college writing assignment pdf

Writing In College: From Competence to Excellence

(44 reviews)

Amy Guptill, SUNY Brockport

ISBN 13: 9781942341215

Publisher: Open SUNY

Language: English

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Reviewed by Olga Gould, Assistant Professor Reading/Literacy, Eastern New Mexico University on 2/16/24

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The book Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill is written in the easily comprehensible for Higher Education students language. This publication targets college-level learners. In a very reader-friendly, engaging, and informative style, this study-guide explains to the beginning writers the most essential aspects of writing for academic purposes. Every chapter and each section of it focuses on a specific question, which also adds to comprehensiveness of the information discussed and clarified by the author. Guptill addresses her reading audiences in a friendly and inclusive manner which may also contribute to the college students' ability to engage with this reading and deeper comprehend the meaning of the conveyed ideas.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

This publication appears to be accurately written. Moreover, this book is composed in a very good academic English language. Additionally, it includes an entire chapter on proofreading, editing, and mechanics. The author does not seem to be biased in her discussion of the issues with the academic writing. On the contrary, this author's role may be viewed as a liaison between a beginning, struggling student-writer and faculty. Guptill attempts to balance the professor to student communication on writing within academe. The rich information she is providing is accurate and up to date. Thus, Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence can be considered a reliable source of information.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Guptill refers in her current book to the recent research publications most of which were published during the first two decades of the 21st century. As anticipated, the topics this author addresses will stay relevant to the field of teaching students the academic writing strategies and skills for quite a long time. The content of Guptill's publication is not expected to become obsolete in a short period of time as a large number of students enter colleges and universities with their underdeveloped writing skills. Additionally, it seems quite natural and explainable that the first-year(s) students might have never had any sufficient exposure to the knowledge on the expectations of the academic writing, such as literature review, research report, etc. So, it may be concluded that the book Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill will not become outdated and will not need too many updates soon.

Clarity rating: 5

Guptill's text presents a very clearly written and well-explained piece of college reading. This author supplies every chapter with the examples positioned within the adequate contexts. All the terminology used in the classes concerning with writing for academic purposes is thoroughly explained. The author exemplary demonstrates the difference between the everyday spoken English language, texting, and professional and academic writing. This book is written in lucid and accessible prose the purpose of which is to make the complicated ideas easy to understand. So, the clarity of all the detailed notions seems to be outstanding.

Consistency rating: 5

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill is internally consistent in terms of its framework. Many significant attributes and terminology used in the field of college writing are consistently present throughout this entire publication. The tone of this text is steadily even within the selected by this author frame. So, Guptill not only explains how to write but also demonstrates it via her publication.

Modularity rating: 5

One of the best features of this publication is its modularity. The author divides her text into chapters, sections, and subsections. Importantly, these smaller sections frame is consistent and makes it easy for audiences to read while knowing what to expect in every following, similarly structured chapter. The chapters, sections, subsections, and blocks with the supplemental information have headings and subheadings. The additional information aligns well with the content of the chapter or section it supplements without causing interruptions in the reading process. So, the modularity of this publication seems to be very thoughtfully streamlined.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Organization of this publication is outstanding. The topics are presented in a logical and clear fashion. The book chapters and sections are evenly distributed in terms of their volume and content load. Focusing on a beginning writer, including the first-generation in college student, this text is mindfully organized.

Interface rating: 5

Thanks to the modern days' affordances of the internet-based reading, the book by Guptill contains the links to the additional sources mentioned within its chapters or in connection to their content. This feature allows the audience to easily navigate between the different reading platforms and choose the appropriate time for doing so. For example, different readers might prefer to explore the provided links prior, during, or after reading basing their preferences on the level of their interest in each of the discussed aspects. Adding the links, rather than chunks of the texts, facilitates the flow of the reading process in the audience and minimizes or eliminates the distracting effect.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Guptill's book presents a well-written text without grammatical errors. It may serve students as an example to follow.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The book Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill does not contain any culturally insensitive or offensive language. This reading seems to be highly welcoming and inclusive for both the Domestic and International students from diverse backgrounds.

With the publisher's and author's kind permission, I will add this book as supplemental resource for my students in my Writing courses. P.S. I truly loved reading this book and will use its content in my instruction with salient reference to its author, full APA citation, and the link to this text. Thank you. Sincerely, Dr. Olga Gould

Reviewed by Vivian Chin, Instructor, Hawaii Community College on 12/13/21

The nine chapters of this book cover material ranging from what college professors might expect to how to avoid informal speech patterns in writing. The titles of the chapters seem straightforward and not confusing. Although this textbook does not include a section specifically aimed towards English Language Learners, the chapter, "Getting the Mechanics Right" seems helpful for ELL students and for students who must code-switch into so-called standard English.

I would only note that in an example in the chapter, "Getting the Mechanics Right," it is highly unlikely that anyone would text with an accent on the e in cafe: "INFORMAL: u shd go 2 café b4 wrk bc coffee, and that this error might alienate students." I question the author's reliability simply because of this trivial point. On the other hand, one might use autocorrect while texting and one's phone would automatically put an accent on the e in cafe.

The material in this book seems very useful to students. I have downloaded this book so that I will remember to use it! I do think that the language may be a bit elitist at times, However, the chapters are thoughtfully titled and seem to contain sufficient information for students to follow and to do well in a college composition course.

Students with developing reading abilities may have trouble comprehending this book, however, much of the possibly unfamiliar vocabulary is useful for students to learn, e.g., "substantive."

The language of this book does seem to be consistent. The voice does not talk down to the reader. The word choice is appropriate for the audience.

The exercises at the end of the chapters seem useful. I think that a summary or a bullet point list of important points would be helpful at the end of each chapter.

I appreciate the organization of this textbook as it begins with possible expectations and ends with a chapter on diction. It follows a logical pattern, moving from general to specific.

With the help of my students I was able to navigate this book. Unfortunately it was a bit counterintuitive for me as one needs to expand the Main Body of the book to be able to access chapters. Students were able to figure this out, however.

I did not notice any grammatical errors. :)

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

This book seems to be blind to the writing and experiences of people of color. Because of this weakness or omission, it avoids the token representation or cursory inclusion of people of color, which can be just as offensive as our erasure.

A useful book.

Reviewed by Kate Nolin-Smith, Senior Lecturer, University of Wisconsin - Superior on 9/20/21

This book covers most of the basic components of a first year composition course in terms of expectations, general researching, and academic writing. There are clear sections dedicated to forming a thesis, writing paragraphs, and structuring an... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

The information in the text is accurate and presented in an unbiased manner.

Most of the information presented in the text is up to date and could easily be updated if needed.

This text is written in a straightforward manner and avoids complicated or wordy explanations.

The text has a consistent "voice" throughout.

The text has clearly marked topics and subsections in each chapter.

The organization of information is easy to follow and structured in a logical way.

This text is free of any obvious interface issues.

There were no obvious grammar errors in the text.

The text is not culturally insensitive in any way.

Reviewed by Julie Mainka, Adjunct Instructor, Butler Community College on 5/31/21

I am not sure if comprehensiveness is the main goal. The chapters which are present are quite strong, but discussions of cultural competency were largely missing. In my teaching, critical thinking about cultural contexts is far more important than having a perfect paragraph, mechanics, etc. This book largely seems to cover the basics of writing in a college-context, but there does not seem to be much explicit discussion of how to critically think by incorporating intersecting communities, identities, schools of thought, etc. In other words, more emphasis on critical thinking and how scholars use cultural lenses to critically think would be useful.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The content is accurate concerning the basics of entering a scholarly conversation, but it leaves out a large part of the academic conversation: navigating intersecting cultural contexts. If you plan to supplement heavily, this a great book to get accurate information on basic information.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The book is largely relevant to today’s students. It would be helpful to be more explicit about the diverse backgrounds of the students coming into a first-year composition course, however. There are up-to-date examples and some discussion of contemporary pronoun usage. The inclusion of real student comments are great as well! This shows how the skill at hand is directly relevant to a real person.

In general, I loved the authorial voice most of the time. The author is often warm and inviting. She attempts to welcome the student into the academic conversation rather than slamming them with rules or scaring them into “writing well”. The explanations and examples are usually very clear and blend a colloquial and academic style well.

The text is very consistent in terminology and framework and is, in fact, explicitly linked in multiple places. Each chapter is implicitly and explicitly connected to other chapters.

The chapters are short and sweet. Since this book does not include a reader, this is one of its best features. Each chapter functions well alone and as a complete guide. I had so many ideas for which readings to pair with each chapter! The way the book is structured is also wonderful. The author focuses on why one writes, the purpose of writing, gathering information, and THEN putting everything together.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

This is related to my comment above. The basic organization is wonderful. I would add more concerning critical thinking and cultural competency, but this can be added into almost every chapter instead of presenting a separate section for it.

I used an older generation iPad and had no issues with the text or links. In fact, I loved that there were so many links in order to clarify or offer more insight.

I found a couple of insignificant typos, but that’s it! This book was clearly edited and proofread several times.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I did not find anything to be intentionally malicious, but there were only small attempts to be inclusive. In general, there seems to be an effort to avoid explicitly discussing intersectional identities. As much as I loved the book, this seems to be a severe oversight. In all of the composition courses I’ve taught, I assign students current issues to research, analyze, and process. Doing this kind of work requires an ability to find the intersections of identities and be able to complicate the issue at hand through various lenses. Although this book strongly advocates for this type of thinking, there is little attempt to put it into practice. Sometimes this is manifested as something seemingly small, like assuming that most college students are traditional students. However, this can have a large impact on students. In general, I would advocate for explicit discussions of (dis)abilities, ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, etc. Staying silent and hoping that the material is universal can cause some students to feel excluded. In other words, I feel everyone benefits from an explicit appeal to intersectionality. I would like to end on a positive note, however. There were some attempts at inclusivity (e.g. pronoun discussion, non-standard English discussion, etc.). These are excellent inclusions, there just needs to be a far more explicit attempt at diversity and inclusion.

One thing I loved was the humanizing of professors. Guptill explained how many professors have little professional training in HOW to teach and how grading is a very difficult part of being a professor. She added some longer discussions as well as many small references throughout the text. I think introductory students often do not know what a professor does, so this helps to demystify the professor (and their job) and show the students that we are just fellow humans who struggle just like they do. We ultimately have the goal of helping them as much as we can, but we are also people.

Reviewed by Martha Ucci, Professor of English, Bristol Community College on 5/26/21

As a reader for a first year composition course, this is an excellent choice. Guptiill strikes the perfect balance between composition rhetoric and good old fashioned advice. Indeed, her lens is squarely focused on the user, which is the student. There are live links to articles and bold boxes that reveal student's perspective and experiences that will certainly resonate with students who want to see themselves represented in the text. The content covers a brief examination of the vernacular of higher education to the mechanics of writing. Topics such as vetting research articles and paraphrasing content is especially pertinent to the novice research paper writer.

The content is accurate and offers humor at times to invite the student writer to embrace the often arduous task of academic writing. For example, there is a reference to a video on how to conquer writer's block, followed by a witty Sponge Bob Square Pants video. Students need levity and so many texts are one dimensional. However, that is not the case with Guptill's book.

The purpose of the text is very clear and Guptill incorporates data from employers who are seeking strong written communication skills, as well as critical thinkers. She also recognizes the role faculty play in shaping how students write and think about writing from their own scholarship. One of the exercises includes interviewing a faculty member about their process for writing and how that in turn leads to generating articles for publication. In fact, she refers to faculty (kiddingly) as "egg heads." Student's will gravitate to the witty elements in the text.

Guptill's prose and examples of writing are very concrete. She breaks down the process of writing into manageable parts, while encouraging students to break free form the conventional 5-paragraph essay. Her chapter on paraphrasing is especially effective. She provide examples of successful introductory paragraphs and some not-so successful paragraphs. She addresses being concise in writing, as well as the importance of cohesiveness.

The text is very consistent. The basic format of each chapter remains same throughout, lending consistency for the user.

One of the best features of this text is that the chapters are very digestible. They are not too long for students to lose focus. The exercises at the end of each chapter really reinforce the concepts presented and allow students to gain greater practice in achieving their writing goals. There are several articles that Guptill refers to throughout the text which invites more depth and credibilty to the topic being covered. I was especially pleased to see the AAC&U Written Communication Rubric used and explained in the text..

The text is neatly organized and very adaptable for student use.

The interface is great.

The grammatical elements are well done. The footnotes are very rich with articles and Guptill's own observations. Lots of fun to read.

Cultural Relevance rating: 1

The text is not culturally insensitive. I would say the the students quoted in the text may not represent the diverse body of student writers in college, especially the community college.

I think this is a great text to incorporate in a first year writing course. Students will really engage with the text and it offers a variety of concepts suitable for the "reluctant" writer.

Reviewed by Ann Pelelo, Professor of English, Clarke University on 12/18/20

There is not an index or a glossary, but all areas and ideas listed within the Table of Contents are covered well for the intended audience—high school writers who are transitioning to college writing. The explanations are, at times, brief, but the author supplies numerous ancillary links to augment the information presented. Given the generality of the topics, this book could be used within and outside of composition classes; that is what I find most attractive about it.

Some of the content in Chapter 1 is “cringe-worthy.” For example, “Most of your professors have had little to no formal training in pedagogy (the science of teaching). They’re extensively trained in their scholarly or creative fields, well versed in relevant theories, methods, and significant findings. Many taught during graduate school, but most come to their jobs relative novices about teaching.” This generalization can be a misleading and/or inaccurate description of many institutions of higher learning. The author continues: “Even those who spend a majority of their time on teaching think of themselves as scholars or artists who also teach.” She also writes: “Your professors—immersed as they are in their own fields—may forget that you have such varied demands, and they may not take class time to explain the particular conventions of their field.” Although I understand, as a person who has spent 25 years teaching full-time at the college level, what the writer is trying to convey about the “college environment,” these generalizations put forth in the beginning of the book make me uneasy, and I worry about how students will receive them. I loved, however, that also in this chapter the message is clear that in college students “drive their own learning.” The content of the remaining chapters is on-point for the intended audience, and it echoes many of the important lessons about writing that I’ve been trying to convey to students throughout my teaching career.

The content is up-to-date. Some things like paragraph unity and development of argumentative thesis sentences will remain static over time. Nuances about contemporary writing are touched upon in the last chapter. In fact, that chapter includes a discussion of gendered language—a hot topic of debate today. The exercises found at the ends of chapters were useful and in-tune with “the real world.”

The text is written in lucid and accessible prose. It also consistently provides adequate context for the ideas discussed. I especially appreciate how the author takes the reader through the rhetorical situation in an authentic and practical manner—this will be attractive and useful to students. I also appreciate how, in Chapter 3, the author explains the distinctions between high school and college writing and how to write an effective “college’ thesis statement. In addition, Chapter 4 includes a helpful overview of what makes a source “good.” The simple and usable chart that explains different levels of quality sources, their uses and how to find them will be useful to students. And Chapter 5, “Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources,” relates well how sources should function in student writing. The explanations are clear and logical.

The text’s framework is consistent. Each chapter ends with “exercises.” And each chapter includes many links to ancillary resources. In addition, footnotes are used frequently and consistently.

It is easy to imagine using specific chapters of this text in a variety of different classes. One doesn’t necessarily have to have read Chapter 3 in order for Chapter 4 to be useful. However, if the author does refer to information found in a previous chapter, she provides a link to it.

The organization of ideas is logical and clear throughout each chapter and among the chapters themselves. Each chapter begins with an overview of its contents and the “why” of its significance. Therefore, students encounter early in each chapter the importance of the information that will follow and how that information connects to their future college experiences.

Interface rating: 3

The book contains many helpful embedded links. However, when using the pdf version of the text, once a link was accessed, “going back” took one back to the beginning of the book—not where one had left off. In addition, I found many “dead links.” Furthermore, some links were labeled in misleading ways. For example, on page 12 a link is named “assignment prompt,” but it takes one to the main page of the Purdue Writing Lab. Given that the publication date is 2016, I wonder how often the author should check the links included in this text.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

I frequently encountered clunky sentence structures and clunky transitions between sentences and between ideas, but that clunkiness did not take away from the content. There are a few typos as well (“than” instead of “then,” for example). I also noticed some punctuation errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Cultural sensitivity is a complex subject. However, in my review of this text, I did not encounter culturally insensitive language or examples, other than the frequent use of “mastering.” Furthermore, the tone and language are accessible for many ELL students. Some of the statements that are meant to be humorous may be lost on those learners, but losing out on the humor has a negligible impact on the important content.

Reviewed by Tasha Williams, Instructor, Leeward Community College on 7/28/20

The text does a great job of anticipating possible student perspectives and addressing them in a way that appeals to students. Its inviting tone stands to benefit first-year writing students greatly because it covers key concepts. In addition, I was pleasantly surprised by the discussion of instructors' professional duties. I believe the effective discussion demystifies the instructor role, thus rendering us more approachable. The second chapter focuses on the importance of knowing the audience and what teachers expect from assignments, which is a good topic that is seldom addressed explicitly. Understanding the assignment is essential to successfully achieving the goals of the writing assignment. The discussion of the three story thesis is very helpful and written in a non-condescending tone. It is strategically placed as a foundation for subsequent chapters. The remaining chapters help students develop paragraphs and address technical issues in their writing.

The author is accurate and unbiased. It is refreshing to encounter a text that provides practical guidance for students with regard to topics that teachers sometimes discuss with fellow practitioners. She does a good job of addressing these topics with a down-to-earth approach to students.

I look forward to sharing this text with my students because of its relevance to their experiences. The author incorporates a discussion of how writing has increased due to technological needs which is current with the times. With the increase in online classrooms due to the Covid-19 pandemic, online classrooms will benefit from resources that spark conversations in an online format.

Clarity rating: 4

One of the best features of this text is its ability to discuss the content in an accessible manner and break down information.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The chapters are relatively short and easy to comprehend.

The information in the text is logically organized. The text does a good job of building upon key concepts. While the chapters stand alone, each chapter reinforces important skills that are covered in previous chapters.

There are no significant interface issues. The text refers to chapter numbers, but the chapters could also be numbered for consistency.

The grammar does not interfere with the reader’s grasp of the content.

While the text does not appear to be culturally insensitive, it could be more inclusive of more students’ experiences. Chapter one begins with a discussion of why writing is important in terms of enhancing one’s professional career, but students who belong to underrepresented groups may feel that they are learning to write for other peoples’ purposes rather than their own. In addition to discussing how writing has the potential to enhance students’ careers, it could also address how writing may enhance other important aspects of students' lives such as family and community.

Reviewed by Nicholas Papas, Professor, Middlesex Community College on 6/25/20

This text would work well as a first-year writing text. While it does not cover "all areas and ideas of the subject," it provides a fairly comprehensive (and readable) discussion of important concepts and ways of thinking. I would add that one of... read more

The views presented in the text are well-grounded and nuanced. Having said that, because the text tries (and succeeds) to talk to student in a "real" way, there are certainly some statements, because of their clarity and boldness, that may ruffle some feathers. Again, I see this as a positive aspect, providing opportunity for discussion and, yes, critical thinking.

The content itself is likely to remain relevant, though it is certainly a product of the times. Many of the links to outside content don't work (already). This is unfortunate because the links that do work are useful.

The style is clear and engaging.

I noticed no problems with internal consistency.

The text is divided into nine fairly short chapters. There are clearly labeled sub-sections within each chapter. The short chapters lend themselves well to being assigned individually at different points in the course. The sub-section titles would make it easy to refer students to a particular section for review.

The chapters are organized in a logical way. The same is true for the sections within each chapter.

Interface rating: 4

I read this as a PDF file on an iPad. As such, the interface is pretty simple. The only intra-text navigation is done through the table of contents--which works fine.

A few typos. No major concerns.

One of the strengths of the text is that it addresses a fairly specific audience. This allows the author to speak to the concerns and assumptions of this audience. This strength could also be a weakness when the text is assigned to non-traditional students--students who may not have "mastered [American] high-school level conventions of formal academic writing," but who may have an academic background that would transition just as well, if adequately scaffolded, to successful demonstration of the course's stated learning outcomes.

I actually enjoyed reading this "textbook."

Reviewed by Regina Daus-Haberle, Instructor, Bridgewater State University on 6/19/20

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence, while brief, addresses the key concerns of incoming first year students as they transition from high school writers to college-level academics. With that focus in mind, Amy Guptill prepares students for the metamorphosis in writing and analysis that occurs in first year writing classrooms and in introductory subject-matter classrooms. Guptill identifies the most critical steps involved in producing high quality college-level writing, and her lessons demystify the writing process so that students can follow concrete steps towards achieving mastery and gaining confidence.

Guptill's approach to writing is both accurate and approachable--great qualities for a first-year writing text. She explains concepts clearly, and more importantly, she explains why and how students should be thinking about the writing process in clear, concise, understandable terms. Guptill also explains concepts of audience in a bias-free manner, emphasizing that there is a difference between standard written English and more informal language. Identifying that distinction and explaining why it's important to be able to switch between registers of speech is a valuable way to frame ideas of appropriate rhetoric.

This text provides time-honored and time-tested explanations for how to master the art of communicating effectively in writing with an updated and upbeat twist. Its lessons will certainly remain relevant.

One of the greatest strengths of this text is its accessibility and clarity. It is written in a conversational style which students will find readily accessible and engaging. Moreover, Guptill addresses concerns and difficulties students are likely to encounter. She then explains strategies for mastering discrete elements of the writing process in easy-to-understand language.

The style, structure, and tone of this text are all consistent throughout. The chapters are short and retain a common structure: Guptill introduces the chapter's concept, intersperses her explanation with student testimonials which are engaging, offers additional resources, and finally provides follow-up exercises. This model works well and enables the student to grow in familiarity with the text.

This text is remarkably well organized and lends itself to easily assigned and utilized chapters. It is quite short, but that works incredibly well since it provides the necessary content without being overwhelming for the student.

The text is well-organized as it breaks down the writing process into a logical procedure--with each chapter building on those that came before. It is very easy for a student to follow.

There are no interface problems with this text.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

This text is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

I am excited to introduce this text into my first-year writing courses! It will become my primary "how-to-write" text, and I think my students are going to really find it helpful.

Reviewed by Jamie Parmese, Adjunct Assistant Professor of English, Raritan Valley Community College on 4/13/20

For the intended audience of this text, I would say that this text does cover areas and ideas of the subject appropriately considering that students in ENGL 111 or even ENGL 112 would seem to be the ones who might be able to benefit a lot from this text. This textbook does not claim to cover all ideas relevant to composition, but again, considering its intended audience, I think it does a fair job. Although I was unable to find an index or a glossary, students would appreciate the sections of information that define concepts like how to build a thesis part by part, offering alternative forms of communicating potentially annoying questions with professors, etc.

I found the information in this text to be accurate. I appreciated its honesty in the beginning that professors have different preferences and that getting to know a professor's preference of writing is just part of the world of academia. I know from anecdotal experience how stressed students are each semester that they come into my own ENGL 111 and ENGL 112 courses worrying about whether or not they will meet my expectations on the first day as I hear over and over again, "Each professor is so different." I think students would appreciate confronting that reality head-on through the tips of communication that this textbook offers.

I think the content is up-to-date and not in a way that will quickly make the text obsolete within a short period of time. Not only does this textbook obviously focus on writing and composition, but it also effectively markets to students the value of communication. Too often, professors hear complaints from students about how our particular course will help them even though they are in a different X major. For instance, the fact that employers' most highly valued skill from prospective employees is communication is valuable and encouraging, as well as possibly motivating, for students to know. I doubt that the high value of communication will change.

Overall, I found this text to be written in accessible prose. The varied use of capitalization, italics, bold font, etc. signals to the student that certain pieces of information are important - particularly in the boxes of quotes containing valuable advice. Not only do the boxes of tips offer clarity, but they really do evoke a warm, inviting tone for students to feel that professors are truly on their side. Too often, just from anecdotal experience, I find that it takes a long time to earn the trust of students who feel that they have been "tricked" or "cheated" by past professors. The inviting tone of this text makes not only the advice clear but helps students to consider the content.

Consistency rating: 4

The text is internally consistent in terms of framework. I think the terminology could have been a little more consistently framed in terms of all important words being bold, for instance. Instead, there is a variation of fonts throughout the text, which yes, as I mentioned before, is important in signaling to the reader that these terms and concepts are important, but I think that a little more consistency in how that information is signaled could possibly benefit readers in helping them keep track of these terms and concepts. The more consistent a text is in signaling important concepts, the easier it is for students to go back and refer to them for more study.

Modularity rating: 4

I do think that one drawback of this textbook is that there is not much color, along with the fact that there are long sections of black text on white background. I have found other open textbooks to be a little more visually engaging, and I think that this textbook could have benefited from that a bit, especially since the content is solid. Because of the lack of visual engagement, I do think that the long sections of black text on white background with few graphics, images, etc. could be overwhelming and possibly create a boring experience for readers - not all will want to have the discipline to keep themselves engaged in reading such a long, uniform text.

I think this text has great organization. Just from the chapter and section titles, it is clear that the authors took into careful consideration students' very real concerns and worries that they have when they start to enter the world of college writing. I think the fact that the textbook is under 100 pages also helps in not having the text be overwhelming to an unmanageable point for the reader. I have seen one open textbook that was over 500 pages, which I think would be a turn-off for the student reader. I think that how this textbook is organized by phrases that students use, such as "correctness" in writing really makes it effectively inviting for them.

I had zero problems navigating this textbook, which is definitely a strength there. Thanks to its clear organization, navigating around this textbook is simple and accessible. I did not have any problems with the links, and in fact, I found them very useful that again, I found tapped into students' real concerns - for instance, in Chapter 9, how employers hesitate to hire - or might not hire at all - prospective employees who write with incorrect grammar. I think this is a challenge for teachers to address, too, by the way - so often, professors are encouraged to consider grammar as the least area of concern, when in reality, it might make or break a hiring chance.

I did not find any grammatical errors in this text.

To be honest, I found one of the opening lines of the textbook to be a bit insensitive to diverse academic backgrounds. This line was, "You may have performed so well in high school that you're deemed fully competent in college level writing and are now excused from taking a composition course" on page 1. I understand the author's point in trying to market the value and importance of good composition, which I think is done very well overall, but many students - especially first-year ones - come into class on the first day feeling very insecure already about their writing skills, and I'm not so sure that reading this opening line will help too much with that.

Overall, I think this textbook would make an excellent companion to the standard ENGL 111 and even ENGL 112 textbooks that we use in our English department, and that is only because the standard textbooks we use are really anthologies that contain literary or non-fiction pieces for the students to write about. This textbook reminded me very much of a popular book on writing that a professor at my undergraduate university referred me to when I started taking writing intensive courses, and it changed my outlook and confidence in my writing skills for the better. I think that this textbook could do the same for students beginning college and beyond.

Reviewed by Kevin Zepper, Professor, Minnesota State University System on 3/7/20

I appreciate Guptill's approach in this textbook. In the previous textbooks I've reviewed for my composition courses, I've never seen anything quite like the first two chapters in Writing In College. In the first chapter, "Really? Writing? Again?" there's the justification for the new college student to adjust to more writing and seek improvement. Maybe this is something assumed or left unsaid, but Chapter one dishes out the reality of writing for students. Chapter Two, "What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment," is another important message left out of many of the writing texts I've examined. On a side note, I appreciate the explanation in the section regarding what a "professor does." The remaining chapters are all direct and focus on the positive aspects of developing a writing process.

After reading through the text twice, I feel the information is at least as accurate as other readers or college composition writing texts I've read in my twenty years of teaching. Given the audience, I feel the language is appropriate for incoming first-year students.

The reason I am rating this category a 4 is I was hoping for some sample essays as models for students. In my experience, some students learn new material in this fashion. Of course, there is the cost factor of selecting anything outside of the author's own contributions. (I would like to point out a typo on page fifteen, first line of the sentence. Shouldn't the word be "it" instead of "if?")

Writing doesn't change much. Philosophies of content and literary theories are added to on a regular basis. I feel Guptill's ebook is quite relevant given what's out there.

I never had the feeling that Guptill was trying reach beyond the first-students level of reading comprehension. For me, it was a reasonable fast read and manageable for creating assignments.

The appearance and layout appear reasonably uniform. Though not a deal breaker, the bold boxes did break up the text, but were distracting in some ways. I was hoping for quotes from experienced writers, tips on how to approached a specific issue, like free writing or revision. It's a small quibble!

In my personal opinion, this is an easy text to negotiate, simple to assign sections for further discussion through the writing process.

The chapters almost mirror the importance of each step in the process of writing. There is nothing I've read which deviates from the set chapters or content therein.

I read my download of Guptill's text on a fourth generation iPad. It was readily available t read through my iBooks app. There were no issues with the interface whatsoever.

(I would like to point out a typo on page fifteen, first line of the sentence. Shouldn't the word be "it" instead of "if?")

I didn't detect anything considered malicious or offensive.

I am seriously considering this as a text in future sections of composition. If I can feed a reader of some kind, hopefully open source, I would have the perfect combination to continue my next twenty years teaching college composition!

Reviewed by Bradley Hartsell, Adjunct English Professor, Emory & Henry College on 11/1/19

This textbook does a really good job of walking the reader (i.e. the student) through the process of writing effectively in higher education, starting with demystifying writing (which is sneakily really important; writing can often be perceived by students and young writers as an imposing ivory tower, of sorts) and on through feet-on-the-ground strategies for improving writing (e.g. the three storied thesis is a great tidbit that can stick with students). The one thing slightly holding back the textbook's comprehensiveness is Chapter 9 is comparatively skimpy, trying to cram fundamental grammar lessons (e.g. 'affect' vs. 'effect'; 'definitely' vs. 'defiantly') into an otherwise bite-sized chapter, in a text that is ostensibly for high-level writing students who would've either already mastered these elements of grammar (reminders are helpful, sure, but a whole chapter seems superfluous) or should be reading a composition-focused textbook, not a rhetorical-based one.

The information is well-sourced, and to my eyes, is accurate and error-free. Some hyperlinks no longer work, but I feel that's more a relevant in the 'Interface' category than 'Accuracy.' The thing that slightly gives me pause is much of the first chapter characterizes an ideal professor, and while 'biased' feels too strong an accusation, it seems aimed to heavily prepare young writers for a particular, almost idyllic style of professor. I'm not sure of the better way of conveying this to a student (you certainly wouldn't portray an ambivalent or constricting professor), but Guptill's form in Chapter 1 does bring the issue of 'unbiased' into question.

Barring unforeseen shifts on language and our current understanding of written communication, this textbook seems relevant for quite some time. Again, however, the few out-of-date hyperlinks hurts the text's relevance. All of the in-text material, however, appears perfectly relevant, barring the glaring issue that the first two chapters are strangely miscast. Guptill demystifying writing and conveying the attitude of a modern professor works well rhetorically and philosophically, an effective motivational tool to the reader, but presumably, the professor assigning this book is having Guptill explain his or her own motivations and pedagogy, which would theoretically be conveyed by the professor themselves during class meetings and/or in their syllabus.

Guptill breaks down fairly loft ideas and ideals down to prose that's actually fairly accessible. End-of-chapter exercises do a good job of reframing the lessons in the corresponding chapter. I do wonder if some of the in-chapter exercises could be slightly more explained, like the three-story thesis lesson, for instance, does a good job, by using real examples, of building basic statements of fact (level 1) into more complex argumentative statements (level 2) and into the ultimate level (3) of assessment, analysis, and arguability. However, sometimes it's not totally clear what separates Level 2 from Level 3, besides more words. Despite this small critique, the text's clarity is one of its strongest qualities.

Each chapter settles into welcoming patterns of introduction, tiered pedagogies, examples, student testimonials, a graphic or two, and exercises. This being solely written by Guptill seems to be the reason for such strong consistency.

Well-broken down into digestible pieces in what is ultimately a very digestible, 85-page textbook. Clickable chapters in the index is convenient, plus the nature of Guptill's rhetoric means much of this book could be arranged in pretty malleable ways by the professor (i.e. Chapter 7 (Intros and Outros) this week, Chapter 3 (Constructing the Thesis and Argument) next week).

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The strengths found in part in the textbook's modularity hurt it in its organization. Chapters 1 & 2 are well-placed but it's unclear Back to Basics: The Perfect Paragraph comes in at Chapter 6, after two chapters regarding sources, which themselves came over the thesis/argument chapter. Similarly, Chapter 9 being the grammar crash-course chapter feels slightly out of place and then the book ends all of the sudden with a (very) brief conclusion that still feels attached to the grammar chapter 9, and 3 exercises that feel like an afterthought. It feels like a more appropriate conclusion would restate the early chapters' demystification of writing and/or reflecting on the process of building theses and arguments.

The text is clean and unobstructed, with graphs/figures well-placed within the text. Again, the issues are with the hyperlinks, both the aforementioned broken links, but also, some of the links go to seeming-placeholder AAC&U/database pages that are likely to leave the reader feeling like they wasted time; not enough of the links/references link out to beefy articles/resources that could lead to further, relevant reading.

The textbook does not appear to contain any grammatical errors, not to my eye, at least.

Other than the odd footnote in the first chapter encouraging a sect of students to become tradespeople, Guptill's writing is middle of the road (though lively, not boring) and sensitive; the text's examples, while relevant, don't seem politically or socially-charged.

Overall, I appreciate the digestibility and the tenor of Guptill's book. As stated in the relevance category, it's not sure how a professor is supposed to assign the first couple of chapters; if I were a composition instructor (which I am), I don't know what my students get out reading Chapter 2: What a Professor Wants when I am the professor and I can just tell them. I really like this book in breaking down what makes effective theses, arguments, intros, and using sources, which is what I feel is the strongest part of this text. Like I said, the first 2 chapters are well-written and well-meaning but awkwardly, and I wonder about the linear progression of this book (it seems better served to be taught from out of order). And I wouldn't use this book as my composition, grammar-base, even for high-level writers. I find this textbook, ultimately, to be a good supplemental piece of a writing-intensive college course, but not to be used as a primary text.

Reviewed by Adam Pope, Assistant Professor, Writing Program Administrator, University of Arkansas on 11/1/19

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text covers the general gist of the writing process in a classroom in college. This text would be well-suited to a WID or WAC course where writing is simply a part of the class that needs some special guidance. The text works as a style manual for writing in academic contexts and does this well. It doesn't serve well as a Writing Studies course textbook, but I don't think that was the intent of the author. Because of this I would say it does what it does very comprehensively, but it doesn't cover everything a Writing Studies book would.

The textbook is accurate in what it covers. It does not cover the field of Rhetoric and Composition's traditional stomping grounds, but instead focuses on providing a stylistic handbook to students of writing. The advice is internally consistent and stands upon sources that make sense in usage. It does not, however, interact with field-specific knowledge from writing studies. This is a practical choice, and the book stands alone just fine.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

This book is relevant to writing studies courses, though I would argue it is particularly useful for those teaching a WID or WAC approach. The text doesn't hew to traditional Rhetoric and Composition approaches, borrowing instead a form-based approach that treats writing as a schema that can be replicated and tweaked with formulas. While this can be effective to scaffold writing into a course that isn't within the realm of Rhetoric and Composition, I find the lack of engagement with Composition and Rhetorical theory to limit its use in a classic writing studies application. This lack, however, makes it a stronger fit for an instructor looking to add writing to their course without learning the terms of Rhetoric and Composition.

The book is clearly written. The author distinguishes between sources, original text, ideas, and suggestions very well. The formatting the text uses allows lists and other examples to pop out visually. The text is very direct and plainly written for a student audience and doesn't convey a sense of superiority or putting on airs.

Sections are consistent. The text references itself and other ideas on a regular basis, creating a unified whole that functions as a single book rather than a collection of articles and essays that happen to belong in the same binding. This shared vision is effective, though the downside is that the sections all speak to a larger focus on the goals of the book. This is not a choose your own adventure text. It is a very specific way to teach writing.

The text has a useful level of modularity if you wish to cover the major ideas of the author. However, the particular sections don't have a navigational hierarchy within them that leads to an easy transition between different sections. The sections are very much a single argument with sub-points rather than something that can be picked apart easily.

The book has a clear flow and directionality. It references its own flow and direction on a regular basis and is internally in conversation with its own ideas and structure. The structure moves from a simple introduction to more complex concerns and then closes with style. This is a normal move for a style manual or writing manual, a category I would apply to this particular text.

Some links do not work and result in a dead end. The lack of sub-sections within the major chapters is problematic for easy access to new areas, especially for folks with limited access to scrolling, such as those using a screen reader.

The text is clear, functional, and has no issues I find.

This text is not culturally offensive in my reading. It focuses entirely on the cultural migration from high school to college and focuses on the need to understand the culture of college courses and the way that academics and faculty work.

This is a very interesting book that tackles writing from the angle of a style guide or writing manual rather than a rhetorical text that one would find in a Rhetoric and Composition program. The text mirrors treatises on style and writing like Strunk and White and other classics such as They Say/I Say. While it would not be my first choice for a Composition course, I think it has a great potential to bridge writing for students in a WID or WAC setting where writing needs to be covered in a clear and direct way.

Reviewed by Lucas Street, Director of the Reading/Writing Center and Instructor of English, Augustana College on 7/31/19

For a slim, 84-page text, Writing In College is indeed comprehensive. Guptill provides practical, student-centered advice on transitioning from high-school writing to college writing. Yet this advice is couched in context, both theoretical and experiential. Guptill wants students to know the “why” behind academic writing, even when that “why” isn’t necessarily flattering to the genre. I expect her honesty will give this text credibility among students and faculty alike.

Writing In College doesn’t pretend to be a compendium of every possible academic genre. It focuses on only one: the academic argumentative essay, as assigned in and written for undergraduate courses around the U.S. Each step of the process is covered here: from understanding the assignment to putting the finishing touches on sentence-level edits.

Unfortunately, the book provides no index or glossary.

Guptill’s text has a strong basis in writing theory, from seminal theorists like Peter Elbow and Joseph Williams to more recent scholarship from AAC&U. She also leans on contemporary cognitive theorists like Daniel Kahneman. And as a sociologist as well as writing instructor, Guptill brings a strong WAC background to her text.

The text is very up-to-date, referencing Google and Wikipedia extensively in the “Secondary Sources…” chapter, comparing them to academic databases, and advising students how they are and aren’t useful. I also appreciated how some of the end-of-chapter activities ask students to put online essay mills to the test by evaluating the samples found there.

However, while I appreciate the number of hyperlinks included in the text, I imagine it will take some doing to make sure they’re updated as websites come and go in years to come.

The prose is very student-friendly: breezy, conversational, but not dumbed-down in the slightest. It’s enjoyable to read and not at all dry. Guptill frequently includes "personal experience" sidebars from five very diverse student writers, whom she credits as co-authors. Jargon is always explained. The tone is pitched just right to engage students.

This is a single-author text (except for the "student experience" sidebars mentioned above), so it’s very unified.

Chapters are short (8-10 pages each), self-contained, and include section headings. Although these chapters do refer (and link) to each other, they can be assigned and read independently. In my composition classes, I did assign all nine chapters, since none seemed superfluous.

The book is very well-organized, providing a logical, pedagogically sound progression from higher-order concerns like thesis construction to lower-order concerns (“Getting the Mechanics Right”).

As mentioned above, the text contains numerous links (3+ per page). All footnote citations also link to the sources online. Other than some charts and diagrams, though, the layout is fairly barebones. Images might have been nice to include--although they could have also cluttered things. Both the PDF version and online version are easy to read, with attractive typefaces and layout.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

There are a handful of typos and a few major errors, including at least two comma splices. I also noticed some minor punctuation issues such as an occasional missing hyphen, comma, or apostrophe.

The text is culturally sensitive. The five students from whom Guptill solicited quotations about the writing process seem a diverse group.

Writing in College demystifies the most important elements of college writing via useful heuristics and a highly readable, accessible (and at times cheeky) style. Guptill’s slim text helps students new to academic writing avoid common pitfalls.

I’ve assigned the entire text in my composition classes this year and it’s worked well as a student-friendly guide to not only the “how” but the “why” of academic writing.

Reviewed by Cleatta Morris, Instructor, LSUS on 4/11/19, updated 5/6/19

The book takes a refreshing, atypical approach to freshman rhetoric and composition. It’s neither a writing handbook nor a reader and doesn’t pretend to be. Instead, it gives practical advice to new college students on how good writing can help them throughout their college careers and beyond. It explores the expectations that college professors have of their students before moving on to the fundamentals of academic writing beyond the five-paragraph essay. The book offers footnotes, hyperlinks to sources and supplemental readings, and clear examples throughout. It also offers two or three exercises at the end of each chapter. It does not contain an index or a glossary. An index would be useful, however. This book is an interesting way to help students understand the importance of developing their critical thinking and writing skills, but it’s not as comprehensive as it could be. It could touch on more than one pattern of organization, and it could use more examples and more exercises, particularly in the last two chapters; faculty must depend on handbooks and supplemental readings to serve as writing models.

The book seems unbiased and accurate in its approach to the subject matter, college-level writing. On the downside, it contains an uncited quote from a television series and at least one dead hyperlink.

The sources are fairly up-to-date (most 2007 or newer). The topic doesn’t call for constant revisions except for those areas that intersect with online technology, and the book could be revised easily enough.

The book is accessible to its audience; the tone is conversational without being too informal. The student anecdotes add to the accessibility.

The text is consistent in its approach, tone, and layout.

The chapters are fairly short, have clear headings, and are fairly self-contained. The instructor would have no trouble assigning chapters or even parts of a chapter as needed.

While I might have organized the text slightly differently, the author’s approach works fine.

There are no issues with the book’s interface/appearance.

The text contains numerous grammatical and mechanical errors: a spelling error, a redundancy, multiple sentence fragments (semicolon issues), and agreement errors. The author doesn’t see the pronoun-antecedent errors as an issue, however; she explains her preference for using they/their with a singular subject in a section about gendered language. I suspect she has a similar attitude toward her use of semicolons and sentence fragments.

The text is culturally sensitive and straightforward.

The first three chapters are the strongest and most relevant to freshmen-level writing students. They discuss the importance of clear written communication and explain the differences between high school- and college-level writing. Chapters four and five are good for addressing multiple aspects of outside sources. Chapters six, eight, and nine are the weakest: they skim the surface of grammatical and mechanical issues and could be eliminated without undercutting the rest of the text.

Reviewed by Chris Werry, Associate Professor, San Diego State University on 3/27/19

This textbook provides a broad and welcoming introduction to academic writing. It is an excellent general introduction to academic culture and composition, containing smart tips for thinking about why professors assign writing, how they tend to evaluate it, and how students should approach writing in a university context. The comprehensiveness of the text is a definite strength, and I imagine many students could profit greatly from reading this before coming to university. Depending on the class you are teaching, it could also be a potential limitation. For example, there is little on the specifics of argument analysis. That may not matter if argument analysis is not a focus of the class being taught.

Accuracy and formatting are excellent.

Because the text is a general introduction to writing and academic culture it is likely to age well. It also covers broad areas such as understanding what professors want, decoding assignments, constructing a thesis, finding and managing sources, etc., that are likely to remain current for a long time.

The writing is consistently clear, engaging, and inviting. It includes many comments by students. These are invaluable. They provide excellent tips and are very reassuring.

Terms, categories and concepts are consistent.

The page design of this textbook is simple but strong. Many chapters are also self-contained and so could be mixed and matched. There are sections on academic culture and expectations, constructing a thesis and argument, sources, pargraphing, building an introduction and conclusion, cohesion and clarity, and mechanics. A student who wanted to focus on one of these areas could easily read a chapter without needing to have read all the preceeding ones.

The text moves from introductory sections on academic culture, differences between writing in academic contexts and high school, to constructing a thesis and argument, managing sources, pargraphing, building an introduction and conclusion, and tackling cohesion clarity, and mechanics. This is a useful organizational structure for a general guide to academic writing.

The textbook is easy to navigate.

No grammatical errors.

The references are fine. A number are from sociology ( the author's home discipline). Again, a major strength are the reflections, tips and observations from students that are woven into each chapter.

I was particularly impressed by the sections at the start that help students understand why writing matters, its intellectual value, its relationship to critical thinking, professional success, and to academic development. This was inviting, instructive and motivating (it could easily have been hectoring). I also enjoyed the section explaining differences between writing in high school and university, and the section explaining academic culture and glimpse into professor's training and approaches to writing.

Reviewed by Jane Garrard, Dr. Jane Garrard, Professor, Chemeketa Community College on 2/4/19

The text is extremely comprehensive and extensively covers all the major areas in college writing, such as research writing, critical thinking, and mechanics, just to name a few. After each thorough and easy to understand chapter, there are... read more

From my experience as a college writing professor for seventeen years, the text is both thorough and accurate. It covers the main and most important areas in writing. Nothing was omitted and it all rang true.

It was definitely current and relevant. It wasn't too dated, and it addressed topics of relevance in the introduction, such as Facebook and texting. It also made the immediate point that learning to write will help students in various facets of their lives.

The text was well- written and easy to understand. The jargon was appropriate for the college reader. Explaining some of the terminology, such as literature review and peer review, was quite helpful, so that students are familiar with all the relevant terms.

The text was internally consistent. There were no noticeable variations in terminology and framework.

The text was structured in a way that was easy to follow and made sense. After wading through a couple chapters, I knew what to expect going forward. There was definitely comfort in its predictability. Each chapter contained just enough information. It was informative without being overwhelming.

The topics were definitely arranged in a logical, clear fashion that made sense. The mechanics section, however, might be placed closer to the front of the book.

The only thing that I found difficult was that the text was small. I would have liked to have seen it larger with more spacing .

There was no mechanical errors that I could detect.

There was nothing that was culturally insensitive as far as I could tell, nothing that I would deem offensive. It seemed pretty objective.

I liked that the book was packed with useful and relevant information. I particularly liked the follow up exercises at the end of each chapter which encourage students to think critically and become more interactive in terms of their own learning. I also enjoyed the section on what professors want. That would definitely pique student interest.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Stearns, Lecturer, The Ohio State University at Newark on 6/19/18

One of the strengths of this text is its thoughtful treatment of specific elements of the writing process, but it is not as comprehensive as other writing textbooks. Chapter 3, for example, discusses how to craft a complex, compelling thesis statement using a “three-story” model, and this is certainly something that developing writers will find helpful. However, there isn’t a discussion of the pre-thesis stages of the writing process that writers can use to *arrive* at a thesis. In many college classes, students are given prompts asking them to develop arguments that demonstrate mastery of a particular concept or subject, and so the very process of taking the course may supply the opportunities for preliminary thinking required to formulate a thesis. However, Guptill says that the textbook “is well suited to composition courses or first-year seminars” (“About the Book”). As a first-year composition instructor, I find that many of my students aren’t sure about how to find a suitable topic and work their way toward discovering what they think about it, so more guidance on these early stages would be a welcome addition. On pp. 11-12, Guptill does discuss briefly how free-writing can be a useful strategy to try after receiving an assignment, and I would like more of this kind of material.

That said, the textbook does a great job of providing practical and helpful guidance on the writing elements it covers, including the thesis statement, introductions and conclusions, paragraph structure, how to handle college-level research, and considerations of style and mechanics. Also helpful are the introductory chapters that give students a broader view of the role writing plays in the academic world and what professors expect of their students’ writing.

As I read the textbook, I did not come across any sections where I questioned the accuracy of the guidance being offered.

The writing advice, tools, and examples that Guptill offers in the text probably won’t expire any time soon. Her guidance on using electronic databases and navigating resources like Google Scholar would only need updating if the technology, or means of accessing it, changes, but there doesn’t seem to be much danger of this in the very near future. If changes are required, I think that they would be easy to implement. One nice feature of the textbook is that the provided examples showcase effective instances of writing across a variety of topics that won’t become outdated. For example, rather than referencing examples from current popular culture, Guptill includes excerpts from essays and books on broad topics such as “the cold fusion controversy of the 1980s” (ch. 6), embodied cognition, and 12th-century theologian Peter Abelard (ch. 7). I think that these are representative of the types of topics students might encounter in a college classroom and are more accessible than examples in other writing textbooks that I’ve read.

No complaints here. The writing is very accessible and would, I think, strike students as friendly. Guptill writes clearly, modeling the style that she advocates students adopt.

Each chapter of the text focuses on a key feature of college-level writing and can be used separately. In addition to this helpful modularity, there are some ideas reinforced in multiple chapters. For example, Guptill stresses the importance of students approaching their writing tasks consciously and taking an active role in the learning process. Another thread is the comparison between how students might have approached writing prior to college (namely the “five-paragraph essay”), and how Guptill is proposing students approach higher-level writing assignments. This is helpful because it draws from the knowledge students already have while showing them new ways of thinking.

As I read the textbook, I had thoughts like, “Oh, this chapter would be a nice supplement when I teach introductions and conclusions.” The textbook could be used on its own or employed as an accompaniment to other texts, either as a whole or in chapters. There are instances where the text refers to something from an earlier chapter, but these references aren’t so numerous or essential that lacking the earlier sections would impede a reader’s understanding.

The textbook is well organized and arranged logically. I like that the chapter on introductions and conclusions follows the chapter on paragraphs, since this reflects the order that I use when I teach these components. The only critique that I have is what I mentioned in the first part of this review, that I would have liked to see a much lengthier discussion of pre-thesis brainstorming and idea-development strategies.

I did not encounter any difficulties navigating or using the text. All the links that I clicked on worked.

I noted only a few instances (5 or so) of small errors, primarily sentences that were missing minor words. Also, there is one paragraph excerpt that is supposed to have parts emboldened, but doesn’t (p. 53).

This text does not have any problems with cultural insensitivity and I don’t think that readers would find any aspects of it offensive. There is an assumption that the primary audience has recently graduated from high school, which might be a bit problematic for non-traditional students. I have one admittedly picky little issue with a sentence on page 5: “By the end of high school you probably mastered many of the key conventions of standard academic English such as paragraphing, sentence-level mechanics, and the use of thesis statements.” I understand that this phrasing is in line with the overarching concept of the textbook, which is that it’s helping move students from “competence” to “excellence.” However, I think that many competent first-year writing students would not identify with the suggestion that they’ve “mastered” anything about writing. This is the only instance where this type of phrasing appears, but it comes early in the text, and might make some students feel a bit inadequate. Like I said, I’m being picky!

I like the presentation of ideas in this textbook and think that students would find the concepts, illustrations, and examples useful. I think that I could pull chapters from it to supplement other materials, and that it would provide students with helpful overviews of topics that I cover in class. Periodically, there appears advice and encouragement from students who contributed to the textbook, and this provides positive sentiments of “you’re not alone, writing IS challenging” that readers might find reassuring.

Reviewed by Chad Judkins, Adjunct Professor of English, Portland Community College on 8/15/17

I think this is a wonderful little book for teaching writing, since it delivers what is so rare in writing texts: well-lived context. It gives the students perspective and a holistic view of what they need to accomplish in writing, and it does it... read more

The entire book is only 91 pages, which makes it easy to digest. It will work as an excellent metacognitive text for a writing course, although it will need to be supplemented with more examples of good essays and a rhetorical guide that discusses persuasion, logic, and writing for different audiences. There are, however, links to resources at the end of every chapter that can be found online. This book also does a fine job of discussing writing as a student and for academic purposes and greatly helps to contextual that unique position.

Like the commonly used _They Say, I Say_ (Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein, They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing, (New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 2009), this book offers students a look at "how writing works" in college and academic life and it encourages them to enter the conversation. The main advantage in this book is that it is a bit faster to read than TS/IS, but it is not so comprehensive in terms of offering templates for the students to use. Instead, it is a more perspective-based text, which offers advice on the key areas of thesis, paragraph structure, punctuation, and other requirements to do well in college and in writing critically. The two books could be easily used together, in whole or as excerpts.

One of the other big advantages to this book is its tone: it is friendly, humorous, and down to earth. It favors the practicality of "what do I have to do to succeed" that students tend to use in approaching college courses and it addresses why writing is something that matters in their lives. It also clarifies why students need to think for themselves in their writing and explains how universities favor individual thought over regurgitation and repetition. It has a kind, but no nonsense approach that will appeal to students and keep them reading it, even if they don't have to.

The text itself is also a good example of academic writing for students, implementing quotations, footnotes, and other citations throughout its text in a way that is less evident among other textbooks. As a result, it can be studied as an example of style on its own.

The content is accurate and error-free, with the exception of some hyperlinks that do not function. The material can generally be found with a Google search, however, so it's not critical.

Overall, I find the analysis of writing and argument to be well written, accurate, and timely. For a 91-page textbook, this is very well done. It is true that more could be added to the examples, but that is something an instructor can supplement on their own.

The content here is up to date and should endure for at least a decade, and probably longer, as long as expectations for writing in college courses remain the same.

This book is very clearly written. Clarity and brevity are its main advantage, along with the pleasant tone and humor.

This book is very consistent in its presentation of material, its accuracy, and its general framework.

It would be very easy to use this modularly, and in fact the first chapter is something that I think will apply in nearly every college course, since it offers writing advice at the same time as it introduces students to the expectations of the college environment. The later chapters on thesis statements, punctuation, etc, can also be excerpted and used as modules.

The overall organization is very good. It begins with a broad explanation of the conceptual underpinnings of the college environment, moves into an explanation of why writing is important in academics and in life, and then proceeds through relevant subareas.

Included throughout are excerpts from student contributors, authors, and other relevant material that provide insight into the topics under consideration.

The only issue is the occasional broken hyperlink, but it is minor.

The text contains no apparent grammatical errors.

Cultural relevancy is high, since it is a good introduction to college itself. It applies equally to every student. It is, of course, targeted at American universities and written from that perspective, but this is not something that can be faulted, since that is where it is going to be used.

Overall, an excellent gem of a little book. I put it right up there with many of the other compact introductory guides to college writing and college expectations.

Reviewed by Laura Beadling, Associate Professor, Youngstown State University on 6/20/17

The book does a really thorough job of discussing working with sources. The chapter on thesis statements was also very good. Later in the book, there is a "Back to Basics" section which could have either been eliminated (since this book assumes competence) or could have been expanded (to offer support to students who still need to work on some of these topics - introductions, paragraphing, etc.). There is no discussion of genre or different kinds of research writing. No index included.

Text is accurate, error-free, and unbiased.

The majority of links still work, but I found 10 or15 that were dead. I imagine this will be a continuing problem. There is also some discussion of social media, which will have to be checked to maintain relevance.

Very readable without being simplistic or overly complex for undergraduates. Accessible and engaging. Good use of examples and details throughout.

Very consistent throughout.

I think this book is extremely modular and would be easy to use various parts and chapters in a stand-alone manner. The chapters on working with sources could be useful in a variety of writing contexts, as could the chapter on thesis statements. The chapter on understanding assignments could also be very useful in a variety of courses.

The structure mirrors the writing process, which would make it useful in a course with several writing projects or one longer research project.

Very easy to navigate. Images and charts were readable. Nice interface overall.

No grammatical errors that I saw. Very clear and engaging prose.

The book emphasized the need for care in writing about and researching various groups.

This book does assume that the student is competent in writing, and thus would not be a good choice for a beginning or remedial course.

Reviewed by Ellen Polansky, Adjunct Instructor, First Year Writing, Rhode Island College on 4/11/17

This text might be well suited to first year writing seminars (typically writing intensive courses taught by faculty from the disciplines). For a straight-up first year writing class that isn’t anchored in a thematic or disciplinary area, however, it might serve as a solid complement to other teaching materials that cover a wider array of genres, conventions and rhetorical practices.

The author presents college as a time for students to shed fixed ideas about their perceived weaknesses. This book offers simple strategies that put many students’ earlier experiences into this new context. Amy Guptill demonstrates eloquence when she explains how certain familiar concepts -when used in a college writing context-- take on more nuance and therefore deserve a second, deeper look.

One strength is the book's emphasis on presenting strategies for college level writing while also reminding student readers that no model or framework will fit every writing situation.

Accuracy seems fine.

The author thoughtfully takes into account the range of issues college writers may bring to their courses. Hyperlinks to on-line resources that reinforce or extend the material in the text are used frequently. Many of these websites - especially those linking to college writing program sites -- appear to be maintained and kept current. The text focuses primarily on "standard" written essays with less attention paid to new genres of writing such as blog posts and multi modal formats.This is something that could be updated at some point.

The author addresses students directly with a reassuring, no nonsense (sometimes self-effacing) voice. Student voices interpreting or re-framing the material are sprinkled throughout the text. This is a nice touch as it offers reassurance to novice college writers while reinforcing concepts.

While the explanations are often clearly and efficiently worded, the written examples are sometimes based on topics that are too technical or arcane. As a result, a student reader might get caught up doing the work of figuring out the content rather than absorbing the concept being illustrated. One can imagine many student readers becoming intimidated by the written examples and then tuning out.

The author introduces terminology and sticks with it to reinforce concepts throughout the book.

Many chapters stand alone without needing to refer to preceding or following sections. Chapter and section titles model how to grab the reader’s attention. (“Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources”) Chapters and sections offer an engaging twist on what may seem like familiar concepts to novice college writers (i.e. “Some sources are better than others”).

The chapters and sections are ordered strategically. Sentence level concerns come towards the end of the book while the notion of academic writing as entering a conversation comes first. This sends an important message to beginning college writers that mechanics are legitimate concerns, but the bigger shift they will see in college involves the more global aspects of their writing.

Some hyperlinks are perfectly curated to enrich or expand the chapter content. Others might send a student reader off on a confusing or possibly irrelevant detour. Good links are those that connect to online writing resources that explain new concepts such as “meta discourse.”

The author has clearly taken great care since this is a writing text!

While the intended readership seems to be wide ranging and inclusive, some of the writing examples - while not in any sense offensive or insensitive -- could be a bit more inclusive.

This text offers a nice take on a vexing concern for both students and instructors alike: building strong revision habits. The author devotes a chapter to making a strong case for revising rough drafts. She carefully describes how writing and thinking are intertwined and also how precision (rather than elegance) should be the goal for academic writing. Most importantly, she provides a useful framework for students to use as they take a second look at their writing.

Reviewed by Jenfier Kurtz, Associate Professor, Virginia Western Community College on 2/8/17

This text offers a nice overview of the basics that writers need to consider when developing college level essays. The chapter on analyzing an assignment offers a useful discussion of the different types of writing that may be requested from students, examining terms such as analyze and critical thinking. The chapter on developing an effective thesis statement which focuses nicely on a thesis driven essay as a type of argument. Beyond the explanations of concepts, the book also includes some exercises that give students an opportunity to apply the concepts. These exercises dive into some depth, asking students to truly engage with the concepts rather than the easy types of comprehension questions often found at the end of chapters.

This information seems not only accurate and error-free but open-minded in its discussion of the techniques needed for effective college level writing. All borrowed information is borrowed from reputable sources with clear credit to the sources provided through footnotes.

The content is not only up to date, but written in a way that it remains relevant despite MLA updates or other changes. The topics are covered from a concepts focus, discussing the overall concepts needed for effective writing. The section on using sources does refer specifically to academic articles from databases, but does so in a way that eliminates the need for changes if database formats change.

This book is a bit text-heavy, with lengthy paragraphs for the explanation. While this does offer clear context for the content (and does avoid unnecessary jargon) there is value in conciseness. Sometimes the explanations take on more of a second person reference that I prefer, with statements such as "If you suspect that you're in a quoting rut, try out some new ways of incorporating sources" (45). While this is useful information, it can be confusing to students who are being taught to avoid the second person in their essays.

This text remains consistent in its format and organization. The use of terms is consistent, and the tone (which is rather casual and conversational) is consistent throughout.

The text does seem like it could be broken into sections and/or used piece-meal if an instructor so desired. Each chapter can function as a stand alone feature, which makes this a text that can be used section by section throughout a course.

Each chapter stands alone, yet is also organized in a manner that flows logically from the first chapter, which talks about the role of writing in academic and work pursuits, to the final chapter, which reviews the importance of correctness in writing.

I had no difficulty navigating the text, and found that the presentation of the content on the page was familiar. There were no distracting features, although there are a few links that could become problematic in terms of maintaining access to the linked pages.

I noticed no glaring grammatical errors within the text. However, I did not read it specifically seeking grammatical errors.

This book offers references and quotes from a variety of texts. This makes the content all inclusive, avoiding any specific cultural of racial bias. The textual references are related to general concepts from history, science, and literature. These should remain relevant for a long time.

Overall, this is a well structured and comprehensive book that can assist students as they write college level essays. It is not specifically focused on "English" types of content, and thus can be a resources for a variety of courses.

Reviewed by Kimberly Fahle, Coordinator of Writing Services, Virginia Wesleyan College on 2/8/17

This text covers a lot of important topics related to college writing. The background on higher education generally was an interesting and helpful background not found in many other writing or composition textbooks. One area that I felt this text lacked, however, was a discussion of rhetorical situation and genre. Concepts such as audience, medium/mode, purpose and genre are key to my writing pedagogy, but weren't covered in the text. While the text lacked in those areas, the discussion of organization, argument, and source use was very thorough and helpful. Drawing on Graff and Birkenstein's They Say/I Say provided an excellent framework for students to approach the use of secondary sources.

The content of this book is accurate and adheres to the principles of writing and writing pedagogy central to the field of composition.

The text is up-to-date and has potential for longevity in terms of helping students complete traditional essays. One area not covered in the text which may negatively impact its longevity is its complete privileging of traditional alphabetic texts to the exclusion of multimodal composition, which is becoming more and more prevalent in college courses across the curriculum.

The language of this text is very clear and engaging. The tone is friendly, yet still authoritative. It seems ideal for incoming college students.

The tone and structure of this text is consistent, creating a very coherent text.

This text makes good use of subheadings, blocks, and boxes to support clarity and engagement. The only thing that might make the text more successful in this area is the use of visuals.

The organization of this text is logical and effective. I particularly appreciated the placement of sections related to grammar placed at the end of the text with an accompanying explanation of why it was there within the text and how this relates to a successful college writing process.

The interface is easy to use, but hyperlinks within the table of contents and within each page to subsections would be helpful.

Not only does this text appear to be free of grammar errors, it has a nuanced and thoughtful discussion of grammar and debates over "correctness" that I believe is important for a college composition course.

In terms of cultural relevance, I appreciated the discussion of gendered language and issues to consider relating to it. One aspect missing from this discussion, however, was issues of gender identity and pronoun preference. I also appreciated the discussion of informal and formal language and its relation to background, identity, and class.

The excerpts from students found in each chapter were a great mechanism for students to get the perspective of other students, not just teachers and "experts."

Reviewed by Mary Boyes, Assistant Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University Honors College on 2/8/17

This text does not seem to be designed as a rhetoric manual or handbook, rather it is a general introduction to any kind of college/academic writing. This text would be a great companion resource for composition courses but is not comprehensive enough to stand alone. This text would also be ideal for summer institutes or “bridge” classes. As an introduction to college writing, the text is comprehensive. The text does not have an index or glossary, which would be useful.

This text appears to be unbiased and accurate. The author goes out of her way to be inclusive in her examples of student's backgrounds.

This text is relevant and up-to-date. Guptill includes references to technology and social media that are contemporary. Guptill’s links and sources are also current and relevant. Because the text is hyper-linked, the text will require frequent updates/checks on those links. Some of those links are already broken. The chapters covering research will also bear scrutiny over time as how we find sources (via databases or Google Scholar) is likely to change.

The book is written in a clear, conversational style with students as the intended audience. All terminology and jargon are more than adequately explained.

Tone, terminology, and logical framework are all very consistent in this text. Guptill builds from the idea of finding something to write about/figuring out assignments to addressing the actual structure of writing. Guptill's style and the content she addresses in each section is very patterned and clear.

Modularity rating: 3

This is the weakest area for this text. While the sections of this book are clearly organized with headings and sections, the layout and design of the text could be improved upon greatly. The book’s arrangement is very text heavy with few graphics and illustrations. Even though the writing is super clear and accessible, students who are used to accessing information via the web, may find the walls of a text a bit daunting. Additionally, some of the hyperlinks could use more contextualization/instruction so that students aren't just wandering off the page to marginally relevant sources.

Again, Guptill's style and structure is logical. An instructor could easily follow Guptill's organization or could jump around the text without any trouble. Because each section focuses on a specific skill set---creating clear paragraphs, for instance--an instructor could easily use this book as a whole or in parts.

There were no interface issues in the PDF or the online version. I did not try to the ePub version, so I cannot speak to that. The book would benefit from having an interactive glossary and index.

This text contains no significant errors in grammar, except where intended to illustrate poor grammar. There are a couple of typos, though.

Guptill's text is culturally sensitive and inclusive. She addresses how geographic and cultural backgrounds can effect writing and speaks to the ways that students can identify and avoid "nonstandard" or informal English in their writing.

I am definitely going to include this book as a companion text for my research writing course. Guptill's sections on writing paragraphs and getting mechanics right are especially inviting and clear. Additionally, the length of this book is spot on. Students don't want a 300-page tome, they need this kind of pocket guide to get started. I appreciate how Guptill truly kept her audience in mind when she created this book.

Reviewed by Rachel Morgan, Instructor , University of Northern Iowa on 2/8/17

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence is an excellent supplemental text to a freshman writing course. In nine chapters, the book covers expected material from a first-year writing course: expectations of college writing, evaluation of research, incorporation and utilization of research, a focus on cohesion and mechanics. The book approaches the student as a "junior scholar joining the academic community," and takes great care focusing on clarity and concision, including chapters on improving topic sentences and theses. The text engages contemporary college students, understanding that OWL Purdue, Google Scholar, and even Wikipedia are part of the conversation in a current composition classroom. Overall, the book delivers on its promise to take the well-prepared high school student and introduce the student to introductory college writing.

A great benefit of the book is its hyperlinks, which link to academic articles, AAC&U rubrics and commissioned studies. In regards to teaching college writing, the book shows both adherence to time-tested standards of practice (attention to mechanics, organization, and fluency), yet it incorporates a contemporary conversation that addresses writing as a skill employers are seeking and the need for a new college student to learn discipline specific writing.

"They Say / I Say" and "The Nuts of Bolts of College Writing" are two contemporary, popular texts that introduce college writing and research in plain speak, and "Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence" references both these texts and appears very much to translate the college-level writing assignment from professor to student in open and clear communication. Hyperlinks in the texts and footnotes (there are no end notes) take the student to relevant articles, studies, and information that support contemporary writing practices. The book's clear organization would allow for easy updates as necessary.

The book's use of graphic organizers and images create great clarity, and no doubt easily aid visual learners. Chapter 3, with images, debunks the shape of a traditional five-paragraph essay, and shows an essay, that through research, reveals more questions and answers, moving past the five-paragraph model. Chapter 4, "Secondary Sources in Their Natural Habitats" opens with a table that evaluates sources from academic journals to websites. The author understands students should see complex concepts, such as evaluating research, in several digestible formats.

The book's main concern is scaffolding the college writing experience to a new college student, and therefore does not first approach the subject of writing through terminology. For example, the first two chapters, respectively, outline the expectations of professors and students, and walk a student through developing and understanding a writing assignment. Standard terms are used to describe writing, but the book is more concerned with students using and mastering the task of writing rather than recognizing terminology. The framework of the book is extremely consistent and follows the pattern and organization typical of most composition handbooks.

Chapters such as "Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources" would make excellent out of class reading to accompany a lecture or activity on academic sources. Students who might need more guidance at the sentence-level will find the second half of the book helpful as it discusses common problems in writing such as comma usage and awkward word choice. This book is adaptable and could easily be included at various points in a typical composition course, but it could also be recommended independently as a resource for a student who needs more structured guidance.

From chapter to chapter, the book is extremely organized. Clear examples are provided, often in images and tables. Each chapter ends with a useful section of resources and exercises. Unlike more lengthy books, the exercises are curated and easily adapted for in or out of class use. Students should be able to navigate the text easily, particularly the last three chapters, which address issues like writing a more effective introduction or conclusion paragraph. Often the examples progress in a series of three, so the student can see which specific clauses or sentences improve a paragraph's cohesion or a thesis' development.

The text is easy to read, with the majority of hyperlinks being easy to navigate between outside material and returning to the text. However, a few links to publisher produced material or articles are broken. At 85 pages, the book is easy to digest and use as a reference. The images and graphic organizers, while not plentiful, are well-chosen, clear, and apt. The section on mechanics is easy to follow, marking its sentence examples as "informal" and "formal" as well as "incorrect" and "correct."

The text is largely free of grammatical errors, and shows good attention to editing and design.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. The examples used show a wide variety of subjects, scholarship, and time periods.

Reviewed by Keryn Neary, Adjunct Professor, Concordia University - Portland on 12/5/16

This book covers a wide range of topics addressed in the writing classroom in a way which is through and clear. The division of chapters to reflect the writing process works well for students moving from high school to college level writing. The subject matter is clear and allows for direct connections. I really appreciated this text as I use They Say/I Say in the classroom, and this text made connections to that which I was able to highlight with my students.

I found this text to be accurate in the way that it address the subject matter. It followed conventions and pedagogies which are currently being taught in the writing classroom.

The material here is fairly standard and should be considered relevant for a long while.

The writing and examples provided are very clear and easily accessible to students. I tested a chapter of this book on a freshman level writing class and was very pleased with their understanding.

Throughout this text the writing is consistent and easy to navigate. The framework of the chapters is clear and terminology used is defined and easy to understand.

I was able to pull one chapter out of the whole in order to develop a lesson and it seemed that it would be easy to do that throughout this text. While the book works well as a whole, the division of chapters allows for teachers to adjust what would be needed with the particular group of writing students they're working with.

The flow of the text led clearly from one concept to the next in a logical fashion which reflected the writing process. As this is just one way to address the teaching of writing, and personally the way that I prefer, I found it very useful and clear, but I could see that with some methods of writing instruction the structure may not work as well. Nonetheless, this text offers chapters which could be easily reorganized to achieve a number of different goals.

Interfacing with this book worked very well and I found the text easy to navigate. The headings were clear, the few images in the text were easy to understand and the hyperlinks worked well.

Thankfully, as this is a book on writing, the grammar was spot on.

Writing is a way to bring equality to groups with diverse backgrounds. This text does not address issues in a way which would be considered offensive or insensitive and works to encourage students toward developing stronger academic writing skills.

I am looking forward to using this text with my future work with college writers. I was glad that my students reactive positively to the text when I tested it in class and really appreciated the connection to the text we were already using.

Reviewed by Anthony Edgington, Associate Professor, University of Toledo on 8/21/16

Overall, the text is good but could be improved on comprehension. The text is divided into chapters that model the writing process, making it easy for both students and teachers to use throughout a writing project. The text contains a good discussion of argument, offering specific examples and hypothetical situations to explore during classroom discussions. The text is also strong when it comes to discussions on research writing, devoting a few chapters to the topic and looking at research from multiple perspectives (though a stronger focus on researching in an online environment would be useful in the text). The book is not as strong when it comes to introducing students to genres, as the book leans to a "one size fits all" approach to writing at times. For programs that stress an awareness of genres, teachers will need to supplement the text with additional information. Finally, there is little information on writing in technological environments or a discussion of the importance of visual literacy in writing.

The text is highly accurate in the information presented on the writing process, research writing, argument, and other key areas. The citations offered are up to date and recognizable in the field of writing studies. The only concern is information presented on citation (i.e. MLA and APA) as this information undergoes rapid change at times (as of the writing of this review, the MLA has just announced sweeping changes in how sources will be cited in the future). Make sure that this information is continually up-to-date will be necessary going forward.

The content provided in the text is mostly up-to-date, with the aforementioned citation information the only major concern. The content provided is highly relevant and useful for a first year writing course and may be useful in a second semester research writing course as well. The course would not be as useful to an upper-level writing course, business or technical writing course, or WAC course. Information in the research chapters may need to be updated as new forms of sources and new citation methods emerge in the field.

The text is well written for a student audience; terms and ideas are clearly defined and examples are offered to help student writers understand the information. The book is text heavy (with little visual information) which could lead to a lack of attention or interest among students. The exercises offered at the end of the chapters are clear and understandable and help to reinforce the main points from the text. The book also uses bullets and numbering effectively to help organize the information presented.

The book is consistent in the information presented to readers. The structure of the text into chapters based on different areas of the writing process helps with this consistency. The vocabulary and tone of voice throughout the text is also consistent. The use of subheadings helps readers follow the organization within the text.

The text is well organized into clearly marked chapters that focus on separate, yet connected topics. One drawback is that the text is currently one PDF; having the chapters available as separate PDFs may help instructors to make better decisions on what to use from the book and may be easier to organize the book within the course. As currently designed, students will have to do a lot of scrolling through the text to find different chapters and/or topics. No self-referential material was noticed.

The book is organized well into chapters with subheadings. Chapter topics are clear and connect well to the field's views on the writing process. The book is not written in a way that will be confusing to teachers or students.

The text is mostly in a PDF format, so it is easy to navigate. Visual are clear and readable. The text includes hyperlinks to outside sources, which will be useful to teachers and students. The need to continually check hyperlinks for disabled or moved links will be necessary.

No significant grammar errors were noticed.

The text does not contain any apparent issues related to cultural insensitivity. Issues of race, ethnicity, gender etc are rarely discussed in the text, which can be seen as a possible problem, as the book does not discuss the social aspects of writing to a great extent.

Reviewed by Stephen Maley, Lecturer, University of Washington on 8/21/16

The text does not cover all of the topics included in most writing manuals or guides to college writing. Rather, it aims to cover those writing skills and practices that will enable students with a solid high school preparation to “join the... read more

The text does not include an index.

I found one error in the text. On page 53, a paragraph is revised to improve coherence, with “relevant parts emboldened.” But, in the relevant paragraph there was no bold typeface, either in the PDF or online version.

I did not find any political bias in the text.

The text is up-to-date. To illustrate the spreading usage of they/their for the third person singular pronoun, the text cites posting instructions from Facebook, ie, “write on their timeline.”

The text will likely need to be updated regularly to maintain relevance, and to update web links.

The text is easy to read. Terms like cohesion and coherence are explained and illustrated well.

The framework used throughout the text is that academic writing is part of a conversation. This framework is obvious in the title of Chapter 5: “Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources.” The first two chapters also fit into this framework as students are encouraged to ask for clarification from their professors if an assignment is not clear. The later chapters on writing organization and mechanics discuss the impression these have on readers, again fitting into the framework of a conversation.

I could imagine using any of the latter chapters on a stand-alone basis. The chapter on paragraph construction is particularly helpful for its concise explanation of topic sentences, cohesion, and coherence.

The text begins by addressing student motivations and possible misconceptions regarding college writing. The middle chapters explain how to engage with sources when writing a research paper. And the latter chapters explain principles of good writing.

All of the hyperlinks that I tried worked. The text includes no images or charts.

The only grammatical errors I found in the text were those meant to illustrate certain grammatical errors.

In the context of gendered pronouns, the text emphasizes the importance of respecting differences among people.

I enjoyed reading the text!

Reviewed by Amy Friedman, Asst. Professor, Temple University on 8/21/16

The book has a good, broad approach to many aspects of composing first-year college essays. The examples used throughout clearly indicate the author's awareness of the intricacies of a Writing Across the Curriculum approach, as they draw on many disciplines. It seems that it would be difficult for a student who reads this book not to make some self-aware improvements in approaching college-level work.The text does a thorough job of considering how college-level work requires specific skill sets, and requires labor to advance from high school level writing, reading, and analysis.

I found no major errors, and applaud an error-free text. There is at least one weird superscript -- see "etiology" in Chapter 6 -- the superscript comes at an odd place -- before the word is used. I'd review to make sure those superscripts appear at the best place for the student reader.

This book will be useful for a while. It deals in depth with the obstacles students perceive in learning how to construct decent college-level pieces of writing - and that situation will obtain for the foreseeable future. The references to ideas about college composition are up-to-date ones, and reflect very current approaches and discussions.This book references _They Say, I Say_ , which is a quite standard text for these courses, and this book absorbs and discusses how this text works, making it a post- _They Say, I Say_ composition work, which makes it pretty modern from an insider's standpoint. Students will continue to journey from high school to college writing assignments, and will need to understand the nuances of what is being asked of them in this new, collegiate environment. This book serves that need well.

This book is pretty clear and easy to follow. Some examples are dense and might scare students, though. Here is one, from Chapter 6: "Both versions convey a topic; it’s pretty easy to predict that the paragraph will be about epidemiological evidence, but only the second version establishes an argumentative point and puts it in context. The paragraph doesn’t just describe the epidemiological evidence; it shows how epidemiology is telling the same story as etiology." At this point, students will be terrified by this parade of big words! And the author does not define "etiology" until the next sentence, at which point many students will have shut down and shifted back to "skim" mode. Don't scare the students! Define the hard word the first time it appears. And if you don't define it then, use that as a teaching moment also -- indicate that this is exactly what occurs in college reading, and one should breathe, and go look up a definition, and get used to doing that all the time. The effort is being made by this author to represent many types of future college writing, which is good. Many disciplines are represented.

Overall, it is reasonably consistent. I do wish the author had avoided the overuse of "flow" in a way that undercuts consistency, however. The author includes a specific application of the term from contemporary psychological work, and also uses the term when discussing what is more aptly called "logic.' The psych reference is in chapter 2: "those times when we’re pleasantly absorbed in a complex activity (what psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi calls “flow”12)". This describes a brain state, and is used aptly here in the text. Later, in chapters 7, 8, 9, and especially 6, she emphasizes "flow," as in "sentences need to flow." It is arguable that it is not even a genuine concept, this "flow," as what is being argued for is internal logic to each paragraph, a logically-constructed argument, logical sequences of sentences, and so on. It is really quite useless for an instructor to tell a student that her sentences do not "flow."

The target of modularity has been addressed really well by this author. The sections are cogent and logical, and the text is broken up with useful examples. The Resources section is a particularly strong feature of each chapter -- they are specific enough, and have a good variety of sources to try out. The chapter length is great -- not too long, but a decent amount of depth.

Oh dear heavens, there is that term again: "flow." The text is structured logically, if that is what you mean. It does not have to "flow" -- these are discrete chapters on elements of essay structure, and one might use them in a multitude of orders in a teaching syllabus. The topics are clear, and the evidence in each chapter is presented in a way that makes sense.

I'd rate the interface as good. I wish I could more easily go from chapter to chapter -- it seems that typing in a number in the search bar is the most direct way to go from Chapter 6 back to Chapter 3. I'd really like an interactive Table of Contents, and an Index for searching for concepts and key words. Since these don't exist, it feels a bit clunky when moving around the text. The letter "B" is weird in this font: it seems overly serif-ed and curved.

The grammar is fine -- the author hits a good level of interesting, scholarly, clear, and challenging in the overall level of the prose.

I think the text foregrounds cultural sensitivity in its thoughtful recommendations to avoid gender-specific usages, in particular. Overall the book violates no standards of sensitivity, and draws on many types of examples. On the other hand, the discussions of cultural sensitivities could extend to considering cultural standpoint when writing in a more general way; not making assumptions about audience, finding out how to name and discuss racial and ethnic groups in correct terms, and so on. Or the book could include such information as a Resource in the already-excellent Resource sections.

This one thing bothered me a lot. There are somewhat disparaging comments about the professors who will be teaching this material and reading students' work. Example from Chapter 7: " Charitable and well rested instructors just skim over that text and start reading closely when they arrive at something substantive. Frustrated and overtired instructors emit a dramatic self-pitying sigh, assuming that the whole paper will be as lifeless and gassy as those first few sentences." There are other times the author takes this tone or stance. This is negative and unhelpful. As this is a book aimed at first-year students, such examples reinforce old high-school-level attitudes like "my teacher hates me." Quite the contrary ! How about ditching the stereotypes, or at least letting professors exist in the text as neutral, or as earnest readers of student work. These negative comments are inconsistent with the earlier explanations about how professors work: from chapter 2: "Professors don’t assign writing lightly. Grading student writing is generally the hardest, most intensive work instructors do." Just don't make us seem like an obstacle to students doing well or learning.

Reviewed by Kate Michaelson, Visiting Instructor of Composition, University of Toledo on 8/21/16

Though I've only rated the book as a "3" in this category, I do think it's a valuable addition to a writing class. While I would not select this book as a standalone text in a first-year Composition class, it offers a great perspective on the college culture versus high school that I haven't often seen in other textbooks. It covers the ideas of argumentation, source integration, style, organization, and assignment analysis quite thoroughly, and the interactive table of contents in the online version is very helpful.

Where I find it lacking for my own classes would be in providing sample essays, explorations of specific genres, or in-depth examples of students following the writing process. To be fair, this does not seem to be the particular purpose of this text--I see it almost more as a high-level Strunk and White for new college writers--however, I would not feel comfortable teaching college freshmen without those supplemental materials and readings. Fortunately, I can use this book as a supplement to other materials that are readily available elsewhere or that I've prepared myself.

I found the writing very on-point in terms of describing what professors are looking for and articulating some of the common pitfalls first-year college writers should be sure to avoid as they analyze assignments, create arguments, use sources, and revise. The advice for beginning writers was appropriate for setting their expectations in Composition classes but could also be easily applied to other disciplines. Finally, the advice on finding and using sources is very much in line with recommendations in other writing textbooks I’ve used and draws on some of the more widely used concepts like “sandwiching” sources and entering academic conversations.

The text is very up-to-date in framing students' previous writing experiences on standardized tests and referencing their immersion in written communication through social media. Likewise, it does a nice job of describing the context of academia today, the different roles that professors take on, and the expectations of students. The models for writing that it draws on, as well as the stylistic guidelines, are pretty timeless. While the many links are helpful in potentially adding content for students, one concern I had was that they might become outdated or links might break before long if they aren't frequently monitored, but the same could be said for most e-texts.

While I found the book and the messages very clear as an instructor myself, I felt there may have been points when it could potentially be a bit over the heads of some first-year writing students. For instance, Chapter 5 opens by saying that "Everyone knows that a thorough analysis and persuasive argument need strong evidence." Well, unfortunately, I don't know if everyone entering my classes knows that, so at times this text seems to be geared more toward the very well-prepared college student rather than those who might need a bit more guidance. At the same time, I appreciate that the book acknowledges that students come to college with some writing experience and does not attempt to reinvent writing but rather rethink existing skills. Fortunately, though I sometimes worry about the context of the material, ideas are presented very engagingly, draw on concrete situations, and appeal to the student's perspective.

The chapters consistently drew on the idea of students modifying their existing writing skills to meet college expectations. The tone, guidelines, and formatting remained consistent throughout.

Modularity rating: 2

Though at some points the book references ideas from previous chapters, I plan to use it in modules and believe it will lend itself well to that use. For instance, each chapter tackles a specific skill that students will need at a certain point in the semester. I plan to start with the chapters that introduce college writing and analyzing assignments. The nicely titled "Intros and Outros" chapter will be useful early in the writing process as well. The chapters on argumentation, using sources, and "talking to" sources will be great to weave in next in that order. Finally, some of the chapters dedicated to more stylistic elements of writing will be useful when students enter the revision process.

While I plan to jump around a bit, the overall structure of the book makes sense. It begins with an introduction to college culture and how that affects the writing process and progresses into how to respond to assignments. My description of the modular nature of the chapters speaks to the thought put into the rather distinct skill sets each chapter covers.

I didn't have any difficulties reading the book, and I appreciated that it was available in multiple formats. For instance, the interactive table of contents is a nice feature in the online version, but I love having the PDF for my own annotation and printing. The call-out boxes in certain parts of the text are a nice touch and break up the blocks of text somewhat. My one critique would be that there could be a more attention to the visual layout overall since many of the students will be reading the text on screens. While the large chunks of text are quite accessible when printed out, they might appear a bit overwhelming to students scrolling down a screen.

While I noted one or two minor typos, there were no major issues and the book felt like a very professional product.

As I've probably implied previously, the cultural relevance is a really strong point in this text. This book addresses writers entering college in a very practical way that acknowledges their previous experience with writing but gives them guidance on how expectations differ in the college culture. It also frames writing issues in terms that are likely to make sense to students, such as referencing Google Scholar as a potential part of the research process and clearly addressing the various types of sources they will need to evaluate.

Overall I'm very grateful for the opportunity to integrate this text into my first-year writing class. While I will not be using it as a standalone text, it will provide a great perspective for new college writers and offers some very clear instruction on important writing skills across the curriculum. I can imagine it would be useful not only in Composition classes, but other disciplines in which professors expect students to write extensively at a college-level.

Reviewed by Mary Van Ness, Senior Lecturer, University of Toledo, Department of English Language & Literature on 8/21/16

The book is concise and does not pretend to answer any and all issues related to academic writing. It does give practical advice to its target audience regarding how to bring high school quality writing up to the standard level of undergraduate writing. Guptill's defined target audience is "students who have largely mastered high-school level conventions of formal academic writing and are now moving beyond the five-paragraph essay to advanced engagement with text." Guptill's tone throughout the text would be engaging for the defined audience and much less formal in approach than the typical English teacher would select.

It is refreshing to have a professor of sociology point out issues with argument-driven essays that match many of the main points covered in introductory composition classes. Often students think there is no "carry-over" into other classes from their required English courses. This text would be a good choice for a supplemental "handbook" for a writing across the curriculum course, and would be even stronger if some of its grammar applications were strengthened.

Guptill uses a broad base of research to support her commentary throughout the text. There are a few minor typographical errors in the manuscript, several shifts of pronoun use and pronoun agreements within paragraphs, and an atypical use of "informal" versus "formal" in the "Correctness" section of Chapter 9, but the majority of the content and advice is accurate in composition theory.

The book should have longevity in the core features but I would encourage an updated version with an added chapter including advice on incorporating Toulmin's model of logic to argue claims of fact, cause, value and policy. An additional issue to consider is advice on how ethos, logos and pathos are "balanced" differently in the different discourses of the major academic disciplines.

Guptill's style is clear and reasonably concise. The level of the language is reasonable for college undergraduates.

The approach is consistent and based in learning theory. One of the strongest elements of the text is that it tells readers that improving writing takes effort and time. The closing paragraph sums up that stance: "You can’t become a flawless writer overnight (and no one writes flawlessly all the time). But over the course of a few semesters, you can certainly produce more precise text that presents your ideas in their best light."

The chapters offer excellent modularity.

The organization is coherent and flows smoothly.

The hotlinks interface well.

There are shifts of pronoun use and agreements within several paragraphs, and an atypical use of "informal" versus "formal" in the "Correctness" section of Chapter 9, but the majority of the grammar is consistent and moderately formal in the important models.

Jennifer Haytock summed up the content rather nicely in her reviewer's notes: "Guptill guides beginning college students through the sometimes arcane practices of the academy and does so with warmth, enthusiasm, and humor. The textbook takes students through deciphering assignments, developing sophisticated arguments, finding and using appropriate sources, and some basics of paragraphing, sentence structure, and style. Instructors will find this textbook to be a handy tool for explaining the argument-driven essay and reference for addressing common college-level writing issues. With a diverse range of examples, useful references to other sources, and purposeful exercises, Writing in College focuses on developing students’ skills in practical ways—and helps students understand why their instructors have them do what they do."

Reviewed by Sheri Benton, Lecturer, University of Toledo on 8/21/16

The text effectively explains the differences between high school and college writing expectations, and provides relevant examples for sentence construction, paragraph development, and essay organization, clarity, and concision . While it does not... read more

The content is accurate, error-free, and unbiased.

The writing instructions and examples in the book are up-to-date, and the text contains several links to outside resources and examples. A potential concern are broken links if those outside resources are edited or changed, but I believe those links can be updated relatively easily. The author mentions some writing conventions that are in flux and may change (for example, the future likelihood of singular "their"), but overall, the writing instruction is timeless.

The author does an excellent job of speaking to college students in lucid, accessible language and provides her readers with examples that illustrate strong, effective writing.

The text is consistent in design, terminology, and framework. Each chapter includes advice from college students that reinforces the author's discussion, footnotes to resources, exercises and examples, and links to additional outside resources.

While the book does move meaningfully from the first chapter to the last, it would not be difficult to use the chapters in a different order. For example, since the book focuses on argument and use of sources early (chapters 3, 4, & 5), I might have students first read the chapters on clarity (chapter 8) and mechanics (9), especially if I were beginning my course with a different genre, such as a personal narrative.

The topics in the book are presented clearly.and in a logical way. I would likely use chapters 8 and 9 (on clarity and mechanics) before chapters 4, and 5, which discuss finding and using sources, because I don't begin my course with the major argumentative essay. But Guptill makes a good argument within the text that the organization of the text itself reflects: focusing first on well-constructed sentences without a strong, thoughtful argument will not result in a strong essay. Therefore, the writing of an effective essay as a whole is focused on before the nuts and bolts of mechanics.

I found no interface or navigation issues within the text. It took a few tries to realize that clicking on the number in an endnote bumps the reader back up to the corresponding place in the text, but this is likely my inexperience with online textbooks. The one major issue I do see has to do with accessibility and accessible design: several of the links provided in the Other Resources sections use vague language such as "this handout" or "this one." All learners would find descriptive, meaningful link text more helpful.

The text was a pleasure to read and grammatically correct. I found only one word error - "much" for "must" in the first paragraph of chapter 9. The only other problem was in chapter 5 in the discussion of block quotes - the example provided does not accurately display the direct quote by Kahneman in block format. Other than this, the book is well-written and edited.

The text does not contain references that are culturally insensitive or offensive. The author uses multiple examples from a variety of resources.

I really enjoyed this book and plan to use it in my composition courses. Guptill puts relevant, helpful information for new college-level writers into concise, relatable language that I believe they will actually read. She doesn't dismiss or scoff at the skills and preparation students bring with them from high school to college; instead, she uses those rote lessons (such as generic introductions and the 5-paragraph essay) as foundational building blocks for their college writing.

Reviewed by Jenny Friedman-Gaskins, Part-time Faculty, Umpqua Community College on 8/21/16

I am very pleased with the comprehensive nature of the text. It covers all the finer details that are sometimes dropped in the rush of a course based on a quarter system. There are usually things that we as professors spot our students making mistakes with, but because these are not the main thrust of the curriculum, we end up having to leave them out, only addressing them on a case-by-case basis as they appear in students' writings. I routinely teach WR115 and Wr121 on my campus. These are considered a paragraph-to-essay course, with emphasis on rhetorical modes, while the 121 is the first in the series of transfer courses, with an emphasis on solid essay writing skills being overlaid with argumentation and critical thinking concepts. I feel this text bridges the gap between the two and am planning to make it a required text for both.

Has a pleasing compare and contrast mode when addressing the ideas students may bring with them to a college course, versus what instructors and professors are really looking for. Guptill does an excellent job of linking these expectations to the actual learning that may take place in a writing class. Because of this compare/contrast structure, the accuracy of the descriptions of standard writing curriculum are brought into nice relief, which heightens the accuracy of all the information in the text. Nicely done.

Because Writing in College: from Competence to Excellence, is written with an eye to not just what good writing is, but also, the more effective mindset to approach all college learning experiences, the text should maintain a high degree of relevance and longevity to the college/writing community.

A strength of the text is its ability to speak to the college student in clear terms. Many analogies are provided which help illuminate the concepts and are easily approachable.

Good consistency throughout. The author demonstrate clear excellence in her understanding of teaching and writing.

Each section is easy to read and understand on its own. Each module is able to be pulled out as a stand-alone.

The text is very cohesive from the start. The juxtaposition of the Research module with the previous explanation of some philosophical approaches to college writing courses is somewhat abrupt, but, on the other hand, entirely necessary, and I am not sure how this could be structured to move away from this. Because the modules are easily separated, and, I would expect, follow an individual instructor's course flow, this really should not be an issue in any way.

Absolutely no issues with the interface of the book.

There are no grammatical errors--a very clean read.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way, and in fact, addresses some of the issues regarding preserving gender neutral references in writing in a realistic and useful way.

I am very pleased with this book. It really does a nice job in explaining not just the technical aspects of writing, but the connection to the larger academic community which can be forged by expressing original ideas in a reflective manner.

Reviewed by Phyllis Nissila, Instructor, Lane Community College, Eugene, Oregon on 8/21/16

I reviewed the text with our institution's developmental writing class in mind, Writing 97 which is an introduction to college essay writing. I preface my comments by saying I believe it is more suited to our higher level writing class, WR115,... read more

For Writing 97 purposes, the text would benefit by including more exercises for the writing techniques covered, although the hot links to Online exercises from supplementary materials such as Purdue's, OWL resources, and Diana Hacker's Writing Reference exercises are very helpful. There are many such references and links.

The chapters are text-intensive; therefore, for the purposes of a class similar to our WR97, I believe they would benefit with more of a variety of presentations such as more side bars, the above-mentioned exercises, and information offered in more graphic formats for visual learners.

For the information presented, very accurate.

I believe the information remains relevant and offers classic writing techniques while suggesting a few newer instructional methods such as the "I say/they say" approach to argument writing. An additional effective element of the text is the chapter covering what writing professors expect, and the attention given critical thinking which is such an important element to crafting argument papers, in particular.

The prose is accessible for the transitional student I reference (the WR115 class in our institution) and sufficient context for specialty terms and jargon. I believe the addition of a glossary of terms in a back matter section would have added benefit.

The text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

For the student in our developmental writing class, the text would benefit with more variety in the presentation of the material--more graphics, exercises, etc., as noted above.

The topics are presented in a logical, clear fashion.

The interface is consistent.

The grammar in this writing book is very good.

The examples and citations are derived from diverse sources.

I particularly appreciated the hot links to many good resources Online, as noted previously. I believe the "side bar" inserts featuring student responses and perspectives on various writing topics would be of both interest and help to students. The "how to" examples for various writing skills such as topic sentences, three-level thesis statements, and instruction on such "writing mechanics" as how to avoid wordiness, fix run-on sentences, fragments and common punctuation problems, etc, seem to cover many of the most common areas of challenge for writers transitioning from high school to college level writing. The attention to rhetorical techniques and matters of "grace" and style in the last two chapters in particular will also help students upgrade their writing skills for college papers.

For students in developmental writing classes at the college level (perhaps one level lower than I believe this text might be best suited), a course using this textbook would be strengthened by the addition of supplemental materials featuring more practice exercises for each element of the essay, more sample and "whole essay" readings, and more punctuation and grammar exercises. There is some attention to ESL needs (such as in syntax development and various "agreement" issues such as subject/verb and verb tenses), which would benefit the developmental students as well, as many international students fit this demographic, but more may be necessary.

Reviewed by Steven Kelly, English Instructor, Kansas State University on 8/21/16

At less than 100 pages, Writing in College (WIC) is an admittedly brief text. While it doesn’t cover every college writing scenario (an impossible task), it serves as a fantastic primer for students who are making the transition from high school expectations to college expectations. In this way, it’s more like a college writing manifesto than a traditional textbook, which will be refreshing to instructors and edifying for students. The text offers practical writing instruction for beginner college students. It doesn’t hedge; it’s very frank about what college instructors/professors expect from students, how they grade, and what their concerns are (while also revealing that it’s different for different instructors). WIC helps students understand that they’re junior scholars, rather than “knowledge consumers.” I wish I’d had this introduction when I started undergrad, as it would’ve saved me from confusion and amateurish writing mistakes from the get-go. Though there’s no glossary or index, the text’s brevity and easy-to-follow “conversational” structure makes those features largely unnecessary.

Having spent the last decade as either a student or instructor, I can vouch for the text’s accuracy about college writing expectations, at least when it comes to writing argument-driven essays. Guptill perfectly captures the difference between college writing and high school writing, especially highlighting the need for students to consider their audience, to do original thinking, and to critically engage with ideas. Chapters 1 and 2 are especially useful in this regard. More importantly, I believe other college writing experts would support Guptill’s ideas and overall approach. In particular, WIC helps students abandon the rigid and stale “5-paragraph essay” form and see the advantages of writing a more complex, “organic” essay (Chapter 3 handles this subject fabulously). The text forwards the kind of writing that will allow students to excel in a college environment.

WIC seems relatively timeless, as it engages college writing from a rhetorical and processual approach, rather than format- or topic-specific ones. I can see this book being just as honest, relevant, and useful a decade from now. One thing that may need continued work are the hyperlinks embedded in the text, as URLs change or get deleted or as pages/visuals change with new formatting. But it seems that those features could be easily changed to keep up with the times.

Guptill’s prose is wonderful. It’s written conversationally and often uses humor and illustrations that college students will find relatable. The text avoids abstractions and instead delivers practical, concrete information. Students will have no trouble engaging with the text.

WIC maintains a high degree of consistency. It's adequately self-referential (without being overbearing), which should help remind students about concepts discussed in other chapters. The text also has a clearly unified purpose--it all relates back to the specific "genre" of college writing.

As mentioned previously, the text is brief: 9 chapters, approximately 10 pages/chapter. That said, students should easily be able to read and digest chapters within 15-30 minutes (depending on their reading speed, choices to follow links embedded in the text, etc.). Each chapter also makes use of clear, bold subheadings. One downside of the text's modularity, though, is that later chapters sometimes require readers to recall content from earlier chapters. Each chapter could technically stand-alone, but it makes more sense if readers understand the broader context. I can see how that might potentially discourage students; however, I think the text's brevity and lucidity serves as a buffer here. (It's also worth mentioning that on a meta-level WIC is essentially an argument-unto-itself about how to write excellent college papers. In other words, it's putting its own lessons into practice, which instructors and students alike can appreciate.)

Guptill has organized WIC deftly. Altogether, the text takes a top-down approach, focusing on higher-order concerns first and then moving on to discuss lower-order concerns. In my experience, approach like this is conceptually beneficial for students and accurately aligns with the values and objectives of college writing programs. There are 9 chapters, but they can ultimately be grouped into three broader sections. The first three chapters tackle the most important concerns of writing a college assignment: an awareness of genre, audience, and purpose/focus. The next block of chapters (4-7) deals with development, organization, and source integration. Chapters 4 and 5 are especially cogent and useful discussions about finding, evaluating, and using sources. The final block (chapters 8 and 9) handles style and conventions. Chapter 8 has some great information about writing with concision and grace.

WIC's interface is great. It's easily navigable, including intra-text links (like how the links in the table of contents let readers jump directly to each chapter without having to scroll) and easy-to-manage links to sources outside the text. If you have the .pdf file open in a web browser, you can easily right-click links and open them in new tabs. From a design perspective, the text is clean, crisp, and attractive. I especially enjoy the emboldened, boxed-out "Student Voices" asides, which give readers concrete insight from actual college students. These asides add depth and relatability to the text without interrupting it.

I didn't find any grammatical errors. It looks professionally edited and is written expertly--to be expected from a text that's about excellent academic writing. I did find one minor formatting mistake: on p. 53 there's a part where the text says there’s “emboldened” text in the second usage of a quotation, but the bold is missing there. It should be easy to fix, though.

WIC is in no way culturally insensitive or offensive. It takes a global perspective; when it uses examples, it often engages different cultural and geographic backgrounds.

Overall, I love the clarity, frankness, and flexibility Guptill's text offers. It demystifies and simplifies (without over-simplifying) the practice of writing in college in a way that's beneficial for students, graduate students, and instructors alike, on par with Graff and Birkenstein's landmark _They Say/I Say_ text. WIC is equally useful to both writing instructors and instructors from other disciplines, especially considering its brevity. Given the chance, I'd certainly use it in future classes. It would also serve as a great supplementary text for instructors who are a required to use a curriculum-specific textbook.

Reviewed by Carol Russell, Instructor (16 years), Kansas State University on 8/21/16

This text covers many areas that beginning writers face. It covers the basics from understanding the assignment and what the professor wants, to creating the rough draft, to incorporating sources, and finally to grammar. The focus of the '3... read more

The focus of the '3 story thesis' in Chapter 3 is especially useful. Additionally, the idea of creating an outline using "key sentences" rather than topic points is something I will be implementing in my teaching.

This text is complete "with concise discussions, clear multidisciplinary examples, and empathy for the challenges of student life." (About the Book)

Although, this text may not be intended to use as the sole text for a writing course, I found most of the content to be valuable information when teaching the beginning writer. Specifically, I can see this text to be invaluable to the Graduate Teaching Assistant in any writing course.

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence offers accurate information on many areas of writing. It is especially grounded in the areas of formulating ideas and generating a thesis. Guptill offers alternate perspectives on many of the fears and problems beginning writers face. She encourages her readers to become "conscientious writers."

Guptill uses such sources as OWL, MLA, Chronicle in Higher Education and many others. Most of the information presented, either in text or via an external link, are current and will not become obsolete in the near future. There will be some that will, undoubtedly, need to be updated as new and more useful information is made available. However, this is true of every text.

From a student perspective, this text provides excellent definition and context for all of the technical terms used. Guptill uses external links to make everything as clear to her readers as possible. It is very clear this text is written for students in a writing course. She goes further by stating that what most students learn in their high school writing class may not be what the college professor is looking for. Guptill states that "the assumption behind high-school instruction is that the teacher is the engine of learning." However, she reminds her readers that in college "writing a paper isn’t about getting the “right answer” and adhering to basic conventions; it’s about joining an academic conversation with something original to say." These are valuable lessons for the beginning writer.

Perhaps the most obvious consistency in the framing of this text is how Guptill focuses on writing at a college level, for a collegiate audience. She begins by addressing what a college professor wants and how to produce a paper that may satisfy "thorough understanding of context, audience, and purpose, mastery of the subject, detailed attention to writing conventions, skillful use of high-quality, credible, relevant sources, and graceful language.”

The references at the end of each chapter, with links to each was especially helpful, especially to a beginning writer. Each chapter deals with a topic students face as they sort through writing in an academic environment. I think a student reading this text would appreciate, as I did, the student comments interspersed throughout each chapter.

Each chapter clearly addresses something a college student would either have questions about or would need to know. In an 16 week semester, it is conceivable that each chapter could be addressed in 2 weeks. Given that the exercises at the end of each chapter are not asking students to write a paper, it allows each instructor to structure the chapters (and the lessons within) to coincide with assigned essays.

Also, I would have liked page numbers.

I read the text online. I am especially impressed with the expanded content by way of the internal links to relevant sources. There was only one link that did not work. The use of bold face type, boxed information, bullets etc. made for easier reading. Referring to previously read chapters is a good practice, however, Guptill provides links to previous chapters, which can be somewhat distracting if a student gets into the habit of looking at all links provided.

I did not find grammatical errors.

This text is culturally inclusive. There were no obvious signs of insensitivities. Guptill could have addressed obvious differences in writing perspectives as it pertains to various backgrounds, but I did not feel it was necessary.

I like the way the text speaks to the college student. I can see myself utilizing many of Guptill's ideas and approaches to teaching the beginning writer. Although the author focuses on the argument driven essay, the advice, examples, and exercises can be applied to nearly all writing for the beginner. I agree with the author when she states, "Experienced writers don't figure out what they want to say then write it. They write in order to figure out what they want to say."

Reviewed by Lyda Woods, Adjunct Professor, Rogue Community College on 8/21/16

Guptill's text is indeed a "warm invitation" to join the academic community in which research writing is a key method of communication. What is really wonderful is her approach to writing as that of joining an already existing discourse community, a community that she sets about helping students decode. The text has an effective table of contents, perceptive suggestions from real students throughout, but no glossary nor index.

I believe that Guptill's student-centered approach helps to reduce the bias that instructors without a sociology background may not even be aware exists. By that I mean, she listens and shares students' insights about learning to write and attempts to understand the mind set behind certain kinds of common errors. This approach reminds me of the fascinating work by Dr. Flowers through the Bay Area Writing Project, in which she explored "think aloud" protocols with students who were in the act of composing academic writing.

The content in meaningful and up-to-date and the section on incorporating sources is one of the best I've read because it really looks at how students need to lead into and out of cited material in ways that enhance and support their own arguments.

I love the way the lesson on "key" sentences flows right into the section on outlining to show us that they are connected. She encourages students to write their key sentences into their outlines. This strategy provides helpful scaffolding as students climb toward writing the entire paper. I also like the student input here: "A good paper has cohesion. I love outlines, so I really like the idea of writing my first sentence of each paragraph as my plan. This way, you know what to write about and you know that your paper will flow easily. As a reader, this is an important characteristic to me. If the paragraphs are just jumping around in all different directions, I quickly lose interest in trying to follow along. The reader should not have to struggle to follow your paper. Flow can make the difference between an okay paper and a scholarly product."

Yes the text is internally consistent in terminology and framework. The student insights, boxed off to separated them, accompany each section as well. I really learned a lot reading all the student feedback and appreciate its inclusion throughout.

Yes, the text is easily and readily divisible. One could use part of the text, such as the sections on key sentences and outlines, without incorporating the rest of the text.

The topics move logically, at least for me, from global to local. By that I mean that Guptill explores higher -order cognitive challenges and assumptions about writing first and looks at sentence and paragraph level concerns later.

I experienced no interface issues at all. The table of contents is hyper-linked for ease of navigation.

I encountered no grammar errors.

I experienced no cultural insensitivity. Rather I was impressed by the exploration of academia as a culture, particularly in Chapter 2.

Amy Guptill is able to see writing from the students' perspective, which is a gift. For example, students struggle with the idea of writing about a topic that their audience, primarily their instructor, knows better than they do. Guptill describes this experience well: "When you write for a teacher you are usually swimming against the stream of natural communication. The natural direction of communication is to explain what you understand to someone who doesn’t understand it. But in writing an essay for a teacher your task is usually to explain what you are still engaged in trying to understand to someone who understands it better. "

Reviewed by Cybele Higgins, ESL Faculty, Lane Community College on 8/21/16

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence addresses all the areas and concepts behind orienting students who are new to writing expectations in college. It is comprehensive in covering everything from moving beyond the five-paragraph essay while not negating its usefulness, to deciphering professors' assignments and expectations of critical thinking, to perfecting the foundational paragraph. The table of contents clearly shows the chapter titles that address the range of sub-topics that need to be considered to produce excellent writing in college. Although it is meant to be a short textbook, the addition of a simple glossary would be helpful, as would a Chapter 10 to conclude the book and bring the book full circle back to the Introduction, sending writers off with excitement to explore their new understanding of excellence in college writing.

The content is accurate, contains no errors, and is unbiased. The accuracy of the book is enhanced by the author's apparent experience as a subject area professor who understands what new college students needs to navigate research-based writing assignments as well as how to work with professors who may or may not incorporate writing strategies into their content courses.

The book will always be relevant. It contains no content that will become dated. The plentiful and effective links to additional resources can be easily updated as needed. The strategies it presents will never become obsolete so long as critical thinking and evidence-based writing is expected in college.

The text is clear, easy to read, and engaging. Key terminology discussed includes context, definitions, and links to resources that explain further. The clear writing style is in itself a model for students new to college writing.

Overall, the text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework. Each chapter presents the topic, hooks the reader to want to learn the 'why' of the topic, explains comprehensively, and finally provides two consistent and extremely useful sections: Other Resources and Exercises.

The modularity of the text is one of the factors that makes it quite accessible to readers. The chapters are all about the same length, have clear sub-sections with sub-titles that flow from one to the next, and clear resources and exercises sections highlighted in red and blue. It is easy to follow the book from where one left off after putting the book down for a few days. Moreover, the way the content presentation is divided makes it so the book or sections of the book could be used in a variety writing, research writing, or subject area courses.

The topics in the text are presented logically and clearly. The book sets the stage for readers to understand the larger context of college writing, gets into identifying what professors want and why, breaks down how to plan writing with organizational structures to fit the task, and then emphasizes the importance of clear paragraphs and mechanics.

The interface of the text, including navigation, charts, and text boxes, is clear. There is nothing in the text that might confuse the reader.

There are no grammar errors in the text. The writing style is enhanced by grammar that communicates effectively for the task. The grammar choices the author makes are all in the service of clear communication with no extra wordiness or unnecessary complexity.

Overall, the text is culturally relevant and not offensive. The book is written in language that should appeal to and catch the attention of readers who have recently graduated from high school in the United States, Canada, etc. The quotations from students create identification with the topic; to enhance this, quotations from a wider variety of student names might broaden the appeal. One concern is that are a limited number of words and references that should be revised to make the book more culturally accessible ("Booyah!" in several chapters and "bullshit" in Chapter 9). A few minor revisions to each chapter with a wider audience in mind -- non-traditional or older students, international students, non-native English speaking resident students, community college students -- would smooth out the cultural references and expand the book's appeal.

I plan to use this book to help get my Academic and College Transition ESL students ready to enter college.

Reviewed by Jennifer Love, Instructor of Writing, Lane Community College on 8/21/16

Amy Guptill's textbook offers a comprehensive discussion of writing in an academic (primarily four-year/university) setting, with an emphasis on the thesis-driven essay that includes research. The focus of each chapter (e.g., "Understanding the Assignment"; "Constructing the Thesis"; "Listening to Sources"; "Getting the Mechanics Right") supports the book's larger focus on academic writing, and the chapter topics fit together well. While the book does not contain an index or glossary, the table of contents makes it easy to see which topics are addressed in the book.

The historical focus in Chapter 1 on the origins of universities and of scholarly writing is an interesting element of the book and adds to its comprehensiveness.

As mentioned in the book's "Reviewer's Notes," the audience for *Writing in College* is clearly "well-prepared" students. As a community college instructor, I found some of the material less applicable to my own teaching than it might be to that of an instructor in a four-year college or university. But for the audience that the book is trying to reach, I would call the book comprehensive.

I found the book to be accurate. Many of Guptill's assertions are supported by sources (usually available in full text online) that she provides direct links to in her text. Also, Guptill occasionally brings in her personal experience as a writer (and, more often, the views of students, in their own words) to support her assertions. I did notice a few places in the textbook where I felt that a phrasing could be modified to move beyond a focus on the four-year college environment. (An example--again reflecting my experience as a community college instructor--is in Chapter 3 where Guptill asserts that professors don't want to see obvious theses in essays (21). I personally love to see a thesis in a student's essay that's as clear as a bell! Guptill is clearly aiming for a more nuanced student essay here.)

Guptill's book seems relevant and to have good powers of endurance. References to popular culture (e.g., texting language) are frequent enough to make the book feel current without being intrusive. Guptill also has a good handle on changing conventions in academic discourse and refers to how academic writing has been trending toward a plainer, more direct style; and how "invented" rules like end-of-sentence prepositions can be safely disregarded by most college writers. I found the book timely and up-to-date in an enduring way.

Guptill's textbook has some wonderfully clear chapters and sections. Her discussion of what makes a good thesis (main idea) in an essay in Chapter 3 is lucid and engaging. Guptill also has a nice way of stepping outside her role as an instructor and looking at the conventions of academic writing as (admittedly) sometimes a little odd. She does this at the start of Chapter 2 in her inviting discussion of the irony of the typical writing situation in college: how the writer is writing for an audience (i.e., the instructor) who in many cases understands the subject better than the student (9). (As Guptill points out, this situation is the reverse of most other writing situations, where writers are trying to inform/educate/entertain a less-knowledgeable reader. No wonder writing essays isn't very exciting for a lot of students!)

Parts of the book would benefit from added clarification. The primary area of need involves statements leading into numbered lists, a format Guptill uses frequently to identify the varied reasons or methods for approaches or expectations in academic writing. Often a paragraph preceding a lengthy, numbered list will end with a phrase like "Some points:" or "Here are some possible reasons:" Reading these brief lead-ins, I was often left scratching my head, wondering, "Points about what again?" or "Reasons for what, did you say?"

These lead-in statements could possibly be revised by placing them in bold type, and instead of a general phrase like "Here are five common strategies," include an assertive passage separated from the text that precedes it, stating something like, "Here are five ways to make your thesis both original and grounded in the sources." A phrase like this (especially if bolded and separated from the preceding text) would be easy to refer back to and reduce confusion about what is being discussed in the ensuing lists.

I also felt that many of the longer passages Guptill quotes to illustrate effective paragraphs, such as those in Chapter 6, "Back to Basics: The Perfect Paragraph," could focus on topics that are more easily understandable to a wider, 21st-century audience; quoted passages about the "the cold fusion controversy of the 1980s" (55), for example, could be replaced by something equally newsworthy but more easily understandable to a wide set of readers, such as the benefits of a whole-foods diet or the vast amount of plastic cluttering up our seas.

I also felt that the clarity of the textbook could be improved by Guptill's better identifying the authors and/or subjects of the texts that she is quoting (such as in Chapter 7: "Intros and Outros"). A lengthy quoted passage in Chapter 7 may begin with a lead-in statement as brief as "Victor Seet on religious embodiment:" (61). After reading such brief introductions-to-quoted-examples, I was left wondering, "Who is Victor Seet? What is religious embodiment? Are these students?" (etc.) There needs to be more of the "top bread slice" in these "quotation sandwiches" Guptill makes, preparing readers for the big quotes so we know what to expect from them.

I found Guptill's book consistent in terms of tone (upbeat, encouraging, sometimes humorous) and terminology. Each chapter ends with a section on "Other Resources" and with helpful suggestions for writing projects. I did notice that some elements are present in some chapters but not others. For example, Chapter 5, "Listening to Sources . . . ," ends with a section called "Conclusion"; I did not necessarily see that feature in other chapters. I also observed Guptill referring in Chapter 7 to examples of passages written by students (she identified them as such); I hadn't recalled this reference-to-students'-writing from previous chapters and wondered why there was this apparently new reference to students' work.

The book seems very modular to me. I can imagine an instructor effectively assigning portions of the text in a course; or assigning just a single chapter. My favorite chapter of the book, Chapter 9, "Getting the Mechanics Right," is a smart, reassuring, and accessible look at grammar and usage rules in writing; it's comprehensive in itself considering its brevity and would be a great stand-alone reading assignment for any student who might feel that her grasp of writing's mechanics could be better.

For the most part, the organization/structure of Guptill's book works for me. Her approach is organic (a term she defines, in its rhetorical sense, in her text): she starts with broader concepts like understanding the assignment and exploring a thesis, and moves much later into more sentence- or surface-level features of writing like clarity and mechanical correctness. My main reservation about the book's flow is the above-mentioned observation that some of the long, numbered explanatory sections need clearer lead-in statements that readers can refer back to to remind themselves of what is being listed.

From an interface standpoint, the book is inviting and easy to navigate. The live links within chapters take readers to the intended websites (as far as I can tell); and Guptill's chapter titles and subheadings nicely identify what is discussed in the named section.

*Writing in College* is a grammatically great read! I noticed only two very minor grammar elements that could be smoothed out: a subject-verb needing agreement in Chapter 1 ("Neither of these assumptions are true"); and a "than" needing to be a "then" in Chapter 2 ("than the bat would cost"--p. 16). Otherwise, grammatical elements look good to me.

As mentioned, the book is geared toward well-prepared students and makes this clear up front. I appreciate Guptill's comments in Chapter 9 ("Getting the Mechanics Right") about how students with working-class or transnational or multilingual community affiliations will "have to expend more effort than their middle-class English-speaking counterparts to master the standard conventions [of written English]" (76). As suggested above, I did feel that the examples chosen by Guptill for effective paragraphs, introductions, etc., could be more accessible to a general audience. Many students might find academically specialized topics like sociology's balance theory (53) bewildering and would probably be better off with more media-friendly examples.

Amy Guptill's *Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence* is a well-informed, readable textbook geared toward well-prepared first-year college students. The book has an organic arrangement from chapter to chapter and offers clear and engaging explanations of how to develop an interesting thesis, "converse" with sources in one's research-based writing, and create flow and mechanical accuracy in one's essays. The book could be strengthened with more descriptive lead-in passages to numbered explanatory sections; fuller, more descriptive introductions to lengthy quoted examples; and (in some cases) more accessible choices of topics in the quoted examples. On the whole, I found the book informative and well-written, a worthwhile contribution to the composition field.

Reviewed by Christopher Rose, Full-Time Instructor, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

The text, was for the most part, comprehensive, and covers all of the major areas that ideally should be reviewed in a composition course. While some sections could technically use more, such as section on sources and mechanics (I would love if it covered the use of dashes), I wouldn't expect a text to cover everything and an instructor should be able to make up for any minor gaps in the text.

I found no issues with the accuracy of the text.

The only section that could need revision in the future is the section on sources, as sources are heavily affected by technology and it constant needs updates, but that's not a fault of the text.

I was happy that it included a section on gendered language.

The prose is easy to follow for early composition students and relevant examples.

The terminology of the text is consistent.

The separation of the sections of text makes it very easy for a teacher to assign as needed.

The structure and organization of the text is very close to the same structure of my courses.

While it's easy to switch between chapters on the epub version of the text, this feature isn't present in the pdf version.

The text attempts to avoid any cultural references. However, in the first chapter, the text mentions high school and there's an assumption that everyone reading the text is a traditional student. The high school references can be damaging to nontraditional students, ESOL students, and any student that may have come through something other than the American secondary education system or those that had problems with that same system.

I was pleasantly surprised by this text as it covers the same subjects I teach in my course and most texts from publishers fail to reflect the content of a composition course.

Reviewed by Michael Sutcliffe, Writing Instructor, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

This text is appropriately designed for its audience and purpose. In a brief “About” section, the author explains this text is best-suited “for students who have largely mastered high-school level conventions of formal academic writing and are now moving beyond the five-paragraph essay to more advanced engagement with text.” The author has left out discussions of rhetorical theory or multiple argument structures or modes in favor of establishing a seemingly simple yet nuanced, workable approach to composition. The author has constructed a sequences, modular text based on understanding structures and conventions that define the academic essay genre by relating the writing process to aspects of the writing situation – the author frequently comments on instructors’ attitudes and reasoning leading to a gentle demystification of academic writing in general. As such, this text is quite appropriate for basic writing and first-quarter composition but less so for subsequent writing—research-argumentation courses. The text offers a good treatment of integrating sources but stops short of a question driven research process. The text is, however, conspicuously missing an explicit discussion of pre-writing and revision, but both are embedded and implied in activities related to the development of “an organic college essay.” The brief treatment seems sufficient for this approach, and, since these aspects of process writing have been prolifically written about (both in published texts and on the web), instructors should have no trouble supplementing. Please also see the following section on cultural relevance.

This text seems to take a pedagogical approach inspired by genre analysis, although without explicit use of that term. As such, the text is echoing (and in several instances exceeding) other composition texts on the market today. I found no inaccuracies.

Often, students (and some faculty) think of rhetorical structures as timeless or constant. Unfortunately, this misassumption is the source of many ineffective assignment drafts. The explosion of technology has impacted academic genres and changed the expectations of audiences in subtle (and sometimes invisible) ways. This text makes no mention of online writing as a rhetorical situation and seems to suggest essays as a genre that does not change across disciplines and modalities. However, the analytical tools and questions that subtend this text’s pedagogy do suggest a means of unpacking these changes, so students would be blindsided by merely memorizing a template that is later found to be outmoded. The text uses hyperlinks to reinforce and validate some claims, and each chapter concludes with a list of “other resources.” While this does create a liability as web addresses often change, it does connect the approach to its surrounding context and some ongoing conversations about writing.

This author’s pedagogical approach works to demystify academic genre conventions and clarify the writing situation itself. In early chapters, significant attention is paid to explanations of why composition courses are required for college students and how instructors tend to view their relationships with students. Most students are oblivious to the sight-unseen financial investment that the voting public has made in their education, and this text reminds them of their place in a larger community. Conversely, the text uses accessible language appropriate for most undergraduates and advanced English language learners.

Use of consistent font sizes and weights and linear dividers effectively separate sections of the text, and titled section breaks mark chapters into easily consumable bites – each is roughly 10 pages making the text easy to align with homework reading-writing assignments. Bolded “bubble” sections in each chapter bring other scholars’ voices into concert with the author, but the consistency of their integration makes them fit seamlessly without the interrupted feeling common to textbooks. There is a consistent absence of graphic and visual media that is detrimental to the currency of the text for many students, but, again, this is an aspect that is easily supplemented or amended.

Writing textbooks are tricky to think of as modules, as this suggests a writing process that is divorced from its social-political-economic context. Nevertheless, this text does create divisions between chapters and ideas that allow for portability and adoption of a section without the entire text. Common terms and a genre analysis pedagogy link the sections but without necessitating one to understand the next.

Most scholars think of the rhetorical situation and the writing process as a triangle and a recursive cycle respectively. This forces linear composition textbooks into a somewhat artificial arrangement that reinforces the erroneous belief in writing as a linear event. Like most others, this text introduces students to writing as they enter a new class and progresses through aspects of essay development with corresponding chapters. Unfortunately, this works only until students write their first essay, usually in week 2-4. At this point, students need information from each chapter. This text does, however, make this needed information easy to find. Instructors could reference sections while responding to student writing directing students to read ahead as needed.

As previously mentioned, this textbook is all text (understandably so as most images and graphics require permission from for-profit copyright holders). As a result, it could be tedious to some learners. Still, the arrangement of mini-lessons followed by activities does offer instructors a ready-made way to diverge from reading/lecture into collaborative activity.

The author has chosen an academic voice that is reminiscent of an introductory course. Terms are accessibly colloquial without impeaching the academic ethos, and the author’s sentence structure and variety makes for easy reading. While not a handbook, this brief rhetoric does give students some interesting, useful mini-lessons on academic style and grammar expectations like comma use. Thankfully, the author maintains her approach contextualizing choices as stylistic, rhetorical decisions rather than as “right” or “proper” use.

Because the text takes a genre-driven, structural approach to essay writing, I do feel that it would benefit from a discussion of discourse as a means of distributing power and its role in distributing power unequally. First year composition courses are often the only place where students are introduced to the idea that their work conveys inherited biases and assumptions associated with and about race, gender, age, classes, etc. Learning academic literacies (like essay writing) is very much a process of learning to be accountable for those biases and responsible for the implications of our work. For a text that is specifically oriented towards unpacking the college essay and its academic context, it is conspicuously quiet on the ways that formal education and the essay often replicate systems of straight, white, male privilege. Nevertheless, the genre structure does allow for easy supplementation.

My thanks to the author for making this text available! All too often, the pressures of tenure push scholars to limit their work to the for-profit publishing industry making it virtually unavailable to most of us who would build upon their expertise.

Reviewed by Eleanor Latham, Professor of Humanities/Developmental Literacy Coordinator, Central Oregon Community College on 8/21/16

This depends largely on audience: for a student coming from a high school that teaches the "5 paragraph theme," who placed out of college composition, attending a university, who is taking a social science class, the book provides useful, if general, information. On the one hand, the book covers essential elements of college level writing: the writing process, using sources, and sentence mechanics. On the other hand, I'm not sure why a student who placed out of college comprehension would need information on sentence mechanics, and I am sure that a student with the kind of problems addressed in that chapter would not be able to apply the general advice in previous chapters or understand what the examples are intended to show (to say nothing of not being able to understand many of the examples). The book is not at all comprehensive in terms of being a composition or rhetoric text.

The author is a sociologist writing about writing; the accuracy is about the same as one might expect from a rhetorician writing about sociology. Some material is simply wrong (most current documentation systems do not include URLs) and in others it fails to identify something as specific to social sciences (such as using APA documentation without any hint that science writing usually prefers CSE (Council of Science Editors), Humanities (undergraduate) classes want MLA, Anthropology wants a version of APA (AAA) and so on.

Where the author specifically draws on a composition text (They Say/I Say, for example), she does so accurately. General information about such things as the writing process are accurate (by which term I mean consistent with how professors specializing in composition and/or rhetoric teach those things). The use of "key sentences" rather than "topic sentences" reflects current composition practice. (On the other hand, having a "topic outline"--set up as if it were a formal outline--seems misleading.)

I was surprised to see advice on gender-based language issues as promoting one way of avoiding gender stereotyping: using the plural pronoun exclusively. I was even more surprised to see that approach billed as something modern/progressive professors would accept while the stodgy, old-fashioned professors would not. Of course, modern/progressive professors often prefer "new" pronouns such as ze and zir; professors valuing concision prefer s/he over "he or she"; professors who want "they/their" often insist that students make the general antecedent plural (not "A doctor must keep their knowledge up to date" but "Doctors must keep their. . .")

As mentioned above, the examples of source documentation are already out of date. Most of the rest of the book is sufficiently general that, unless process-writing goes out of fashion, it will remain current.

This section is complicated by the audience issue: for a Junior or Senior university student, the prose is accessible; for a Freshman or Sophomore student, some of it is accessible (and would be to an adult student at pre-college level) and some of it is not. The text is about composition, and it almost entirely avoids technical terminology related to composition or rhetoric. The exception is in the "grammar" section.

Consistency rating: 3

So, the book has quite a bit about how professors work and think, and the kind of expertise they have (and do not have). Those materials are clearly aimed at university students (as opposed to community college students), who "placed out of" freshman composition. Materials on paragraphing and grammar are more appropriate for freshman students who did not place out of freshman composition--but they would then, presumably, be taking freshman composition. Although universities do use first year Masters students as teaching assistants in freshman composition classes, most universities now provide and require such TAs to complete workshops on composition theory. In any case, students taking a freshman composition course would likely have access to a composition textbook. I was surprised to see advice on ignoring traditional punctuation conventions to distinguish restrictive from non-restrictive clauses, followed later in that chapter for how to punctuate restrictive versus non-restrictive clauses.

I honestly cannot imagine this text being used for a composition course. I can see a social science instructor having it as an optional text, something to recommend to those students whose first paper was especially benighted. In that case, a student could certainly read only part of it, or read it in any order.

The text follows a standard organization for composition texts, starting with general information (what your professor wants) and ending with grammar (typically an appendix in a composition text).

Most of the chapter footnotes had at least a couple and in some cases most of the footnotes with the red underlining to show a link running through the footnote, making it look like those items had been crossed out. Incidentally, blue is a more typical color to show links, and red is especially problematic in terms of disability access. The drop down menu on each page that provided a link to other chapters was very helpful.

Grammatical accuracy, of course, depends on whether the text is supposed to be formal or informal and on which grammatical conventions the author has deemed outdated. In terms of the author's section on grammar, the book has no grammatical errors.

In terms of avoiding racism or sexism, the book is fine. In terms of "backgrounds" the book is suitable only for university students (and not "non-traditional students" such as first generation university students). I thought the suggestion that a student who was not willing to follow the author's advice should abandon academia and learn a trade, maybe even become a plumber was particularly hurtful--of course, I'm sure that students who are interested in a trade would never see this book.

This is NOT a college composition textbook. It is a somewhat idiosyncratic discussion about how university students (who placed out of college composition or perhaps who believe that what they learned in a college composition course is irrelevant outside of that course) should write in their social science classes.

Reviewed by Tim Krause, Adjunct ESOL Instructor, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

The strength of this book is that it is not intended to be an all-encompassing reference overloaded with details concerning every potential writing dilemma, nor a step-by-step essay generator. Rather, it offers a bird’s eye view of best practices that introduce students to academic scholarship. As such, it’s a bridge between the prescriptive nature of high-school-level writing and the independent thought of college-level work. The nine chapters focus on elevating the core elements of written academic inquiry -- expectations of scholarly work, constructing theses and arguments, interacting with secondary sources, organization, style, and mechanics -- but limiting its focus to broad strokes that offer the biggest bang for the buck. This is less about teaching new skills, but all about polishing what students already know. As an ESOL instructor, I can imagine using this textbook as a framework to guide critical thinking and reflection while supplementing it with the nuts-and-bolts specific to my situation, namely grammar, research, and citation. There is a basic table of contents, but no index. Terminology is typically explained in context, but it would be helpful to highlight it and include it in a glossary. There is little or no discussion of different rhetorical styles, vocabulary (e.g., transition words), citation styles, or instruction in common skills such as brainstorming, outlining, summarizing and paraphrasing, etc. -- that is all assumed to have been covered in previous courses. There are example passages, but no full-length model essays or papers. One important area that I wish the book addressed at length is topic selection and topic narrowing.

The information seems to be accurate. I did not notice any unintentional errors or typos. The author has distinct expectations of college students and expresses opinions on some familiar grammar and style arguments (e.g., that vs. which), but provides appropriate explanation for both.

The tone feels fresh, and the content seems relevant, including, for example, the current shift in thinking regarding the use of “they” and “their” as a single, non-gender-specific third person. That small section likely will need to be updated sooner rather than later as the usage quickly becomes more widely accepted. The larger issue in terms of longevity has to do with the many links to external sources that may need to be updated and replaced over time. Several are unnecessary and distracting links to publishers of books that are mentioned as resources. I think these references would be better served with basic bibliographic information so that students could then choose to find the books in the library or from a retailer, if they choose. Other links, however, point to valuable content on third-party sites. They all seem active at the moment, but they may not exist a year or two from now. Updates, however, should be relatively easy and straightforward to implement. In terms of relevancy, I find that this book is extremely relevant in shifting students from using information to write toward using writing to inform.

Although academic vocabulary -- especially in the sample texts -- may slow some readers, its otherwise conversational tone makes this book a quick and easy read. Concepts are demonstrated through examples and exercises. Furthermore, the book attempts to paraphrase key points through testimonial pull quotes by real-life students who share authentic observations in everyday language. Ironically, I think the chapter on clarity and concision happens to be the least clear and direct. More simplified examples might be more quickly understood.

Yes, the book provides a consistent presentation.

Each chapter seems to work independently so that individual parts could be reorganized or omitted. Internal sections are clearly delineated, though that could be improved by starting major sections within chapters on a new page, especially since this is a PDF and there isn’t as much need to save space/paper as a printed version may require. That would facilitate using or omitting individual sections.

Unlike writing books that build from sentence to paragraph to essay, this book works from the top down, starting with academic expectations and the philosophical shift away from a five-paragraph essay through the big idea of good theses and organization of information toward the details of specific types of commas that plague student writers. I believe this is a useful process because it reflects how we write, examining audience and purpose first, then editing and revising for the finer details, such as punctuation.

Overall, the PDF seems fine. The links to external materials all work at this time. The layout is simple and easy to read. I remain ambivalent about the book’s pull quotes featuring comments from actual students. I like them in concept, but I’m not sure how much they help student readers in their current format. This might be just a matter of layout rather than content. There is almost no graphic relief. While this book does not have to be laden with illustrations, perhaps some additional way of offsetting the example texts and pull quotes might provide for easier reading and navigation.

I did not observe any unintentional grammatical errors.

While I did not observe anything culturally insensitive or offensive, neither did I observe any conscious effort by the text to be inclusive or diverse. Some of the references or examples may, in fact, be from a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds, but it is not obvious. This may be partially due to the fact that this book focuses on academic research writing rather than creative or personal writing. Instructors may wish to supplement examples and resources that clearly reflect diversity.

One thing I really appreciate about this book is its respect for students and teachers. It honors the students where they are now and leads them to a new level in academic scholarship. It introduces big ideas, but leaves room for instructors to supplement with specifics. It provides expectations as much as instructions. It helps students learn how to learn. Its tone is collegial and realistic, not pedantic or contrived. I also appreciate that the exercises are interesting and open-ended investigations rather than right-or-wrong answers or trite prompts. I am excited about incorporating it in my advanced ESOL writing course this fall.

Reviewed by Jarrod Dunham, Instructor - English Composition, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

This book provides a comprehensive, demystifying guide to academic writing - its purposes, conventions, and many of the most common errors that even well-prepared students commit. For students who are prepared, committed, and interested in improving their academic writing, this book is incredibly useful. All of the things that I recall having to learn as an undergraduate through trial and error and by scrutinizing professor's feedback are concisely covered here.

The content of the book is accurate and up-to-date with the most current research and practices in the field.

This book was crafted with current students in mind, and as such does an excellent job taking into consideration very recent issues (such as text message abbreviations) that have emerged in student writing. On questions like this, the book is both highly relevant and can be kept up-to-date.

One of the book's great strengths is that it takes advantage of the electronic format to provide useful links to outside sources that corroborate information in the book, provide examples, or offer additional instruction. However, this is also something of a weakness: while most of the links appear to be stable, a couple are obsolete already. It is a small task to substitute a fresh link for a broken one, but even with regular updates, some of the links probably will not be functional. That said, the linked material is best understood as supplementary rather than integral to the text, so the occasional non-functionality of a link or two hardly compromises the value of the text as a whole.

Clarity rating: 3

The book is well written and clear, but may be long-winded for many undergraduate students. The text seems to assume a relatively sophisticated undergraduate reader, and it is well-suited to that audience. However, it may be a bit dense for a freshman composition course, particularly in an institution where incoming students demonstrate varying degrees of preparedness.

The text is commendably consistent, each chapter building on work done in previous chapters, and frequently referring back to content covered in previous chapters in order to reinforce the internal pedagogical structure.

In terms of assigning this text in a classroom, it's biggest weakness might be a lack of modularity. Chapters tend to be short and as such can easily be assigned for out-of-class reading, but I struggled to come up with complementary readings to assign alongside it, and the book is really best read in its entirety.

I appreciate the structure of this book. As I recalled my own experiences as a novice scholar, I found that this text mirrored the course of my own questions. It's certainly the case that the text will be most effective for students who already have some experience (and maybe accumulated frustration) with writing college papers, but for those students, this book provides a highly systematic guide to improving on their work and identifying and avoiding the mistakes they may have committed on past efforts.

The interface of the text is broadly good, though there are a couple problems. The book uses text boxes to highlight input from student contributors, and these occasionally sit awkwardly on the "page." Some of the longer student comments spilled below the margins, with the result that the end of the comment simply couldn't be read. Links were occasionally difficult to select (or selected on accident), and while having the option to immediately navigate to endnotes by clicking on the supertext number is excellent, I found it difficult to navigate back to the text after reading the endnote. These are mostly annoyance rather than significant issues, however, and for the most part there are offsetting upsides in terms of the convenience with which additional information can be incorporated.

There are a handful of minor errors in the text, mostly on the order of typos, but they are rare and do not interfere with comprehending the content. Most readers will likely not notice them at all. I'd suggest, in any case, that there is some merit in the occasional typo, as it makes the case that obsession with "correctness" at the expense of content really isn't necessary or productive.

I was pleased with the way the book handled culturally sensitive issues that emerge in writing classroom. For instance, it specifically deals with the difficulty of gendered pronouns (e.g., resisting the old practice of rendering every hypothetical student or scholar as male), and with concerns about the accessibility of formal academic English to speakers of non-dominant varieties of English. Many texts ignore these issues, perhaps considering them off-topic. I consider it a virtue of this book that it addresses them, insofar as it answers questions that students may have and provides an introduction to issues that students may perceive but lack a vocabulary with which to confront or explore.

This book would have been immensely beneficial to me as an undergraduate. Virtually everything it covers is something I had to learn by experience, and the quality of my earliest scholarship would have been much improved with the benefit of these lessons. I do not think I would require it as a primary text in a freshman comp class, but it has a lot of value as a supplementary or recommended text, particularly for students whose plans include graduate school or writing-intensive professions. It might also be valuable in a research writing or advanced composition class. Students who are most prepared will get the most out of it, but the book also offers excellent exercises at the end of each chapter that will be of value to all students.

Chapter 1: Really? Writing? Again?
Chapter 2: What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment
Chapter 3: Constructing the Thesis and Argument—From the Ground Up
Chapter 4: Secondary Sources in Their Natural Habitats
Chapter 5: Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources
Chapter 6: Back to Basics: The Perfect Paragraph
Chapter 7: Intros and Outros
Chapter 8: Clarity and Concision
Chapter 9: Getting the Mechanics Right

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Writing in College is designed for students who have largely mastered high-school level conventions of formal academic writing and are now moving beyond the five-paragraph essay to more advanced engagement with text. It is well suited to composition courses or first-year seminars and valuable as a supplemental or recommended text in other writing-intensive classes. It provides a friendly, down-to-earth introduction to professors' goals and expectations, demystifying the norms of the academy and how they shape college writing assignments. Each of the nine chapters can be read separately, and each includes suggested exercises to bring the main messages to life.

Students will find in Writing in College a warm invitation to join the academic community as novice scholars and to approach writing as a meaningful medium of thought and communication. With concise discussions, clear multidisciplinary examples, and empathy for the challenges of student life, Guptill conveys a welcoming tone. In addition, each chapter includes Student Voices: peer-to-peer wisdom from real SUNY Brockport students about their strategies for and experiences with college writing.

While there are many affordable writing guides available, most focus only on sentence-level issues or, conversely, a broad introduction to making the transition. Writing In College , in contrast, provides both a coherent frame for approaching writing assignments and indispensable advice for effective organization and expression.

About the Contributors

Amy Guptill is an Associate Professor of Sociology at The College at Brockport, SUNY where she has a joint appointment with the Delta College Program, an alternative interdisciplinary General Education option. Her research focuses on spatial and structural shifts in agriculture and food systems with recent work on innovative agricultural marketing. She teaches courses in the sociology of food, development and globalization, community and social change, social statistics and college writing. In addition to Writing In College: From Competence to Excellence, she is the coauthor of a recent college textbook entitled Food & Society: Principles and Paradoxes (Malden, MA: Polity, 2012).

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Designing Essay Assignments

by Gordon Harvey

Students often do their best and hardest thinking, and feel the greatest sense of mastery and growth, in their writing. Courses and assignments should be planned with this in mind. Three principles are paramount:

1. Name what you want and imagine students doing it

However free students are to range and explore in a paper, the general kind of paper you’re inviting has common components, operations, and criteria of success, and you should make these explicit. Having satisfied yourself, as you should, that what you’re asking is doable, with dignity, by writers just learning the material, try to anticipate in your prompt or discussions of the assignment the following queries:

What is the purpose of this? How am I going beyond what we have done, or applying it in a new area, or practicing a key academic skill or kind of work?
To what audience should I imagine myself writing?
What is the main task or tasks, in a nutshell? What does that key word (e.g., analyze, significance of, critique, explore, interesting, support) really mean in this context or this field?
What will be most challenging in this and what qualities will most distinguish a good paper? Where should I put my energy? (Lists of possible questions for students to answer in a paper are often not sufficiently prioritized to be helpful.)
What misconceptions might I have about what I’m to do? (How is this like or unlike other papers I may have written?) Are there too-easy approaches I might take or likely pitfalls? An ambitious goal or standard that I might think I’m expected to meet but am not?
What form will evidence take in my paper (e.g., block quotations? paraphrase? graphs or charts?) How should I cite it? Should I use/cite material from lecture or section?
Are there some broad options for structure, emphasis, or approach that I’ll likely be choosing among?
How should I get started on this? What would be a helpful (or unhelpful) way to take notes, gather data, discover a question or idea? Should I do research?

2. Take time in class to prepare students to succeed at the paper

Resist the impulse to think of class meetings as time for “content” and of writing as work done outside class. Your students won’t have mastered the art of paper writing (if such a mastery is possible) and won’t know the particular disciplinary expectations or moves relevant to the material at hand. Take time in class to show them:

discuss the assignment in class when you give it, so students can see that you take it seriously, so they can ask questions about it, so they can have it in mind during subsequent class discussions;
introduce the analytic vocabulary of your assignment into class discussions, and take opportunities to note relevant moves made in discussion or good paper topics that arise;
have students practice key tasks in class discussions, or in informal writing they do in before or after discussions;
show examples of writing that illustrates components and criteria of the assignment and that inspires (class readings can sometimes serve as illustrations of a writing principle; so can short excerpts of writing—e.g., a sampling of introductions; and so can bad writing—e.g., a list of problematic thesis statements);
the topics of originality and plagiarism (what the temptations might be, how to avoid risks) should at some point be addressed directly.

3. Build in process

Ideas develop over time, in a process of posing and revising and getting feedback and revising some more. Assignments should allow for this process in the following ways:

smaller assignments should prepare for larger ones later;
students should do some thinking and writing before they write a draft and get a response to it (even if only a response to a proposal or thesis statement sent by email, or described in class);
for larger papers, students should write and get response (using the skills vocabulary of the assignment) to a draft—at least an “oral draft” (condensed for delivery to the class);
if possible, meet with students individually about their writing: nothing inspires them more than feeling that you care about their work and development;
let students reflect on their own writing, in brief cover letters attached to drafts and revisions (these may also ask students to perform certain checks on what they have written, before submitting);
have clear and firm policies about late work that nonetheless allow for exception if students talk to you in advance.

A PDF version of the text above. Provides guidance on creating carefully crafted and explicit paper assignments that encourage students to write better papers

Pedagogy Workshops
Responding to Student Writing
Commenting Efficiently
Vocabulary for Discussing Student Writing
Guides to Teaching Writing
HarvardWrites Instructor Toolkit
Additional Resources for Teaching Fellows

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1.1 Reading and Writing in College

Learning objectives.

Understand the expectations for reading and writing assignments in college courses.
Understand and apply general strategies to complete college-level reading assignments efficiently and effectively.
Recognize specific types of writing assignments frequently included in college courses.
Understand and apply general strategies for managing college-level writing assignments.
Determine specific reading and writing strategies that work best for you individually.

As you begin this chapter, you may be wondering why you need an introduction. After all, you have been writing and reading since elementary school. You completed numerous assessments of your reading and writing skills in high school and as part of your application process for college. You may write on the job, too. Why is a college writing course even necessary?

When you are eager to get started on the coursework in your major that will prepare you for your career, getting excited about an introductory college writing course can be difficult. However, regardless of your field of study, honing your writing skills—and your reading and critical-thinking skills—gives you a more solid academic foundation.

In college, academic expectations change from what you may have experienced in high school. The quantity of work you are expected to do is increased. When instructors expect you to read pages upon pages or study hours and hours for one particular course, managing your work load can be challenging. This chapter includes strategies for studying efficiently and managing your time.

The quality of the work you do also changes. It is not enough to understand course material and summarize it on an exam. You will also be expected to seriously engage with new ideas by reflecting on them, analyzing them, critiquing them, making connections, drawing conclusions, or finding new ways of thinking about a given subject. Educationally, you are moving into deeper waters. A good introductory writing course will help you swim.

Table 1.1 “High School versus College Assignments” summarizes some of the other major differences between high school and college assignments.

Table 1.1 High School versus College Assignments

High School	College
Reading assignments are moderately long. Teachers may set aside some class time for reading and reviewing the material in depth.	Some reading assignments may be very long. You will be expected to come to class with a basic understanding of the material.
Teachers often provide study guides and other aids to help you prepare for exams.	Reviewing for exams is primarily your responsibility.
Your grade is determined by your performance on a wide variety of assessments, including minor and major assignments. Not all assessments are writing based.	Your grade may depend on just a few major assessments. Most assessments are writing based.
Writing assignments include personal writing and creative writing in addition to expository writing.	Outside of creative writing courses, most writing assignments are expository.
The structure and format of writing assignments is generally stable over a four-year period.	Depending on the course, you may be asked to master new forms of writing and follow standards within a particular professional field.
Teachers often go out of their way to identify and try to help students who are performing poorly on exams, missing classes, not turning in assignments, or just struggling with the course. Often teachers will give students many “second chances.”	Although teachers want their students to succeed, they may not always realize when students are struggling. They also expect you to be proactive and take steps to help yourself. “Second chances” are less common.

This chapter covers the types of reading and writing assignments you will encounter as a college student. You will also learn a variety of strategies for mastering these new challenges—and becoming a more confident student and writer.

Throughout this chapter, you will follow a first-year student named Crystal. After several years of working as a saleswoman in a department store, Crystal has decided to pursue a degree in elementary education and become a teacher. She is continuing to work part-time, and occasionally she finds it challenging to balance the demands of work, school, and caring for her four-year-old son. As you read about Crystal, think about how you can use her experience to get the most out of your own college experience.

Review Table 1.1 “High School versus College Assignments” and think about how you have found your college experience to be different from high school so far. Respond to the following questions:

In what ways do you think college will be more rewarding for you as a learner?
What aspects of college do you expect to find most challenging?
What changes do you think you might have to make in your life to ensure your success in college?

Reading Strategies

Your college courses will sharpen both your reading and your writing skills. Most of your writing assignments—from brief response papers to in-depth research projects—will depend on your understanding of course reading assignments or related readings you do on your own. And it is difficult, if not impossible, to write effectively about a text that you have not understood. Even when you do understand the reading, it can be hard to write about it if you do not feel personally engaged with the ideas discussed.

This section discusses strategies you can use to get the most out of your college reading assignments. These strategies fall into three broad categories:

Planning strategies. To help you manage your reading assignments.
Comprehension strategies. To help you understand the material.
Active reading strategies. To take your understanding to a higher and deeper level.

Planning Your Reading

Have you ever stayed up all night cramming just before an exam? Or found yourself skimming a detailed memo from your boss five minutes before a crucial meeting? The first step in handling college reading successfully is planning. This involves both managing your time and setting a clear purpose for your reading.

Managing Your Reading Time

You will learn more detailed strategies for time management in Section 1.2 “Developing Study Skills” , but for now, focus on setting aside enough time for reading and breaking your assignments into manageable chunks. If you are assigned a seventy-page chapter to read for next week’s class, try not to wait until the night before to get started. Give yourself at least a few days and tackle one section at a time.

Your method for breaking up the assignment will depend on the type of reading. If the text is very dense and packed with unfamiliar terms and concepts, you may need to read no more than five or ten pages in one sitting so that you can truly understand and process the information. With more user-friendly texts, you will be able to handle longer sections—twenty to forty pages, for instance. And if you have a highly engaging reading assignment, such as a novel you cannot put down, you may be able to read lengthy passages in one sitting.

As the semester progresses, you will develop a better sense of how much time you need to allow for the reading assignments in different subjects. It also makes sense to preview each assignment well in advance to assess its difficulty level and to determine how much reading time to set aside.

College instructors often set aside reserve readings for a particular course. These consist of articles, book chapters, or other texts that are not part of the primary course textbook. Copies of reserve readings are available through the university library; in print; or, more often, online. When you are assigned a reserve reading, download it ahead of time (and let your instructor know if you have trouble accessing it). Skim through it to get a rough idea of how much time you will need to read the assignment in full.

Setting a Purpose

The other key component of planning is setting a purpose. Knowing what you want to get out of a reading assignment helps you determine how to approach it and how much time to spend on it. It also helps you stay focused during those occasional moments when it is late, you are tired, and relaxing in front of the television sounds far more appealing than curling up with a stack of journal articles.

Sometimes your purpose is simple. You might just need to understand the reading material well enough to discuss it intelligently in class the next day. However, your purpose will often go beyond that. For instance, you might also read to compare two texts, to formulate a personal response to a text, or to gather ideas for future research. Here are some questions to ask to help determine your purpose:

How did my instructor frame the assignment? Often your instructors will tell you what they expect you to get out of the reading:

Read Chapter 2 and come to class prepared to discuss current teaching practices in elementary math.
Read these two articles and compare Smith’s and Jones’s perspectives on the 2010 health care reform bill.
Read Chapter 5 and think about how you could apply these guidelines to running your own business.
How deeply do I need to understand the reading? If you are majoring in computer science and you are assigned to read Chapter 1, “Introduction to Computer Science,” it is safe to assume the chapter presents fundamental concepts that you will be expected to master. However, for some reading assignments, you may be expected to form a general understanding but not necessarily master the content. Again, pay attention to how your instructor presents the assignment.
How does this assignment relate to other course readings or to concepts discussed in class? Your instructor may make some of these connections explicitly, but if not, try to draw connections on your own. (Needless to say, it helps to take detailed notes both when in class and when you read.)
How might I use this text again in the future? If you are assigned to read about a topic that has always interested you, your reading assignment might help you develop ideas for a future research paper. Some reading assignments provide valuable tips or summaries worth bookmarking for future reference. Think about what you can take from the reading that will stay with you.

Improving Your Comprehension

You have blocked out time for your reading assignments and set a purpose for reading. Now comes the challenge: making sure you actually understand all the information you are expected to process. Some of your reading assignments will be fairly straightforward. Others, however, will be longer or more complex, so you will need a plan for how to handle them.

For any expository writing —that is, nonfiction, informational writing—your first comprehension goal is to identify the main points and relate any details to those main points. Because college-level texts can be challenging, you will also need to monitor your reading comprehension. That is, you will need to stop periodically and assess how well you understand what you are reading. Finally, you can improve comprehension by taking time to determine which strategies work best for you and putting those strategies into practice.

Identifying the Main Points

In college, you will read a wide variety of materials, including the following:

Textbooks. These usually include summaries, glossaries, comprehension questions, and other study aids.
Nonfiction trade books. These are less likely to include the study features found in textbooks.
Popular magazine, newspaper, or web articles. These are usually written for a general audience.
Scholarly books and journal articles. These are written for an audience of specialists in a given field.

Regardless of what type of expository text you are assigned to read, your primary comprehension goal is to identify the main point : the most important idea that the writer wants to communicate and often states early on. Finding the main point gives you a framework to organize the details presented in the reading and relate the reading to concepts you learned in class or through other reading assignments. After identifying the main point, you will find the supporting points , the details, facts, and explanations that develop and clarify the main point.

Some texts make that task relatively easy. Textbooks, for instance, include the aforementioned features as well as headings and subheadings intended to make it easier for students to identify core concepts. Graphic features, such as sidebars, diagrams, and charts, help students understand complex information and distinguish between essential and inessential points. When you are assigned to read from a textbook, be sure to use available comprehension aids to help you identify the main points.

Trade books and popular articles may not be written specifically for an educational purpose; nevertheless, they also include features that can help you identify the main ideas. These features include the following:

Trade books. Many trade books include an introduction that presents the writer’s main ideas and purpose for writing. Reading chapter titles (and any subtitles within the chapter) will help you get a broad sense of what is covered. It also helps to read the beginning and ending paragraphs of a chapter closely. These paragraphs often sum up the main ideas presented.
Popular articles. Reading the headings and introductory paragraphs carefully is crucial. In magazine articles, these features (along with the closing paragraphs) present the main concepts. Hard news articles in newspapers present the gist of the news story in the lead paragraph, while subsequent paragraphs present increasingly general details.

At the far end of the reading difficulty scale are scholarly books and journal articles. Because these texts are written for a specialized, highly educated audience, the authors presume their readers are already familiar with the topic. The language and writing style is sophisticated and sometimes dense.

When you read scholarly books and journal articles, try to apply the same strategies discussed earlier. The introduction usually presents the writer’s thesis , the idea or hypothesis the writer is trying to prove. Headings and subheadings can help you understand how the writer has organized support for his or her thesis. Additionally, academic journal articles often include a summary at the beginning, called an abstract, and electronic databases include summaries of articles, too.

For more information about reading different types of texts, see Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” .

Monitoring Your Comprehension

Finding the main idea and paying attention to text features as you read helps you figure out what you should know. Just as important, however, is being able to figure out what you do not know and developing a strategy to deal with it.

Textbooks often include comprehension questions in the margins or at the end of a section or chapter. As you read, stop occasionally to answer these questions on paper or in your head. Use them to identify sections you may need to reread, read more carefully, or ask your instructor about later.

Even when a text does not have built-in comprehension features, you can actively monitor your own comprehension. Try these strategies, adapting them as needed to suit different kinds of texts:

Summarize. At the end of each section, pause to summarize the main points in a few sentences. If you have trouble doing so, revisit that section.
Ask and answer questions. When you begin reading a section, try to identify two to three questions you should be able to answer after you finish it. Write down your questions and use them to test yourself on the reading. If you cannot answer a question, try to determine why. Is the answer buried in that section of reading but just not coming across to you? Or do you expect to find the answer in another part of the reading?
Do not read in a vacuum. Look for opportunities to discuss the reading with your classmates. Many instructors set up online discussion forums or blogs specifically for that purpose. Participating in these discussions can help you determine whether your understanding of the main points is the same as your peers’.

These discussions can also serve as a reality check. If everyone in the class struggled with the reading, it may be exceptionally challenging. If it was a breeze for everyone but you, you may need to see your instructor for help.

As a working mother, Crystal found that the best time to get her reading done was in the evening, after she had put her four-year-old to bed. However, she occasionally had trouble concentrating at the end of a long day. She found that by actively working to summarize the reading and asking and answering questions, she focused better and retained more of what she read. She also found that evenings were a good time to check the class discussion forums that a few of her instructors had created.

Choose any text that that you have been assigned to read for one of your college courses. In your notes, complete the following tasks:

Summarize the main points of the text in two to three sentences.
Write down two to three questions about the text that you can bring up during class discussion.

Students are often reluctant to seek help. They feel like doing so marks them as slow, weak, or demanding. The truth is, every learner occasionally struggles. If you are sincerely trying to keep up with the course reading but feel like you are in over your head, seek out help. Speak up in class, schedule a meeting with your instructor, or visit your university learning center for assistance.

Deal with the problem as early in the semester as you can. Instructors respect students who are proactive about their own learning. Most instructors will work hard to help students who make the effort to help themselves.

Taking It to the Next Level: Active Reading

Now that you have acquainted (or reacquainted) yourself with useful planning and comprehension strategies, college reading assignments may feel more manageable. You know what you need to do to get your reading done and make sure you grasp the main points. However, the most successful students in college are not only competent readers but active, engaged readers.

Using the SQ3R Strategy

One strategy you can use to become a more active, engaged reader is the SQ3R strategy , a step-by-step process to follow before, during, and after reading. You may already use some variation of it. In essence, the process works like this:

Survey the text in advance.
Form questions before you start reading.
Read the text.
Recite and/or record important points during and after reading.
Review and reflect on the text after you read.

Before you read, you survey, or preview, the text. As noted earlier, reading introductory paragraphs and headings can help you begin to figure out the author’s main point and identify what important topics will be covered. However, surveying does not stop there. Look over sidebars, photographs, and any other text or graphic features that catch your eye. Skim a few paragraphs. Preview any boldfaced or italicized vocabulary terms. This will help you form a first impression of the material.

Next, start brainstorming questions about the text. What do you expect to learn from the reading? You may find that some questions come to mind immediately based on your initial survey or based on previous readings and class discussions. If not, try using headings and subheadings in the text to formulate questions. For instance, if one heading in your textbook reads “Medicare and Medicaid,” you might ask yourself these questions:

When was Medicare and Medicaid legislation enacted? Why?
What are the major differences between these two programs?

Although some of your questions may be simple factual questions, try to come up with a few that are more open-ended. Asking in-depth questions will help you stay more engaged as you read.

The next step is simple: read. As you read, notice whether your first impressions of the text were correct. Are the author’s main points and overall approach about the same as what you predicted—or does the text contain a few surprises? Also, look for answers to your earlier questions and begin forming new questions. Continue to revise your impressions and questions as you read.

While you are reading, pause occasionally to recite or record important points. It is best to do this at the end of each section or when there is an obvious shift in the writer’s train of thought. Put the book aside for a moment and recite aloud the main points of the section or any important answers you found there. You might also record ideas by jotting down a few brief notes in addition to, or instead of, reciting aloud. Either way, the physical act of articulating information makes you more likely to remember it.

After you have completed the reading, take some time to review the material more thoroughly. If the textbook includes review questions or your instructor has provided a study guide, use these tools to guide your review. You will want to record information in a more detailed format than you used during reading, such as in an outline or a list.

As you review the material, reflect on what you learned. Did anything surprise you, upset you, or make you think? Did you find yourself strongly agreeing or disagreeing with any points in the text? What topics would you like to explore further? Jot down your reflections in your notes. (Instructors sometimes require students to write brief response papers or maintain a reading journal. Use these assignments to help you reflect on what you read.)

Choose another text that that you have been assigned to read for a class. Use the SQ3R process to complete the reading. (Keep in mind that you may need to spread the reading over more than one session, especially if the text is long.)

Be sure to complete all the steps involved. Then, reflect on how helpful you found this process. On a scale of one to ten, how useful did you find it? How does it compare with other study techniques you have used?

Using Other Active Reading Strategies

The SQ3R process encompasses a number of valuable active reading strategies: previewing a text, making predictions, asking and answering questions, and summarizing. You can use the following additional strategies to further deepen your understanding of what you read.

Connect what you read to what you already know. Look for ways the reading supports, extends, or challenges concepts you have learned elsewhere.
Relate the reading to your own life. What statements, people, or situations relate to your personal experiences?
Visualize. For both fiction and nonfiction texts, try to picture what is described. Visualizing is especially helpful when you are reading a narrative text, such as a novel or a historical account, or when you read expository text that describes a process, such as how to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
Pay attention to graphics as well as text. Photographs, diagrams, flow charts, tables, and other graphics can help make abstract ideas more concrete and understandable.
Understand the text in context. Understanding context means thinking about who wrote the text, when and where it was written, the author’s purpose for writing it, and what assumptions or agendas influenced the author’s ideas. For instance, two writers might both address the subject of health care reform, but if one article is an opinion piece and one is a news story, the context is different.
Plan to talk or write about what you read. Jot down a few questions or comments in your notebook so you can bring them up in class. (This also gives you a source of topic ideas for papers and presentations later in the semester.) Discuss the reading on a class discussion board or blog about it.

As Crystal began her first semester of elementary education courses, she occasionally felt lost in a sea of new terms and theories about teaching and child development. She found that it helped to relate the reading to her personal observations of her son and other kids she knew.

Writing at Work

Many college courses require students to participate in interactive online components, such as a discussion forum, a page on a social networking site, or a class blog. These tools are a great way to reinforce learning. Do not be afraid to be the student who starts the discussion.

Remember that when you interact with other students and teachers online, you need to project a mature, professional image. You may be able to use an informal, conversational tone, but complaining about the work load, using off-color language, or “flaming” other participants is inappropriate.

Active reading can benefit you in ways that go beyond just earning good grades. By practicing these strategies, you will find yourself more interested in your courses and better able to relate your academic work to the rest of your life. Being an interested, engaged student also helps you form lasting connections with your instructors and with other students that can be personally and professionally valuable. In short, it helps you get the most out of your education.

Common Writing Assignments

College writing assignments serve a different purpose than the typical writing assignments you completed in high school. In high school, teachers generally focus on teaching you to write in a variety of modes and formats, including personal writing, expository writing, research papers, creative writing, and writing short answers and essays for exams. Over time, these assignments help you build a foundation of writing skills.

In college, many instructors will expect you to already have that foundation.

Your college composition courses will focus on writing for its own sake, helping you make the transition to college-level writing assignments. However, in most other college courses, writing assignments serve a different purpose. In those courses, you may use writing as one tool among many for learning how to think about a particular academic discipline.

Additionally, certain assignments teach you how to meet the expectations for professional writing in a given field. Depending on the class, you might be asked to write a lab report, a case study, a literary analysis, a business plan, or an account of a personal interview. You will need to learn and follow the standard conventions for those types of written products.

Finally, personal and creative writing assignments are less common in college than in high school. College courses emphasize expository writing, writing that explains or informs. Often expository writing assignments will incorporate outside research, too. Some classes will also require persuasive writing assignments in which you state and support your position on an issue. College instructors will hold you to a higher standard when it comes to supporting your ideas with reasons and evidence.

Table 1.2 “Common Types of College Writing Assignments” lists some of the most common types of college writing assignments. It includes minor, less formal assignments as well as major ones. Which specific assignments you encounter will depend on the courses you take and the learning objectives developed by your instructors.

Table 1.2 Common Types of College Writing Assignments

Assignment Type	Description	Example
	Expresses and explains your response to a reading assignment, a provocative quote, or a specific issue; may be very brief (sometimes a page or less) or more in-depth	For an environmental science course, students watch and write about President Obama’s June 15, 2010, speech about the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.
	Restates the main points of a longer passage objectively and in your own words	For a psychology course, students write a one-page summary of an article about a man suffering from short-term memory loss.
	States and defends your position on an issue (often a controversial issue)	For a medical ethics course, students state and support their position on using stem cell research in medicine.
	Presents a problem, explains its causes, and proposes and explains a solution	For a business administration course, a student presents a plan for implementing an office recycling program without increasing operating costs.
	States a thesis about a particular literary work (or works) and develops the thesis with evidence from the work and, sometimes, from additional sources	For a literature course, a student compares two novels by the twentieth-century African American writer Richard Wright.
	Sums up available research findings on a particular topic	For a course in media studies, a student reviews the past twenty years of research on whether violence in television and movies is correlated with violent behavior.
	Investigates a particular person, group, or event in depth for the purpose of drawing a larger conclusion from the analysis	For an education course, a student writes a case study of a developmentally disabled child whose academic performance improved because of a behavioral-modification program.
	Presents a laboratory experiment, including the hypothesis, methods of data collection, results, and conclusions	For a psychology course, a group of students presents the results of an experiment in which they explored whether sleep deprivation produced memory deficits in lab rats.
	Records a student’s ideas and findings during the course of a long-term research project	For an education course, a student maintains a journal throughout a semester-long research project at a local elementary school.
	Presents a thesis and supports it with original research and/or other researchers’ findings on the topic; can take several different formats depending on the subject area	For examples of typical research projects, see .

Part of managing your education is communicating well with others at your university. For instance, you might need to e-mail your instructor to request an office appointment or explain why you will need to miss a class. You might need to contact administrators with questions about your tuition or financial aid. Later, you might ask instructors to write recommendations on your behalf.

Treat these documents as professional communications. Address the recipient politely; state your question, problem, or request clearly; and use a formal, respectful tone. Doing so helps you make a positive impression and get a quicker response.

Key Takeaways

College-level reading and writing assignments differ from high school assignments not only in quantity but also in quality.
Managing college reading assignments successfully requires you to plan and manage your time, set a purpose for reading, practice effective comprehension strategies, and use active reading strategies to deepen your understanding of the text.
College writing assignments place greater emphasis on learning to think critically about a particular discipline and less emphasis on personal and creative writing.

H 1 . Introduction

This handbook is a brief yet comprehensive reference for you to consult as you write papers and other assignments for a college course. You can refer to it as you draft paragraphs and polish sentences for clarity, conciseness, and point of view. You can read it to learn how to identify and revise common sentence errors and confused words. You can use it to help you edit your writing and fine-tune your use of verbs, pronouns, punctuation, and mechanics. And you can have it open as you integrate and cite quotations as well as other source material in your papers in MLA or APA style.

Designed as a reference tool, the handbook is organized to help you get answers to your questions. You do not need to read the entire handbook to get helpful information from it. For example, if your instructor has noted that you need to work on comma splices, you can refer to Sentence Errors , before you turn in a final draft of your writing. If you know you frequently misuse commas, refer to Punctuation , and check your sentences against the advice there. And if you, like many writers, can’t remember which punctuation marks go inside and outside quotation marks, refer to Quotations . Becoming familiar with the handbook and the various topics will allow you to use it efficiently.

H 2 . Paragraphs and Transitions

Paragraphs help readers make their way through prose writing by presenting it in manageable chunks. Transitions link sentences and paragraphs so that readers can clearly understand how the points you are making relate to one another. (See Editing Focus: Paragraph and Transitions for a related discussion of paragraphs and transitions. See Evaluation: Transitions for a related discussion of transitions in multimodal compositions.)

Effective Paragraphs

Paragraphs are guides for readers. Each new paragraph signals either a new idea, further development of an existing idea, or a new direction. An effective paragraph has a main point supported by evidence, is organized in a sensible way, and is neither too short nor too long. When a paragraph is too short, it often lacks enough evidence and examples to back up your claims. When a paragraph is too long, readers can lose the point you are making.

Developing a Main Point

A paragraph is easier to write and easier to read when it centers on a main point. The main point of the paragraph is usually expressed in a topic sentence . The topic sentence frequently comes at the start of the paragraph, but not always. No matter the position, however, the other sentences in the paragraph support the main point.

Supporting Evidence and Analysis

All the sentences that develop the paragraph should support or expand on the main point given in the topic sentence. Depending on the type of writing you are doing, support may include evidence from sources—such as facts, statistics, and expert opinions—as well as examples from your own experience. Paragraphs also may include an analysis of your evidence written in your own words. The analysis explains the significance of the evidence to the reader and reinforces the main point of the paragraph.

In the following example, the topic sentence is underlined. The supporting evidence discussed through cause-and-effect reasoning comes in the next three sentences. The paragraph concludes with two sentences of analysis in the writer’s own words.

underline Millions of retired Americans rely on Social Security benefits to make ends meet after they turn 65. end underline According to the Social Security Administration, about 46 million retired workers receive benefits, a number that reflects about 90 percent of retired people. Although experts disagree on the exact numbers, somewhere between 12 percent and 40 percent of retirees count on social security for all of their income, making these benefits especially important (Konish). These benefits become more important as people age. According to Eisenberg, people who reach the age of 85 become more financially vulnerable because their health care and long-term care costs increase at the same time their savings have been drawn down. It should therefore come as no surprise that people worry about changes to the program. Social Security keeps millions of retired Americans out of poverty.

Opening Paragraphs

Readers pay attention to the opening of a piece of writing, so make it work for you. After starting with a descriptive title, write an opening paragraph that grabs readers’ attention and alerts them to what’s coming. A strong opening paragraph provides the first clues about your subject and your stance. In academic writing, whether argumentative, interpretative, or informative, the introduction often ends with a clear thesis statement , a declarative sentence that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic the rest of the paper will support.

Depending on the type of writing you’re doing, you can open in a variety of ways.

Open with a conflict or an action. If you’re writing about conflict, a good opening may be to spell out what the conflict is. This way of opening captures attention by creating a kind of suspense: Will the conflict be resolved? How will it be resolved?
Open with a specific detail, statistic, or quotation. Specific information shows that you know a lot about your subject and piques readers’ curiosity. The more dramatic your information, the more it will draw in readers, as long as what you provide is credible.
Open with an anecdote. Readers enjoy stories. Particularly for reflective or personal narrative writing, beginning with a story sets the scene and draws in readers. You may also begin the anecdote with dialogue or reflection.

The following introduction opens with an anecdote and ends with the thesis statement, which is underlined.

Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it: she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months she and millions of others had been forced to stay at home. underline Betty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technology end underline .

Closing Paragraphs

The conclusion is your final chance to make the point of your writing stick in readers’ minds by reinforcing what they have read. Depending on the purpose for your writing and your audience, you can summarize your main points and restate your thesis, draw a logical conclusion, speculate about the issues you have raised, or recommend a course of action, as shown in the following conclusion:

Although many senior citizens purchased and learned new technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of older people like Betty were unable to buy and/or learn the technology they needed to keep them connected to the people and services they needed. As society becomes increasingly dependent on technology, social service agencies, religious institutions, medical providers, senior centers, and other organizations that serve the elderly need to be equipped to help them access and become proficient in the technologies essential to their daily lives.

Transitions

Transitional words and phrases show the connections or relationships between sentences and paragraphs and help your writing flow smoothly from one idea to the next.

A paragraph flows when ideas are organized logically and sentences move smoothly from one to the next. Transitional words and phrases help your writing flow by signaling to readers what’s coming in the next sentence. In the paragraph below, the topic sentence and transitional words and phrases are underlined.

underline Some companies court the public by mentioning environmental problems and pointing out that they do not contribute to these problems. end underline underline For example end underline , the natural gas industry often presents natural gas as a good alternative to coal. underline However end underline , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists, the drilling and extraction of natural gas from wells and transporting it through pipelines leaks methane, a major cause of global warming (“Environmental Impacts”). underline Yet end underline leaks are rarely mentioned by the industry. By taking credit for problems they don’t cause and being silent on the ones they do, companies present a favorable environmental image that often obscures the truth.

Transitional Words and Phrases

Following are some transitional words and phrases and their functions in paragraphs. Use this list when drafting or revising to help guide readers through your writing. (See Editing Focus: Paragraphs and Transitions for another discussion on transitions.)


to compare or show similarity	likewise, similarly, in like manner
to contrast or change direction	but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, at the same time, on the other hand, conversely
to add to	also, and, furthermore, next, then, in addition
to give examples	for example, for instance, to illustrate, specifically, thus
to agree or concede	certainly, of course, to be sure, granted
to summarize or conclude	finally, in conclusion, in short, in other words, thus, in summary
to show time	first, second, third, next, then, soon, meanwhile, later, currently, concurrently, at the same time, eventually, at last, finally
to show a spatial relationship	here, there, in the background, in the foreground, in the distance, to the left, to the right, near, above, below

H 3 . Clear and Effective Sentences

This section will help you write strong sentences that convey your meaning clearly and concisely. See Editing Focus: Sentence Structure for a related discussion and practice on effective sentences.

The most emphatic place in a sentence is the end. To achieve the strongest emphasis, end with the idea you want readers to remember. Place introductory, less important, or contextual information earlier in the sentence. Consider the differences in these two sentences.

Less Emphatic Angel underline needs to start now end underline if he wants to have an impact on his sister’s life. More Emphatic If Angel wants to have an impact on his sister’s life, he underline needs to start now end underline .

Concrete Nouns

General nouns name broad classes or categories of things ( man, dog, city ); concrete nouns refer to particular things ( Michael, collie, Chicago ). Concrete nouns provide a more vivid and lively reading experience because they create stronger images that activate readers’ senses. The examples below show how concrete nouns, combined with specific details, can make writing more engaging.

All General Nouns Approaching the library, I see underline people end underline and underline dogs end underline milling about underline outside end underline , but no subjects to write about. I’m tired from my underline walk end underline and go inside. Revised with Concrete Nouns Approaching underline Brandon Library end underline , I see underline skateboarders end underline and underline bikers end underline weaving through underline students end underline who talk in underline clusters end underline on the underline library steps end underline . A friendly underline collie end underline waits for its owner to return. Subjects to write about? Nothing strikes me as especially interesting. Besides, my heart is still pounding from the walk up the hill. I wipe my sweaty underline forehead end underline and go inside.

Active Voice

Active voice refers to the way a writer uses verbs in a sentence. Verbs have two “voices”: active and passive. In the active voice , the subject of the sentence acts—the subject performs the action of the verb. In the passive voice , the subject receives the action, and the object actually becomes the subject. Although some passive sentences are necessary and clear, a paper full of passive-voice constructions lacks vitality and becomes wordy.

Active-voice verbs make something happen. By using active verbs wherever possible, you will create stronger, clearer, and more concise sentences.

Passive Voice On the post-training survey, the anti-harassment tutorial underline was rated end underline highly informative underline by end underline employees. Revised in Active Voice On the post-training survey, underline employees end underline underline rated end underline the anti-harassment tutorial highly informative.

Conciseness

Concise writing considers the importance of every word. Editing sentences for emphasis, concrete nouns, and active voice will help you write clearly and precisely, as will the following strategies. To be concise, eliminate wasted words and filler— not ideas, information, description, or details that will interest readers or help them follow your thoughts. (For more on conciseness, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)

Use Action Verbs

Using action verbs is one of the most direct ways to cut unneeded words. Whenever you find a phrase like the ones below, consider substituting an action verb.


reach a decision, come to a decision	decide
made a choice	chose
hold a meeting	meet
arrive at a conclusion	conclude
have a discussion	discuss

Cut Unnecessary Words and Phrases

Eliminate words and phrases that do not add meaning. Consider the following sentences, which say essentially the same thing.

Wordy In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible to cut out needless, redundant, and repetitive words and phrases from the papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments. (49 words) Concise Whenever possible, cut needless words and phrases from your college writing. (11 words)

The wordy sentence is full of early-draft language in three chunks. The first chunk comes at the beginning of the sentence. Notice how In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible is reduced to Whenever possible in the concise sentence.

The second chunk of the wordy sentence is needless, redundant, and repetitive. The concise version reduces those four words to needless because the words have the same meaning. The third chunk of the wordy sentence comes at the end. Notice how papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments is reduced to your college writing. The meaning, although expanded to all writing, remains the same.

The following phrases are common fillers that add nothing to meaning. They should be avoided.

a person by the name of
for all intents and purposes
in a manner of speaking
more or less

Some common filler phrases have single-word alternatives, which are preferable.


at all times	always
at the present time	now
at this point in time	now
for the purpose of	for
due to the fact that	because
the reason being	because
in the final analysis	finally
last but not least	finally

Avoid there is/there are and it is

Starting a sentence with there is, there are, or it is can be useful to draw attention to a change in direction. However, starting a sentence with one of these phrases often forces you into a wordy construction. Wordiness means the presence of verbal filler; it does not mean the number of words, the amount of description, or the length of a composition. (For more on these constructions, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)

Wordy underline There is often uncertainty about whether or not employees end underline are required to turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline there are end underline some employees underline who end underline don’t. However, underline it is the expectation of employers end underline that cameras underline be end underline turned on. Concise underline Employees are often uncertain whether they end underline must turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline some don’t end underline . However, underline employers expect end underline cameras to be turned on.

Parallelism

Within a sentence, parallelism —the repetition of a word or grammatical construction— creates symmetry and balance, makes an idea easier to remember, and sounds pleasing to the ear. In the first example below, the parallelism is established by the repetition of the phrase beginning with who . In the second example, the parallelism is created by the underlined nouns.

Unparallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and underline hunters and people who own cattle ranches and are opposed end underline . Parallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and cattle ranchers and hunters, underline who oppose it end underline . Unparallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , and underline when you do push-ups and planks end underline . Parallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , underline push-ups end underline , and underline planks end underline .

Varying the length and structure of sentences makes your writing more interesting to read.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has one idea expressed in a single main clause (also known as an independent clause). A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. A simple sentence can be short or long, as shown in the examples below. The phrases in the long sentence add information, but the sentence remains a simple sentence nonetheless because it has only one clause.

The underline coronavirus end underline double underline spread end double underline around in the world in 2020. School-age underline children end underline and college underline students end underline double underline were pushed end double underline into virtual learning environments in March 2020, with schools closing for unspecified lengths of time.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses that are equally important to the meaning of the sentence. (A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence.) You can create compound sentences in the following ways:

Compound Sentence Using a Coordinating Conjunction

Create a compound sentence by using a coordinating conjunction — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (fanboys)— to join main clauses . To remember the coordinating conjunctions, use the mnemonic device fanboys.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, and underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close. underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, yet underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.

Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon

A semicolon can join two main clauses that are closely related in meaning. When using a semicolon, you must have a complete sentence before and after it.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close.

Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase

A transitional words or phrases such as however, in fact, meanwhile, therefore, consequently, as a result, instead, or furthermore indicates the relation of two or more equally important ideas in the main clauses.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; however , underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains one main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence) and one or more subordinate clauses (also known as dependent clauses). Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinating word or phrase such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, or while. The main clause expresses the main idea of the sentence, and the subordinate clause expresses the less important idea. Like a main clause, a subordinate clause has a subject and verb; however, unlike a main clause, it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause punctuated as a sentence is a type of sentence fragment. The subordinate clauses in the following sentences are underlined.

underline Although the federal government provided financial assistance end underline , the money came too late for many businesses. underline When schools and universities shut down in March of 2020 end underline , students had to learn at home, underline a situation that proved challenging for many households end underline .

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses (clauses that contain subjects and predicates and can stand alone as sentences) and one or more subordinate clauses (clauses that begin with a subordinating word such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, and while ). A compound-complex sentence is an effective structure to use when you want to express three or more ideas in a single sentence. The example sentence has two main clauses (double underline) and three subordinate clauses (single underline).

underline When school districts reopened end underline , double underline parents had to decide end double underline underline whether they wanted their children to attend classes in person end underline , double underline and they had to be ready for classes to move online end double underline underline if there were outbreaks of the coronavirus in their community. end underline

H 4 . Sentence Errors

These four common sentence errors can make your writing hard to read: fragments, comma splices, run-on sentences, and mixed constructions.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a subordinate clause (a clause that begins with a subordinating word such as although, because, since, and so on) punctuated as though it were a sentence by itself. Although most are grammatical errors, sentence fragments can be used judiciously in conventional writing so long as the purpose is clear to readers and the fragment is clearly intended.

Unintentional Sentence Fragments

Often a sentence fragment follows a complete sentence and expands on it, as illustrated in the examples below (fragments are underlined). You can correct most fragment errors by attaching the fragment to the sentence to which it belongs or by rewriting the fragment as a complete sentence.

Sentence Fragment People think that they will be happy if they are well off. underline That money will make everything better. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence People think that they will be happy if they are well off underline and end underline that money will make everything better. Sentence Fragment Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money. Thus underline further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money, underline thus further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Sentence Fragment Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline With rich people reporting that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. end underline Revised by Adding a Verb Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline Rich people reported end underline that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. Sentence Fragment For many people, increased income is being spent on the things that people are unable to pay less for. underline Things like taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing. end underline Revised by Adding a Subject and a Verb For many people, increased income is being spent on things that people are unable to pay less for. underline These include end underline taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing.

Intentional Sentence Fragments

Intentional sentence fragments force quick reading, inviting readers to stitch meaning to together. Intentional fragments are most common in creative writing and advertising.

The rabbit darted out of the shadows. underline A flash of movement. end underline The dog lunged and strained at the leash.

Comma Splices

A comma splice is a common error that occurs when two complete sentences are joined by a comma. You can correct a comma splice by adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), adding a period and creating two sentences, adding a coordinating conjunction and creating a compound sentence, or subordinating one clause and creating a complex sentence.

Comma Splice The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make , they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status. Revised with a Coordinating Conjunction The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make, underline for end underline they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status.

Comma Splice Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy , some are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers. Revised with a Period Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy . S ome are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers.

Comma Splice Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money , the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had. Revised with a Semicolon Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money ; the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had.

Comma Splice Love cannot be paid for , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase Love cannot be paid for ; underline indeed end underline , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children.

Comma Splice Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money , they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness. Revised with a Subordinate Clause Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money underline because end underline they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness.

Run-on Sentences

In a run-on sentence , two or more complete sentences are not separated by any punctuation. Like comma splices, most run-on sentences can be revised in one or more of the following ways: adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), adding a period and creating two sentences, separating the sentences with a semicolon, separating the sentences with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase (such as on the other hand, however, consequently, and so on), or turning the less important sentence into a subordinate clause starting with a subordinating word such as although, because, if, when, since , and so on.

Run-on Sentence The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Revised with a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat , underline but end underline the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Run-on Sentence Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Revised with a Period Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen . Many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Run-on Sentence Parents do not expect any financial reward they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Revised with a Semicolon Parents do not expect any financial reward ; they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Run-on Sentence The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes they have saved less than prior generations. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes ; underline as a result end underline , they have saved less than prior generations. Run-on Sentence College students have the opportunity to choose any major they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate. Revised with a Subordinate Clause underline Although end underline college students have the opportunity to choose any major underline , end underline they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate.

Mixed Sentence Constructions

A mixed sentence contains parts that do not fit together because of grammar or meaning. In the following example, the writer needs to revise either the second part to fit with the first part or the first part to fit with the second. (See Editing Focus: Mixed Sentence Constructions for more on mixed sentence constructions.)

Mixed Sentence underline By starting my general studies classes last semester end underline underline gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall end underline . Second Part Revised By starting my general studies classes last spring, underline I had end underline the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall. First Part Revised underline Starting end underline my general studies classes last spring gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall.

Just because . . . doesn’t mean Constructions. Just because . . . doesn’t mean constructions are common in speech but should be avoided in writing.

Just because underline Just because end underline I want to be a doctor underline doesn’t mean end underline I will get into medical school. Revised Simply wanting to be a doctor doesn’t guarantee admission to medical school. Revised Although I want to be a doctor, I will need to work hard to get into medical school.

H 5 . Words and Language

The English language is rich and always evolving, offering you many ways and words to express yourself in writing and speech.

Language Varieties

English is not one language but many, made up of regional and social dialects. In addition, groups speak using specialized language among themselves that can be difficult for outsiders to understand. As a writer, be aware of the audience for your writing. Use language that your readers will understand directly or from context.

English dialects are distinctive versions of the language used in geographical regions and/or by particular social or ethnic groups. Standard American English, the English spoken by newscasters, is one such dialect, as are African American Vernacular English, Creole, Appalachian English, and others. English dialects have many features in common, but each has particulars of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. (For an in-depth discussion of dialects and academic writing, see Spotlight on … Variations of English .)

Groups of people with similar skills and interests often develop slang that allows them to express ideas quickly and vividly. Slang also signals knowledge about a particular topic, such as meme culture, music, sports, and more. Slang is generally considered too casual for most academic writing, but it may be appropriate for personal essays. In your papers, be aware of your purpose and audience when choosing to use slang. Avoid using slang that your readers are unlikely to understand.

Technical Expressions

Experts in many professional fields use specialized and technical expressions that allow them to communicate efficiently and clearly with each other. Such language is often incomprehensible for nonexperts and should be avoided in writing for general readers. (For tips on writing about a technical topic for an audience of nonspecialists, see Spotlight on … Discipline-Specific and Technical Language .)

Biased Language

Biased words and expressions exclude or demean people on the basis of gender, sex, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, social class, or physical or mental traits.

Biased Language Based on Sex and Gender

English includes words and expressions that are considered biased based on sex and gender, such as mankind, businessman, chairman, fireman, and so on. These are commonly replaced by gender-neutral words such as humanity, businessperson, chair or chairperson, and firefighter. (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

In addition, the English pronoun he has traditionally been used as the gender-neutral pronoun. For example, the construction A underline doctor end underline should have a caring attitude toward underline his end underline patients was once common but is now widely viewed as gender biased because many doctors are not men. For a discussion of the pronoun he used as the gender-neutral pronoun, see Pronouns .

Labels and Stereotypes

Be sensitive to labels and stereotypes that may insult a group of people you are writing about. Avoid labels that don’t put people first, such as cancer victim and wheelchair-bound. Don’t make assumptions about entire groups of people that promote stereotypes, such as teenagers are rebellious, elderly people don’t hear well, conservatives are rich, or women are more emotional than men . (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

Exact Words

As a general rule, use plain, direct words in your writing. Avoid reaching for a word that sounds fancy or impressive, especially if you are unsure about the meaning. If you use a word that is only vaguely familiar to you, look it up in a dictionary to ensure you are using it correctly. (You can type the word and “def” to get a definition.) Doing so has the added benefit of building your vocabulary.

Words Commonly Confused

The words in the following list are commonly confused or misused by writers. As you write, consult this list or use a reliable online tool, such as Merriam-Webster , to check the meanings and usage of words you’re unsure of. Keep a list of words that cause you trouble as you become aware of them. Then, after you draft a document, do a search for the words on your list. (For a discussion of homonyms, homographs, and homophones, see Editing Focus: Words Often Confused .)


accept, except	means “to receive willingly.” is used mostly as a preposition meaning “excluding.” acceptedend underline all the gifts exceptend underline mine.
advice, advise	is a noun meaning “guidance.” is a verb meaning “to recommend.” adviceend underline when she advisesend underline me about my college courses.
affect, effect	The verb a means “to produce a change in.” The noun means “result.” affectedend underline me, but it seemed to have no effectend underline on my roommate.
all ready, already	means “completely prepared.” means “happened by or before now.” allend underline readyend underline for the trip, but the train had alreadyend underline left.
all right, alright	is always two words meaning “acceptable” or “satisfactory.” is an informal spelling.
all together, altogether	means “everyone or everything together.” allend underline togetherend underline for safekeeping. Altogether means “completely” or “entirely.” altogetherend underline incomprehensible.
allusion, illusion	An is an indirect or implied reference. allusionend underline to the Bible. An creates a false impression of reality. illusionend underline, seeing what you believe instead of what is really there.
A lot	A lotend underline is always two words meaning “much” or “many.” Alotend underline is a misspelling.
apart, a part	denotes a separation. apartend underline from each other. A part denotes a segment of something. aend underline partend underline of our family.
bare, bear	As verbs means “to uncover.” means “to endure.” Bearend underline with me while I bareend underline my soul.
complement, compliment	means “to add to” or “to complete.” means “to make an approving remark.” complimentend underline the fresh gray paint that complementsend underline the exterior stone on the house. Complimentary also means “free” or “without cost.” complimentaryend underline tickets to the game.
conscience, conscious	is a noun that refers to the awareness of one’s actions being right or wrong. conscienceend underline. Conscious is an adjective meaning “awake” or “alert.” consciousend underline after hitting her head on the windshield.
disinterested, uninterested	means “impartial.” means “not interested.” disinterestedend underline party to hear both sides of the disagreement. Unfortunately, she was uninterestedend underline in the dispute.
elicit, illicit	is a verb meaning “to bring out.” means “unlawful.” elicitedend underline a response from the mayor about the effort to stop demand for illicitend underline drugs.
emigrate, immigrate	People or leave, one country. They to a new country to live. emigratedend underline from Chile, they immigratedend underline to the United States.
everyday, every day	is an adjective meaning “common,” “ordinary,” or “used daily.” is a noun phrase meaning “every day.” Everydayend underline tasks are ones you do everyend underline dayend underline, like brushing your teeth and washing dishes.
farther, further	refers to distance. fartherend underline. Further means “in addition,” “more,” and “to a greater extent” and refers to abstractions like time or amount. furtherend underline.
fewer, less	refers to items that can be counted. refers to items that cannot be counted: fewerend underline assignments than my roommate, and she has lessend underline time than I do. Cacti need lessend underline water than other plants.
good, well	is an adjective. goodend underline on you. Well is an adverb. wellend underline. Well is used as an adjective only in reference to health. wellend underline after recovering from the flu.
imply, infer	means “to suggest.” impliesend underline you’re upset. Infer means “to conclude.” inferend underline from your email that you’re upset.
its, it’s	is a possessive pronoun. itsend underline tail. It’s is a contraction of “it is” or “it has.” It’send underline my turn. Its followed by an apostrophe is incorrect.
lay, lie	means “to put or set something down.” layend underline the books on the table. Lie means “to be in or move into a horizontal position” or “to be situated.” lieend underline down and rest my eyes. The towns lieend underline near the waterfalls. Note also that is the past tense of layend underline down to rest my eyes.
lead, led	The past tense of the verb is The noun (rhymes with ) is the metal. ledend underline a group of tourists past the old leadend underline mine.
lose, loose	is a verb meaning to “mislay” or “not win.” loseend underline a sock every time I do laundry. These teams never loseend underline their games. Loose means “not tight” or “not secure.” looseend underline shutters may be unsafe in a storm.
myself, herself, himself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves	Do not use the pronouns in place of a personal pronoun in an effort to sound more formal: Iend underline [not ] meend underline [not ]. Use the pronouns in the following situations: herselfend underline. She treats herselfend underline to brunch on Sundays.
peak, peek, pique	means “a highest point” or “to reach a highest point.” peakend underline. Peek means “a secretive look” or “to take a secretive look.” peekedend underline at his birthday gifts. As a verb, means “to spark interest.” piquedend underline her interest in physics. As a noun, also means “irritation.” piqueend underline at her probing questions was obvious.
precede, proceed	means “to go before.” precedesend underline this one is peak/peek/pique means “to go forward.” proceedend underline.
prejudice, prejudiced	is a noun that is sometimes used incorrectly in place of , an adjective. prejudicedend underline [not ].
principal, principle	has several meanings: “a chief or head, particularly of a school,” “a capital sum of money,” or “first or highest in rank, importance, or value.” refers to a “rule of conduct or action.” principalend underline outlined the principlesend underline behind the code of conduct. The small principalend underline in their savings account is not their principalend underline source of income.
raise, rise	means “to lift” or “to grow” and always takes an object. raisedend underline her hand to tell the story of how she raisedend underline three children on her own. Rise means “to get up” and does not take an object. risesend underline in the eastern sky.
set, sit	means “to put” or “to place” and takes an object. setend underline the groceries on the table. Sit means “to be seated” and does not take an object. sitsend underline in the same seat for every class.
than, then	is used to compare. thanend underline you. Then indicates time. thenend underline we’ll get pizza.
that, which	is used to introduce information essential to the meaning of a sentence. thatend underline I bought five years ago no longer charges fully. Which is most often used to introduce information that is nonessential to the meaning of a sentence. whichend underline I bought five years ago, no longer charges fully. (For more on nonessential and essential information, see .)
that, who, which	Use and to refer to things and most animals. thatend underline had escaped was found. Use to refer to people and animals with names. whoend underline treated COVID-19 patients were often called heroes.
their, there, they’re	is a possessive pronoun. indicates place. is a contraction of “they are.” theirend underline missing cat from that tree over thereend underline; they’reend underline happy to have him back.
to, too, two	can be a preposition indicating direction. toend underline the pool. Or it can be part of an infinitive (the form of a verb). toend underline swim. Too means “also” or “excessively.” tooend underline? Two is a number. twoend underline times every week.
unique, unusual	Uniqueend underline means “one of a kind.” Unusualend underline means “uncommon.” Saying that something is more unique than something else is incorrect because something unique cannot be compared. Use instead when comparing.
weather, whether	refers to the state of the atmosphere. refers to alternatives. Whetherend underline we attend the game in person or watch it on TV depends on the weatherend underline.
who’s, whose	is the contraction of “who is” or “who has.” Who’send underline going to the game? Whose is the possessive form of “who.” Whoseend underline backpack is this?
your, you’re	is the possessive form of “you.” is the contraction of “you are.” You’reend underline going to be relieved that I found yourend underline earring behind the desk.

H 6 . Point of View

Point of view refers to the vantage point from which a story, event, report, or other written work is told. The point of view in which you write depends on the genre in which you are writing. For example, you will likely use first person in personal narrative writing. For most academic writing, you’ll use third person. (See Editing Focus: Characterization and Point of View for a related discussion of point of view in narrative writing.)

First Person

In the first-person point of view, the writer or narrator ( I, we ) is present in the writing. First person is commonly used in personal writing genres, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, and profiles, as well as in fiction.

After midnight—my paper started, my exam studied for—I leave the library and head back to my apartment. In the dark, I listen closely when I hear footsteps behind me, and I step to the edge of the sidewalk to let a man pass. At my door, I fumble for my key, open the door, turn on the light, and step inside. I am safe, ready to eat, read a bit, and return to my paper.

Second Person

Second-person point of view is used occasionally when an outsider ( you ) becomes part of a story. It should not be confused with a writer or speaker using “you” when directly addressing an audience ( you ). Nor should it be confused with giving instructions ( drive forward, add one cup of brown sugar, close the door ) or with its similar use in textbooks such as this one. However, second person is not considered appropriate in most academic writing.

Writers often slip into second person when they intend to write in third person. In the example below, the writer starts in third person and shifts by accident to second person. To check your sentences for second person, search your documents for you , and revise as needed.

Shift from Third Person to Second Person The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline people end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline rent end underline , let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help you. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline a single person’s end underline rent, let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help them.

Third Person

The third-person point of view ( he, she, it, they ) is customary for fiction and for academic writing, such as research papers, reports, visual and textual analysis papers, argumentative essays, and the like. Third-person point of view emphasizes the information instead of the writer.

The hikers and other passive trail users argue that mountain bikes should not be allowed on narrow trails traditionally traveled by foot and horse. underline They end underline point out that the bikes’ wide, treaded tires cause erosion, that the bikers’ high speeds startle hikers and horses, and that underline their end underline presence on trails disrupts the tranquility that hikers and bird watchers seek.

H 7 . Verbs

In a sentence, a verb expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In many sentences, making the verb agree with the subject is straightforward: underline I end underline underline run end underline every day. My underline sister end underline underline runs end underline every other day. Sometimes our underline brother end underline underline joins end underline us, and underline all end underline of us underline run end underline together. However, subject-verb agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances. (See Editing Focus: Subject-Verb Agreement for more on subject-verb agreement.)

Agreement with Compound Subjects

Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb in most sentences:

underline Yoga and meditation end underline double underline are end double underline effective activities for relieving stress.

However, when the parts of the subject form a single idea or unit, the verb is singular:

underline Macaroni and cheese end underline double underline is end double underline my favorite meal.

When compound subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the word closest to it:

Either your aunts or your underline mother end underline double underline remembers end double underline where your great-grandmother’s grave is located. Neither the image nor the underline words end underline double underline convey end double underline the message of the advertisement clearly.

Agreement When Words Come between Subject and Verb

The verb must agree with the subject even when words and phrases come between them:

The underline cost end underline of the flights double underline is end double underline prohibitive. A underline box end underline of invitations with stamps and return addresses double underline was end double underline on the desk.

Agreement When the Verb Comes Before the Subject

The verb must agree with the subject, even when it comes before the subject:

double underline Are end double underline underline James and Tamara end underline at the front of the line? There double underline were end double underline three underline people end underline ahead of us in line. Under the table double underline are end double underline a underline newspaper end underline and a underline magazine end underline .

Agreement with Everyone and Other Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is general; it does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Most indefinite pronouns take a singular verb, but not all. Those that take a singular verb include anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something .

underline Everyone end underline in the class double underline has prepared end double underline a research proposal. underline Nobody end underline among the accused suspects double underline admits end double underline to the crime.

The following indefinite pronouns take a plural verb: both, few many, others, and several.

underline Several end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching hurricanes. underline Both end underline of the suspects double underline deny end double underline committing the crime.

Several indefinite pronouns take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the word they refer to is singular or plural. These include all, any, enough, more, most, neither, none, and some.

underline Most end underline of the class double underline has proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to class. ) underline Most end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to students. ) underline Neither end underline the students underline nor end underline the teachers double underline have proposed end double underline a field trip. ( Neither/nor refers to students and teachers .)

Agreement with Collective Nouns

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or a plural verb depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular verb:

The underline band end underline double underline rehearses end double underline every day.

When the group acts individually, use a plural verb, or to avoid confusion, add the word members and use a plural verb.

The underline jury end underline double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict. The underline jury end underline members double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict.

Agreement with Words Such as News and Statistics

Some nouns that end in -s , such as athletics, economics, measles, news, physics, politics, and statistics seem plural but are usually regarded as singular in meaning. In most situations, these words take a singular verb:

Day after day, the underline news end underline double underline was end double underline bad. underline Statistics end underline double underline fulfills end double underline a math requirement for many college majors.

When a word like economics, politics, or statistics refers to a specific situation, use a plural verb:

The underline economics end underline of the situation double underline are end double underline hard to comprehend.

Agreement with Titles and Words Used as Words

Whether singular or plural in form, titles and words used as words take singular verbs:

Directed by Spike Lee, underline Da 5 Bloods end underline double underline centers end double underline around four veterans returning to Vietnam to find the remains of their squad leader and the fortune they hid together. underline Children end underline double underline is end double underline the plural form of child .

Tense expresses the time of a verb’s action—the past, present, or future. Tense comes naturally in speech, but it can be tricky to control in writing. The following guidelines will help you choose the appropriate tense for your writing and use it consistently. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)

Verb Tense in Narrative Writing

Personal experience stories, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, personal essays, or profiles, can be written in either the past or the present tense. Although the most natural way to tell a story about a past experience is to write in the past tense, the present tense can draw readers into the story and give the illusion that the experience is happening as they are reading it. In the following examples, the writer describes driving with her Native American grandfather to a tribal conference. Notice the difference between the past and present tense.

Narrative Writing Using Past Tense I double underline sat end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watched end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathered end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drove end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorized end double underline his every move as he double underline went end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ended end double underline when he double underline blew end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind. Narrative Writing Using Present Tense I double underline sit end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watch end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathers end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drives end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorize end double underline his every move as he double underline goes end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ends end double underline when he double underline blows end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind.

Verb Tense in Academic Writing

Academic disciplines differ in their tense preferences for signal phrases used in formal essays and reports to introduce and discuss evidence. A signal phrase is a verb that tells readers the words or ideas that follow come from another source. Signal phrases include words such as argues, asserts, claims, comments, denies, discusses, implies, proposes, says, shows, states, and suggests. (For more discussion and a more extensive list of signal phrases, see Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations .)

acknowledges	declares	observes
admits	endorses	poses
agrees	explains	posits
argues	finds	proposes
asserts	grants	reports
believes	illustrates	reveals
claims	implies	says
comments	insists	shows
concedes	maintains	states
concludes	notes	suggests
thinks	writes

If you are writing for a course in English, a foreign language, or a related discipline and using MLA documentation style, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline claims end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline has claimed end double underline that . . .

When you are analyzing a work of literature, common practice is to use the literary present tense in discussing both the work of the author and the action that occurs in the work:

Being cool double underline is end double underline key to the lives of the speakers in “We Real Cool,” a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks. Brooks double underline uses end double underline short lines and stanzas in which speakers double underline list end double underline what it means to be cool: dropping out of school, staying out late, playing pool, drinking, carousing, and so on. Being cool double underline unites end double underline the speakers, and they double underline celebrate end double underline their lifestyle, even as they double underline acknowledge end double underline in the final line of the poem that their coolness double underline may cause end double underline them to die young.

(For more on literary present tense, see Editing Focus: Literary Works Live in the Present .)

If you are writing for a course in history, art history, philosophy, religion, or a related discipline in the humanities, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline argues end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline has argued end double underline that . . .

On the other hand, if you are writing for a course in the social sciences, such as psychology, political science, or economics; a course in the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics; or a technical field such as engineering, you will generally use past tense or present perfect tense for most signal phrases.

Past Tense The study double underline found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . . (past tense) Present Perfect Tense: Several recent studies double underline have found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . .

Verb Tense Consistency

Whichever tense you choose, be consistent throughout a piece of writing. You may need to shift tenses to indicate actual changes in time, but the governing tense should remain constant. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)

Inconsistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kiss end double underline his forehead, and double underline will gather end double underline my things. It double underline is end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hug end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turn end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline takes end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me. Consistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kissed end double underline his forehead, and double underline gathered end double underline my things. It double underline was end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hugged end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turned end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline would take end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me.

Irregular Verbs

Most verbs are regular and form the past tense and past participle forms by adding -d or -ed.

I bake/I baked/I have baked
She discovers/she discovered/she has discovered
They shovel/they shoveled/they have shoveled

Some verbs, however, are irregular and form the past tense and participle in another way. Below are a few of the approximately 200 irregular verbs in English. For a comprehensive list of irregular verbs, see this list .

begin/began/begun
bring/brought/brought
buy/bought/bought
do/did/done
drive/drove/driven
fall/fell/fallen
go/went/gone
have/had/had
is/was/been
lead/led/led
hide/hid/hidden
ring/rang/rung
run/ran/run
see/saw/seen
sing/sang/sung
sit/sat/sat
shake/shook/shaken
speak/spoke/spoken
take/took/taken
wear/wore/worn
write/wrote/written

Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood can be said to indicate a speaker’s attitude or intention.

Indicative Mood

Use the indicative mood to state a fact or an opinion or to ask a question:

Thousands of women currently double underline serve end double underline in the military. I double underline think end double underline college tuition double underline is end double underline expensive. The weather double underline was end double underline awful for much of the winter but double underline will improve end double underline soon. double underline Have end double underline you double underline submitted end double underline your request for time off?

Imperative Mood

Use the imperative mood to give instructions and commands. The subject, you , is often implied but not stated:

double underline (You) Use end double underline the online form to request time off. double underline (You) Submit end double underline your request for time off by Friday. double underline You must submit end double underline your request on time.

Subjunctive Mood

Use the subjunctive mood to express wishes, suggestions, or requirements or to state hypothetical or unlikely conditions:

The rules state that every member double underline be end double underline present for the vote. I wish you double underline were end double underline here to see the exhibition. The governing board could be more effective if all members double underline were end double underline active. Students who failed the class would have passed double underline had end double underline they double underline completed end double underline all assignments.

H 8 . Pronouns

A Pronouns is a word used in place of a noun. Some pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, who, and everyone . The noun a pronoun replaces or refers to is its antecedent . (See Editing Focus: Pronouns for a related discussion of pronouns.)

Pronoun Reference

A pronoun should refer to a clear and specific antecedent.

Clear Antecedent All nine underline members end underline of the school board voted in favor of changing the district’s mascot. underline They end underline explained their reasoning during the meeting. ( They refers clearly to members. ) Unclear Antecedent In Smith’s essay, underline she end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s. Revised In underline her end underline essay, underline Smith end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s.

Problems with pronoun reference occur in the following situations:

Vague this, that, which, or it . The pronouns this, that, which, and it should not refer to words expressing an idea, an event, or a situation.

Vague Reference The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline This end underline made some community members angry. ( Are community members angry about the vote or about the lack of special meetings? ) Revised The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline Their decision to avoid public discussion before the vote end underline made some community members angry.

Indefinite it, they, or you . The pronouns it, they, and you should have a definite antecedent in a sentence.

Indefinite it Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline it end underline the most important job in the world. Revised Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline motherhood end underline the most important job in the world. Indefinite they Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline they end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Revised Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline Japanese citizens end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Indefinite you The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline you end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

In many sentences, making a pronoun agree with its antecedent is straightforward: My underline neighbors end underline gave me the keys to underline their end underline apartment. However, pronoun-antecedent agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances.

Agreement with Generic Nouns and Indefinite Pronouns

Generic nouns refer to a type of person or job someone performs, such as athlete, child, scientist, doctor, or hairdresser. Indefinite pronouns include words such as anyone, each, everyone, everything, many, most, and none.

All generic nouns and most indefinite pronouns are singular in meaning. Traditionally, these words took the singular pronouns he/him/his because English does not have a gender-neutral third-person pronoun that refers to people: Everyone has his own opinion or A doctor needs to show that he cares about his patients.

More recently, writers have been replacing he/him/his or his/her with they/them/their when the person’s gender is unknown or unimportant or when the person has indicated a preference for non-gendered pronouns:

Everyone has underline their end underline own opinion. A doctor needs to show that underline they end underline care about underline their end underline patients.

These plural pronouns are increasingly accepted and intentionally used by writers, teachers, and editors. Many prominent publications and style guides indicate that the plural pronoun should replace binary or singular ones in most cases. If using a plural pronoun does not fit the situation (such as in a paragraph where the pronoun they is also used several times to indicate a group), try rewriting the sentence in either of these ways:

Remove the pronoun. Everyone has underline an end underline opinion. Make the antecedent plural. underline People end underline have their own opinions. underline Doctors end underline need to show that they care about their patients.

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or plural pronoun depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular pronoun. When the group members act individually, use a plural pronoun. If using the plural sounds awkward, add the word members so that the plural is clear.

The band went through underline its end underline complete playlist. The band loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus. The band underline members end underline loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns have three cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns change case according to their function in a sentence.

Subjective case pronouns function as subjects: I, we, you, he/she/it, they, who/whoever :

Antonio and underline I end underline share an apartment downtown in a neighborhood underline we end underline like.

Objective case pronouns function as objects: me, us, you, him/her/it, them, whom/whomever :

The manager gave underline us end underline a tour of the building.

Possessive case pronouns show ownership: my/mine, our/ours, your/yours, his/her/hers/its, their/theirs, whose :

underline Our end underline friends live in the building too.

Pronoun case gets tricky in the circumstances explained below.

Case in Compound Structures

Compound subjects use subjective case pronouns. Compound objects use objective case pronouns.

Subjective Case underline Antonio end underline and underline I end underline have occasional disagreements about the dishes. Objective Case Occasional disagreements about the dishes come up between underline Antonio end underline and underline me end underline .

Case After than or as

In a comparison, the case of the pronoun indicates which words have been left out:

Antonio cares more about having a clean kitchen than underline I end underline [do]. Sometimes I think Antonio cares more about a clean kitchen than [he cares about] underline me end underline .

Who or Whom

Use the subjective case who in place of a subject—whether it is the subject of the sentence or the subject of a clause:

underline Who end underline is going to the concert? (subject of sentence) Give the tickets to underline whoever end underline can use them. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline I think is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause; the intervening words “I think” don’t change the subject or verb of the clause)

Use the objective case whom in place of an object, whether it is the object of a verb, preposition, or clause:

I don’t know underline whom end underline to ask. (object of verb) To underline whom end underline should I give the extra concert tickets? (object of preposition) Give the tickets to underline whomever end underline you choose. (object of clause)

We or us with a Noun

Use we with a subject. Use us with an object.

underline We end underline citizens must vote in order to make our voices heard. (subject) Legislators need to hear from underline us end underline citizens. (object)

Case Before or After an Infinitive

Use the objective case before and after an infinitive (the to form of a verb: to run, to walk, to eat ):

The agent asked Antonio and underline me end underline to write a review. We agreed to give underline him end underline a positive review.

Case Before a Gerund

Generally, use the possessive case of a pronoun before a gerund (the -ing form of a verb used as a noun: gentle underline snoring end underline , elegant underline dining end underline ):

He grew tired of underline their end underline partying late into the night. The rental agreement depends on underline your end underline approving the lease terms.

H 9 . Punctuation

This section covers the major marks of punctuation: commas, apostrophes, semicolons, colons, periods, question marks, exclamation points, dashes, and parentheses. (For using brackets and ellipses, see Quotations .)

Commas alert readers to brief pauses within sentences.

Commas with Main Clauses

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) joining main clauses:

Businesses in the metropolitan area are growing underline , and end underline unemployment is down. Many job seekers use online sites like Indeed.com underline , but end underline a few still send traditional cover letters and résumés through the mail. A solution must be determined soon underline , or end underline the problem will continue.

Commas with Introductory Information

Use a comma after an introductory element at the start of a sentence:

underline After class is over , end underline we should get lunch and review our notes. underline Shuffling his feet nervously , end underline he waited for the train. underline However end underline , the circumstances have not changed.

Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information

(See Editing Focus: Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information for a related discussion of commas.)

Nonessential information refers to information that is usually not necessary to the basic meaning of a sentence. Nonessential information is set off by commas. In the following sentence, the word original tells readers which labs no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students. The underlined information adds information but does not change the meaning of the sentence and thus is nonessential to the basic meaning:

The original technical education labs underline , which were installed 50 years ago , end underline no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

Essential information , on the other hand, is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In following example, the word original is no longer part of the sentence; the underlined words convey necessary information about the labs:

The technical education labs underline that were installed 50 years end underline ago no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

You can test whether information is nonessential by removing the information. If the meaning of the sentence is unchanged, the information is nonessential. If the meaning becomes too general or changes, the information is essential. In the sentence above, only the labs installed 50 years ago, as opposed to other labs, no longer meet the needs of teachers and students. Note, also, the use of which with nonessential information and that with essential information.

Commas Around Nonessential Information

Place commas around information that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence:

The entire technology department underline , which consists of nine teachers and five staff members , end underline has contributed to a report on the needed updates to the technical education labs. The technology department chair underline , who teaches welding , end underline wrote the final report. Updates to the labs will begin in June underline , when school is not in session end underline .

No Commas Around Essential Information

Do not place commas around essential information:

According to the technical education teachers, the labs need equipment underline that students are likely to encounter in the workplace end underline . Faculty underline who teach auto mechanics end underline have requested updates to their lab. The teachers are concerned about the labs underline because students are not learning the skills they need end underline . The amount of lab space underline that needs to be updated end underline is substantial. The department has consulted the industry expert underline Stacy James end underline .

Serial (Oxford or Harvard) Commas

For clarity, use a comma between items in a series:

He studied all the notes , emails , memos , and reports related to the data breach.

Be aware, however, that certain style manuals, such as the AP Stylebook, do not use the serial comma, also called the Oxford or Harvard comma.

Commas with Numbers, Dates, Titles with Names, and Addresses

The sign gave the city’s population as 122 , 887. Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison died on August 5 , 2019. Diana Wong , M.D. , is a practicing obstetrician. The mailing address for the Smithsonian Institution is 600 Maryland Avenue SW , Washington , D.C. , 20002.

Common Comma Errors

Misplaced commas can make sentences choppy and obscure the intended meaning.

No Comma after a Subject or a Verb

Anyone who was still at the party underline , end underline left when the band stopped playing. The party ended underline , end underline after the band stopped playing.

No Comma after a Conjunction Connecting Parts of a Compound Subject, Verb, or Object

Some musicians in the band underline , end underline and many of the guests danced until midnight. (compound subject) The band stopped after two hours underline , end underline and took a well-deserved break. (compound verb) Guests enjoyed the music underline , end underline and the dancing. (compound object)

No Comma after a Series

The band played 80s rock underline , end underline punk , and new wave , all night long.

No Comma before an Indirect Quotation

Online reviews say underline , end underline that the band is the best in the area.

Apostrophes

An apostrophe has two functions. It indicates possession, and it forms contractions.

Apostrophes to Show Possession

Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate possession with a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun:

underline Jack ’ s end underline brother is my underline sister ’ s end underline coworker. In their family, underline everyone ’ s end underline favorite dessert is ice cream.

If the ’s in a singular noun is pronounced, add apostrophe -s :

The underline business ’ s end underline inconsistent hours caused customers to go elsewhere. Los underline Angeles ’ s end underline airport, LAX, is one of the busiest in the United States.

If the ’s is not pronounced in a singular noun, some writers choose to add an apostrophe alone; however, MLA, APA, and Chicago use the apostrophe and s in these cases:

David underline Myers ’ end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992. David underline Myers ’s end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992.

When the noun is plural and ends in -s , place the apostrophe after the final -s :

American underline households ’ end underline incomes have grown since the 1970s because more women have entered the workforce. These underline families ’ end underline expenses have risen too.

When the noun is plural and does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s:

Social underline media ’ s end underline effect on contemporary life cannot be underestimated. During the pandemic, parents’ stress grew as they helped with their underline children ’ s end underline schooling.

Apostrophes to Form Contractions

Contractions are common in speech and in informal writing. Use an apostrophe in contractions:

When I say I underline can ’ t end underline , I mean I underline won ’ t end underline . underline It ’ s end underline the best option under the circumstances. “ underline You ’ re end underline the best friend anyone can have,” Mikayla said. underline They ’ re end underline driving to their favorite hangout spot.

Common Apostrophe Errors

Apostrophes are not used to form plural nouns, singular verbs, or personal or relative pronouns.

Not in Plural Nouns

How many hotel underline rooms end underline [not room’s ] should be reserved for the wedding? The Lewises and the Riveras [not Lewis’s and Rivera’s or Lewis’ and Riveras’ ] have confirmed their reservations.

Not with Verbs Ending in -s

Nikki underline runs end underline [not run’s ] every day. Jamal underline walks end underline [not walk’s ] to work.

Not with Possessive Personal Pronouns or Relative Pronouns

The book is underline yours end underline [not your’s ]. The dog was barking and wagging underline its end underline [not it’s ] tail. underline Whose end underline [not who’s ] apartment is this?

Other Punctuation

The semicolon joins main clauses (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence). A semicolon is also used to separate items in a series that contain commas.

Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are closely related in meaning and that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ).

Originally built in 1928, the school had been remodeled multiple times underline ; end underline the result was an architectural mashup.

Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are connected by a transitional word or phrase such as for example, however, therefore, indeed, or after all :

The governor has proposed increased funding to K-12 public schools underline ; however, end underline the legislature must approve the budget.

Use a semicolon between items in a series that contain internal commas:

The candidates for the award are Michael, who won the essay competition ; Sasha, the top debater; and Giselle, who directed several student productions.

A colon introduces lists, summaries, and quotations. A colon also separates titles from subtitles.

A colon can introduce a list:

Successful athletes have the following qualities underline : physical ability, mental toughness, commitment, and optimism end underline .

A colon can also introduce a summary or an explanation, which may or may not be a main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence):

The team had one goal left before the end of the season underline : to win the state championship end underline .

Book titles often include a subtitle. A colon separates the subtitle from the title:

Forcing the Spring : Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality

End Punctuation

A sentence ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.

A period ends declarative (statement) and imperative (command) sentences:

The administration canceled classes . Do not attempt to drive to school this morning .

A question mark ends a direct question and indicates uncertainty in dates:

Where is Times Square ? She asked, “What time is it ? ”

An exclamation point ends an emphatic or emotional sentence:

“What a mess ! ” she blurted out. “Stop ! That hurts ! ” he shouted.

Dashes and Parentheses

Dashes and parentheses enclose nonessential information in a sentence.

Use a dash or dashes to set off nonessential information, to indicate a contrast or a pause, or to mark a change of direction.

We did not notice the rain at first — it began so softly — but soon we were soaked. Nothing is as exciting as seeing a snowy owl in a winter farm field — except maybe seeing two snowy owls.

Use parentheses to enclose nonessential information such as explanations, asides, examples, and dates.

He graduated with high honors ( magna cum laude ) and found a job immediately. The city of Madison ( home of the University of Wisconsin ) is the state capital of Wisconsin.

H 10 . Mechanics

Capital letters.

Use capital letters in the following situations.

Capitalize the first word of a sentence: The weather is rainy today.
Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives: Monday, New Orleans, Mexico, Florida, Halloween, United States Constitution, Department of Education, University of Texas, Native American, Islam, Italian, Freudian.
Capitalize titles that precede a person’s name: Dr. Atul Gawande, Senator Tammy Baldwin. [But: Atul Gawande, a doctor; Tammy Baldwin, a senator]

Many online resources, such as this one , list words that should be capitalized. You can also consult a dictionary, such as Merriam-Webster , to determine whether to capitalize a word.

Titles of Works

Titles of books, articles, stories, plays, poems, films, and other works are handled differently depending on the documentation style you are using. The guidelines here follow MLA style.

Capitalization in Titles and Subtitles

Capitalize the first and last words in a title and subtitle and other important words. Do not capitalize articles ( a, an, the ), coordinating conjunctions ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), or prepositions ( above, with, of, in, through, beyond, under ) unless they are the first or last words in the title or subtitle.

Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality (book)
Judas and the Black Messiah (film)
“American Military Performance in Vietnam: Background and Analysis” (article)

Italics for Titles of Long Works

Use italics for long works that are published, produced, or released separately from other works. These include books, long poems, plays, movies, videos, published speeches, periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), websites, long musical works, works of visual art, computer software, TV or radio programs and series, and pamphlets.

Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food (book)
The New Yorker (periodical)
The Los Angeles Times (newspaper)
American Idiot (album)
Parasite (film)
Saturday Night Live (TV program)

Quotation Marks for Titles of Shorter Works

Put quotation marks around the titles and subtitles of individual shorter works or those that are published or released within larger works. These include articles in periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), pages or works on a website, short stories, short poems, essays, songs, episodes of TV or radio programs and series, book chapters, and unpublished speeches.

“Living with a Visionary” (article in a magazine)
“A World of Fields and Fences” (work on a website)
“New York Day Women” (short story)
“Corson’s Inlet” (short poem)
“Return from ISIS” (TV episode)

H 11 . Quotations

A quotation reproduces the exact written or spoken words of a person or an author, which may include a group. (See Editing Focus: Quotations for a related discussion of direct quotations and Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations for help with integrating quotations from sources.)

Quotations from Written or Spoken Sources

Put quotation marks around quotations from a written or spoken source.

Quoting a Source

When quoting the words of a source, introduce quoted material with a signal phrase so that readers know the source and purpose of the quotation. Place the quotation inside double quotation marks. When using parenthetical citations, note that the sentence period comes after the parentheses. If you include the author’s name in your signal phrase, give only the page number in parentheses (first example). If you do not give the author’s name in your signal phrase, give the name in parentheses (second example):

In Walden , Thoreau sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (5).

Walden sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (Thoreau 5).

Abraham Lincoln wrote “ that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth ” in his Gettysburg Address.

Quoting or Writing Dialogue

When quoting or writing dialogue between speakers, including characters in a fictional work, place their words in double quotation marks, and start a new paragraph for each speaker:

“ It’s good to see you—I guess, ” Brayden said, as Christopher walked up to the door. “ I thought you were gone for good. ” “ I missed you too much, ” Christopher said, looking down at his feet.

Single and Double Quotation Marks

Put single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation, using double quotation marks around the full quotation:

Kennedy writes that after a year of teambuilding work, including improvements in communication, evaluation, and small-group quarterly meetings, morale among staff members “ improved from ‘ average ’ to ‘ excellent ’ ” (17).

Long Quotations

Introduce a long quotation (four typed lines in MLA style; 40 or more words in APA style) with a signal phrase that names the author and ends with a colon. Indent this entire block quotation one-half inch. If you quote more than one paragraph, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph one-half inch. Do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation:

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams recounts vivid stories of child labor:

public domain text The visits we made in the neighborhood constantly discovered women sewing upon sweatshop work, and often they were assisted by incredibly small children. I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery. For even for that there was no legal redress, for the only child labor law in Illinois, with any provision for enforcement, had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines. (199) end public domain text

Poetry Quotations

When you quote one, two, or three lines from a poem, use the following format, putting quotation marks around the line or group of lines and separating the lines with a slash:

The 17th-century writer Aphra Behn (1640–1689) wrote humorous poems about love and heartbreak, including “Love’s Power,” which opens with “ Love when he Shoots abroad his Darts / Regards not where they light ” (1-2).

When you quote more than three lines from a poem, set them off from your text. Indent the quotation one-half inch, and do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation.

In the poem “The Character,” Aphra Behn (1640–1689) uses the familiar alternate rhyme scheme, also known as ABAB: Such Charms of Youth, such Ravishment Through all her Form appear’d, As if in her Creation Nature meant, She shou’d a-lone be ador’d and fear’d. (1-4)

Altering Quotations

When you alter a quotation to fit into your sentence, you must indicate the change you made.

An ellipsis [. . .] indicates that you have omitted words from a quotation. In the example below, the writer omitted words from the middle of the sentence.

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams explains that there were no enforceable laws against small children helping their mothers with sweatshop sewing work, and that “the only child labor law in Illinois . . . had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines” (199).

If you omit the end of a sentence or a complete sentence, include the sentence period:

The author explains as follows: “Damage to the Broca’s area of the brain can affect a person’s ability to comprehend spoken language . . . . A person may understand speech relatively well when the sentence grammar is simple and the content familiar but may struggle when the grammar and content are more complex” (Hollar-Zwick 45).

Use brackets [ ] to indicate a change you have made to a quotation:

Abruzzi cited the study, noting that “ [ t ] he results provide hope to patients [ with muscular dystrophy ] .”

Punctuating Quotations

Place the period inside quotation marks if no source is cited:

The meteorologist said, “ Today’s weather will be sunny and mild .”

If you are citing a source in parentheses, place the quotation marks at the end of the quotation, followed by the citation and the sentence period:

In Twenty Years at Hull-House , Jane Addams recalls vivid images of child labor: “ I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery ” (199) .

(See Long Quotations and Poetry Quotations above for exceptions to this rule.)

Commas go inside quotation marks:

“ Tomorrow’s weather will be cool and rainy ,” the meteorologist said.

Colons and Semicolons

Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:

The sign read “ Closed ”: No more films would be shown at the theater. (Note: Use a capital letter if a complete sentence follows the colon.)

Question Marks and Exclamation Points

Question marks and exclamation points go inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation:

“ Would you like a sandwich ?” asked Adelaide.

Question marks and exclamation points go outside quotation marks if they are not part of the quotation:

“I can’t believe you haven’t read “ The Lottery ”!

H 12 . Index and Guide to Documentation

Although formal differences exist among the conventions for documenting sources, the underlying principle of all documentation systems is the same: When borrowing words, facts, or ideas from someone else, writers must indicate that the material is borrowed. They do this by providing a citation in the text of their paper that points readers to detailed publication information about the source of the material, usually at the end of the paper but sometimes in footnotes. The following examples are in MLA style:

Citation in the Text Describing Martin Luther King, Jr.’s visit to India, underline Isabel Wilkerson end underline notes that King was taken aback by the suggestion that Black Americans were the equivalent of the Dalits in the Indian caste system underline (22) end underline . Works-Cited Entry Wilkerson, Isabel. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. Penguin, 2020.

Documentation Styles by Discipline

Each discipline has its own authority or authorities that provide rules about issues such as spelling of technical terms, preferred punctuation, and editing mechanics, as well as documentation style. In addition, if you write for publication in a magazine, professional journal, book, or website, the publisher will have a “house” style, which may vary in some details from the conventions listed in the authoritative guidelines for the discipline in which you are writing. Below are the sources of style manuals for various disciplines. Always check with your instructor about which style to use in a class.


languages, literature, philosophy, and some arts	Modern Language Association (MLA)
social sciences, education, and some other sciences	American Psychological Association (APA)
history, religion, fine arts, and business	Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)
life sciences	Council of Science Editors (CSE)
chemistry	American Chemical Society (ACS)
physics	American Institute of Physics (AIP)
journalism	Associated Press (AP)
medicine	American Medical Association (AMA)
law	Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation

Index to MLA Documentation Models

The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and works-cited entries (MLA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 13 (H13).

In-Text Citation Models

Two or more works by the same author
Two authors
Three or more authors
Authors with the same last name
Organization, government, corporation, or association as author
Unknown author
Work in more than one volume
Work with no page or other reference numbers
One-page or entire work
Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

Poetry and verse plays

Fiction and prose plays

Two or more works in the same citation
Sacred text

Endnotes and Footnotes (MLA)

Format of the list of works cited (mla), authors and contributors (mla).

Book: one author
Book: two authors
Book: three or more authors
Book: two or more works by the same author
Author and editor
Author and translator
Author and illustrator
Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (MLA)

Basic format for a journal article in a database
Editorial or letter to the editor

Books and Parts of Books (MLA)

Basic entry for a book
Book, anthology, or collection with an editor
Work in an anthology or chapter in an edited collection
Two or more works in an anthology or edited collection
Revised or later edition
Multivolume work
One volume of a multivolume work
Book in a series
Republished work
Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword
Published letter
Conference paper

Websites and Parts of Websites (MLA)

Basic format for a short work or page on a website
Short work or page on a website
Entire website

Social Media (MLA)

Basic format for a social media post
Social media post
Online forum post
Online comment

Personal Communication (MLA)

Text message
Personal letter

Video, Audio, and Other Media Sources (MLA)

Online video

Original work

Reproduction

Personal interview

Video game, software, or app

Other Sources (MLA)

Live lecture, speech, address, or reading
Live performance
Letter in an archive
Dissertation

Index to APA Documentation Models

The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and reference entries (APA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 14 (H14).

In-Text Citation Models (APA)

Work with no page numbers
Entire work
Personal communication

Format of the References List (APA)

Authors (apa).

Three to twenty authors

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (APA)

Basic format for an article in an academic journal

Without DOI or URL

Database or print

Published interview

Books and Parts of Books (APA)

Print book or e-book
Article in an edited book, anthology, or collection
Translated or reprinted book
Revised edition
Report or publication by a government agency or other organization

Web Sources (APA)

Basic format for a page or work on a website
Page or work on a website

Social Media (APA)

Video, audio, and other media sources (apa).

Music recording
Painting or other visual artwork
Map, photograph, or other visual

H 13 . MLA Documentation and Format

MLA style is the preferred form for documenting research sources in English and other humanities disciplines. The following are general features of MLA style:

All material borrowed from sources is cited in the text of a paper by the author’s name and page number (if available).
A works-cited list at the end of a paper provides full publication data for each source cited in the text of the paper.
Additional explanatory information provided by the writer (but not from external sources) goes in either footnotes or endnotes. These notes are optional.

The instruction in this section follows the MLA Handbook , 8th edition (2016). For more information on MLA style, see this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using MLA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 5, 7, 9, 12, and 16.

MLA In-Text Citations

In-text citations feature author names, page numbers, and sometimes titles, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.

1. One author

When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared. Do not include the word page or the abbreviations p. or pp. Use a hyphen [-] to indicate a number range (See Spotlight on … Citation for more on quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing sources):

Becker points out that Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit to a family while he was vice president (285-86). While he was vice president, Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit with a family (Becker 285-86).

2. Two or more works by the same author

If you cite two or more works by the same author in your paper, give the title of the specific work in your sentence or a short version of the title in parentheses:

According to Lewis Thomas in Lives of a Cell , many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (76). According to Lewis Thomas, many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins ( Lives 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, Lives 76).

See Model 18 for how to cite two works by the same author in the works-cited list.

3. Two authors

If you cite a work with two authors, include both authors’ names in a signal phrase or in parentheses:

In the preface to Half the Sky , Kristof and WuDunn explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (xxi). In the preface to Half the Sky , the authors explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (Kristof and WuDunn xxi).

4. Three or more authors

For works with more than two authors, give the last name of the first author followed by “et al.”:

Of the survey respondents, twenty-two percent described themselves as concerned about future job prospects (Pronkowski et al. 9).

5. Authors with the same last name

When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials:

Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene 21; M. Greene 30).

6. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author

When no author is given for a work published by a corporation, a government, an organization, or an association, indicate the group’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses:

The United States Forest Service describes its mission as “sustain[ing] the health, diversity, and productivity of the nation’s forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations” (8).

7. Unknown author

When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase or a shortened version of the title in parentheses and a page number if available. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:

In a pointed 2020 editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin,” The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated. In a pointed 2020 editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (“Don’t Let”).

8. Work in more than one volume

If you cite only one volume of a multivolume work, give the page number in parentheses. If you cite more than one volume of a multivolume work, give the volume number for each citation before the page number, and follow it with a colon and one space:

Hill notes that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Adventure of the Dancing Men was first published in the Strand Magazine and later in Collier’s Weekly (1: 332).

9. Work with no page or other reference numbers

When the work has no page numbers, give the author’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses. If the source has paragraph, chapter, or section numbers, use them with the abbreviations par., ch., or sec. :

Chen reports that the number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020. (ch. 2) The number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020 (Chen, ch. 2).

For an audio or a video recording, give the start and stop times for the segment you are citing shown on the player in hours (if available), minutes, and seconds:

It is well known that maternity leave is available in countries around the world, including Norway, which popularized its policy in a comic YouTube video showing a pregnant woman on skis announcing the start of her one-year paid leave (01:48-02:07).

10. One-page work or entire work

When you cite a work that is one page long or an entire work, such as a book, website, single-page article, tweet, video, or film, you do not need to cite a page or give a reference number:

In Da 5 Bloods, director Spike Lee connects the Civil Rights movement to the war in Vietnam through the music, montages of the era, and characters’ stories.

11. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find it, use the abbreviation “qtd. in”:

The group, which has researched global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (qtd. in Sing 32).

12. Literary works

For poems, provide line numbers for reference, and include line or lines in the first reference:

In “The Character,” Aphra Behn describes a lovely young woman, starting with her eyes: “Her Eyes all sweet, and languishingly move” (line 4).

Cite verse plays using act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods: ( Hamlet 4.4.31-39)

When citing a prose literary work available in various editions, provide additional information after the page number, such as the chapter, act, or scene number, for readers who may be consulting a different edition. Use a semicolon to separate the page number from this additional information: (331; ch. 5) or (78; act 2).

13. Two or more works in the same citation

When you cite more than one work in parentheses, use a semicolon between them:

Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense are often portrayed as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison 57; Mechling and Mechling 109).

14. Sacred text

When you cite passages from the Bible or another sacred text such as the Qur’an, give the title of the edition you are consulting the first time you refer to it. Then give the book (abbreviate the title if it is longer than four letters), chapter, and verse, separated by periods:

Several times in the New Testament of the Bible, Jesus comments on wealth, telling his disciples, “And again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God” ( King James Version, Matt. 19.24).

Endnotes and Footnotes

Writers use notes to offer comments, explanations, or additional information that cannot easily be integrated into the rest of a paper. Use notes to cite several sources within a single context if a series of in-text citations will detract from the readability of the text.

Text with Superscript

The standard ingredients for guacamole include avocados, lemon juice, onion, tomatoes, coriander, salt, and pepper. 1 Hurtado’s poem, however, gives this traditional dish a whole new twist.

1. For variations see Beard 314, Egerton 197, Eckhardt 92, and Kafka 26. Beard’s version, which includes olives and green peppers, is the most unusual.

A note may be placed as a footnote at the bottom of the page on which the in-text citation appears or on a separate page of endnotes at the end of the paper. This should be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes” and appear between the last page of the paper and the works-cited list. Include all sources given in notes in the works-cited list.

MLA Works Cited

Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of works cited, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the works-cited list, and every source in the works-cited list must be cited in the text of your paper.

After the last page of the paper, start a new page with the centered title “Works Cited” at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples:

Begin each entry at the left margin, and indent subsequent lines one-half inch. (In Microsoft Word, you can also highlight the entire page when you are finished and select “Hanging” from the Special options on the Indentation section of the Paragraph menu.)
Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by first name or initial. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.
Double-space the entire page.

Core Elements (MLA)

Each entry in the list of works cited consists of core elements:

Author. Who is responsible for the work?
Title. What is the work called?

Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it? Publication information includes the date of publication and any larger work, which MLA calls a “container,” in which a shorter work is published, such as a journal, magazine, newspaper, database, streaming service, and so on.

A note on access dates. Although access dates for online sources are not required, MLA acknowledges that an access date can indicate the version of a source you consulted. If you add an access date, place it at the end of the works-cited entry in this format: “Accessed 4 Apr. 2020.” Ask your instructors whether they require access dates.

Authors and Contributors for Books and Articles (MLA)

Authors. Give the author’s last name, a comma, the author’s first name and any middle name or middle initial, and then a period. For works with more than one author, an organization as an author, or an unknown author, see the models below.
Contributors. People who contributed to the work in addition to the author are called contributors. Refer to them by their role in a phrase such as “adapted by,” “directed by,” “edited by,” “illustrated by,” “introduction by,” “narrated by,” “performance by,” and “translated by.” (See Models 19, 20, 21, 30, and 58 for examples.)

15. Book: one author

Sotomayor, Sonia. My Beloved World. Vintage Books, 2013.

16. Book: two authors

Kristoff, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

17. Book: three or more authors

Barlow, David H., et al. Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.

18. Book: two or more works by the same author

When you cite two works by the same author, use three hyphens in place of the author’s name, and alphabetize the works by title:

Trethewey, Natasha. Memorial Drive: A Daughter’s Memoir. Ecco, 2020.

---. Native Guard: Poems. Mariner Books, 2007.

19. Book author and editor

Add the editor’s name after the title:

Hemingway, Ernest. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway , edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli, UP of Mississippi, 1986.

20. Book author and translator

Add the translator’s name after the title:

Ferrante, Elena. My Brilliant Friend. Translated by Ann Goldstein, Europa Editions, 2012.

If you are citing the work of the translator, place the translator’s name in the author position:

Goldstein, Ann, translator. My Brilliant Friend. By Elena Ferrante, Europa Editions, 2012.

21. Book author and illustrator

Add the illustrator’s name after the title. If you are citing the work of the illustrator, place the illustrator’s name in the author position, as shown in the preceding example:

Fasler, Joe. Light in the Dark: Writers on Creativity, Inspiration, and the Artistic Process. Illustrated by Doug McLean, Penguin Books, 2017.

22. Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

If the author and publisher are not the same, start with the author:

United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration. Healthy Living Resource Guide. Government Printing Office, 2020.

If the author and the publisher are the same, give the title of the work in place of the author, and list the organization as the publisher:

MLA Handbook. 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

“This Is Who We Are.” U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Mar. 2019, www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/This-is-Who-We-Are.pdf.

23. Unknown author

If no author is given, start with the title.

“The Most Beautiful Battalion in the Army.” Grunt Magazine , 1968, pp. 12-15.

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines. They appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

24. Basic format for a journal article in a database

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, page numbers. Title of Database , DOI or URL.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD . End with a period.
Title of the article. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title. Put the title of the article in quotation marks. End with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
Title of the journal. Put the title of the journal in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
Volume and issue numbers. Use the abbreviations vol. and no. followed by the number and a comma.
Publication date. Give the month or season and the year of publication, if available. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, or July.
Page numbers. Give p . (singular) or pp. (plural) and the page number or numbers of the article, followed by a period.
Title of the database. Put the database title in italics, followed by a comma.
Location. Give a DOI if available, and end with a period. If there is no DOI, give a URL, preferably a permalink, without http://.

25. Article in an academic journal

Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1179/0729247313Z.00000000026.

Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70.

Squires, Scot. “Do Generations Differ When It Comes to Green Values and Products?” Electronic Green Journal, no. 42, 2019, escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q.

The journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number is given.

26. Article in a weekly or biweekly magazine

To cite an article in a weekly or biweekly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication date (day, month, year), and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=aph&AN=148411685&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31.

Ferrer, Ada. “My Brother’s Keeper.” The New Yorker, 22 Feb. 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/01/my-brothers-keeper.

27. Article in a monthly or bimonthly magazine

To cite an article in a monthly or bimonthly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication month and year, and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20.

Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22.

Stewart, Jamila. “A Look Inside the Black Designers of Canada Initiative.” Essence, July 2020, www.essence.com/fashion/black-designers-of-canada-digital-index/.

To cite a comment on an article, see Model 54.

28. Article in a newspaper

To cite an article in a newspaper, give the author, title of the article, title of the newspaper, publication date (day, month, year), and the page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or a URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType =aph&AN=139891108&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4.

Smith, Doug. “They’re Building Affordable Housing for the Homeless—Without Government Help.” Los Angeles Times, 10 Feb. 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-02-10/theyre-building-affordable-housing-for-the-homeless-without-government-help.

29. Editorial or letter to the editor

An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add the designation Editorial or Letter to the Editor after the title.

“For Better Elections, Copy the Neighbors.” Editorial. The Wall Street Journal, 16 Feb. 2021, www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448.

To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, give the name of the reviewer and title of the review, add Review of before the title of work being reviewed, and give the name of the work’s author, director, or creator after the title.

Girish, Devika. “Refocusing the Lens on Race and Gender.” Review of Test Pattern, directed by Shatara Michelle Ford. The New York Times, 18 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html.

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, an article in a collection, a published letter, and so on.

31. Basic entry for a book

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD. End with a period.
Title of the book. Put the book’s title in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title, even if the book’s cover does not use conventional capitalization. End the title with a period.
Publisher. List the publisher’s name without words such as “Inc.” or “Company.” Shorten “University Press” to “UP.” End with a comma.
Year of publication. Provide the publication date, and end with a period.

32. Print book

Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Vintage Books, 2010.

33. E-book formatted for a specific reader device or service

Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Kindle ed., Vintage Books, 2010.

34. Book, anthology, or collection with an editor

Add the abbreviation ed. or eds. (if more than one) after the editor’s first name:

Lunsford, Andrea, ed. Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition. U of Pittsburgh P, 1995.

35. Work in an anthology or chapter in an edited collection

After the author and title of the work, give the title of the anthology or edited collection, name of the editor, publication information, and page numbers of the work:

Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, edited by Andrea Lunsford, U of Pittsburgh P, 1995, pp. 167-84.

36. Two or more works in an anthology or edited collection

When you cite two or more selections from the same anthology or edited collection, list the anthology separately under the editor’s name. In the entries for the selections you cite, include the editor’s name and the page numbers on which the selections appear:

Lipscomb, Drema R. “Sojourner Truth: A Practical Public Discourse.” Lunsford, pp. 227-46.

Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Lunsford, pp. 167-84.

37. Revised or later edition

For a book published in an edition other than the first, give the edition number after the title:

Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style, 4th ed., Pearson, 2019.

38. Multivolume work

For a book published in more than one volume, give the total number of volumes after the title:

Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. 2 vols., W. W. Norton, 2005.

39. One volume of a multivolume work

Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. Vol. 2, W. W. Norton, 2005.

When each volume of a multivolume set has an individual title, list the volume’s full publication information first, followed by series information (number of volumes, dates). When separate volumes were published in different years, give inclusive dates:

Churchill, Winston S. Triumph and Tragedy. Houghton Mifflin, 1953. Vol. 6 of The Second World War. 6 vols. 1948-53.

However, if the volume you are using has its own title, you may cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an independent publication.

40. Book in a series

Add the title of the series at the end of the entry:

Thaiss, Christopher. Language across the Curriculum in the Elementary Grades. WAC Clearinghouse, 2011, wac.colostate.edu/books/landmarks/thaiss/. Landmark Publications in Writing Studies.

41. Republished book

Give the original publication date after the title and the date the book was republished after the publisher:

Evans, Elizabeth E. G. The Abuse of Maternity. 1875. Arno, 1974.

42. Sacred text

Give the complete title of the version you consulted followed by the name of the editor and/or translator, the edition, the publisher, and the publication date:

The Bible. Authorized King James Version . Edited by Robert Carroll and Stephen Prickett, Oxford UP, 2008.

The Koran. Translated by N. J. Dawood, rev. ed., Penguin Books, 2015.

43. Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword

Start with the author of the introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, followed by a description of the work you are citing, such as “Foreword.” Give the author of the work after the title:

Offill, Jenny. Foreword. Mrs. Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf, Penguin Classics, 2021, pp. vii-xiv.

44. Published letter

Roosevelt, Theodore. Letter to Upton Sinclair. 15 Mar. 1906. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches, edited by Louis Auchincloss, 2004, pp. 310-11.

45. Conference paper

Killi, Stainer, and Andrew Morrison. “Could the Food Market Pull 3D Printing Appetites Further?” Industry 4.0—Shaping the Future of the Digital World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing, edited by Paulo Bartolo et al., CRC Press, 2021, pp. 197-203.

Use the following guidelines for works that are published only online and do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, magazine, or database.

46. Basic format for a short work or page on a website

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Short Work.” Title of Website, Publisher, Publication Date, URL.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD. End with a period.
Title of the short work. Put the title in quotation marks. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
Title of the website. Put the title of the website in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
Publisher. If the publisher of the website is different from the title of the website (as shown in Model 48), give it next, followed by a comma. If they are the same (as shown in Model 47), give only the title of the website.
Publication date. Give the day, month, and year the work was posted, if available. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, and July.
URL. Give the URL, without “http://.”

47. Short work or page on a website

Shetterly, Margot Lee. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA , 24 Feb. 2020, www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography.

If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. If the page has no title, give the name of the site and a descriptive label, such as “Home page” or “Blog post.”

48. Blog post

Blazich, Frank A. “The Cold Morning of the Day After.” Smithsonian Voices , Smithsonian Magazine, 5 Feb. 2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/.

49. Entire website

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale U, 2021, beinecke.library.yale.edu/.

If the website lists an editor, give the person’s name as you would an author, followed by a comma and ed.

“Coronavirus.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus.

Social media include posts made to various platforms and forums, comments made by individuals to posts, and online articles.

51. Basic format for a social media post

Author. “Text of untitled post” or “Title of post” or Descriptive label. Title of Site , Date of Post, Time of Post, URL.

Author. Give the author’s handle and name. End with a period.
Text, title, or description of post. Match the capitalization exactly, add quotation marks, and end with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
Title of the social media site. Put the title of the site in italics, ending with a comma.
Publication date and time. Give the day, month, year, and time of the post. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, and July.

52. Social media post

@Holleratcha (James Holler). “People go out and vote tomorrow!” Twitter, 2 Nov. 2020, 2:08 p.m., twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384.

Death Valley National Park. “What does it mean to protect something you love?” Facebook, 23 Feb. 2021, 5:01 p.m., www.facebook.com/DeathValleyNPS/posts/4108808255810092.

See Model 54 for how to cite a comment.

53. Online forum post

@Duckpond318. “Turkeys in the arboretum.” Reddit, 15 Mar. 2021, 11:22 a.m., www.reddit.com/r/Wildlife/comments/lqlbo3/turkeys_in_the_arboretum/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2021.

54. Online comment

AKJersey. Comment on “Can We Stop Fighting about Charter Schools?” The New York Times, 22 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/22/opinion/charter-schools-democrats.html#commentsContainer.

Use the following guidelines to cite email, text messages, and letters that you sent or received.

Roberts, Jeffrey. “Study results.” Received by Kenneth Berg, 21 Oct. 2020.

56. Text message

Igoe, Beverlee. Text message. Received by Alison McGrath, 2 Apr. 2020.

57. Personal letter

Atwood, Margaret. Letter to the author. 11 Mar. 2007.

Use the following guidelines to cite various media sources.

Begin with the title, followed by the director, the studio, and the year released.

Casablanca. Directed by Michael Curtiz, Warner Brothers, 1942.

You may also cite other contributors and their roles after the title (as illustrated below). If your paper is concerned with a particular person’s work on a film, such as the director, an actor, or someone else, begin with that person’s name and arrange all other information accordingly. For a film you stream, add the title of the streaming service and the URL:

Moonlight. Directed by Barry Jenkins, performances by Mahershala Ali, Naomie Harris, and Trevante Rhodes. A24, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80121348?trackId=13752289&tctx=8%2C.

59. Online video

NASA. “Apollo 11 Moonwalk – Original NASA EVA Mission Video.” 20 July 1969. YouTube, 17 July 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9HdPi9Ikhk.

60. Television series or episode

The Good Place. Michael Schur, creator. NBC, 2016-20.

Streamed TV episode

“Jason Mendoza.” The Good Place, season 1, episode 4, NBC, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80191852?trackId=13752289&tctx=%2C%2C.

61. Advertisement

XOFLUZA. Flu medication advertisement. The New Yorker, 8. Feb. 2021, pp. 5-6.

General Motors. “Will Ferrell Super Bowl Ad.” YouTube, 3 Feb. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdsPvbSpB2Y&t=24s.

62. Cartoon or comic

Davis, Jim. “Garfield.” Cartoon. Courier [Findlay, OH], 17 May 1996, p. 18.

If the source you cite appears in a local newspaper, as it does here, give the city and state in brackets after the name of the newspaper if the city is not part of the newspaper’s name.

Gauld, Tom. “Waiting for Godot to Join the Zoom Meeting.” You’re All Just Jealous of My Jetpack, 31 Jan. 2021, myjetpack.tumblr.com/.

63. Painting or other visual artwork

Rivera, Diego. Detroit Industry Murals. 1932-33. Detroit Institute of Art.

If the city is not part of the name of the museum, add it after museum. For example, if the work you viewed was at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, you would end the entry as follows: Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Neel, Alice. Elenka. 1936. Alice Neel: People Come First, by Kelly Baum and Randall Griffey, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, p. 142.

Basquiat, Jean-Michel. Untitled. 1983. Museum of Modern Art, www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist. Accessed 24 Sept. 2020.

64. Map, chart, or diagram

Everglades National Park. National Geographic Society Maps, 2019.

“Map: Expedition of Lewis and Clark.” National Park Service, 2 Jan. 2018, nps.gov/subjects/travellewisandclark/map.htm.

65. Sound recording

Sound recordings include songs, albums, and spoken word. If you stream a sound recording or watch a performance online, add the name of the streaming service, such as Spotify, Apple Music, or Amazon Music, after the date. If you access the recording online, add the name of the website and the URL after the date.

Prince. Purple Rain. Warner Brothers, 1984.

The Supremes. “Baby Love.” Where Did Our Love Go, Motown, 1964. Spotify.

Gorman, Amanda. “The Hill We Climb.” 20 Jan. 2021, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ055ilIiN4.

The Road to Higher Ground. Hosted by Jonathan Overby. WPR, 9 Jan. 2021.

If you listened to the radio program online, add the URL after the date.

67. Podcast

McEvers, Kelly, host. “This Is Not a Joke.” Embedded, season 9, episode 2, NPR, 7 Nov. 2019, Apple Podcasts.

If you listened to the podcast on the web, add the URL instead of the podcast service.

68. Interview

Wilkerson, Isabel. Interview. Fresh Air, NPR, 4 Aug. 2020.

Sowell, Thomas. Interview. Hoover Institution , 3 Jan. 2015, www.wsj.com/video/uncommon-knowledge-thomas-sowell-basic-economics/51837CB6-9FF2-305AE55D179A.html.

Wong, Diana. Personal interview. 12 Sept. 2020.

69. Video game, software, or app

Houser, Dan, et al., writers. Grand Theft Auto V. Rockstar Games, 2013. Xbox 360.

70. Live lecture, speech, address, or reading

Diaz, Shanna. “Your Dazzling Brain: The Symphony of Sleep.” Community Lecture Series, University of New Mexico Health Science and the City of Albuquerque, 13 Mar. 2018, Albuquerque Academy.

71. Live performance

Hamilton. By Lin-Manuel Miranda, directed by Thomas Kail, 11 Mar. 2018, CIBC Theater, Chicago.

If you watch a video of a performance online, cite it as you would cite an online video.

72. Letter in an archive

Mucklestone, Ada. Letter to Maj. Gen. Ralph J. Olson. 6 Nov. 1958. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, Alphabetical Subject File, 1950-66, 1715, Box 13.

73. Dissertation

Park, Eun Jung. Korean American Artists and the 1992 Los Angeles Riots. 2013. U of California, San Diego, PhD dissertation. ProQuest, www.proquest.com/doc-view/1425303659.

Boothby, Daniel W. The Determinants of Earnings and Occupation for Young Women. 1978. U of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation.

74. Pamphlet

“Facts about Fallout.” Civil Defense Administration, 1961.

MLA Paper Format

Follow your instructor’s formatting guidelines or those indicated here. For sample papers with MLA format and works-cited pages, visit this site .

Margins. Use one-inch margins on all sides.
Spacing. Double-space throughout the paper, including the works-cited page.
Paragraph format. Indent paragraphs one-half inch.
Page numbers. Start numbering on the first page of your paper and continue to the end of the works-cited page. Place page numbers in the upper-right corner, and add your last name before the page number: “Coleman 3.”
Identifying information. Put your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date in the left corner of the first page of the body of the paper, not in the header. Double-space this information.
Title. Center the title on the first page. Do not use italics, boldface, all capitals, or quotation marks. Do not add extra space below the title.
Long quotations and quotations from poetry. See Quotations for how to cite long quotations and poetry quotations.

H 14 . APA Documentation and Format

Disciplines in the social sciences—psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, social work, and often education—use the APA name-and-date system of documentation. APA style highlights authors and dates of publication because timeliness of published material is of primary importance in these disciplines. The following are general features of APA style:

All material borrowed from sources is cited in the text of a paper by the author’s name, date of publication, and page numbers (if available).
A list of references at the end of a paper provides full publication data for each source cited in the text of the paper.

The instruction in this section follows the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition (2020). For more information on APA style, visit this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using APA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 6, 8, and 15.

In-text citations feature author names, dates of publication, and page numbers, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.

75. One author

When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Give the publication date after the author’s name. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared preceded by p. or pp. See Spotlight on … Citation .

According to Thomas (1974), many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (p. 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, 1974, p. 76).

If you cite two or more works by the same author, published in the same year, use letters after the year to distinguish them: (Gallivan, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c).

76. Two authors

Smith and Hawkins (1990) confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (p. 17). The study confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (Smith & Hawkins, 1990, p. 17).

77. Three or more authors

The results indicate that alcohol use rose during the period of the study (Dominic et al., 2021, p. 16).

78. Authors with the same last name

When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials: Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene, 2019, p. 21; M. Greene, 2020, p. 30).

When authors of the same source have the same name, do not include their initials: (Kim & Kim, 2018, p. 47).

79. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author

When citing a well-known organization, government agency, corporation, or association, introduce an abbreviation of the name in the first reference and use it in subsequent references:

On multiple occasions, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA, 2018) reported that formal efforts to reintegrate combat veterans into civilian life were beneficial.

80. Unknown author

When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase, or put the title in parentheses. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:

In a pointed editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (”Don’t Let the Games Begin,” 2020). In its pointed editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin” (2020), The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated.

81. Two or more works in the same citation

When you cite more than one work in parentheses, put the works in the same order that they appear in your list of references, and use a semicolon between them:

Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense were later cast as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison, 2006; Mechling & Mechling, 1991).

82. Work with no page numbers

If the work you are citing has no page numbers, help readers find the quotation by providing a heading, a section name, and/or a paragraph number (using the abbreviation para. or paras. ):

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2019), research on PTSD includes gene research and brain imaging technologies (Next Steps for PTSD Research section, para. 6).

For audio or visual works, give the time stamp of the beginning of the source: (Wong, 2020, 34:16).

83. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find the original, use the words “as cited in”:

The research collective, which has studied global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (as cited in Sing, 2018, p. 32).

84. Entire work

When you cite an entire work, you do not need to give a page number. See Models 79 and 80. When you mention an entire website, link to the website directly or give the URL. You do not need to include the website in the references list:

The Department of Veterans Affairs maintains a website for PTSD, which contains resources and help for families and healthcare providers as well as veterans (https://www.ptsd.va.gov/).

85. Personal communication

Because personal communications such as emails, letters, personal interviews, and the like cannot be found by other researchers, cite them in the text only:

During our interview, Morales explained that she had quit her job to help her children with their schooling (personal communication, January 4, 2021).

APA References

Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of references, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the references list, and every source in the references list must be cited in the text of your paper.

After the last page of your paper, start a new page with the centered, boldfaced title References at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples.

Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by the initials of their first and middle names. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.

Core Elements (APA)

Each entry in the list of references consists of core elements:

Date of publication. When was the work published?
Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it?

Sometimes core elements are unknown or missing. In such cases, the entry in the reference list entry must be adapted:

No author? If the source has no known author, cite it by the title. See Models 90 and 98.
No date of publication? If the source has no publication date, write n.d . instead of the publication date. See Model 110.
No title? If the work has no title, put a brief description in square brackets.
No publication information? If the source is a personal communication that only you have a record of, cite the source in your text, not in the references, because it cannot be retrieved by other readers. See “Personal communication” above.

A note on retrieval dates: APA recommends adding a retrieval date for sources that are not archived or are likely to change over time, such as a developing news story. If you add a retrieval date, place it at the end of the references entry in this format: “Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com.” Ask your instructors if they require retrieval dates.

Give the author’s last name, comma, and first and middle initials if available. For works with more than one author, put a comma and an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name, even when there are two authors.

86. One author

Milanovic, B. (2016). Global inequality: A new approach for the age of globalization. Harvard UP.

87. Two authors

Kristoff, N. D., & WuDunn, S. (2009). Half the sky: Turning oppression into opportunity for women worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf.

88. Three to twenty authors

Provide last names and initials for up to and including 20 authors.

Barlow, D. H., Durand, V. M., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017). Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach. Cengage Learning.

For more than 20 authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, insert an ellipsis, and then add the final author’s name.

89. Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

Works published by organizations often have the same author and publisher, which is frequently the title of a website. When the author and publisher are not the same, give the author and the title of the website:

National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml.

When the author and the publisher or title of the website are the same, omit the latter:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, February 17). Variants of the virus. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/index.html.

90. Unknown author

If no author is given, start with the title:

The most beautiful battalion in the army. (1968). Grunt magazine, 12-15.

91. Two or more works by the same author

List two or more works by the same author (or the same author team listed in the same order) chronologically by year in the reference list, with the earliest first. Arrange works published in the same year alphabetically by title, placing lowercase letters after the publication dates:

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines, and they appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

92. Basic format for an article in an academic journal

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume (number), Pages. DOI or URL.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD. End with a period.
Date of Publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication, a comma, and the month or season of publication. End with a period outside the closing parentheses.
Title of the article. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. For articles and book chapters, do not use quotation marks or italicize the title. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
Title of the journal. Put the journal title in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
Volume and issue numbers. Italicize the volume number, and follow it with the issue number in parentheses (not italicized). End with a comma.
Page numbers. Give inclusive page numbers without p. or pp . End with a period.
DOI or URL. Provide a DOI (if available) or a URL. Include “http://,” and do not add a period at the end. The preferred format for a DOI is “https://doi.org/” followed by the number. You may encounter older formats for DOI; if so, change them to this format. If the article is online and does not have a DOI, give the URL instead.

93. Article in an academic journal

Gawande, A. A. (2017, April). It’s time to adopt electronic prescriptions for opioids. Annals of Surgery, 265 (4), 693-94. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002133

Squires, S. (2019). Do generations differ when it comes to green values and products? Electronic Green Journal, 42 . http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q

The online journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number or page numbers are given.

Lowther, M. A. (1977, Winter). Career change in mid-life: Its impact on education. Innovator, 8 (7), 9-11.

An older journal article you consult in print may not have a DOI. In that case, end with the page numbers.

94. Article in a magazine

For a magazine article you read on a database or online, give the DOI if the article has one; otherwise give the URL. For a magazine article you consulted in print, end the entry after the page number unless a DOI is provided.

Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20

Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20.

Myszkowski, S. (2018, October 10). On the trail of missing American Indian women. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/10/trail-missing-american-indian-women/571657/

95. Article in a newspaper

For a newspaper article that you read on a database or in print, end the entry after the page numbers. For a newspaper article that you read online, give the URL instead of page numbers.

Krueger, A. (2019, November 27). When mom knows best, on Instagram. The New York Times, B1-B4.

Healy, J. (2021, January 12). Tribal elders are dying from the pandemic, causing a cultural crisis for American Indians. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/12/us/tribal-elders-native-americans-coronavirus.html

96. Blog post

Blazich, F. A. (2021, February 5). The cold morning of the day after. Smithsonian Voices. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/

97. Published interview

Beard, A. (2013, May). Life’s work: An interview with Maya Angelou. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/05/maya-angelou

98. Editorial or letter to the editor

An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add Editorial or Letter to the Editor in square brackets after the title.

For better elections, copy the neighbors [Editorial]. (2021, February 16). The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448

To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, begin with the reviewer’s last name, followed by the first and middle (if any) initials. In parentheses, add the year, followed by the title, month, and day of the review. Then in square brackets, add Review of the and the type of work being reviewed, followed by the title and the name of the author, director, or creator and their role. Then give the publication in which the review appeared, ending with a period, and the URL:

Girish, D. (2021, February 18). Refocusing the lens on race and gender [Review of the film Test Pattern, by S. M. Ford, Dir.]. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, a chapter in a collection, a published conference paper, and so on.

100. Basic entry for a book

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD . End with a period.
Year of publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication, ending with a period outside the closing parentheses.
Title of the book. Put the book’s title in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
Publisher. Give the publisher’s name as shown on the work, omitting words such as Inc. or Company.

101. Print book or e-book

Aronson, L. (2019). Elderhood: Redefining aging, transforming medicine, reimagining life. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Use the same format for an e-book when the content is the same. If you consult a book that has a DOI, provide it after the publisher, using the format “https://doi.org/” followed by the number. (If you encounter older formats for DOI, change them to this format.) If you read a book online, give the URL.

102. Book, anthology, or collection with an editor

Schaefer, C. E., & Reid, S. E. (Eds.). (2001). Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed.) . Wiley.

103. Article or chapter in an edited book, an anthology, or a collection

Burks, H. F. (2001). Using the imagine game as a projective technique. In C. E. Schaefer & S. E. Reid (Eds.), Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed., pp. 39-66). Wiley.

104. Translated or reprinted book

Freud, S. (1950). The interpretation of dreams (A. A. Brill, Trans.). Modern Library. (Original work published 1900)

105. Revised edition

Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2019). The elements of style (4th ed.). Pearson.

106. One volume of a multivolume work

Waldrep, T. (Ed.). (1988). Writers on writing (Vol. 2). Random House.

107. Report or publication by a government agency or other organization

National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, National Institutes of Health.

If you consulted the publication online, include the URL after the publisher. See Model 89.

108. Conference paper

Killi, S., & Morrison, A. (2021). Could the food market pull 3D printing appetites further? In J.D. da Silva Bartolo, F. M. da Silva, S. Jaradat, & H. Bartolo (Eds.), Industry 4.0—shaping the future of the digital world: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing (pp. 197-203). CRC Press.

Use the following guidelines for works published only online that do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, or magazine.

109. Basic format for a page or work on a website

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Publication Date). Title of work. Title of website. URL.

Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD . End with a period.
Date of publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication and a comma, followed by the month and the day. End with a period outside the closing parentheses.
Title of the work. Put the title of the work in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
Title of the website. Give the title of the website and end with a period. If the author and the website title are the same, you can omit the title of the site.
URL. Copy and paste the URL from your browser window.

110. Page or work on a website

Shetterly, M. L. (2020, February 24). Katherine Johnson biography. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.). What is PTSD? National Center for PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/what/index.asp

If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. See Model 90.

Coronavirus. (2021, February 22). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus

When you cite a social media post as a source, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of post and whether images were attached to it.

112. Social media post

Holler, J. [@holleratcha]. (2020, November 2). Everyone get out and vote tomorrow! [Tweet]. Twitter. http://twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384

Death Valley National Park. (2021, February 23). What does it mean to protect something you love? [Images attached] [Status update]. Facebook. www.facebook.com/DeathValleyNPS/posts/4108808255810092.

113. Online forum post

National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA]. (2020, November 14). We’re engineers, astronaut trainers, and other specialists working to launch humans on commercial spacecraft from U.S. soil! Ask us anything about the NASA SpaceX Crew-1 mission! [Online forum post]. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/jsx91g/were_engineers_astronaut_trainers_and_other/

When you cite nonprint sources, such as visual and multimedia sources, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of source, such as a film, a TV episode, a song, a painting, a photograph, and so on.

When you cite a film that you saw in a theater or streamed, you do not need to specify how you watched it.

Jenkins, B. (Director). (2016). Moonlight [Film]. A24.

115. Online video

For an online video, give the name of the person or organization that uploaded it as the author:

TED. (2017, February 27). Sue Klebold: My son was a Columbine shooter. This is my story [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXlnrFpCu0c

116. Television program

Schur, M., Miner, D., Sackett, M., & Goddard, D. (Executive Producers). (2016-20). The good place [TV series]. Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Television; NBC.

Mande, J. (Writer), & Benz, P. (Director). (2016, September 29). Jason Mendoza (Season 1, Episode 4) [TV series episode]. In M Schur, D. Miner, M. Sackett, & D. Goddard (Executive Producers), The good place. Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Television; NBC.

117. Music recording

For an artist whose music is available only through a website, include the URL. If the artist’s music is available on multiple platforms, you do not need to specify how you accessed it.

Prince. (1984). Purple rain [Album]. Warner Brothers.

The Supremes. (1964). Baby love [Song]. On Where did our love go. Motown.

Overby, J. (Host). (2021, January 9). The road to higher ground: World music with African roots and more. WPR.

119. Podcast

McEvers, K. (Host). (2019, November 7). This is not a joke (Season 9, Episode 9) [Audio podcast episode]. In Embedded. NPR.

120. Painting or other visual artwork

For a work of visual art, give the location of the museum or gallery. If you saw the work online, add the URL after the location:

Rivera, D. (1932-33). Detroit industry murals [Painting]. Detroit Institute of Art, Detroit, MI, United States.

Basquiat, J-M. (1983). Untitled [Painting]. Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist

121. Map, photograph, infographic, or other visual

If the work you consulted names an author, start with the author. If there is no author, start with the title and a description of the work in square brackets, such as [Map], [Photograph], [Infographic], [Diagram], or another appropriate descriptor:

Expedition of Lewis and Clark [Map]. (2018). National Park Service. http://nps.gov/subjects/travellewisandclark/map.htm

122. Video game, software, or app

Benzies, L., & Sarwar, I. (2017). Grand theft auto V [Video game]. Rockstar Games. https://www.rockstargames.com/games/V

APA Paper Format

Follow your instructor’s formatting guidelines or those indicated here. For sample papers showing APA paper format, see this site .

Title page. Give the title of the paper in bold, centered. Then, on separate lines and not boldfaced, give your name, academic department, name of your college or university, course number and name, instructor’s name, and the due date, all centered. Repeat only the title on the first page of the text of your paper.
Spacing. Double-space throughout the paper, including the references page.
Headings. Give headings for the major sections of your paper, such as Method, Results or Findings, and Discussion . Put the headings in bold and center them on the page. Put the next level of headings in bold and place them flush left.
Page numbers. Start numbering on the title page of your paper and continue to the end of the references page. Place page numbers in the upper-right corner.
Long quotations. See Quotations for how to cite long quotations.

H 15 . Further Reading

MLA Handbook , 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

MLA Handbook, 9 th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2020.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed., American Psychological Association, 2020.

H 16 . Works Cited

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull-House. Digital Public Library of America , 1910, dp.la/primary-source-sets/theodore-dreiser-s-sister-carrie-and-the-urbanization-of-chicago/.

Becker, Jo. Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality. Penguin Press, 2014.

Behn, Aphra. “The Character.” The Works of Aphra Behn. Edited by Montague Summers, vol. 6, Project Gutenberg , 2014, www.gutenberg.org/files/45777/45777-h/45777-h.htm#Page_113.

Behn, Aphra. “Love’s Power.” The Works of Aphra Behn. Edited by Montague Summers, vol. 6, Project Gutenberg, 2014, www.gutenberg.org/files/45777/45777-h/45777-h.htm#Page_113.

Brooks, Gwendolyn. “We Real Cool.” Blacks , Third World Press, 1994.

Da 5 Bloods. Directed by Spike Lee. Netflix, 2020.

Eisenberg, Richard. “How to Fix Social Security for Vulnerable Americans.” Forbes , 5 July 2018, www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2018/07/05/how-to-fix-social-security-for-vulnerable-americans/.

“Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas.” Union of Concerned Scientists, 19 June 2014, www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-natural-gas.

Garrison, Dee. Bracing for Armageddon: Why Civil Defense Never Worked. Oxford UP, 2006.

Hollar-Zwick, Carol. Me, Hemorrhage: Recovery from a Ruptured Arteriovenous Malformation. Amazon, 2020.

The King James Bible. Project Gutenberg, 1989, www.gutenberg.org/files/10/10-h/10-h.htm#The_Gospel_According_to_Saint_Matthew.

Konish, Lorie. “Some Retirees Get by on Just Social Security. Experts Disagree on How Many.” CNBC, 10 Feb. 2020, www.cnbc.com/2020/02/10/some-retirees-live-on-social-security-experts-disagree-on-how-many.html.

Mechling, Elizabeth Walker, and Jay Mechling. “The Campaign for Civil Defense and the Struggle to Naturalize the Bomb.” Western Journal of Speech Communication, vol. 55, no. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 105-33.

Myers, David. “The Funds, Friends, and Faith of Happy People.” American Psychologist , vol. 55, no. 1, Jan. 2000, pp. 56-67.

“This Is Who We Are.” U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Mar. 2019, http://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/This-is-Who-We-Are.pdf.

Thomas, Lewis. Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher. Penguin Books, 1978.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Project Gutenberg, 1995, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/205/205-h/205-h.htm.

University of Agder. “Sorry (not sorry).” YouTube , 6 Feb. 2021, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mi3JQa1ynDw.

Wilkerson, Isabel. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. Random House, 2020.

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Writing Across the Curriculum

Sample assignments.

This page provides two downloadable documents: a set of Low Stakes writing assignments, and guidelines for High Stakes writing assignments. The documents are available in .docx copies to allow for revision and customization. You’re welcome to take what you need, please keep the Augsburg logo intact (other downloadable logos are available here ).

Click HERE to download a full set of sample Low Stakes assignment prompts.

Click HERE to download a set of sample High Stakes assignment guidelines.

You can learn more about the benefits of differentiating between low and high stakes assignments in Peter Elbow’s (1997) essay, “High stakes and low stakes in assigning and responding to writing” from Writing to Learn: Strategies for Assigning and Responding to Writing across the Discipline: New Directions for Teaching and Learning.

LOW STAKES WRITING

low stakes writing is:.

Free writing in response to a simple prompt
A simple, informal way to integrate writing in the classroom
“Low effort, high impact”
Easy to incorporate at the beginning or end of class
Low-stress, and typically involves little to no grading

Low stakes writing helps:

Describe, apply, and retain information
Explore and personalize ideas
Focus thoughts and questions
Demonstrate the value of writing as a part of the learning process
Informally engage each student in the classroom
Improve high-stakes writing
Efficiently assess student learning

A brief sample of low stakes prompts:

What do you already know about this topic that can guide your learning?
What have you learned from similar assignments that can help you succeed on this one?
Summarize today’s lecture in one sentence.
What do you feel like you learned today, and what lingering question do you have?
Write an email to a friend who has been absent for a week and explain what they’ve missed. Aim to be comprehensive rather than writing a list.

HIGH STAKES WRITING

High stakes writing assignments:.

Correspond to writing conventions in the discipline/genre
Are typically formal and academic in style
Develop over time through drafting and sequencing/scaffolding
Require conducting effective research
Depend on effective, close reading
Synthesize complex information
Are more sophisticated in thought and prose

Basic Guidelines

Regard writing as a process rather than a product
Clearly connect the assignment to course learning objectives
Provide students with a clear assignment prompt detailing expectations
Provide students with a rationale for those expectations
Articulate the audience for the writer (Experts? A publication? You?)
Use assignment sequencing/scaffolding (suggestions below and here )
Include opportunities for feedback and related revision
Provide effective feedback on drafts (suggestions here and here )
Review suggested rubric options here
Weight the assignment accordingly, usually assigning significant value in the overall course grading system
Assign value (i.e. a grade or other form of credit) to reading assignments

High stakes writing helps to:

Familiarize students with disciplinarity and writing in a genre
Describe, apply, and retain complex disciplinary information
Develop more advanced writing, thinking, learning, and process skills
Develop self-assessment and revision skills
Focus on developing depth rather than breadth
Improve higher order learning/thinking
Thoroughly assess student learning and content mastery
Teach students to handle competing information and develop thesis
Make use of in-class peer review activities to help crowd-source feedback
Provide examples of previous work from students (with their permission) along with the original assignment description
Focus on minimal comments in the margins and identify 1-3 strategies for improvement at the end of a draft
Identify common strengths/weaknesses of the class and discuss those with the class as a whole
Identify successful examples of student work in class for discussion
Cover common mistakes in the original assignment description or when discussing the assignment, use low-stakes writing to reiterate the points
If you don’t have time to teach a writing topic, such as citation style, link students to effective guides

Key high stakes writing resources:

These writing guides are written for a student audience, they overview conventions of writing and conducting research in various academic disciplines across both the Sciences and Humanities.
Search topically through hundreds of undergraduate and graduate courses by discipline or topic and access course syllabi, readings, and assignment documents.
This webpage provides guides to some of the best online resources for helping instructors incorporate writing curriculum into their classrooms. Links address topics such as developing learning objectives, designing assignments, approaches to assessment, writing instruction handouts, and tutorials on references and citation.

Click HERE to download a more detailed set of sample High Stakes assignment guidelines.

A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

Laura Barrón-López Laura Barrón-López

Shrai Popat Shrai Popat

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Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/a-look-at-the-project-2025-plan-to-reshape-government-and-trumps-links-to-its-authors

Former President Trump has distanced himself from Project 2025, the handbook for a new conservative government written by several right-wing think tanks. It comes as Democrats double down on messaging tying Trump directly to the playbook ahead of the November election. White House Correspondent Laura Barrón-López reports.

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Notice: Transcripts are machine and human generated and lightly edited for accuracy. They may contain errors.

Amna Nawaz:

Former President Donald Trump has distanced himself from Project 2025, the handbook for a new conservative government written by several right-wing think tanks.

The presumptive Republican nominee said on TRUTH Social that he knows — quote — "nothing" about Project 2025 and has no idea who's behind it. That comes as Democrats double down on their messaging, tying Trump directly to the playbook ahead of the November election.

Our White House correspondent, Laura Barron-Lopez, has been covering this and joins me now.

So, Laura, former President Trump, denies he knows anyone behind Project 2025. Your reporting shows he's actually connected to some of the architects behind it. What have you found?

Laura Barron-Lopez:

That's right, Amna.

So, Project 2025, we're talking about this more-than-900-page blueprint that was crafted by Heritage Foundation in coordination with other right-wing think tanks for a future Donald Trump presidency. And now, despite Donald Trump's denials that he knows who these people are, he is deeply connected to key authors of Project 2025, which include Paul Dans, Roger Severino, Ken Cuccinelli, Christopher Miller, and Russ Vought.

All of these people served in Trump's administration and are considered serious contenders for top positions in any second Trump term if he were to win office. Also, Russ Vought and Ed Martin, who helped craft Project 2025, are authors also of the new Republican Party platform.

So they're deeply connected to the party apparatus, and as well as Stephen Miller. He is someone who was a top adviser to President Trump when he was in the White House and still remains a top adviser to Trump. And he's tried to distance himself as well from Project 2025, but the facts are, Amna, that his group, America First Legal, is a part of Project 2025's advisory board.

And you have been reporting one of their biggest goals, this group's been a part of the White House biggest goals is to reshape the Justice Department? Tell us about that.

That's right.

Project 2025 proposes placing the Justice Department squarely under Donald Trump's authority, doing away with any traditional independence that we usually see for the Justice Department and the attorney general. They want Donald Trump to install a loyal attorney general, install loyal lawyers across the board, and Trump himself has repeatedly said that he wants to do this.

Donald Trump, Former President of the United States (R) and Current U.S. Presidential Candidate: We will restore law and order in our country.

(Cheering and applause)

Donald Trump:

And I will direct a completely overhauled DOJ to investigate every radical out-of-control prosecutor in America for their illegal, racist and reverse enforcement of the law.

There is no law.

That, Amna, is a regular part of Donald Trump's stump speeches. So it's not just Project 2025 proposing this. It's also the former president himself.

And Russ Vought, again, that person, the — who worked in Donald Trump's first administration, likely going to be into any second Donald Trump administration, has said that the Justice Department is not an independent agency. He has said this publicly, and that if anyone were to try to say that they are independent in a second potential Trump term, that he would kick them out of the White House.

So reshaping the Justice Department seems to be just one part of a larger plan to change the federal government, including gutting career civil servants.

What has your reporting found on that?

The Project 2025 blueprint proposes abolishing the Department of Education, transforming the FBI into a political task force, reinstituting what's known as Schedule F. That's an executive authority that would be instituted by Trump to grow the number of political appointees across the civil service.

And they also want to install roughly 20,000 loyal civil servants across agencies. And they have been preparing for this. Project 2025 leaders have called those loyalists — quote — "conservative warriors." They have called them an army. They have called — of weaponized conservatives.

And they want to essentially make lawyers across all federal agencies, not just the Justice Department, any legal counsel, they want to make them loyal Trump — loyal — loyalists to Trump.

And I spoke to Don Moynihan. He's a professor of public policy at Georgetown University, who said that changes like this would be radical to American government, the biggest changes that we have seen to the American bureaucracy since the civil service was created in the 1880s.

Donald Moynihan, Georgetown University:

I do think this would add measurably to the risks of corruption in American government. President Trump talks a lot about the deep state. Again, that is very similar to what authoritarians in other countries have tended to do to justify taking more direct control over civil service systems.

So I think there is a dangerous pattern here, where it would not just reduce the quality of government. It would also open the door for abuses of political power.

And to guard against this, Amna, we should note that President Joe Biden tried to institute protections for civil servants, protecting them from firing if Donald Trump were to win in November.

But, ultimately, a regulation like that could be undone by a Donald Trump presidency within the first year he takes office.

Well, Laura, what about the necessary context here? That is the recent Supreme Court decision deciding that President Trump, any president, has some immunity from criminal prosecution for official acts.

What does all that mean for how easy the policy plans in Project 2025 would be to implement?

It could potentially make it easier, Amna.

And constitutional scholars that I have spoken to have said that the decision, that Supreme Court decision, could strengthen the basis of Project 2025, which is known as the unitary executive theory, which essentially says that the president has total control over the executive branch, over all the federal agencies.

And the president of The Heritage Foundation, Kevin Roberts, praised that Supreme Court ruling, calling it vital, and said that it was part of a wider conservative reawakening.

Kevin Roberts, President, Heritage Foundation:

We are in the process of the second American revolution, which will remain bloodless, if the left allows it to be.

Professor Moynihan added, Amna, that ultimately the Supreme Court decision could help any future president justify getting rid of longstanding independence of the Justice Department or other agencies that are known to be independent, that it could allow them to justify totally doing away with that.

That's our White House correspondent, Laura Barron-Lopez, with a look at what a second Trump administration could bring.

Laura, thank you.

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