents aged 11–17 years do not meet the global WHO recommendations on PA for health, according to UN-Habitat [ 20 ].

In view of this emerging physical inactivity, sedentary health-based diseases and disorders, as well as the global health crisis, remain unresolved issues. According to Toschke et al. [ 21 ], chronic diseases have been particularly prevalent among children and adolescents, due to a lack of effective PA. To further clarify this, according to WHO [ 22 ] and Lin et al. [ 23 ], over 340 million children and adolescents aged 5–19 were classified as overweight or obese in 2016, while 476.0 million children and adolescents were diagnosed with diabetes mellitus in 2017.

Increasingly, negative consequences in various domains such as physical (worsened bone density, strength, and flexibility), psychological (increase in the occurrence of major depression, poor concentration and self-esteem, negative bullying), and academic (decrease in standardized test grade) have also been reported by Rasberry et al. [ 24 ]. Above all, physical inactivity was ranked third among the six risk factors, accounting for 19% of global fatalities and 7% of global DALYs. Moreover, according to WHO [ 25 ], physical inactivity is responsible for 21–25%, 27%, and 30% of breast and colon cancer burden, diabetes, and ischemic heart disease burden.

In another example, WHO [ 26 ] reported that mental health conditions currently account for 16% of the global burden of diseases and injury in children aged 10–19 years old. In this light, depression has been identified as one of the leading causes of illness and disability among adolescents. Similarly, suicide is reported as the third leading cause of death in children aged 15–19 years old.

Physical inactivity is increasingly recognized as a serious, worldwide public health concern, especially among young people (school-aged children and adolescents). This is happening at a time when PES, which has been shown to be a single subject with the potential to provide the students with various benefits, including health-related ones, UNESCO [ 5 ] (p. 6) is on the decline. In fact, it is evident that the entire community is suffering from a physical inactivity epidemic, especially among young people. As such, research to date has tended to focus on PA rather than PES.

This current paper therefore seeks to remedy these problems by analyzing the significance of PES in various domains identified as cognitive, physical, affective, healthy, social, moral, cultural domains, and SDGs as well as raising an awareness of PES in order to encourage governments, organizations responsible for PES, and schools to translate promises into practice.

2. Brief Background of PES

The starting point of PES can be traced back to the early societies, whereby their education philosophy was, according to Van Dalen and Bennett [ 27 ], education for survival. In this regard, the purpose of education was to ensure the survival of society. Thus, the curriculum was made up of courses such as hunting, throwing, running, jumping, etc., in line with strengthening the people to find food and protect their families against harmful animals and other disasters.

In a similar vein, the philosophical foundation of ancient Greeks on education was the notion of dualism, which, in the Greek curriculum, was featured under two components, namely gymnastics and academics, according to Laker [ 28 ]. In essence, education aimed to ensure the aesthetic and physical development of the body by means of sport; specifically, Sparta promoted PES by targeting military fitness, as opposed to the more holistic education for Athens.

During the Dark Ages, the aims of developing the body and mind equally that came from the Greek civilization, which considered the body as a partner or guardian of the mind and soul, became devalued. Later on, during the Renaissance (rebirth, discovery age), the development of a complete person as a priority was recovered by the Greeks, since such fully educated people were in need to take their place in a polite and cultured society. Hence, PES as a component of holistic education was in service of the needs of the society, according to Laker [ 28 ]. Until around 1820, much of focus of schools was on PES expressed in gymnastics, hygiene training, and care and development of the human body. By the year 1950, major courses in PES had been introduced in over 400 institutes to promote PES.

Even though this was considered an outstanding progress, it did not lead to the success of PES as a legitimate subject in all schools worldwide. The evidence suggests that, later in the 20th century (1970s–1980s), PES suffered a strong decline that is associated with the increased availability of other subjects, whereby the attention, time, and values assigned to PES were shifted to academics, according to Excite Education [ 29 ].

Consequently, it was noted that both pedagogy professionals and practitioners failed to assume their responsibilities of clarifying the nature of the field at the school level and advocating for its restoration in order to address the PES crisis, as claimed by Guedes [ 3 ]. Realizing this crisis, UNESCO initiated and enforced the international charter of PES across the world on 21 November 1978.

With the PES decline, the International Council for Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) was established to tackle the problem at hand. It is in this context that the first international summit was organized on 3–5 November 1999 in Berlin by ICSSPE with support from the International Olympic Committee (IOC), United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and WHO, bringing together policymakers, physical education practitioners from around the world, researchers, and administrators to share all necessary information concerning PES.

Reporting his observations, Hardman [ 30 ] documented his findings from the international summit which reaffirmed the perilous position of PES to the extent that the UNESCO’s 1978 international charter of PES was found to be unimplemented. What is more, it was noted that PES was pushed into a defensive position under which it faced a reduction of curriculum time allocation, deficient resources (financial, material, and human), and marginalization associated with low value, status, and esteem by authorities. Until now, there has been a need to turn promises into realities and policies into actions if threats are to be vanquished and a convenient future for PES is to be maintained.

3. Material and Methods

This review was conducted by adopting the external desk research method from Mangal and Shubhra [ 31 ] used to enhance the overall effectiveness of the research. For the purpose of this study, a comprehensive search was carried out to retrieve related reports, policies, charters, guidelines, international position statements, and support statements, as well as other relevant documents and articles. For the sake of documenting the analysis method, as well as inclusion criteria, a search protocol was designed in advance. In so doing, a search strategy for the identification of works in the relevant literature containing key terms in their title and abstract was developed. This search strategy was tailored to Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Eric. The search terms used with Boolean Operators were “physical education and school sports” AND “cognitive OR physical OR affective OR healthy OR social OR moral OR culture” OR “Sustainable development goals”.

The search focus was mainly on the existing English literature related to the role of PES in the field of social sciences and health sciences. Thus, it was narrowed to subject areas identified as PA, sports, recess, recreation, and dance. The researchers included study publications, reports, and data and information from census or other scientific data-collection procedures to ensure validity and dependability. Thus, in light of preventing personal bias, information and data collected from personal diaries, newspapers, and magazines were excluded from this study. Similarly, the researchers ensured that the relevant data were available before undertaking further stages of this study in order to avoid making assumptions about the availability of the required data.

4. Benefits of Physical Education and School Sports

The European parliament 2007 resolution [ 32 ] declared the following: “PES has the propensity to make significant and distinctive contributions to children, schools and wider society: respect for the body, integrated development of mind and body, understanding of PA in health promotion, psycho-social development (self-esteem and self-confidence), social and cognitive development and academic achievement, socialisation and social skills (tolerance and respect for others, co-operation and cohesion, leadership, team spirit, antidote to antisocial behavior) and aesthetic, spiritual, emotional and moral (fair play, character-building) development, a panacea for resolution of the obesity epidemic, inactivity crisis and sedentary lifestyle, enhancement of quality of life etc.”.

PES, according to SHAPE America [ 1 ] creates a framework of life skills that shapes the whole person, encouraging smart choices and cultivating a healthy lifestyle, while both PA and effective PES are proven essential elements in the formative growth of children and adolescents, as well as an evidence-based approach to improving academics and benefiting students’ physical, cognitive, and mental health. The section hereunder therefore explored the role of PES under cognitive, physical, affective, healthy, social, moral, cultural domains and SDGs.

4.1. Cognitive, Academic Performance and Brain Health

A healthier body, academic performance, cognitive development, and lifelong brain health have all been linked to the time students spent participating in PA either as a one-time event or habitual. As a matter of fact, Plato, Aristotle, and Rousseau, the classical scholars of education in the 18th century, contended that the development of the body has to balance that of the mind [ 33 ].

To bring to light the issue of improved academic performance and cognitive development through PES, several studies have been carried out to establish the contribution of PES in improving students’ cognitive development, brain health, and academic achievements.

As a matter of concern, improvement in measures of cognitive skills and attitudes are positively benefited from improved PA engagement level in PES. Hence, participating in a prolonged PA at school helps the students to increase their cognitive preparation processes because of a more effective working memory network, as reported by Boykin and Allen [ 34 ], Oja and Jürimäe [ 35 ], Reynolds and Nicolson [ 36 ], and Kamijo et al. [ 37 ].

In the same way, cognitive benefits such as executive function are accrued from PA participation no matter how long it lasts or how intense or frequent it is. Rather, Budde et al. [ 38 ] found that even a single occurrence of high-quality PA can improve children’s or teenagers’ executive function scores in an executive function test.

More importantly, Kramer et al. [ 39 ] bolstered that participating in PA improves not only cognitive development and academic performance of the students involved but also contributes significantly to maintaining healthier cognition in adulthood and even at old age. Thus, there is evidence that early childhood participation in PA helps in combating cognitive aging.

Equally important is the fact that improved academic performance has been closely associated with PA participation in conditions where students need to spend a certain period of time with a given intensity or in some cases frequently/repetitively.

In this case, Donnelly and Lambourne [ 40 ] established that regular participation in PES increases the students’ academic performance. This is evident in the case of Bartholomew and Jowers [ 41 ], who noted that better attention in the classroom, as well as on-task behaviors and concentration, is influenced by PES, which, in turn, results in improved academic performance.

The next similarity is an assertion made by Hillman et al. [ 42 ], emphasizing the function of PES in improving attention allocation and working memory to a single cognitive activity completed, regardless of the intensity and time constraints. A supportive view of Hillman et al.’s assertion was articulated by McNaughten and Gabbard [ 43 ], who stressed that even a short bout of PA equivalent to 30 min positively affects cognitive functioning in school-aged children.

Other researchers have also revealed that the positive effect of PES is more likely to be achieved provided that PA is delivered over a long period of time. In this regard, Gabbard and Barton [ 44 ] emphasized that a significant improvement in academic achievement such as mathematics performance is achieved through long participation in PA for at least 50 min. On a related note, the CDC [ 32 ] insisted that PES serves a positive impact on academic achievement if the overall PES time is increased.

In a similar light, it has been indicated that students’ executive functions such as attention and inhibition, healthy attentional process, perceptual skills, intellectual quotient, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, readiness, cognition, and emotional regulation and balance are increased when PES subject is given a high priority by allocating more time to engage students in moderate-to-vigorous PA, which results in overall academic performance, according to Sallis and Owen [ 45 ]; Verdine et al. [ 46 ]; Etnier and Sibley [ 47 ]; and Stevens [ 48 ].

As far as brain health is concerned in relation to PES, different researchers have conducted a variety of studies and come up with different views about the benefits of PA to brain health. PA affects the physiology of the students’ brain by increasing cerebral capillary growth, blood flow, oxygenation, production of neurotrophins, growth of nerve cells in the hippocampus, neurotransmitter levels, development of nerve connections, density of neural network, and brain tissue volume, according to Trudeau and Shephard [ 49 ], Hillman et al. [ 50 ]; and Rosenbaum et al. [ 51 ]. Greater attention, information processing, storage, and retrieval; improved coping and positive effect; and reduced cravings and pain sensations have all been linked to physiological changes in the brain.

Hills [ 33 ] argued that active engagement in PES improves academic performance by increasing blood flow to the brain, increasing mental alertness, enhancing mood, and increasing self-esteem. Consistent with the findings of Hills is the findings of Shephard [ 52 ], which stated that changes in cognitive functioning (increased blood flow into the brain, increased level of arousal, and stimulated brain development) are a reflection of any improvement in academic performance after engaging in PES.

Contrary to the above are the opposing views obtained from other studies undertaken to ascertain the cognitive, academic performance, and brain health benefits achieved through participation in PES; they revealed no relationship between these variables, even though the former determined the significant impact. Such contradictions are dependent on the dose prescribed to PES so as to offer the benefits ascribed to it.

Fisher et al. [ 53 ] argued that active participation in PES has no correlation with academic performance. Moreover, Ahamed et al. [ 54 ] found no significant difference between the treatment and control group in a standardized cognitive abilities test after 16 months of a classroom-based PA intervention under a cluster randomized trial.

In the same way, Tinning and Kirk [ 55 ] found no difference in academic subjects between the students who were allocated 90 min/day participating in PA and those who had not been engaged in such a program. Parallel to these opposing views, Melnick et al. [ 56 ] found no or a trivial correlation between active participation in PES and academic achievement.

Another point to note is the null findings that were revealed between the contribution of PA and the cognitive or healthier brain. According to the null findings, PES is established neither to harm nor to benefit the students with cognitive development, academic performance, and brain health while engaging in PES. In this specific instance, on the completion of his study, Bailey [ 57 ] noted that increased PES time does not negatively affect cognition. Moreover, Trudeau et al. [ 58 ] and Trudeau and Shephard [ 59 ] confirmed that PES has no ill effect on academic learning.

The aforementioned existing literature that we reviewed presented contradictory views about the contributing benefits of PA to cognitive development, academic performance, and brain health of the concerned students, whereby some researchers revealed a significant association between these variables, while others found no relationship, regardless of those that claimed null findings.

Due to this inconsistency, in contrast to several research studies that undoubtedly confirmed various benefits of PES, it is clear that robust longitudinal cause-and-effect research is needed to explore the role of participation in a particular PA on cognitive development, academic performance, and brain health, since disagreements remain rampant on whether the relationship between PA and academic achievement is causal. It is also clear that further understanding is needed to ascertain the level of intensity and duration that children need to reach so as to fully gain the cognitive benefits available by participating in PA. However, much work still needs to be performed in order to examine the appropriate type of physical exercises to be undertaken concerning culture, gender, and age level of students such as children and adolescents that can lead to cognitive benefits, since educational demands change as children and adolescents change. Therefore, PES should be one of the compulsory subjects that is allocated appropriate time on schools’ timetable to expose students to a planned exercises providing the students with the opportunity to gain such benefits regardless of dose or intensity.

4.2. Physical Domain

PA has been established as one of the leading factors influencing physical health by curbing the causes of diseases, reducing the risk of chronic diseases, enhancing efficient functioning of the body, and providing remedial benefits, as well as health-related fitness within childhood and adolescence; and it continues throughout adulthood and old age toward a satisfactory future life, according to Sallis and Owen [ 45 ]; Bailey [ 57 ]; and Fernandes and Sturm [ 60 ].

In essence, Bailey [ 57 ] emphasized that PES significantly benefits the participants with general health through efficient functioning of the body; the remedial benefits include the correction of poor posture and the developmental benefits such as assisting the natural pattern of growth of the child.

Consistent with the view of Bailey are the emerging points documented by several researchers who argued that participating in quality PES improves the physical status of the participants in terms of body mass index, resulting in a normal weight within the school period and in the future. Fernandes and Sturm [ 60 ] pointed out that effective participation in PES diminishes the potential for future mass increase among children. In their own words, Madsen et al. stated, “more physical education is associated with lower Body Mass Index scores” [ 61 ]. On a related note, Cawley et al. [ 62 ] made it clear that PES lowers both body mass index and the probability of obesity among grade-five male students. This was also exemplified in the work undertaken by Freedman et al. [ 63 ], who substantiated that engaging in quality PES from early childhood prevents obesity, which, indeed, starts at childhood and persists all through life, leading to the risk of being affected by hypokinetic diseases such as coronary heart diseases and diabetes.

Another supporter of PES and health-related fitness, Sdrolias [ 64 ], in his study undertaken in secondary schools, contended that quality PES results in a significant improvement in health-related fitness and psychological well-being in high-school students. Similarly, it has been noted that PES reduces the odds of being an overweight adult by 5% each day per week, while normal-weight children are 25% more likely to be normal-weight adults if they participate in PES at least five days per week, according to Mensschik et al. [ 65 ].

The most obvious and important benefit of active PA engagement is the significant improvement in health-related fitness components (aerobic fitness, muscle strength and endurance, flexibility, and body shape) in both school-aged children and adolescents, due to active PA participation. To bring this assertion to light, Chen et al. [ 66 ] examined the relationship between students’ physical fitness components and PA and noted that engaging in PES and recess, as well as sports/dance, significantly influences the overall health-related physical fitness. This finding is in line with the findings of the study conducted by Sallis et al. [ 67 ], who ascertained a significant association between the level of PA and health-related physical fitness among school-aged children and adolescents.

Unfortunately, PES, a single curriculum subject under which school-aged children and adolescents are supposed to gain opportunities to engage in quality Pas, UNESCO [ 5 ] (p. 6), has been mostly sidelined to the extent that physical inactivity has been declared one of the leading causes of death, disability, and insufficient quality of life, particularly in the Western world, according to USDHHS [ 68 ]. On the other hand, UNESCO [ 10 ] reported that PES is globally cancelled at 44%, despite the fact that it has been confirmed globally to be a compulsory subject, at 97%. This is a fact that indicates the inconsistency in translating policies into implementations. It is therefore clear that PES needs to be fully restored and maintained in schools by exposing the students to quality PES instruction within a recommended time depending on school level (elementary/secondary) or gender to serve its physical benefits to the students.

4.3. Affective Domain

Currently, affection is understood as a psychological and emotional well-being with associated components, namely mastery motivation, sense of autonomy, moral character, confidence, emotion, preference, choice, feeling, beliefs, attitudes, and appreciations, according to NRCIM [ 69 ].

At the same time, many affective benefits, such as happiness, enjoyment, and self-confidence, have been associated with active participation in PA. WHO [ 70 ], in its study about sports and children, validated that participation in PES improves self-esteem, self-perception, and psychological well-being of the participants.

As Gilman [ 71 ] has noted, the students who participate in PA experience more happiness compared to those who do not participate. A view that supported Gilman’s assertion is articulated by Bailey et al. [ 72 ], who pointed out that the 1909 syllabus clearly points out the affective outcomes of physical exercises as producing a cheerful and a joyful mood, as well as the expression of emotion. Some other interested researchers went further to determine the role of such happiness/enjoyment in future PA participation. Williams and Gill [ 73 ] and Sonstroem [ 74 ] reported that such happiness experienced within PA reinforces self-esteem, which, in turn, enhances further participation. Kimiecik and Harris [ 75 ] made it clear that such happiness also improves intrinsic motivation, which lowers anxiety, thus increasing participation.

Along the same lines, other studies have revealed some psychological benefits of PES participation. Mutrie and Parfitt [ 76 ] indicated that a positive correlation exists between PA participation and psychological benefits such as the reduction of stress, anxiety, and depression, as well as emotional growth and expression. Active engagement in PES reduces anxiety and depression and increases positive mood, self-esteem, and restful sleep, according to Dunn et al. [ 77 ] and Landers [ 78 ].

Although these aforementioned findings may be valid, a view that contradicts the former is that of Steptoe et al. [ 79 ], who rejected the opinion of a positive association between PA and affective domain of human development after he conducted a study across 21 countries which involved 16,000 undergraduate students. He established a negative correlation between PA, exercises, and depression symptoms.

After all, not much is known about the mechanisms by which such dimensions of affective development occur, according to Dishman [ 80 ]. Increasingly, Thirlaway and Benton [ 81 ] raised an existing confusion that it is unknown whether some forms of PA are more or less beneficial to the improvement of the affective domain than others. Whereas other arguments have rejected the idea that all groups experience psychological benefits from being active.

To this end, it is clear that PES needs to be resumed and should serve the students with all affective benefits discussed in the aforementioned literature. Although much research still needs to be performed in order to ascertain the genuine mechanism and appropriate form of PA that is more likely to serve affective benefits to the students, qualified, trained, and competent teachers are needed to instruct the students through some instructional curriculum models such as sports education, teaching personal and social responsibility, cooperative learning, etc., that are evidenced to promote the affective domain.

4.4. Healthy Domain

Earlier in the middle of the 20th century, PES targeting health-related fitness came into existence. This is undoubtedly due to the evidence that indicates the function of PES in improving the quality of life through its benefits to the muscles, bones, joints, heart, and mental health, just to mention a few, among school-aged children and adolescents who continue to adulthood and old age. In this regard, several studies have been conducted to find out the role of PES in maintaining health and preventing the causes of some diseases that emerge as a result of a sedentary health style.

According to the Institute of Medicine (IOM) [ 82 ], PA has several benefits in regard to various aspects of health, such as improved aerobic capacity, muscle and bone strength, flexibility, insulin sensitivity, and lipid profiles, resulting in the reduction of the risk of heart diseases, mental illness, and other chronic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, obesity, etc. These findings of IOM are in line with the findings of Bloomfield et al. [ 83 ], who carried out a research study on the role of PA on the life of the participants’ skeleton, bones, joints, and muscles. The findings of their study revealed that there is an increase in mineral accrual; an increase in bone strength which, in turn, reduces the risk of osteoporosis-related fracture; and, ultimately, an improvement in muscle strength, flexibility, coordination, and balance, as these are found to be significantly influenced by PA participation. A supportive view was observed in the study conducted by Masurier and Corbin [ 84 ], who reported that active participation in regular PA significantly reduced the risk of major chronic diseases such as heart diseases, high blood pressure, stroke, some forms of cancer, diabetes, and osteoporosis. On a related note, WHO [ 85 ] substantiated that PA enhances physical fitness in the areas of cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness; improves cardiometabolic health, particularly in blood pressure, dyslipidemia, glucose, and insulin resistance; improves bone health, mental health, and cognitive achievement; and reduces visceral adiposity.

More importantly, the literature shows that PA is beneficial to people of all ages, including children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly, provided people effectively participate in it. Hallal et al. [ 86 ] noted that the future morbidity (risk of fracture) is influenced by early PA, which is of great importance in the treatment, as well as the reduction in the rate and the severity of, some hypokinetic diseases in children and adolescents. Focusing particularly on children, the CDC [ 87 ] elucidated that engaging in PES and recess at school contributes much to improving cardiorespiratory and muscle fitness, as well as the promotion of a healthier body weight and body composition in children. Supporting this advancement of the CDC, the USDHHS [ 68 ], the CDC [ 87 ], and Bauman [ 88 ] asserted that a lower rate of chronic diseases such as coronary heart diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, and some types of cancer; and the reduction of premature death are some of the benefits adults gain due to actively engaging in PA.

Nonetheless, a controversy has erupted over the most effective PA dose, including the type, intensity, and frequency required to provide students with such health-related benefits. On the one hand, some scholars claimed that no matter how long, how intensely, or repetitively you engage in PA, benefits will be accrued. On the other hand, the researchers emphasized that there is need for a specific dose standard that must be met in PES so as to obtain the benefits accruable in PES. Of utmost importance is the fact that intense and frequent aerobic PA has been strongly evidenced to provide many health-related benefits.

Boreham et al. [ 89 ] and Imperatore et al. [ 90 ] ascertained that aerobic endurance corresponds with high-density lipoproteins, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, body mass index, measures of fatness and insulin sensitivity, and arterial stiffness. Associated with the views of Boreham et al. [ 89 ] and Imperatore et al. [ 90 ] are the findings of the experimental study undertaken by Davis et al. [ 91 ] which indicated a reduction in body fat among children and adolescents suffering from obesity or overweight when made to start aerobic exercises early in the program.

Taking into account the intensity and duration of aerobic PA, Baquet et al. [ 92 ] bolstered that regular moderate or vigorous intensified aerobic exercises undertaken within 30–45 min per session three days per week within three months resulted in increased cardiorespiratory endurance by 5–15% in youth. Similar to frequent PA, Corbin et al. [ 93 ] revealed that participating in PA improves immunological function and curbs the symptoms of arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia.

Masurier and Corbin [ 84 ] stressed that early PA in life acts similar to a vaccine for many diseases which attack the body later in life, and it also reduces the risk of diseases, thus improving the quality of life. Equally important are the health-related benefits from anaerobic physical activities, i.e., strength training or resistance exercises. In this case, Faigenbaum [ 94 ] established that anaerobic physical exercises positively enhance the quality of different aspects of the health of participants such as cardiovascular fitness, body composition, blood lipid profiles, and insulin sensitivity. Consistently, MacKelvie [ 95 ] insisted that strength training improves bone mineral density and bone geometry.

As far as PES and mental health are concerned, mental illness has been regarded as a global burden. This is because, by 2010, mental illness accounted for 15% of the global disease burden, according to Biddle and Mutrie [ 96 ] and Biddle and Asare [ 97 ]. Young people are particularly vulnerable to mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, and the rest of the mental health disorders. Though mental illness may seem alarming, evidence has shown that PA can help to reduce and avoid mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression, as well as improve other elements of well-being, leading to long-term mental health, according to Ahn and Fedewa [ 98 ], and IOM [ 82 ]. Similarly, Ahn and Fedewa [ 98 ], Simms et al. [ 99 ], Biddle and Mutrie [ 96 ], and Dishman et al. [ 100 ] reported that active participation in PA lowers or reduces depression and its symptoms, anxiety and its sensitivity (a precursor to panic attacks and disorders), physiological distress, state of confusion, anger, and stress. It also improves mental health, dietary choices, and mood.

From the aforementioned literature we reviewed, PES has a substantial association with various aspects of health, including the body, skeleton, organs, and mental health.

In contrast, a sedentary health lifestyle is currently a major determinant of people’s health outcomes throughout their lives; an issue that could be linked to a lack of effective PES, which increases the risk of developing chronic diseases such as hypertension and coronary heart disease; mental health issues such as anxiety and depression; cancers such as colon and breast cancer; and even diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, etc.

The crux of the matter is that, among the American adult population, 66% are overweight and 32% are obese. Approximately 19% of children and 17% of adolescents are overweight, and 37% of children and 34% of teenagers are either overweight or at risk of being overweight, according to Masurier and Corbin [ 84 ]. These facts indicate that several mandates that maintain PES as a compulsory and inclusive subject delivered to both boys and girls remain elusive. Therefore, there is need for a rationale to raise awareness about PES to be recognized as an important subject whereby trained PES teachers, materials and equipment, weekly time allocated to PES on the timetable, and an adequate budget are put in place to serve its purpose for school-aged children and adolescents.

4.5. Social Domain

PES is seen as a single bedrock subject that equips students with social interaction within this technological era, which is no longer providing the opportunity for people to meet and socialize, as it should naturally be. In some respects, students, to some extent, enjoy various opportunities of meeting and communicating, developing leadership skills, and ultimately learning social skills and behavior, while curbing, at the same time, the anti-social behaviors through PES.

In view of this perspective, Hellison et al. [ 101 ] indicated that participation in PES instils positive social behaviors in school-aged children and adolescents, such as cooperation, personal responsibility, and empathy. Afterwards, such participation in some circumstances helps in curbing current youth epidemics such as depression, crime, alcoholism, and drug abuse. In its recent report, SHAPE America [ 1 ] pointed out constructive competition, conflict resolution, decision-making, cooperation, and leadership assumption aspects as some of the benefits students gain through their interaction in PES.

In a similar vein, the Europe report asserted that only PES provides students with the opportunities of meeting and communicating with others and developing leadership qualities. More importantly, it instructs the participants about relevant social skills such as tolerance, respect for others, adjusting collectivism aspects including teamwork-spirit, cooperation, and cohesion, just to name a few, according to Svoboda [ 102 ]. Another emerging view which supports this assertion was articulated by Bailey et al. [ 72 ], who addressed the influence of PES on current global cleavage by arguing that PES has the potential to connect children of different social/economic classes and even those coming from different nations.

Of particular concern, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) [ 103 ] reported the constructive and corrective impact of PES, whereby it helps in improving students’ attendance, behavior, and attitudes within the school, as well as lowers the anti-social and criminal behaviors, according to Andrews and Andrews [ 104 ]. Indeed, the views of (QCA) and the Andrews corroborated with the assertion articulated by Sport England (SE) [ 105 ] that stated that participation of school-aged children and adolescents in PES assists them to gain social outcomes such as opportunities for active citizenship, increasing their attitude for learning as well as reducing youth crime and truancy.

In contrast to the social benefits ascertained by several researchers and scholars introduced herein, PES has been being devalued through different forms pushing it into a defensive position identified as (a) attributing low status to PES teachers; (b) assigning alternative duties to PES teachers such as logistics; (c) diverting PES time, which is already insufficient, to core subjects; and, in some schools, (d) replacing PES time with cleaning, etc., according to UNESCO [ 10 ]. As a consequence of this PES devaluation, students are still experiencing unpleasant social behaviors such as disrespect among themselves and some other related behaviors, such as truancy, absenteeism, alcohol and drug abuse, crime, and intolerance, just to name a few, as reported by Jean de Dieu and Andala [ 106 ].

Therefore, there is the need to call upon governments of nations to enforce PES in schools, as stated not only in international policies but also in their national PES policies such as to remedy the status of PES teachers through adequate continuous professional development (CPD) so as to update their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and current pedagogical models appropriate to serve social benefits such as teaching personal and social responsibility model, allow them to regularly teach PES following timetable, and make PES a compulsory subject with accountability for attendance and performance such as the other compulsory subjects so as to bridge the gap between agreements and actions.

4.6. Moral Domain

Moral behavior refers to activities conducted by following the rules which apply in a certain social context such as formal school/class rules, informal societal norms, and even the expectations related to behavior. Thus, moral values include honesty, fairness, fair play, justice, and responsibility, as reported by Wright and Taylor [ 107 ], Lumpkin and Stokowski [ 108 ], and Stoll and Beller [ 109 ]. According to this perspective, the existing evidence suggests that many moral benefits, such as experiencing moral socialization, moral values, ethical behavior, citizenship education, and social and moral characters, are accrued from participating in PES when students are given the opportunity to engage in an effectively planned PES.

A notable example of these moral benefits was found in studies undertaken by Bloom and Smith [ 110 ] and Sabock [ 111 ], who elucidated that PES provides the students with many opportunities to experience moral values such as cooperation, competition, role-playing, rules, regulations, and goal-based discipline. Moreover, PES assists in gaining self-discipline and order, manual dexterity, and even determination, according to Bloom and Smith [ 110 ], and Bailey [ 57 ].

In his own words, Sabock [ 111 ] (p. 271) argued that “the arena of sport can provide one of the greatest opportunities for a student to learn honesty, integrity, and ethical behaviour”. It is becoming increasingly important that PES has been proven to be a paramount subject, simultaneously instilling in the students social and moral characteristics such as cooperation with teammates; negotiation and creation of solutions against moral conflicts; development of self-control, fairness, and good work ethics; and displaying courage and learning of virtues such as teamwork, as reported by Shields and Bredemeier [ 112 ] and Weiss and Bredemeier [ 113 ]. The next likeness was the view articulated by Romance et al. [ 114 ], who argued that active participation in PES has been established as a source of positive moral socialization, and, to some extent, deliberate interventions in PES settings can improve moral conduct.

Another emerging feature of a moral aspect through PES is a view that effective PES has been indicated as a foundation for good citizenship. Engh [ 115 ] suggested that quality PES results in a good citizen education, which is, indeed, what PES teachers are supposed to teach in educational athletics as they teach other PES components. Supporting Engh, Raakman [ 116 ] substantiated that participation in PES could help develop engaged and balanced citizenship.

Despite the fact that PES positively influence the students’ moral development, the contrarians against this prevailing knowledge argued that PES participation may be a causal agent of negative moral development among participants, according to Bredemeier and Shields [ 117 ], Priest et al. [ 118 ], and Collin [ 119 ]. Another view that contradicts the view of a positive association between PES and moral education was found in the study conducted by Collin [ 119 ], who noted that unethical and aggressive behavior, which destroys the development and well-being of young athletes and the whole society, can be the result of a win-at-all-costs philosophy.

Despite these contradictions in moral benefits accrued from PES participation, it is important to note, however, that the quality PES delivered by professionally trained and qualified PES teachers adopting some of the current pedagogical models acknowledged to promote moral aspects of the students through their constructivism approach, including sports education, which focuses not only on playing roles but also duty roles, has been acknowledged to serve the needful under the moral domain. Thus, PES needs to be welcomed in schools to serve all moral benefits attributed to it.

4.7. Cultural Domain

UNESCO [ 120 ] defined culture as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social group that encompasses not only art and literature but also lifestyle, ways of living together, value systems, traditions, and beliefs. In a similar vein, Zimmerman [ 121 ] made it clear that culture involves religion, food, language, marriage, music, dressing style, the dualism of what is right and wrong, rituals, ceremonies, etc.

In contrast to the other domains, finding existing works in the literature that addressed the contribution of PES to maintaining or improving the culture of a given society, turned out to be complex. However, some views have been pointed out by some relevant organizations and scholars, indicating that PES plays a significant role in encouraging school-aged children and adolescents to recognize and respect each other’s cultural characteristics, resulting in the prevention of some bad feelings such as extremism and racism, among others.

An example of this act was found in the International Charter of PES, UNESCO [ 6 ] which justified that the right and freedom of participating in PES should be granted without discrimination of any characteristics, including color, gender, language, religion, national or social origins, political or other opinions, property, birth, or other considerations. A supporting view of this assertion was put forward by Wright [ 122 ], who advised that PES teachers should not conceive that their task tool is technical; rather, they should aim at nurturing certain qualities required for a democratic society, such as self-confidence leavened by an agreeable humility, curiosity, courage, persistence, kindness, gentleness, care for the less fortunate, and care for other forms of life.

Before approaching the end of this cultural aspect, it is worth sounding a note of caution in the context that such a relationship can be bidirectional; that is, quality PES can help the students to learn and maintain their respective cultural characteristics and values while respecting those of others, resulting in a harmonious society. On the other hand, there is a possibility that some of such variety of cultural characteristics, e.g., religion, gender, dressing style, etc., may negatively affect PES participation at school.

In this regard, having completed their study about the influence of family and culture on PA among female adolescents from the Indian diaspora, Ramanathan and Crocker [ 123 ] revealed that female adolescents are not adequately participating in PA as males do. This was explained as due to the cultural belief that they are scared of losing their femininity while engaging in PA, and the issue of the belief that they need to stay at home supposed and be engaged with domestic duties. Similarly, religious belief is another example of a cultural characteristic that lowers the desire to participate in PA in certain societies. For example, female students from Muslim countries do not experience opportunities to effectively get involved in PA because of restrictions based on their culture, such as the dress codes; prohibited close contact with males; and lack of related facilities such as a prayer room, clean washroom with clean water, and women’s sport and fitness foundations [ 124 ].

The upshot of all of this is that some cultural characteristics and values are still preventing all school-aged children and adolescents from fully participating in PES, and this, in turn, violates the PES international charter of 21 November 1978, that allowed PES participation for all, without any kind of discrimination. Another emerging cultural aspect is the concern that some situations whereby PES is not given a top priority for its successful implementation can results in violation of cultural norms. To this end, all institutions responsible for PES should ensure adequate CPD for in-service teachers or supply trained PES teaches who have necessary PCK to help students with different cultures to learn regardless of culture differences.

4.8. PES on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

It is important to signal our concern to the contribution of PES to the SDGs—a universal call to action that aims to create an equal and inclusive community with improved health by 2030. This ambitious plan consists of 17 goals with their corresponding 169 specific targets.

After the establishment of the SDGs, researchers in the field of education, particularly PES, conducted several studies to ascertain the contribution of PES in the context of SDGs and revealed that the majority of the SDGs can be achieved through the involvement of school-aged children and adolescents in quality PES. There is considerable evidence indicating that PES has a potential to create a favorable context which allows the promotion of different aspects associated with the development of the current SDGs, such as coeducation, entrepreneurship, cooperation, and respect.

The international conference of ministers and senior officials responsible for PES (MINEPS VI), UNESCO [ 125 ] established 9/17 and 36/169 goals and associated targets whereby sports-based approaches could make a significant contribution. To support the view of MINEPS VI, the study undertaken by Baena-Morales et al. [ 126 ] (pp. 7–10) explained the way in which 10/17 SDGs equivalent to 58.8% and 24/169 targets; that is, 40.5% could be achieved through PES.

Of little difference, Baena-Morales and Gonzalez-Villora, [ 127 ], who have made great strides in analyzing the role of PES to SDGs in three major dimensions, namely social, environmental, and economical dimensions, commented that SDGs should not be given much consideration as a reference, since they are too generic, but the specific targets make up SDGs.

Though some research studies raise a concern that the contribution of PES to the SDGs is slightly explored, according to Fröberg and Lundvall [ 128 ] and Baena-Morales and González-Víllora [ 127 ], others have explored the role of PA, sports, or exercises in general, Dai and Menhas [ 129 ]; focused their attention to the contribution of PES in relation to some selected SDGs, with particular aspects such as health and well-being partnership as explored by Lynch [ 130 ], it is clear that PES is a transcendental subject toward the achievement of SDGs, provided that it is given a top priority in schools worldwide. It is important to note that PES teachers should plan their lessons by linking the lesson instructional objectives with those of SDGs.

This paper provides an important opportunity to advance the understanding of the significance of PES in promoting a physically active health style in school-aged children and adolescents and the entire community, as well. It is therefore important to raise an alarm about PES enforcement to the governments of nations so as to empower PES in schools and make it serve its purpose for all students across the world.

5. Conclusions

PES has been evidenced to play a significant role in a holistic education to the extent of being considered as a backbone of the whole community in the 21st century, on account of the fact that school-aged children and adolescents are the ones that gradually become adults and later old people in their respective communities. That is to say, delivering quality PES to school-aged children is, at the same time, delivering an active lifestyle to the entire community throughout the life course. This is established based on the benefits obtainable from PES in all areas of human development, namely the cognitive, physical, affective, health, social, moral, and cultural aspects of human life, as discussed in this study.

The hindrances that impede PES from delivering all that it could offer to the school-aged children and adolescents which later affect the whole society include the following: (a) inadequately qualified teaching personnel; (b) insufficient time allocated to PES; (c) limited facilities, equipment, and materials; (d) deficit budget allocated to this subject; and (e) PE teachers detraction among others. Subsequently, a sedentary lifestyle has been mostly discussed as a pandemic among children and adolescents of this current century, resulting in suffering from hypokinetic diseases (coronary heart diseases, obesity, hypertension, osteoporosis, diabetes, etc.), as well as mental diseases such as depression and anxiety. Moreover, nowadays some students are still facing poor academic achievement, leading to increased repetition rate, drop-out rate, and ultimately on-time completion rate, an issue associated with the current sedentary lifestyle among students. From all such drawbacks of physical inactivity, one should wonder how perilous this coming society will be in the case that all of these challenges against quality PES remain unresolved.

To this end, it is important to raise these questions for the concerned leaders and related practitioners across the world, so as to come up with an effective and sustainable solutions. Apart from international charters, conventions, national policies, and international and national guidelines and endorsements, civil and private organizations (agencies) promulgated to address the promotion of PES. Considering also the fact that majority of parents’ perceptions support inclusive and quality PES for the benefits of their children, as well as the consequences of sedentary health style among all children, adults, and old people. Why are the governments of nations still inconsistent in their effort to convert their promises (agreements) of promoting PES into implementation/practice? Why are the governments of nations not willing to initiate mechanisms that aim to produce the required professionally trained personnel with the required PES resources and adequate budget? Why are school leaders still reducing or diverting allocated PES time to other subjects? Who would be held accountable for violating the universal right of quality PES for all and thwarting PES subjects from delivering all benefits claimed under its name?

“ Knowing is not enough, we must apply. Willing is not enough, we must do ”. —Goethe [ 131 ]

Acknowledgments

The effort of authors toward the successful accomplishment of this paper and funding organization is highly acknowledged.

Author Contributions

J.d.D.H. conceived the study and drafted the original manuscript. E.T. retrieved the data and checked their eligibility. K.Z. supervised the study. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the findings and discussion. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement.

To prevent the assumptions of availability of required data, the authors needed to ensure the availability of required data before further stages of the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declared no potential conflict of interest.

Funding Statement

This study was funded by The National Social Science Fund of China, grant number 17BTY078.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Physical education students’ reflections about the learning outcomes of different teaching methods: a mixed methods study.

• Department of Teacher Education and Arts, Nord University, Bodø, Norway

Introduction: Teaching in higher education is still mainly executed as lectures, even though research about student-active instruction methods points to more motivated students, higher enjoyment, and more optimal learning outcomes. The purpose of this study was to obtain better insight into how physical education (PE) students assessed their learning outcomes in relation to the use of different pedagogical approaches.

Methods: A master’s course in PE was planned and implemented using the following eight different learning approaches: lectures; practical exercises about themes in lectures; discussions during lectures; discussions outside of lectures; planning and exercises for peer students; individual work preparing to write an academic text; individual work writing the academic text; and reading for an exam. The study constituted a mixed methods study, which used quantitative data from students’ evaluation of eight different learning approaches on a Likert-type scale, and in-depth qualitative data from follow-up interviews with some of the same students, with the aim of explaining the main findings. Quantitative data about the students’ reflections on the learning outcomes of the different learning approaches were collected among 59 different students at three different times (2021, 2022, and 2023), after finishing a course in the fifth semester in a master’s program in PE.

Results: The findings showed that the students reported achieving the highest learning outcomes from practical exercises and attaining the lowest learning outcomes from lectures. In depth interviews among seven randomly selected students were also used to obtain reflections from the students about the different learning approaches. Quantitative analyses again revealed that practical exercises produced the highest learning outcomes, while lectures resulted in the lowest learning outcomes. Qualitative analyses of the in-depth interviews indicated that practical activities enabled students to relate theory to practice, make them active, and are associated with future work, while the quality of lectures depended on characteristics of the teacher and were often experienced as long and unstimulating.

Discussion: According to the results, we recommend that student teachers in higher education acquire the ability to plan and execute practical lessons in relation to themes focused upon in lectures and involve students more in discussions during lectures.

Introduction

According to the Norwegian government’s report on recommended strategies to ensure excellent quality in higher education ( Meld. St. 16, 2016–2017 ), teachers in higher education should evaluate the efficacy of their educational work. Because high research quality seems to be relatively more rewarded than teaching in higher education, and most of the lecturers in Norway are more focused on research than teaching, Vabø and Ramberg (2009) find that such evaluation studies may be lacking.

In Norway, teachers at universities and university colleges are often simultaneously performing teaching and conducting research. Although they are supposed to practice “research-based teaching,” precisely what this expression means and how best to implement it remain unclear ( Børte et al., 2020 ).

Previous research

Traditionally, teaching in universities is executed as lectures that are delivered by highly qualified professors. Indeed, this is still the most common method in higher education, despite the fact that it has been widely criticized for causing students to be passive listeners and diminishing learning outcomes ( Young et al., 2009 ; Wieman, 2019 ). Ideally, education provided to students should both constitute a presentation of updated research on the actual subject in the curriculum, as well as use the learning approaches that create the highest learning outcomes and are most efficient ( Griffiths, 2005 ). For example, if teachers in higher education plan and execute their lessons with small “breaks” in the lecture and use different methods for involving the students, such as problem sets, brainstorming or open discussions, research has demonstrated improved exam performance, and students reported better perceived effectiveness and decreased distractions ( Miller et al., 2013 ). Moreover, the students stated that during long and unstimulating lectures, they are more likely to send e-mails, send text-messages, or engage in other activities on their electronic devices than during engaging lectures ( Miller et al., 2013 ). For students who are familiar with lectures that are devoid of interaction with the lecturer or who believe that breaks during in the lecture produce low learning, these activities feel markedly unproductive ( Knight and Wood, 2005 ).

Brown and Bakhtar (1988) report that the lecturer saying too much, speaking too quickly, and not including sufficient summaries constitute a major challenge for students. They suggest that the effects of lectures can be substantially improved by focusing on presenting the lecture in more succinct manner and keeping the focus on the major points of the lecture. Extant literature has identified several barriers that prevent lectures from including active learning methods in educational plans, including a lack of requisite class time and insufficient time to prepare active learning methods. Furthermore, it is argued that teachers’ familiarization with holding traditional lectures makes continuation of such lectures comfortable for them and enjoyable ( Brown and Bakhtar, 1988 ; McCabe and O’Connor, 2014 ; Miller and Metz, 2014 ; Trinidad, 2019 ). Students believe that the reason for the lecturers decision not to incorporate active learning methods in their lessons could be either that they want to control the education through the use of lectures or they do not possess the needed knowledge to implement active learning methods ( Miller and Metz, 2014 ). Furthermore, when curricula are relatively large and information-dense, lecturers regard lectures that do not include any interference from the students to be the only viable option ( Lujan and DiCarlo, 2006 ).

Regmi (2012) contends that the debate should not concern being for or against using lectures as a method for learning, but rather how to organize teaching with several methods to enhance learning outcomes. In fact, this argument is almost identical to that of Penson (2012) , who acknowledges the advantages of continuing to have lectures in education at universities, as well as combining them with relevant practical activities to produce optimal education. Medical students stated that lectures were important, as they assisted them to obtain key knowledge in a subject, and that learning was effective when combined with other learning methods. It was also reported that learning in the lectures depended on the characteristics and skills of the lecturer ( Bates et al., 2018 ). A study among nursing students identified the following five essential factors that improved learning in lectures: (1) effective and clear speaking; (2) an emphasis on exam topics; (3) taking students’ interests into account; (4) connecting theory to practice; and (5) providing a well-structured presentation ( Al-Modhefer and Roe, 2009 ). A prerequisite for lectures to be educational is for the lecturer to be actively engaged ( French and Kennedy, 2017 ). Ideally, the lecturer should present the latest updated theories and be able to discuss different perspectives about the theories. If a lecturer succeeds in this, it will positively affect students’ motivation and challenge them academically ( French and Kennedy, 2017 ).

It is well documented that by activating students, learning outcomes and motivation increase ( Freeman et al., 2014 ; Damsa et al., 2015 ; Goodman et al., 2018 ). According to Bernstein (2018) , active learning methods include posing questions for in-class or online discussions, using problem-based/case-based teaching, including peer reviews of writing, giving homework assignments, performing laboratory experiments, and “underteaching,” amongst others ( Bernstein, 2018 ). The main purpose of active learning methods is to put the students in situations in which they engage in activities that are relevant to the subject, and ensure that the situation/task leads to reflection, communication, and analysis ( Dewey, 2008 ; Smith and Cardaciotto, 2011 ). Furthermore, it is recommended that the teacher facilitate and create environments in education in which students’ learning occurs in the specific activity ( Goodman et al., 2018 ). In fact, students appreciate active learning methods and highlight several positive effects that are derived from it, including markedly increased autonomy and engagement ( McCabe and O’Connor, 2014 ; Sørensen et al., 2023 ). Active learning methods also increase involvement and motivation for the subject ( Lea et al., 2003 ), improve in-depth learning, and create a greater acceptance of failure in the subject ( Lea et al., 2003 ; McCabe and O’Connor, 2014 ). Previous literature has also reported improved performance in exams and a decrease in failure in exams because of the use of active learning methods instead of lectures ( Freeman et al., 2014 ; Goodman et al., 2018 ).

Theoretical framework

From a theoretical perspective, Dewey (1916) describes the need for societies to pass on the skills and knowledge that they accrue through a formal system of education. However, transferring learning through a formal context is problematic, according to Dewey. Dewey offers a general critique of the general trend of academization, and censures teaching for not sufficiently considering pragmatic aspects life. For Dewey (1916 , p. 307), vocation is “a continuous activity having a purpose.” In other words, when teachers relate theory to practice, a meaningful purpose is obtained. Indeed, Dewey states that we learn through vocations, rather than for them—a theory closely related to Aristotle’s concept of “phronesis,” or practical wisdom. Drawing upon Dewey, Kolb (1984) defines experiential learning as a process that links education, work, and personal development. It is again asserted that theory must focus on practice. Without an interested student, without a clear starting point in the student’s former experience/expectations, obtaining a good learning result is highly challenging. Furthermore, Dewey (1916) points out that an interaction must occur between the student and what is learned, i.e., the student must learn theory that he or she finds both useful and interesting. However, students report that the theory “easily becomes remote and dead—abstract and bookish” Dewey (1916 , p. 8). Dewey contends that with a clear starting point in pragmatic examples, achieving excellent learning outcomes will be much easier.

It is asserted that schools should change their educational practice from lecture-focused to providing students with experiences that apply to real-life situations ( Dewey, 2008 ). Consequently, students could improve their learning outcomes through the process of reflecting upon their experiences. Furthermore, by giving more responsibility to the students for the learning process itself, they will be more capable of constructing their own learning ( Trinidad, 2019 ). Researchers have demonstrated that Dewey’s progressive pedagogy and philosophy still play a role in schools’ daily practice ( Berg, 2013 ; Little, 2013 ; Lagestad, 2014 ; Sadovnik et al., 2017 ).

Research questions

Considering the previous discussion about learning from different pedagogical approaches, this study will examine the following two research questions: (1) Are there differences between students’ reflections about their learning outcomes using different pedagogical approaches? and (2) What are the students’ reflections about the pedagogical approach that creates the best and the worst learning outcomes?

This study uses a mixed-methods design that comprises both questionnaire data to examine students’ reflections on their learning outcomes in relation to the use of eight different pedagogical approaches, and in-depth interviews to obtain more nuanced knowledge about their reflections about this research area. Quantitative analyses assess differences between students’ reflections of their learning outcomes in eight pedagogical approaches, while the interviews investigate why students prefer certain pedagogical approaches over others.

The research was carried out in a master’s program in physical education (PE) in the fifth semester. In terms of the curriculum, the two main learning outcomes of this subject were: (1) to determine how sport teachers at college should facilitate their education to develop skills and performance in sport at college; and (2) to identify how sport teachers at college should use research-based education to increase their students’ skills and performance. Education in the actual subject was similar in the three following years, with the same teacher and the same procedures. This research was executed in this actual 15-credit course, but no other courses of the master’s degree had been changed. This research was executed at a small university with relatively small groups of around 20 students in each year, and with only one class of PE each year. The course was organized according to the curriculum, and teaching in the subject was planned and carried out using varied teaching methods, including lectures, and practical exercises/activities that dealt with the topics in lectures and discussions in the class. In addition, the students had long-term work in which they attempted to participate in a research-based exercise program for six weeks. This work was largely autonomic, in which the students could choose training methods and sport based on extant scientific knowledge in the actual sport. This academic task included execution of pre- and post-tests, and exercises concerning relevant research.

The students were also given responsibility in groups to complete certain practical lessons. In addition, one question was added to the questionnaire which did not directly concern teaching, but rather dealt with academic discussions with fellow students or others. The intention here was to determine whether this was regarded as an area that could provide positive learning effects for the students.

Participants

The quantitative part of the study (questionnaire) included students from three different classes in a master’s program in PE in three consecutive years (2021, 2022, and 2023). At the time of the data collection, the students were in the middle of their five-year program. The participants received a verbal orientation that explained the purpose of the study. They were also informed that participation in the study was voluntary, and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. All the students that participated provided written consent in accordance with regulations of the Norwegian Center for Research Data (ref. code no 383620).

Of the 17 students of the class of 2021, five females and nine males filled out the questionnaire in November 2021 (77.8% response rate). Of the 23 students of the class of 2022, eight females and 15 males (100% of the class) filled out the questionnaire in November 2022. Of the 22 students of the class of 2023, all students (seven females and 15 males) filled out the questionnaire in November 2023. In total, 59 of the 62 students (20 females and 39 males) filled out the questionnaire, which yielded a response rate of 93.6%. The qualitative part of the study (interviews) included seven randomly selected students from the 2023 group. The reason for low participation in 2021, where that some of the students did not meet at the university the day of data collection.

The selection of the eight different learning methods were based on constructivist pedagogy and the researchers experiences with the efficacy of these methods. Quantitative data about the students’ reflections on the learning outcomes of eight different methods were collected at three different times (2021, 2022, and 2023) after completing a course in their fifth semester in a master’s program in PE. The purpose of the questionnaire was to attain knowledge of the students’ experience of their learning in eight different pedagogical approaches used in the course, which were: (1) lectures; (2) practical exercises about themes in lectures; (3) discussions during lectures; (4) discussions outside of lectures; (5) planning and exercises for peer students; (6) individual work preparing to write an academic text; (7) individual work writing the academic text; and (8) reading for an exam. According to the specific research question, the questionnaire was self-developed and not based upon a pre-validated instrument. However, the questions and the answers options also have a high face validity ( Holden, 2010 ), and should not lead to different interpretations of the questions. Furthermore, we will argue that both the questions and the answer options led to high reliability.

The questionnaire was designed with a scale between one and six, where six was the highest score:

1. I achieved no learning outcomes from this method.

2. I achieved little learning outcomes from this method.

3. I achieved some learning outcomes from this method.

4. I achieved good learning outcomes from this method.

5. I achieved very good learning outcomes form this method.

6. I achieved excellent learning outcomes from this method.

The survey was carried out in the classroom at the same time of year (November) in all three times (2021, 2002, and 2023), and the questionnaire was administered in paper format. A researcher was present during all the data collection and was available to assist with any questions or difficulties that the students may have had filling out the questionnaire; however, no student had any such questions or difficulties. When the students replied to the survey, they had used these methods for the entire semester (August–November). However, they had experienced some of these methods during their 2.5 years of master study.

An interview guide was created with the aim to examine the reasons for the high scores on practical exercises and low scores on lectures. The main purpose of the questions was to gain access to the students’ reflections on their experiences of eight different pedagogical methods used during the course, as well as what they considered to constitute the advantages and disadvantages of these learning outcomes. Open-ended questions that were included were: “Can you explain an episode in your own schooling where you felt you learned a lot?,” “Can you describe the way you learned and why you remember this episode well?,” “Can you describe how you feel you learn during practical activities?,” and “Can you describe how you feel you learn in lectures?” At the end of the interview guide, the following two questions were included about the quantitative findings: “The findings showed that the students identified lectures as the method that created the least learning. Were you surprised by this result, and what are your reflections about it?,” and “The findings showed that the students identified practical activities as the method that created the most learning. Were you surprised by this result, and what are your reflections about it?”

After completing the interview guide, a pilot interview was carried out with a randomly selected student in the same study as the participants in the present study, with the intention to test the effectiveness of the questions in the interview guide. The interview guide obtained many reflections from the student regarding her learning in practical activities and in lectures, and thus was not changed. The interviews of the seven randomly selected students took place during a two-week period in November and December 2023. A voice recorder (Olympus DS-50) was used during the interviews. All interviews were conducted by the same researcher, at the researcher’s offices. The individual interviews lasted between 45 and 60 min.

Data analysis

The student’s responses on the questionnaires were analyzed in SPSS, Version 29 (IBM, Armonk, NY, United States). There was a non-normal distribution of the variables (seven out of eight variables achieved significance on a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test). Moreover, since the scale used to measure the dependent variables did not meet the assumptions of parametric tests, nonparametric tests were performed. Mann–Whitney U-tests were conducted to test for differences between year of participation. No differences were found for the eight pedagogical methods regarding year of participation ( p  > 0.05). A Friedman nonparametric test was performed to examine differences in learning outcomes within the eight pedagogical approaches, followed by Wilcoxen nonparametric tests (pairwise comparison).

The interview data were transcribed and entered in the qualitative analysis program NVivo 12 Plus. The interviews were transcribed verbatim, and coded so that the participants were anonymized and given pseudonyms. The analyses were based on transcribed answers focusing on meanings, as described by Johannessen et al. (2016) . Opinions and statements were assessed for themes, and then condensed, coded, and categorized in units of analysis ( Brinkmann and Kvale, 2009 ). In this process, the participants’ statements were assigned codes that were classified into categories ( Hastie and Glotova, 2012 ). The data were sorted based on these categories to elucidate patterns, similarities, relationships, and/or differences between the statements. The analysis and the interpretation followed hermeneutical principles, in that the interpretation process led to an increasingly deeper understanding of the statements, in parts and in aggregate, in the interviews ( Kvale, 1983 ). The transcribed text was read several times.

Reading the text led to the creation of 12 categories from the students’ statements. However, five of these categories were related to the pedagogical methods “lectures” and “practical exercises about themes in lectures,” and only these were selected into this study. As shown in the Results section, the main findings of the quantitative analyses were that the pedagogical approach “practical exercises about themes presented in lectures” had the highest learning outcomes score and significantly higher scores than six of the seven other pedagogical approaches. Furthermore, “lectures” had the lowest learning outcomes score, and it was significantly lower than two of the other pedagogical approaches. Therefore, the interview data included in this study included only the three categories about practical exercises and the two categories about lectures, with the aim to obtain more nuanced knowledge regarding the students’ reflections about these two pedagogical approaches. The three categories about “practical exercises about themes presented in lectures” were: (1) practical activities—to relate theory to practice; (2) practical activities about future work; and (3) practical activities—the importance of being active. The two categories about “lectures” were: (1) learning in lectures depends on the teacher; and (2) the lectures are often long and unstimulating.

Quantitative results

Friedman analyses showed that there was a significant difference between the eight pedagogical approaches (x 2 59  = 49.3, p < 0.001), in which practical exercises exhibited the highest learning outcome, while lectures showed the lowest learning outcome. Follow-up analyses using the Wilcoxen test with Bonferroni corrections revealed that practical exercises produced significantly higher learning outcomes than lectures (Z = −5.2, p < 0.001), discussions during lectures (Z = −3.7, p < 0.001), discussions outside of lectures (Z = −3.4, p < 0.001), planning and exercises for peer students (Z = −4.4, p < 0.001), individual work writing an academic text (Z = −3.3, p < 0.001), and reading for an exam (Z = −3.7, p < 0.001). Furthermore, lectures were reported to yield significantly lower learning outcomes than practical exercises and preparing to write an academic text (Z = −5.2, p < 0.001 and Z = 3.8, p < 0.001, respectively).

Qualitative results

The qualitative analyses of lectures and practical exercises pointed towards the following five categories: (1) learning in lectures depends on the teacher; (2) lectures are often long and unstimulating; (3) practical activities—to relate theory to practice; (4) practical activities about future work; and (5) practical activities—the importance of being active.

Learning in lectures depends on the teacher

The statistical analyses of the quantitative data showed a significantly lower experienced learning outcome of lectures compared to the pedagogical learning methods of practical exercises and preparing to write an academic text. The first main finding from the analyses of the interview data was that learning in lectures depended on the characteristics and skills of the teacher. Indeed, Susan reported that “the teachers are so different,” and Deborah stated that it was “a great advantage if it’s a person who knows a lot and is good at lecturing, and who is interactive with us listeners.” The students agreed that some lectures were more interesting to listen to than others, and that this was due to the quality of teaching from the individual teacher. When Sebastian was asked how he felt about sitting and listening to a lecture, he stated: “I feel it’s easy to drift of when it’s just a lecture, but it depends a bit on the teacher we have.” Oliver echoed Sebastian’s response to the same question:

I feel it’s easy to drift off when it’s just a lecture, but it depends a on the teacher we have. How the teacher engages the students, and how they manage to make what they are talking about interesting. I feel that sometimes it’s just a lot of lecturing, and then it’s easy to zone out.

The students also reported that lectures could be an arena for effective learning under given conditions. Learning during lectures occurred when the teachers presented new theories and described issues in a concise and understandable way. Furthermore, the importance of including students in discussions in the lectures was a crucial element, which not only assisted the students to be able to remain focused, but also increased their motivation and enjoyment at school. Monica describes this as follows:

If the lecture is a one-way communication, then it works poorly, I think. When the lecturer involves the students with questions, or lets us discuss issues with our peer students, it enhances our concentration and motivation.

This experience was supported by George, who emphasized that discussions during lectures increased learning:

When there are discussions in the lectures, I feel it is easier to understand the themes. Often, students in the class have questions for the lecturer that are interesting and make me think differently than I had without those questions. When we have discussions, I believe that I remember better than if it had been a one-way communication.

In addition, Kevin highlights the importance of having discussions during lectures to create more learning:

I think discussions in lectures have the potential to create very good learning. It could give us an opportunity to evaluate if the aspects the lecturer talks about are facts or part of the lecturer’s opinions. I think it is very favorable when it is possible to exchange knowledge and experiences which leads to better understanding.

The analyses of the students’ reflections about why there is low motivation in lectures among some students revealed that the lecturer must take more responsibility for motivating the students through creating more interesting lessons. All the students described student involvement in the lectures as positive for learning outcomes and stated that such involvement was critical to increase the student’s motivation in lectures. In addition, some of the students responded that it was essential for the lecture to be at an appropriate academic level and concern practice to enhance their learning and remain focused. This took place when the students felt that they could relate the presented theory in lectures to something that they already knew, and that they could understand the relevance of the themes to their future employment as teachers.

Lectures are often long and unstimulating

The second main finding from the analyses of the interview data was that the students often considered lectures to be long and unstimulating. This is exemplified by a statement by Susan, who describes her experience of lectures as follows:

Some of the lectures are very long, slow, and monotonous. Where a PowerPoint presentation with white backgrounds with a lot of text was used, and some of the lecturers just read what is written on the PowerPoint. These factors make it difficult to maintain concentration.

Indeed, the ability to stay focused during long and unstimulating lectures was identified as a substantial challenge among all the students. This challenge was especially present if the lecture was at a high scientific level, which made it difficult to understand, or when the students felt that the lecture had little relevance to their future employment as a teacher. In long and unstimulating lectures with little student involvement, Deborah identified some elements that could lead to low concentration:

In lectures, we have our computers right in front of us, and one touch could take us everywhere. If teachers had been behind us in the classroom, they would have been surprised about what was happening on the students’ computers during the lectures. Furthermore, sometimes peer students talk, and I do not hear what the teacher is saying.

The students also stated that lectures should be just one of several pedagogical methods used, and when it was combined with other pedagogical methods, learning outcomes became markedly better. Oliver explains this:

In my opinion, it is okay to have some lectures if they are combined with some practical activities at least once a week. If there are three weeks with only lectures and one practical activity, and then three weeks with lectures, I do not think we remember so much of the themes.

Students’ explanations of their relatively low learning outcomes in lectures concerned more than only long and unstimulating lectures. Some of the students highlighted that they were more interested in being active than sitting still in an auditorium; after sitting in a classroom and listening to their teachers for 13 years of education prior to starting university, they were highly frustrated with this activity. Other students indicated low motivation and effort for studying as possible reasons for low learning outcomes in lectures. Confronting the low learning score in lectures, Sebastian pointed to a traditional gender-related view:

Since there are more male than female PE students in our course, and males are more interested in being active than females, this could be an explanation of the low score for learning outcomes in lectures.

Practical activities – to relate theory to practice

The statistical analyses of the quantitative data revealed that the students perceived significantly higher learning outcomes from practical activities related to themes in the lectures compared to most other pedagogical methods, except for preparing to write an academic text. The third main finding was that students felt that it was important to be able to relate theory to practice. When presented with the results showing that practical activities about themes created the most learning, all students used statements as “of course,” and explained that this method made them relate the theory to practice. Sebastian described how he learned from practical activities presented at the university: “When I read about theory, it is just a theory, and the practical activities give us the opportunity to see how they work.” Monica concurred that theoretical themes must be focused on in practical activities:

When we have practical activities, it is vital that the lecturer focus on the theoretical themes, asking the students relevant questions, giving feedback and planning for reflections amongst the students on relevant aspects of the theme.

When Susan was asked about her thoughts on her own learning through practical activities, she replied:

I think that’s great, because it’s very nice to get a hands-on approach to something you have just had a theoretical approach to, and it’s also having a lot to do with our approach to the practical aspect being not just activity, but it’s much better to pause, talk and discuss.

Several students emphasized the need for the lecturer to allocate ample time for feedback and discussions from practical activities to improve learning outcomes. Additionally, students noted that the knowledge applied in practical activities was more memorable than that merely discussed in lectures. All the students agreed on the critical importance of a clear link between the theoretical concepts covered in lectures and the practical activities within the same course. They clearly communicated that without this connection, little learning would occur. This is well highlighted in Kevin’s statement:

I learn more from the practical aspect, both here when you have hands-on experience and in high school when we had practical classes. When you sit down and do things, you notice what goes wrong more than when you only write about it theoretically. It’s difficult to see what’s going wrong if you are just supposed to write a plan and explain. Then, it can seem quite good in your head, but be poor in practice. I like to do things, so it’s generally about getting to do it, the practical aspect.

When Kevin was asked to discuss a time when he felt that he received good learning from what occurred at school, he said: “It’s mostly the lessons where we either have practical teaching first and then we link it to theory afterwards, or the other way around.” Deborah also stated: “Physical education is a practical subject, so it does not matter how much you have read about basketball or volleyball if you have not tried to play it”.

Practical activities are about future employment

The fourth main finding from the interview data analysis revealed that students identified practical activities as yielding the highest learning outcomes and ascribed this to their relevance to future work. Practical activities were a part of the schedule in this actual course. Often, the students received the responsibility to plan and execute lessons for their peer students based on relevant theory. Susan explains her experience in the following way:

When we plan and execute teaching for our peer students, it is a very good and relevant training for us who are future teachers. I experience good learning from this task, where it helps me to evaluate and understand the theory better. We have had several practical activities about the lectures this semester, and it has helped my learning a lot.

Other students confirmed that when they received actual training on aspects that were directly related to their future employment, the learning outcomes were excellent. They argued that, in fact, there could not be too much practice of the teacher-role within their education, and that this strategy assisted them to successfully combine theory and practice. Kevin exemplifies this:

An advantage is that then you see the totality, the lectures will not be too long, and you will be told quite thoroughly what we are going to go through, and then you will di the practical part. If we create a teaching plan or something else in a group or alone, and then go into the hall and carry it out, it will be exactly what we will be doing when we get out as teachers. I really like this strategy. I learn a lot and am very much in favor of it being very practical […]. You simulate exactly what you will do at school as teachers.

When Deborah was informed that the students reported the most learning through practical activities, she replied: “Of course. It is about doing what you will do as future teachers at school.” When Oliver was asked to discuss a time when he felt that he received good learning from school, he stated:

It is most often when you are out in practice. In our practice, we visited someone in the city with a disability, and it was very educational. When you get out and actually experience what is being talked about, instead of just talking about things.

Practical activities – the importance of being active

The fifth and final major insight from the interview data analysis was that students viewed practical activities as a platform for active participation, rather than merely sitting passively and listening to the teacher. Confronted with the statistical analyses showing that practical activities were reported to produce the highest learning outcome, none of the students were surprised by this result because it provided them with the opportunity to be active. George explained:

I think when we have practical exercises about issues we have discussed in lecture, we remember the principles better. Furthermore, it is motivating. We have started in this field because we enjoy physical activity. So, when we get the opportunity to do something actively, we are happy.

Sebastian echoed George’s sentiment, and stated, “I think I learn more from practical activities because I enjoy being active, while I do not learn just as much sitting in a lecture because I want to do things.” Kevin remarked, “It is quite clear that it is motivating to be active yourself versus sitting for 4–6 h. So, it pays off well, I like it. First, I hear it [the theory], and then I feel it in my body.” When Susan was asked what advantages and disadvantages, she sees in practical activities compared to lectures, she answered:

The advantages are that you feel it in your body after hearing about it. So, it is more motivating to be in motion than to sit still, and there is an opportunity for interaction with others. I do not know if there are so many disadvantages […]. For example, if it’s dancing and you hate dancing, then I’d say it’s a disadvantage. But that sounds like a rarity for me, who likes all-round activity, so it would take a lot for there to be some practical disadvantages.

The interview data revealed that numerous students faced challenges with dyslexia and maintaining concentration during reading and listening to lectures. Therefore, the efficacy of practical activities was very high for them. Additionally, some students noted that incorporating practical activities into the schedule enhanced social interactions and fostered greater engagement between students and the lecturer.

The main findings of the statistical analyses were that practical exercises related to lecture themes resulted in the highest learning outcomes according to student reflections, whereas traditional lectures were found to yield the lowest learning outcomes. These findings are in accordance with other literature that evaluates the effectiveness of lectures as a pedagogical approach in university subjects ( Freeman et al., 2014 ; Damsa et al., 2015 ; Goodman et al., 2018 ).

We argue, however, that even if the results showed that there were significant differences in students’ reflections about their learning outcomes across various pedagogical methods, the descriptive data revealed a high average rating of learning outcomes for all methods experienced during the semester in a master’s-level PE course ( Figure 1 ). In other words, in general, the students reported very good learning outcomes from practical exercises related to lecture themes and identified good to very good outcomes from all other methods, with the notable exception of lectures. These findings show that the students generally perceived positive learning outcomes from most pedagogical methods.

Figure 1 . Students’ reflections of their learning outcomes in eight different pedagogical approaches on a scale between one and six, where six was the highest score. *Significant difference between the groups ( p < 0.001). † Practical exercises that were significantly different from the approaches are to the right of the arrow ( p < 0.001). Lectures that were significantly different from the approaches are to the left of the arrow ( p < 0.001).

Lectures as a pedagogical approach

The results indicated that, among the eight pedagogical methods, lectures were identified by students to produce the worst learning outcomes. However, the analyses of students’ reflections revealed that lectures could be led to positive learning outcomes if certain conditions were fulfilled. These findings are in accordance with Miller et al. (2013) , who reported that when the lecturer organized small “breaks” in the lectures by involving the students in different activities, this resulted in several positive outcomes ( Miller et al., 2013 ). Furthermore, all of the students agreed that the efficacy of lectures depends on the characteristics and skills of the lecturer, which is consistent with the results of a previous study ( Bates et al., 2018 ). They stated that some of the lectures were more interesting to listen to than others, which could be ascribed to the theme and the student’s interest in it, as well as to how the presentation was made. The students also expressed appreciation for lectures if new theories were presented in an understandable manner, and when the relevance to their future teaching careers was evident. Indeed, the PE students in the present study shared the opinion that lectures play a valuable role in universities ( Bates et al., 2018 ). However, they also highlighted the importance to their learning outcomes of how the presentations in lectures were organized. All the students, however, agreed that greater student involvement, engendered by the lecturer, leads to improved motivation and learning. These findings are similar to those of other investigations focused on how the effectiveness of lectures can be increased ( Brown and Bakhtar, 1988 ; Al-Modhefer and Roe, 2009 ).

The analyses of in-depth interview data revealed that the students often found lectures to be long and unstimulating. This finding is supported by other studies that assess the efficacy of lecturers and find that lectures often make students into passive listeners ( Young et al., 2009 ; Wieman, 2019 ). One explanation for this may be that the lecturers, who are often relatively more focused on research, may not always be adequately prepared for teaching ( Vabø and Ramberg, 2009 ). Another factor could be the increasing diversity among students at universities currently ( Damsa et al., 2015 ), in which the heterogeneity in their motivation and prior knowledge levels could influence their learning outcomes in lectures. In fact, this argument was expressed by Kevin in the Results section. In accordance with Benneworth et al. (2016) , our findings identify an important challenge with teaching at universities: there are no methods that suit all students. For example, lectures conducted at a high academic level cater to certain students, but not all students. This might stem from teachers perceiving an overwhelming number of outcomes, so that they choose to present continuous lectures that are replete with advanced academic content, as suggested by Lujan and Dicarlo (2006) .

In the Results section, Deborah pointed towards the possibility of students to divert their attention away from lectures, instead focusing on other activities on their computers. A similar finding was reported by Miller (2013), who found that students were often unengaged in lectures, and chose instead to send emails, send text messages, or engage in other activities on their computers.

During the interviews, the students suggested several solutions to prevent lectures from being long and unstimulating, emphasizing the importance of discussions and integrating lectures with practical activities. Furthermore, the students reported that when lectures facilitate interactions between the lecturer and students, the learning will increase and certain issues, such as low motivation and boredom, will decrease. In aggregate, we argue that while lectures can constitute an effective pedagogical strategy that offers substantial learning benefits, it often fails to do so due to its protracted nature. This is supported by another study in which a significant number of university students reported experiencing boredom in lectures, with 59% feeling bored at least half of the time and 30% feeling bored most or all of the time ( Mann and Robinson, 2009 ).

Practical activities as a pedagogical approach

The statistical analyses showed that among the eight pedagogical methods, practical exercises were rated as having the highest learning outcomes according to student reflections. The qualitative analyses of in-depth interview data suggested three reasons for this: (1) the ability to relate theory to practice; (2) the relevance of practical activities to future work; and (3) the active engagement that these activities promote among students. Many students emphasized the importance of applying theory and practical context and seeing firsthand how theoretical concepts function in real-life scenarios. We contend that these finding underscores one of the major challenges in education: the necessity of bridging the gap between academic learning and its practical application in real life. Without this connection, the true value of education could be dubious. This finding closely aligns with Dewey (1916) , who asserts that linking theory to practice imbues the learning process with purpose. Dewey emphasizes the necessity of theory being grounded in practice, and posits that effective learning is challenging without engaging the student and building upon his or her prior experiences and expectations. In accordance with Dewey’s philosophy, students should engage with theories that they find both relevant and interesting to achieve optimal learning outcomes. Even if the theory of Dewey was created long time ago, previous research have shown that Dewey’s pedagogy and philosophy still play a role in schools’ daily practice ( Berg, 2013 ; Little, 2013 ; Lagestad, 2014 ; Sadovnik et al., 2017 ).

In relation to connecting theory to practice, Biggs and Tang (2011) identify two crucial factors for effective student learning. The first factor is the perceived value of the learning material to the learner. A purely theoretical approach can diminish the perceived value, as explained by Sebastian. In this study, all students reported positive learning outcomes of a combination of lectures and practical activities related to the lecture topic. They emphasized the necessity of a direct link between the two pedagogical approaches to facilitate meaningful learning experiences. Students also noted that focusing on the same theme made the material both theoretically and practically memorable. In addition, the students underscored the importance of an active role for the lecturer in determining the learning outcome. It is crucial for the lecturer to design practical activities with sufficient time allocated for posing relevant questions to students, providing feedback, and facilitating reflections on the connection between theory and real-life applications. Indeed, this approach is in line with the educational strategies supported by Dewey (2008) .

Our discovery that students value diverse pedagogical approaches for the same theoretical concept is in accordance with findings from extant literature ( Penson, 2012 ; Regmi, 2012 ). Based on student responses in interviews, incorporating practical activities as part of an active learning strategy enhances their engagement, involvement, and depth of learning. Similar findings are also reported in several previous research papers ( Lea et al., 2003 ; McCabe and O’Connor, 2014 ; Sørensen et al., 2023 ).

In the context of this study, students were tasked with planning and delivering lessons to their peers on pertinent theoretical subjects. The students viewed this as valuable preparation for their future teaching careers. Moreover, it provided them with an opportunity to critically assess and gain a deeper understanding of the theories involved ( Dewey, 2008 ). The participants in this study were PE students, suggesting a natural inclination toward practical activities and sports. As one of the students responded, “When I enjoy being active, it helps me to learn better from being active.” The findings that students appreciate practical activities related to future work, is also reported in other studies ( Lagestad, 2014 ).

Final reflections

According to Biggs and Tang (2011) , the main goal for teachers and lecturers globally is to assist students to achieve their full learning potential. Unfortunately, no definitive formula for effective teaching currently exists. In fact, the discussion on enhancing student activity through varied teaching methods to improve learning outcomes has been ongoing for decades, as evidenced by studies from Young et al. (2009) and Wieman (2019) . Research indicates that lectures that lack depth can result in passive and unmotivated students, while overburdening students with responsibility in education can also produce adverse effects ( Bremner, 2019 ). Consequently, pedagogical experts in higher education recommend employing a combination of different approaches to achieve an effective balance in teaching ( Lea et al., 2003 ; Bremner, 2019 ).

The main findings of our study indicate that while students acknowledge that lectures have the potential to facilitate good learning, they often fall short of achieving this. In contrast, practical activities that are theory-based were found to be effective in learning, relevant for future teaching careers, and enjoyable. We recommend that lecturers in other subjects perform similar experimental research to better understand student reflections on learning through diverse teaching methods and approaches. Indeed, this advice is in accordance with Biesta (2013) , who describes learning as a risky endeavor without a fail-safe “recipe” for success. We also argue that our findings resonate with the ideas proposed by Regmi (2012) , who emphasizes that the debate should not center on whether to use lectures as a teaching method, but rather on how to structure teaching using a range of methods to optimize learning outcomes.

Strength and limitations of the study

The study has a mixed-methods design, in which quantitative data about eight traditional pedagogical methods are followed-up by in-depth qualitative data about these methods, which is a notable strength. Furthermore, the quantitative data encompass students from three distinct year groups, which adds diversity to the findings. However, this study is not without certain limitations. From a critical perspective, it is possible that the PE students may have overrated practical exercises due to the enjoyment that they derived from these activities. On the other hand, considering that the participants were in their third year of teacher education, they likely possess a more informed perspective on their learning development, supported by both their teaching experiences and their role as educators in high schools and colleges.

Moreover, we suggest that students’ capacity to accurately assess their learning outcomes in relation to different pedagogical methods might be challenging. For instance, in a study in which actual learning outcomes were compared with perceived learning, students felt that they learned more from lectures than student-active methods. However, when assessing the actual learning outcomes, it was found that student-active methods were more effective than lectures ( Deslauriers et al., 2019 ). This discrepancy highlights the complexity of measuring and understanding learning outcomes, and the importance of considering both perceived and actual learning in pedagogical strategies.

This study investigated students’ perceptions of their learning outcomes from eight traditional teaching methods in a masters-level PE course, utilizing a mixed-methods approach. The quantitative analysis revealed that practical exercises resulted in the highest learning outcomes, while lectures were found to yield the lowest. The qualitative analysis, which involved in-depth interviews focusing on these two teaching methods, showed the importance of students connecting theory with practice. Additionally, these activities were perceived as more relevant to future professional roles compared to other methods, and they encouraged active student participation, which was viewed positively by PE students. Lectures were frequently perceived as long and unstimulating, largely due to students feeling that many instructors failed to engage them in discussions. Considering the findings, it is suggested that student teachers obtain the ability to plan and implement practice lessons that are related to themes in lectures, and actively involve students in discussions during lecture sessions, in order substantially enhance engagement and learning.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/supplementary material.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

AS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. PL: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: student teachers, learning outcomes, lectures, practical activities, pedagogical methods

Citation: Sørensen A and Lagestad P (2024) Physical education students’ reflections about the learning outcomes of different teaching methods: a mixed methods study. Front. Educ . 9:1365916. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1365916

Received: 05 January 2024; Accepted: 19 March 2024; Published: 17 April 2024.

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*Correspondence: Arne Sørensen, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.