case study of buildings

Case Study: Wallingford by Prentiss + Balance + Wickline

Although the Seattle family with three young children loved life on the water in their lake house, they longed to ...

Case Study: Waverly Place by VJAA

Just before the new Walker Art Center opened in Minneapolis in 1971, Louise Walker McCannel, the granddaughter of founder Thomas ...

Parti Shot: High Meadow Ranch by Richard Beard Architects

Richard Beard Architects has designed many wonderful houses on extraordinary sites, but this 47-acre parcel in California’s 20,000-acre Santa Lucia ...

ARCHITECTURAL INTERIORS

Although the Seattle family with three young children loved life on the water in their lake house, they longed to…

Case Study: Tribeca Penthouse by Min Design

The penthouse apartment in the converted 1874 warehouse in New York had soaring ceiling heights, an abundance of daylight, and…

Case Study: Two Gables by Wheeler Kearns

The aptly named Two Gables residence in Glencoe, Illinois, might appear premeditated, but its symmetrical form emerged organically to serve…

Case Study: Tudor Redux by Cohen & Hacker Architects

The 1913 Tudor Revival would need more than gallons of white paint to turn it into a welcoming, light-filled home…

RURAL / SECOND HOMES

Case Study: Slide-By House by Estes Twombly + Titrington

Situated on the edge of Massachusetts near the border with Rhode Island, the eponymously named Westport was the westernmost port…

Case Study: Concord Blend by Eck MacNeely Architects

Before they lived in their current residence—whose design was meticulously orchestrated by Eck MacNeely Architects—the owners had lived in a…

Case Study: The Narrows by Whitten Architects

Like many retirees, Whitten Architects’ clients came to Downeast Maine looking for an escape from their full-time life near Boston,…

Case Study: Vermont Farmhouse by ART Architects

If anyone knows how to design the quintessential New England farmhouse, it’s the Boston-based firm of Albert, Righter & Tittmann…

Case Study: Barrera House by Cotton Estes Architect

We all have a different idea of what our last, best house might look like and where it might be.…

Case Study: Presidio Heights Residence by Nick Noyes Architecture

Not far from the Presidio—a national park and Historic Landmark District at the foot of the Golden Gate Bridge—San Francisco’s…

Just before the new Walker Art Center opened in Minneapolis in 1971, Louise Walker McCannel, the granddaughter of founder Thomas…

Case Study: Old Yacht Club by Elliott Architects

There are many reasons to rescue an old building—because you have to is one of them, because you want to…

Case Study: Farm to Table by McInturff Architects

It turns out that a dairy barn can become a family getaway without much ado, design-wise. Consider this rural Virginia…

ON THE BOARDS

Richard Beard Architects has designed many wonderful houses on extraordinary sites, but this 47-acre parcel in California’s 20,000-acre Santa Lucia…

Parti Shot: Silver Cloud by Studio B

Slicing across a rocky ridge where two valleys converge, Silver Cloud accommodates a young family and its many passions and…

Parti Shot: Stacked Moor by Flavin Architects

Most homeowners feel they could benefit from just a little more space. In an older house, that need for space…

Parti Shot: Lake Tahoe Cabins by RO | ROCKETT DESIGN

Humans have a primal desire to live by the water, even if it means assuming some hardships to do so.…

Custom Doors Open Incredible Possibilities

A grand entrance to a home. A point of passage through an interior. A secure bulwark. A custom door is…

Sponsored Case Study: Simple Comfort in an Oregon Home

When architect Nahoko Ueda set out to design a family home in the rolling terrain outside Salem, Oregon, her goals…

Sponsored Case Study: A Private Lake Side Retreat in Texas

When you first see the 2,600sq ft lake house in Riverside, Texas, it looks like a glass box floating on…

Sponsored Case Study: Echo Hills Residence by Robert Gurney

Architect Robert Gurney leverages a site’s steeply sloped terrain to transform a suburban Maryland home into a tranquil oasis that takes its cues from nature.

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Case Studies  

Below you will find case studies that demonstrate the 'whole building' process in facility design, construction and maintenance. Click on any arrow in a column to arrange the list in ascending or descending order.

Many case studies on the WBDG are past winners Beyond Green™ High-Performance Building and Community Awards sponsored by the National Institute of Building Sciences.

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Case Studies

Automated Window Treatment Case Study

Case Study / June 1, 2021

Several manufacturers offer innovative window treatment solutions that allow daylight into spaces while controlling for glare and allowing views to the outdoors. In this case study, we focus on Indoor Sky’s Daylighter Shading System. The system has two parts: automated…

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California State University Dominguez Hills—James L. Welch Hall

The Welch Hall building on the CSUDH campus partnered with the project team to retrofit their existing Enlighted lighting system and manual shades to the INTER package – which included LED lighting with Luminaire-level lighting control (LLLC), solar-powered automated shades,…

Santa Ana City Hall Tower on 20 Civic Center Plaza

The City Hall building in Santa Ana sought to improve their indoor environment and save on energy costs with automated shades, upgraded lighting fixtures and networked lighting controls. The project updated the existing T8 lamps to LEDs and controlled the…

Ultra-Low Energy Campus Case Study: King Open/Cambridge Street Upper Schools and Community Complex Case Study

Case Study / July 20, 2020

In 2015 the Cambridge city council voted to adopt a Net Zero Action Plan, requiring all city buildings to target net zero energy design by 2020. When the City issued the request for proposals for the new King Open/Cambridge Street…

Emerging Zero Net Energy School Retrofit Case Study: Los Osos Middle School

Case Study / January 24, 2018

The mild climate in coastal cities such as Los Osos makes ZNE performance a realistic target with minimal needs for heating and cooling. It should however be noted that in such mild climates payback on upgrades to heating systems can…

Emerging Zero Net Energy School Retrofit Case Study: Newcastle Elementary School

With funding from California’s Prop 39, the Newcastle Elementary School District (ESD) issued a request for proposal to develop an Energy Expenditure Plan for their district. With a long list of deferred maintenance issues and budget challenges, Newcastle ESD was…

Emerging Zero Net Energy School Retrofit Case Study: Garden Grove School District

Garden Grove Unified School District (GGUSD) is a large, low-income school district that has recently become a regional leader in Zero Net Energy. Among California’s 140 school districts with greater than 65% for Free & Reduced Price Meals, GGUSD was…

Radiant Cooling and Heating Systems

Case Study / September 13, 2017 / HVAC

Several buildings with radiant heating and cooling systems were studied under a California Energy Commission EPIC research project in 2016-2017 and those case studies are available here. While forced-air distribution systems remain the predominant approach to heating and cooling in…

Verified ZNE Building Case Study: North Face & VF Outdoors

Case Study / March 8, 2017

The North Face corporate facility is part of the VF Outdoor Campus in Alameda, California. The VF Outdoors Headquarters occupies 14 acres of the Harbor Business Park and includes a 160,000-square-foot, four-building development completed in 2012. A fifth building is…

Emerging ZNE Building Case Study: Environmental Innovation Center

Completed in 2014, the Environmental Innovation Center (EIC) in San José, CA, is a local government-owned education and environmental resources center that is targeting zero net energy (ZNE) performance. The project contains a 10,000-square-foot new building and a retrofit of…

Emerging ZNE Building Case Study: California State Lottery District Office in Santa Fe Springs

The California State Lottery District Office in Santa Fe Springs is a retrofit of an existing 12,840-square-foot warehouse and is one of the first state-owned and operated buildings to target zero net energy (ZNE). The Lottery partnered with LPAS Architecture…

Verified ZNE Building Case Study: Bagatelos Architectural Glass Systems Manufacturing Facility

The Bagatelos Architectural Glass Systems (BAGS) manufacturing facility is a retrofit of a 1969 concrete warehouse that was renovated in 2008 to be a zero net energy (ZNE) building. The 63,000-square-foot Bagatelos Architectural Glass Systems manufacturing facility produces custom glass…

Verified ZNE Building Case Study: 435 Indio Way

435 Indio Way in Sunnyvale, California, was built in 1973 as a research and development laboratory and office for Hewlett Packard. Like many buildings in the Silicon Valley, it is a simple one-story, tilt-up that since 2006 had been left…

Ultra-Low Energy School Case Study: Jeffrey Trail Middle School

Case Study / December 13, 2016

The Jeffrey Trail Middle School is a new school in the Irvine Unified School District (IUSD). The school was designed and constructed to meet the Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) performance standards for exemplary energy and water conservation. With…

Ultra-Low Energy School Case Study: Georgina Blach Intermediate School

The Georgina Blach Intermediate School, part of the Los Altos School District, Iocated in Los Altos, California, serves 450 students in seventh and eighth grades. Facilities at the school were unimproved since their construction in 1958, 1962-63 and 1978 and…

Emerging ZNE School Case Study: George V. LeyVa Middle School Administration Building

The George V. LeyVa Middle School Administration Building was designed to be one of the first zero net energy (ZNE) public school buildings in California as well as the first zero net emissions public school building in California. This leading…

Verified ZNE Case Study: West Berkeley Public Library

The West Berkeley Public Library is the first verified zero net energy (ZNE) public library in California. Completed in late 2013, the 9,400-square-foot library produces as much or more energy than it consumes on an annual basis. To reach its…

Ultra-Low Energy School Case Study: San Francisco City College Multi-Use Building

The San Francisco City College Multi-Use Building is a pioneering project for large, low-energy facilities. At 102,000 square feet, the building is one of the largest in the United States to rely nearly entirely on natural ventilation to meet fresh…

Verified ZNE Multifamily Case Study: zHome Multifamily Complex

Case Study / October 10, 2016

The zHome multifamily complex was the first zero net energy project of its kind in the United States. This complex is made up of 10 units and a shared community area. The design approach of the project centered on energy…

Verified ZNE Portfolio Case Study: Gundersen Health System

Gundersen Health System is the largest portfolio of buildings striving to reach zero net energy performance on a district wide scale in North America. The portfolio is made up of 45 new and existing buildings and spanning more than 2.5…

Savings Verification for Performance Contracting

Case Study / December 23, 2015

Washington’s Department of General Administration supervised an energy system retrofit of Spokane’s Westlake State Hospital and then was responsible for verifying the energy savings resulting from the improvements. However, when the hospital’s energy management system experienced a partial loss of…

The Runaway Building

EZ Sim showed its versatility and its accuracy when analyzing a building with run away winter energy bills. While the building was initially modeled using a traditional engineering method, EZ Sim provided a quicker alternative to identify the nature of…

EZ SIM – Shows Bonus Energy Savings for County Office Building

When a county building’s facility manager wanted to know if it was time to upgrade the building’s heat pumps, EZ Sim’s detective work helped to uncover more savings in more places than she bargained.

New England Regional Council of Carpenters

The New England Regional Council of Carpenters (NERCC) represents 22,000 carpenters, pile drivers, shop and mill men, and floorcoverers working in the New England states.

Gibney Family Vision Center

The Vermont Association for the Blind and Visually Impaired (VABVI), a non-profit organization founded in 1926, is the only private rehabilitation agency to offer free training, services and support to visually impaired Vermonters of all ages. VABVI offices are located…

Fidelity Bank

Fidelity Bank is one of the oldest and continually growing independent, local community banks in Central Massachusetts. In January 2007, the bank opened its new Corporate Center and Branch in Leominster, Massachusetts. The four-story building includes office space as well…

Duxbury Bay Maritime School

Serving more than 1,800 students annually, the not-for-profit Duxbury Bay Maritime School aims to connect the community through educational and recreational programs with its primary resource, Duxbury Bay.

Child and Family of Newport County

Child and Family of Newport County (CF) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to strengthening families and communities through services such as preschool childcare, counseling, home care for the elderly and disabled, substance abuse education, home-based child welfare, transitional housing for…

Abraham Lincoln Elementary School

In September 2010, the Abraham Lincoln Elementary School opened its new green building, ready to accommodate 600 students. This new building includes masonry and steel construction, a 3,300 square foot state-of-the-art library and media center, a 5,700 square foot gymnasium,…

New Construction Project Directory & Case Studies

Information about New Construction projects that have utilized Core Performance are available here and, when available, include links to case studies or project profiles.

Emerging ZNE K-12 School: Turkey Foot Middle School

Case Study / December 19, 2015

The Kenton County School District believes “schools should use less energy, demonstrate sound environmental practices and serve as a fundamental tool for learning.” Since the District had experience with a formal energy management program that saved over $2 million since…

Ultra-Low Energy Building: The Ramona

The Ramona is a mixed-use development in the urban Pearl District of Portland, Oregon. The building hosts 138 units of affordable housing and two educational facilities. Portland Public Schools rents 13,000 SF for programs for children ages 3 to 6.…

Verified ZNE Retail Bank Branch: TD Bank

TD Bank has been an environmental leader since 1990. As one of the ten largest banks in the United States, they chose to move beyond LEED certification to pilot a Zero Net Energy design for a retail bank branch in…

Emerging ZNE K-12 School: Dr. David Suzuki Public School

The Dr. David Suzuki Public School combines readily available and demonstration technologies to create a school building that serves as a living laboratory for 550 students in Windsor, Ontario. The two-story kindergarten through 8th grade school includes classrooms, a gymnasium,…

Emerging ZNE Building: Rice Fergus Miller Office and Studio

Rice Fergus Miller breathed new life into an abandoned 1948 Sears Automotive Center and positioned their new office solidly on the path to net zero. This urban infill transformation project took a dilapidated structure that had been abandoned for 23…

Verified ZNE School: Putney Field House

The Putney Field House is located on a 461-acre parcel, with areas dedicated to forestry, education and agriculture. The site includes indigenous plantings and a production garden. The state-of-the art field house and wellness center was built to provide winter…

Verified ZNE Building: Leon County Cooperative Extension Office Building

The mission of the Leon County Cooperative Extension is to educate the community about research performed at the University of Florida through interactive opportunities and demonstration sites. A recent retrofit of their 13,000 SF office was the perfect opportunity to…

Verified ZNE District: Anna Maria Historic Green Village

The Anna Maria Historic Green Village is an unusual combination of historic restoration and modern technology. Owners Mike and Lizzie Thrasher have worked diligently to preserve four 100-year old buildings and merge history with state-of-the-art green technology, all while bringing…

Emerging ZNE Museum: Exploratorium

When the Exploratorium outgrew its old location at the Palace of Fine Arts, the City of San Francisco offered to provide Piers 15 and 17 on its historic waterfront as a larger relocation option for the science museum. After structurally…

Verified ZNE Small Office Retrofit: Bacon Street Offices

The Bacon Street Office project is a 4,500 SF retrofit of a single-story, 1950’s-era auto repair shop into a high performance office for the firm ARCHITECTS hannah gabriel wells. Through creative design strategies, renewable energy generation and with support from…

Verified ZNE Training Center: Zero Net Energy Center

When it came time to upgrade their training facility, the IBEW Local 595 and NECA chapters targeted net zero energy. They wanted to demonstrate that this goal was achievable and train their electrical contractors on the latest, cutting-edge energy efficiency…

Verified ZNE Office: David and Lucile Packard Foundation

When the Packard Foundation started thinking about building a new headquarters, they wanted to make sure the final product reflected the organization’s values. These include conserving the Earth’s natural resources over the long-term, providing a comfortable and healthy space that…

Ultra-Low Energy High Rise Office: The San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) Headquarters

Case Study / December 19, 2015 / Existing Buildings

The San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) headquarters is an ultralow-energy, Class A office building that pushes the norm in sustainable design. Located in downtown San Francisco, the 13-story building houses more than 900 employees who were previously located in…

Ultra-Low Energy Multifamily Residence: La Valentina North Townhomes

The La Valentine North Townhome project is the result of a partnership between SMUD and the owner/developer of the project, Domus Development LLC. The 18-unit affordable multifamily development is a research and demonstration project in SMUD’s Townhouse Home of the…

Verified ZNE K-12 School: Redding School for the Arts

Redding School for the Arts in Northern California connects education and arts for K-8 students in a community of 90,000 people. The school was originally created in August 1999 in response to the rapid decline of arts programs in local…

Verified ZNE Small Office Retrofit: DPR Construction

Acting as owner, designer and contractor, DPR rehabbed a near-obsolete, 1984 building into a vibrant, zero-net energy multi-tenant office. DPR’s new 24,000 SF tenant improvement includes an open office space along with 11 conference rooms, a large gathering area and…

Case Study / June 6, 2012

In March 2007, 31 staff at StopWaste.Org moved into a renovated building in downtown Oakland, California. Their goal was to transform a dilapidated, 14,000 SF, two-story structure into an attractive and environmentally responsible building. Built in 1926, the building is…

Case Studies of Applications for FirstView Software

Case Study / May 21, 2012

Several organizations and companies have utilized the FirstView™ software to analyze building energy performance. Some have relied on FirstView software for diagnostics to lead them to potential areas for improvement, while others have used FirstView software as a way to…

FirstView and USGBC Building Performance

Case Study / May 18, 2012

NBI's FirstView™ software and services have been used on over 200 LEED buildings involved in the U.S. Green Building Council’s Building Performance Partnership (BPP). BPP is a voluntary program designed to improve the performance of green buildings by providing a…

Joseph Vance Building

Case Study / April 27, 2012

Since its acquisition, significant investments have been made to renovate this building in Seattle to improve energy efficiency and environmental performance, as well as tenant experience. Occupancy increased from 68% to 96% and has seen increased rents, tenant retention and…

Lovejoy Building Case Study

In Portland, OR a retrofit of the existing load-bearing brick structure required a major seismic upgrade in this building. The architects used this as an opportunity for an integrated response to advanced structural upgrades, enhanced user thermal comfort and improved…

Johnson Braund Design Group Case Study

Johnson Braund Design Group (JBDG) in Seattle was able to dramatically improve their building’s energy performance, reduce operating costs and provide a test ground for energy-efficient design strategies to influence its clients. The JBDG Building now uses 69% less energy…

Christman Building Case Study

The Christman in Lansing, MI is one of the few Triple LEED Platinum buildings designated by the USGBC LEED Program. The building is located in a climate zone comparable to Montana, northeast Washington and eastern Idaho, and its age and…

Aventine Case Study

The Aventine in LaJolla, CA is a certified LEED Existing Building Platinum and has an Energy Star rating of 100, the highest possible, and uses just 23 kBtus/sf, 75% less than the national average for offices. Retrofits addressed high-energy loads…

1525 Wilson Boulevard

This all-electric building in Rossyln, VA used a combination of energy efficiency strategies, including replacing HVAC and lighting systems and providing tenant education. Energy use was reduced by 35% in just one year, resulting in savings over $250,000 on energy…

Mercy Corps Headquarters

This building in Portland, OR is 50% historic renovation and 50% new construction. The information in this profile addresses both the renovated and the new parts of the building. Pursuing energy efficiency supports their mission of sustainability, and lower operating…

Home On The Range

This Project Profile builds on a case study prepared by USGBC, including data on energy performance for one year, and provides updated owner feedback and energy use data. The actual energy use of the building in Billings, MT, is 46…

Beardmore Building

The Beardmore in Priest River, Idaho has the distinction of being one of the few buildings in the country that is both LEED Gold certified and on the National Register of Historic Places. The project demonstrates a very successful renovation…

200 Market Building

The 200 Market building in Portland, OR, has made continuous energy retrofits and system improvements. These efforts have moved the building from an ENERGY STAR score of 79 in 2006 to a score of 98 (out of 100) in 2010,…

Alliance Center

The Alliance for Sustainable Colorado launched a project titled “Modeling a Net Zero Future: Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings” to explore options that will enable it to approach a zero-net energy goal. Several documents developed for the project are referenced…

Verified Zero Energy Building: IDeAs Z2 Design Facility

Case Study / April 26, 2012

IDeAs’ new headquarters in San Jose, CA was designed to meet 100% of its net energy requirements using renewable energy from photovoltaics.

A Zero Energy-Capable Building: Jane D’Aza Convent, House of Formation

Case Study / April 25, 2012

This series of smaller buildings in San Rafael, CA reflects a contemporary vision that includes a strong commitment to environmental responsibility.

Ultra-Low Energy Building: Doyle Conservation Center

This training facility showcases the organization’s conservation activities. The LEED Gold rating reflects the mission of the Trustees of Reservations, which is “To preserve for public use and enjoyment, properties of exceptional scenic, historic, and ecological value in Massachusetts.”

Ultra-Low Energy School: Plano Elementary School

Plano Elementary School serves 435 students in Warren County, Kentucky. The building includes 32 classrooms, 14 offices, six resource centers, media center, gym, server room, and cafeteria with kitchen. There are 20 public schools in this district and five of…

Ultra-Low Energy Building: Gilman Ordway Building at the Woods Hole Research Center

In Falmouth, MA a 19th-century summer home is respectfully adapted with the addition of a contemporary office, laboratory, and common spaces. The integration of passive-solar and energy-conservation strategies, optimal performance, and onsite renewable power generation make this building 83% more…

A Zero Energy-Capable Building: Kirsch Center for Environmental Studies

For this two-story building in Cupertino, CA the design process moved through six steps to responsibly approach carbon neutral operation and roughly track increasing cost effectiveness.

Verified Zero Energy Building: Omega Center for Sustainable Living

Achieving net-zero energy required a design that eliminated waste and maximized the use of renewable energy resources. This building in Rhinebeck, NY is purposely compact, organized to harvest daylight, solar energy, and cooling breezes to reduce energy needs

A Zero Energy-Capable Building: Wampanoag Tribal Headquarters

This building serves as an administrative, educational, and social center for the Wampanoag tribe, which has inhabited Martha’s Vineyard for hundreds of years. The design approach embodies the traditional Native American belief system of interdependence and respect for nature.

A Case For Deep Savings: 11 Case studies of Deep Energy Retrofits

Case Study / August 23, 2011

For NEEA’s BetterBricks program, New Buildings Institute investigated* 11 examples of energy retrofits in existing commercial buildings that, on average, use 50% less energy than the national average – most with an energy use intensity (EUI) of less than 40…

Measured Performance Case Study: Classroom & Office Building, UC Merced

Case Study / January 26, 2010

The Classroom and Office Building (COB) examined in this case study is one of five buildings in the initial phase of development at UC Merced. This case study examines the actual post-occupancy performance of COB in relation to design elements…

Measured Performance Case Study: Science & Engineering Building 1, UC Merced

Science & Engineering (S&E) Building I is one of five buildings in the initial phase of development at UC Merced. This case study examines the actual post-occupancy energy performance of S&E in relation to design elements and objectives.

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How To Use Architecture Case Studies

• Updated: August 28, 2024

Architecture is more than just constructing buildings; it’s about creating spaces that inspire, function, and stand the test of time.

Understanding the depth and breadth of architectural practice requires examining past projects—seeing what worked, what didn’t, and why.

This is where architecture case studies come into play. They provide invaluable insights into the design process, materials used, environmental considerations, and the social and cultural impact of architectural work.

Whether you’re an architecture student aiming to grasp complex design principles, a professional looking to refine your practice, or simply an enthusiast interested in the built environment, diving into case studies is a powerful way to learn.

From understanding their purpose and structure to analysing some of the most iconic architectural works in history, here we explore how to critically assess and learn from the successes and challenges of past projects.

Key Takeaways

• Comprehensive Analysis : A thorough case study examines all aspects of a project, including context, design, materials, sustainability, and user experience, to provide deep insights into its overall impact.
• Visuals and Narrative : Effective case studies use clear visuals and structured narratives to make complex architectural concepts accessible and engaging for readers.
• Technology and Sustainability : Leveraging digital tools and focusing on sustainability are key to developing forward-thinking architecture case studies that address modern challenges.
• Inclusivity and Diversity : Including diverse perspectives and project types in case studies broadens our understanding of architecture’s role in different cultural and social contexts.

What is an Architecture Case Study?

An architecture case study ( similar to precedent studies ) is an in-depth analysis of a particular architectural project, focusing on various aspects such as design philosophy, construction techniques, site context, user experience, and the project’s overall impact.

Unlike standard project descriptions, case studies go beyond the superficial details to explore the intricacies and decision-making processes that shaped the final outcome.

Definition and Purpose

At its core, a case study serves as a detailed examination of a building or structure, aimed at understanding the various elements that contribute to its design and function.

This includes the architect’s intentions, the challenges faced during the design and construction phases, and how those challenges were addressed. The purpose of an architecture case study is multifaceted:

• Educational Tool : For students and professionals alike, case studies offer real-world examples of how theoretical concepts are applied in practice. They provide insights into the complexities of architectural projects and the various factors that influence design decisions.
• Design Inspiration : By analysing different architectural works, designers can draw inspiration for their own projects, discovering new ways to approach design challenges and innovative solutions.
• Critical Analysis : Case studies encourage a critical evaluation of architectural work, prompting questions about what worked, what didn’t, and why. This analysis helps architects learn from past mistakes and successes, contributing to the evolution of architectural practice.
• Preservation of Knowledge : Documenting the details of architectural projects ensures that valuable knowledge and insights are preserved for future generations. This is particularly important for iconic or groundbreaking projects that have significantly influenced the field.

Importance in Architectural Education and Practice

In education, case studies are indispensable. They bridge the gap between theory and practice, allowing students to see how abstract concepts are implemented in real-world situations.

Case studies also promote a deeper understanding of architectural principles by highlighting the relationship between design intent and execution.

For practising architects, they offer a wealth of knowledge that can inform future projects. By examining the successes and challenges of previous works, we can refine their own methodologies and strategies, ultimately leading to better design outcomes.

Additionally, case studies foster a culture of continuous learning and improvement within the architectural community, as they provide a platform for sharing knowledge and experiences.

Key Elements of an Effective Case Study

A compelling case study goes beyond basic descriptions and floor plans; it delves into the multifaceted aspects that define a building’s essence and performance.

To provide a holistic understanding of a project, an effective case study should cover several key elements. These elements help paint a comprehensive picture of the design process, the challenges faced, and the solutions devised, offering valuable insights to readers.

Site Analysis and Context

The foundation of any architectural project is its site. A thorough site analysis is crucial for understanding the physical, cultural, and environmental context in which a building exists.

This includes examining the site’s topography, climate, surrounding buildings, historical significance, and socio-cultural environment.

Understanding a site’s unique characteristics allows us to create proposals that are not only functional and aesthetically pleasing but also sensitive to their surroundings.

A good case study will explore how these contextual factors influenced the design decisions and how the building responds to its environment.

For instance, does the design maximize natural light and ventilation? Does it respect the cultural or historical context of the area? How does it integrate with or stand out from its surroundings?

Design Concept and Philosophy

Every architectural project is driven by a design concept —a central idea or philosophy that guides the development of the project . This could be a response to the site conditions, a functional requirement, an aesthetic vision, or a combination of these and other factors.

The design concept is what gives a project its identity and coherence.

An effective case study should clearly articulate this and the philosophy behind it. It should explain the your vision and how this vision is reflected in the building’s form , function, and aesthetics.

Additionally, the case study should examine how successfully the design concept has been realised and whether it aligns with the project’s goals and user needs.

Materials and Construction Techniques

The choice of materials and construction techniques is a critical aspect of any architectural project, influencing not only the building’s appearance and durability but also its sustainability and cost.

A detailed case study should discuss the materials selected, the reasons for their choice, and how they contribute to the overall design.

Furthermore, it should explore the construction techniques employed and any innovations or challenges encountered during the building process.

For example, were there any unique construction methods used to address site-specific conditions? How did the choice of materials impact the construction timeline or budget?

Understanding these elements provides valuable insights into the practical aspects of design and execution.

Environmental and Social Impact

Architecture does not exist in a vacuum; it interacts with and affects its environment and the people who use it.

An insightful case study will evaluate the environmental impact of a project, including its sustainability features, energy efficiency, and resource management strategies. This analysis should cover both the construction phase and the building’s ongoing operation.

Equally important is the building’s social impact. How does it serve the community? Does it foster social interaction and inclusivity? Has it positively or negatively affected the local economy, culture, or way of life?

Functionality and Aesthetics

A successful project balances functionality with aesthetics. Here you can examine how well a building meets its intended use and the needs of its occupants.

This includes considerations of spatial layout , accessibility, flexibility, and comfort. Are the spaces designed to facilitate the intended activities? Is the building easy to navigate? Does it adapt well to changing needs?

In addition to functionality, the aesthetic qualities of a building play a significant role in its success. Analyse the visual and experiential aspects of the design, including form, colour, texture, and light.

How do these elements contribute to the building’s character and appeal? How do they interact with the environment and the user experience?

User Experience and Feedback

Ultimately, the success of a project is measured by how well it serves its users. A user experience analysis should include feedback from the people who interact with the building on a daily basis—whether they are occupants, visitors, or maintenance staff.

This feedback provides real-world insights into the building’s performance, highlighting strengths and areas for improvement.

User experience covers a wide range of factors, from comfort and convenience to safety and satisfaction. A case study should explore how users perceive the building and how it affects their daily lives. Are there any recurring issues or complaints?

What aspects of the design are most appreciated? By incorporating user feedback, a case study becomes a more dynamic and informative resource, offering a grounded perspective on the building’s impact.

How to Conduct an Architecture Case Study: A Step-by-Step Guide

Here is a step-by-step guide to conducting a thorough and effective architecture case study:

Step 1: Selecting a Project

The first step is choosing the right project.

The selection should be guided by your objectives, whether you are studying a particular architectural style, learning about sustainable building practices, or understanding the relationship between design and user experience.

Consider projects that are well-documented, have a significant impact, or present unique design challenges.

Additionally, ensure that you have access to adequate information and resources about the project, including drawings, photographs, and any available documentation or interviews.

Tips for Selecting a Project:

• Choose a project that aligns with your interests or professional goals.
• Consider the availability of information and resources for in-depth analysis.
• Look for projects that have had a significant impact or present unique design challenges.

Step 2: Research and Data Collection

Once you’ve selected a project, the next step is to gather as much information as possible.

This involves conducting thorough research using various sources such as architectural journals , books, online databases, and interviews with the architects, users, or other stakeholders involved in the project.

Collecting primary data, such as original drawings, plans, and site visits, is also crucial for a comprehensive understanding.

During this phase, focus on gathering data about the project’s background, including the client’s brief, the architect’s design intent, and any constraints or challenges faced.

Also, collect information about the site context, materials, construction methods, and the building’s performance post-completion.

Data Sources to Consider:

• Architectural publications and academic journals.
• Interviews with architects, clients, and users.
• Project documentation, such as drawings, models, and photographs.
• Site visits and observations.

Step 3: Analysis of Design Intentions vs. Realities

With a wealth of data in hand, the next step is to analyse the project. This involves comparing the the initial design intentions with the realities of the completed building.

Look at how the design concept was translated into the final structure and identify any compromises or deviations from the original plan.

Consider the following aspects during your analysis:

• Design Intent: What were the architect’s goals and motivations? How did they plan to achieve these through their design?
• Site Response: How well does the building respond to its site? Consider factors such as orientation, integration with the environment, and respect for local culture or history.
• Materials and Construction: Were the chosen materials and construction techniques effective in achieving the desired outcomes? Did they contribute to or hinder the project’s success?
• Functionality and User Experience: Does the building serve its intended purpose well? How do users interact with and experience the space?
• Sustainability and Impact: What are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of the project?

This critical analysis helps identify the strengths and weaknesses of the project, providing valuable lessons for future architectural endeavours.

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Step 4: documentation and presentation of findings.

After completing your analysis, it’s time to document your findings. A well-documented case study should clearly present all the relevant information, analysis, and insights in a structured and engaging format.

Start with an introduction that provides an overview of the project and your objectives. Then, detail your findings in a logical order, covering aspects such as site analysis, design concept, materials, construction methods, and user feedback.

Use visuals—such as photographs, plans, sections, and diagrams—to complement your text and provide a clearer understanding of the project. Include quotes from interviews and references to your sources to add credibility and depth to your case study.

Tips for Effective Documentation:

• Organize your case study into clear sections with descriptive headings.
• Use visuals strategically to enhance understanding.
• Include direct quotes from interviews or primary sources to support your analysis.

Step 5: Reflecting on Lessons Learned

The final step in conducting an architecture case study is reflection. This is where you draw conclusions about what you’ve learned from the project and how these lessons can be applied to future architectural work.

Consider what the project reveals about effective design practices, common challenges, and innovative solutions.

Reflect on how the project could have been improved, what strategies were particularly successful, and what could serve as a cautionary tale for other architects.

This reflective process not only solidifies your learning but also contributes to the broader discourse on architecture by offering insights and recommendations based on real-world examples.

Questions for Reflection:

• What were the key successes and failures of the project?
• How did the architect’s design intentions align with the final outcome?
• What lessons can be drawn from the project’s approach to materials, construction, and sustainability?
• How can these lessons be applied to future architectural projects?

Case Study Examples

Analysing real-world architectural projects through detailed case studies provides invaluable insights into the complexities of design, construction, and user experience.

This section presents three in-depth case studies of iconic architectural works, each illustrating unique aspects of architectural practice, from innovative design solutions to the integration of cultural and environmental contexts.

Example 1: The Farnsworth House by Mies van der Rohe

Overview of the Project: The Farnsworth House, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in the late 1940s, is an exemplary work of modernist architecture.

Located in Plano, Illinois, this one-room weekend retreat was designed for Dr. Edith Farnsworth and is renowned for its minimalist design and seamless integration with its natural surroundings.

Analysis of Design and Functionality: The Farnsworth House embodies Mies van der Rohe’s philosophy of “less is more,” emphasizing simplicity and clarity of form.

The house’s steel and glass construction creates a transparent box that blurs the boundary between interior and exterior, allowing occupants to feel immersed in the surrounding landscape.

This design approach fosters a deep connection with nature, reflecting the architect’s intention to create a space that is both contemplative and serene.

Functionally, the open-plan layout of the Farnsworth House eliminates the need for interior walls, creating a flexible space that can be adapted to various uses.

However, this design also presents challenges, particularly in terms of privacy and storage.

The house’s minimalism, while visually striking, may not fully accommodate the practical needs of everyday living, highlighting a tension between aesthetic ideals and functional requirements.

Impact on Modern Architecture: The Farnsworth House has had a profound influence on modern architecture, particularly in its use of modern materials and its emphasis on openness and transparency.

It serves as a case study in balancing minimalist design with functional living spaces, offering lessons on the importance of considering both form and function in architectural design.

Example 2: The Sydney Opera House by Jørn Utzon

Unique Challenges and Solutions: The Sydney Opera House, designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon and completed in 1973, is one of the most recognizable buildings in the world.

Its distinctive sail-like roof structure posed significant engineering and construction challenges, which required innovative solutions.

The original design, conceived as a series of parabolic arches, was re-engineered as a series of interlocking precast concrete shells to simplify construction and reduce costs.

Utzon’s design was groundbreaking not only for its aesthetic boldness but also for its pioneering use of computer-aided design (CAD) and prefabrication techniques.

These methods allowed for greater precision in the construction process and set a new standard for complex architectural projects.

Materials and Construction Techniques: The use of prefabricated concrete panels for the shells was a significant innovation at the time, enabling the complex curves of the roof to be built more efficiently.

The interior of the Opera House is equally innovative, with its use of local materials such as Australian white birch for the concert hall’s acoustic panelling, enhancing the building’s cultural resonance.

Cultural and Social Impact: The Sydney Opera House is not just an architectural icon; it is a cultural landmark that has had a lasting impact on the identity of Sydney and Australia as a whole.

It represents a bold vision of modern architecture that is deeply connected to its location, with its form inspired by the sails of Sydney Harbour and its materials and construction methods reflecting a commitment to innovation and sustainability.

The building has become a symbol of Australian culture and creativity, attracting millions of visitors each year and hosting thousands of performances and events.

Example 3: The Salk Institute by Louis Kahn

Integration with the Natural Environment: Designed by Louis Kahn and completed in 1965, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, is an example of how architecture can harmoniously blend with its natural surroundings.

The Institute’s design emphasizes the relationship between built and natural environments, with a layout that frames stunning views of the Pacific Ocean and incorporates open spaces that encourage interaction among researchers.

Kahn’s design strategically uses materials like concrete, teak wood, and travertine to create a timeless aesthetic that complements the rugged coastal landscape.

The open courtyard, central to the design, is lined with teak paneling that weathers naturally over time, enhancing the connection between the building and its environment.

Structural Innovations: The Salk Institute features several structural innovations, including its pioneering use of post-tensioned concrete to create large, uninterrupted interior spaces that are ideal for laboratory use.

The building’s design also incorporates flexible lab modules that can be easily reconfigured as scientific needs evolve, demonstrating Kahn’s forward-thinking approach to functionality.

Legacy and Influence on Future Designs: The Salk Institute is widely regarded as one of the most important architectural works of the 20th century, influencing subsequent generations of architects with its thoughtful integration of form, function, and context.

It serves as a model for designing spaces that inspire and support scientific research while also creating a powerful architectural presence.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Creating a compelling and informative case study involves more than just documenting the features of a building; it requires a nuanced analysis that captures the essence of the design, its context, and its impact.

However, there are common pitfalls that can detract from their effectiveness, leading to incomplete or biased conclusions. By recognizing and avoiding these mistakes, you can ensure that your analysis is thorough, insightful, and valuable.

01 Overlooking Contextual Factors

One of the most significant mistakes in architecture case studies is neglecting the contextual factors that influence a building’s design and function.

Every architectural project is deeply rooted in its context, which includes the physical site, cultural and historical background, and environmental conditions.

Ignoring these elements can result in a superficial analysis that fails to explain the rationale behind design decisions.

Avoiding the Mistake: To avoid this, make sure to conduct a comprehensive site analysis that covers all relevant contextual aspects.

Consider how the building interacts with its surroundings, how it responds to climatic conditions, and how it fits within the cultural and historical context of the area. This will provide a deeper understanding of the project and allow for a more nuanced critique.

02 Failing to Engage with Multiple Perspectives

A robust architecture case study should include multiple perspectives, incorporating insights from various stakeholders such as the architect, the client, the users, and even the local community.

Focusing solely on the architect’s perspective can lead to a biased analysis that overlooks other critical viewpoints, particularly those of the building’s users who interact with the space daily.

Avoiding the Mistake: Engage with multiple sources of information and viewpoints. Conduct interviews or surveys with different stakeholders to gather a range of opinions on the project’s success and shortcomings.

This will enrich your analysis and provide a more balanced evaluation of the building’s design and performance.

03 Neglecting Sustainability and Long-Term Impact

In today’s world, sustainability is a crucial consideration. However, many case studies fail to adequately address the environmental impact of a building, both during construction and over its lifetime.

This oversight can result in an incomplete analysis that misses important lessons about sustainable design practices and long-term building performance.

Avoiding the Mistake: Ensure that your case study includes a thorough assessment of the building’s sustainability features, such as energy efficiency, material use, waste management, and its adaptability to future needs.

Evaluate the environmental impact of the project throughout its lifecycle, from construction to demolition, to provide a comprehensive view of its sustainability credentials.

04 Focusing Too Much on Aesthetics Over Functionality

While aesthetics are an important aspect of architecture, an overemphasis on visual appeal can overshadow the functional aspects of a building.

Architecture is not just about how a building looks but also about how it works for its intended purpose and users. Case studies that prioritize aesthetics at the expense of functionality may miss critical insights about usability, accessibility, and overall performance.

Avoiding the Mistake: Balance your analysis by equally weighing aesthetic qualities and functional performance. Examine how the design serves its intended purpose, how spaces are organized, and how the building meets the needs of its users.

This holistic approach will provide a more complete picture of the project’s success.

05 Ignoring Post-Occupancy Evaluation

Another common mistake is failing to consider the building’s performance after it has been occupied.

A post-occupancy evaluation (POE) provides real-world insights into how a building functions once it is in use, revealing potential issues that were not apparent during the design or construction phases.

Ignoring this aspect can lead to an incomplete understanding of the building’s effectiveness and user satisfaction.

Avoiding the Mistake: Include a post-occupancy evaluation in your case study to assess the building’s performance in practice. Gather feedback from users to understand their experiences and identify any unforeseen challenges or successes.

This will help you evaluate the building’s long-term impact and relevance.

06 Relying on Outdated or Incomplete Information

Relying on outdated or incomplete information can lead to incorrect conclusions and reduce the credibility of your case study.

The architecture field is constantly evolving, with new technologies, materials, and practices emerging all the time. Using outdated sources may overlook recent changes or developments that impact the project.

Avoiding the Mistake: Ensure that your research is thorough and up-to-date, utilizing the latest sources of information. Cross-check facts from multiple reliable sources and, where possible, obtain first-hand information directly from those involved in the project.

This approach will ensure that your case study is accurate and current.

Best Practices for Presenting your Research

Effectively presenting a case study requires more than just compiling information and analysis. It’s about crafting a narrative that is both informative and engaging, allowing readers to fully understand and appreciate the complexities of the project.

A good presentation should use a combination of clear writing, compelling visuals, and strategic organization to convey its insights. Here are some best practices for presenting architecture case studies.

01 Using Visuals Effectively: Plans, Sections, and Elevations

Visuals are a crucial element of any presentation, and provide readers with a clearer understanding of the project’s design and spatial qualities.

Architectural drawings such as plans, sections, and elevations allow readers to see the building’s layout, structural details, and relationships between different spaces.

High-quality photographs and renderings further help illustrate the building’s materiality, texture, and interaction with light.

Best Practices for Using Visuals:

• Include High-Quality Images: Use high-resolution images to ensure clarity and detail. Poor-quality visuals can detract from the professionalism of your case study and make it difficult for readers to understand the project.
• Use a Variety of Visuals: Incorporate different types of visuals, such as floor plans, sections, elevations, and 3D renderings, to provide a comprehensive view of the project.
• Label and Annotate: Clearly label all visuals and provide annotations where necessary to explain key features or design decisions. This helps readers follow along and understand the significance of each visual element.
• Balance Text and Images: Ensure that visuals complement the text rather than overwhelm it. Use visuals strategically to highlight important points and break up large blocks of text to maintain reader engagement.

02 Creating Compelling Narratives

You must tell a compelling story that guides readers through the design process, challenges faced, and solutions implemented. A strong narrative helps contextualize the project, making it easier for readers to understand the architect’s intentions and the factors that influenced their decisions.

Best Practices for Creating Narratives:

• Start with a Strong Introduction: Begin with a brief overview of the project, including its location, purpose, and key design challenges. This sets the stage for the rest of the case study and captures the reader’s interest.
• Use a Clear Structure: Organize your case study into logical sections, such as background, design concept, materials and construction, sustainability, and user experience. This makes it easy for readers to follow the progression of the project.
• Include Personal Insights: Whenever possible, include quotes or insights from the architect, clients, or users to add a personal touch and provide different perspectives on the project.
• Highlight Key Moments: Focus on pivotal moments in the design and construction process that had a significant impact on the outcome. These could include design revisions, construction challenges, or key decisions that shaped the project.

03 Leveraging Digital Tools and Software for Enhanced Presentation

In today’s digital age, there are numerous tools and software available that can enhance the presentation of architecture case studies.

From interactive 3D models to virtual reality (VR) experiences, digital tools can provide readers with a more immersive and engaging way to explore architectural projects.

Best Practices for Leveraging Digital Tools:

• Use Interactive Elements: Incorporate interactive elements such as clickable floor plans, panoramic views, or 3D models that allow readers to explore the project in greater detail.
• Embed Videos and Animations: Use videos or animations to show the design process, construction phases, or even a walk-through of the building. This can bring the project to life and provide a dynamic way to convey information.
• Consider VR and AR Applications: If resources allow, explore virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR) applications that provide an immersive experience of the project. This can be particularly useful for complex projects where understanding spatial relationships is crucial.
• Ensure Accessibility: While digital tools can enhance a case study, it’s important to ensure that all content is accessible to readers. Provide alternative formats or descriptions for interactive elements to accommodate different user needs.

05 Engaging the Reader

Beyond visuals and narratives, the way you write and format your case study can significantly impact reader engagement. Clear, concise writing and thoughtful formatting help maintain reader interest and make your case study more accessible.

Best Practices for Engaging the Reader:

• Use Clear and Concise Language: Avoid jargon or overly technical language that may alienate some readers. Instead, aim for clear and concise language that is accessible to a broad audience.
• Break Up Text with Subheadings and Bullet Points: Use subheadings, bullet points, and numbered lists to break up large blocks of text and make your content easier to digest.
• Include Callouts and Sidebars: Use callouts or sidebars to highlight key points, interesting facts, or quotes from the architect or users. This can add visual interest and draw attention to important information.
• Encourage Interaction: Encourage readers to engage with the content by including questions or prompts for reflection. You could also invite readers to leave comments or share their thoughts on the project.

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To Sum Up…

Case studies are powerful tools for learning, inspiration, and the advancement of architectural knowledge.

By diving deep into the details of design, context, materials, and user experience, case studies provide invaluable insights into the complex decision-making processes that shape our built environment.

They allow us to learn from past successes and failures, understand the impact of design choices, and explore innovative solutions to architectural challenges.

As the profession continues to evolve, so too must the approach to conducting and presenting case studies. Embracing new technologies, such as digital modeling and virtual reality, will enable more immersive and interactive explorations of architectural projects.

Focusing on sustainability and resilience will ensure that future designs meet the needs of both current and future generations, while incorporating diverse perspectives will make architecture more inclusive and reflective of the communities it serves.

By adhering to best practices and avoiding common pitfalls, we can create case studies that are not only comprehensive and engaging but also meaningful and transformative.

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A checklist for architectural case studies

A case study is a process of researching into a project and documenting through writings, sketches , diagrams, and photos. To understand the various aspects of designing and constructing a building one must consider learning from other people’s mistakes. As Albert Einstein quoted, “Learn from yesterday, live for today, and hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.” 

A case study can be a starting point of any project or it can also serve as a link or reference which can help in explaining the project with ease. It is not necessary that the building we choose for our case study should be the true representation of our project. The main purpose is to research and understand the concepts that an architect has used while designing that project and how it worked, and our aim should be to learn from its perfections as well as from its mistakes too while adding our creativity.

• Primarily, talk to people and never stop questioning, read books, and dedicate your time to researching famous projects . Try to gather information on all famous projects because it is essential for a successful case study and easily available too. Also before starting the case study do a complete literature study on a particular subject, it gives a vague idea about the requirements of the project.
• Study different case studies that other people have done earlier on the projects which you would choose for your own just to get a vague idea about the project, before actually diving into it.
• Do case studies of similar projects with different requirements. For example, while doing a case study of a residential building, you should choose 3 residential buildings, one with the minimum, average, and maximum amenities. It helps in comparing between different design approaches.
• If possible, visit the building and do a live case study, a lot of information can be gathered by looking at the building first hand and you will get a much deeper insight and meaningful understanding of the subject and will also be able to feel the emotion which the building radiates.
• While doing the case study if you come across certain requirements that are missing but went through it while doing the literature study, they should try to implement those requirements in the design.

Certain points should be kept in mind while preparing the questionnaire, they are as follows,

Style of architecture

• The regional context is prevalent in the design or not.
• Special features.

Linkage / Connectivity diagrams

• From all the plans gather the linkage diagram.

Site plan analysis

• Size of the site.
• Site and building ratio.
• The orientation of the building.
• Geology, soil typology, vegetation, hydrography

Construction technologies and materials

• Related to the project.
• Materials easily available in that region and mostly used.
• Technologies used in that region. Search for local technologies that are known among the local laborers.

Environment and micro-climate

• Try to document a building situated in a region that is somewhat similar to the region in which the project will be designed.
• Important climatic factors- sun path, rainfall, and wind direction.

Requirements and used behaviors

• Areas required that will suffice the efficiency of the work to be done in that space.
• Keeping in mind the requirements, age-group, gender, and other factors while designing.

Form and function

• The form is incomplete without function. To define a large space or form it is necessary to follow the function.
• To analyze the reason behind the formation of a certain building and how it merges with the surroundings or why it stands out and does not merge with the surroundings.
• Why the architect of the building adopted either of the philosophies, “form follows function” or “function follows form”.

Circulation- Horizontal and Vertical

• Size and area of corridor and lobbies.
• Placement of staircases, ramps, elevators, etc.

Structure- Column, beam, etc.

• Analyzing the structure detail.
• Types of beams, columns, and trusses used, for example, I- section beam, C- section beam.

Building services or systems

• Analyzing the space requirement of HVAC, fire alarm system, water supply system, etc.

Consideration of Barrier-free environment in design detailing

• Designing keeping the requirements of disabled people, children, pregnant women, etc. in mind.

Access and approach

• Entry and exit locations into the site as well as into the building.
• Several entries and exit points.

Doing a case study and documenting information gives you various ideas and lets you peek into the minds of various architects who used their years of experience and dedicated their time to creating such fine structures. It is also fun as you get to meet different people, do lots of traveling, and have fun. 

She is a budding architect hailing from the city of joy, Kolkata. With dreams in her eyes and determination in her will, she is all set to tell stories about buildings, cultures, and people through her point of view. She hopes you all enjoy her writings. Much love.

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How Mixed-Use Developments Can Ease Urban Density

Despite historic pandemic lows in population growth, the U.S. population is increasing , and urban centers face continued pressure to answer the demand for housing and mixed-use amenities through densification and adaptive reuse. Designers can bring multiple strategies to alleviate these challenges and promote more livable and climate-conscious solutions.

Rising Demand for Mixed-Use Development

The pandemic increased demand for workplace flexibility. By co-locating office, residential and mixed-use functions, designers can provide flexibility for individual working needs while transforming the commute and reducing car travel by facilitating walkability.

The 2023 commercial real estate market foresees a challenging year thanks to global, macroeconomic forces. However, projects that include or are adjacent to residential and other mixed-use functions are in high demand, as many metropolitan areas across the country are experiencing a housing shortage. With workforce housing especially lacking in many cities, the densification of urban areas is growing, and developers are focusing on projects with mixed-use amenities to create livable, 24/7 cities.

Fostering Healthy, Active Lifestyles in Cities Experiencing Rapid Growth

Public health researchers for many years have noted that unhealthy behaviors are the consequences of an unhealthy environment . One of the most critical factors in designing mixed-use developments and offices is providing options. Trends in design over the past decade include creating multiple places to go about the day’s tasks within any environment, whether you’re in the comfort of your home, in a collaborative office space or sitting at a table outdoors.

Providing options for collaboration, privacy, and working engenders a sense of comfort and control. At 301 Hillsborough at Raleigh Crossing, an amenity level shared by multiple tenants is centered on a hospitality-oriented approach to provide people a flexible space to suit their needs. They can catch up with a coworker over cold brew, organize an event with access to the outdoor terrace or simply have a quiet place for taking a break.

Transforming vacant or underutilized sites into public plazas and amenities can further connections to nature and allow city residents to enjoy fresh air, an alternative spot to work or attend community events. As the first phase of the 100-acre Hub RTP development, the two-block development of Horseshoe will transform the live-work-play experience. The innovative mixed-use project will redefine and reinvigorate Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, with on-site restaurants and retail and creative office space.

The “high tech meets nature” theme is reflected in Hub RTP’s location along a network of creeks, trails and naturalized outdoor space on the site’s western edge. Extensive access to the outdoors at the ground floor and via balconies and terraces for office levels distinguishes the Horseshoe development in this market.

Connecting new developments to existing cultural, natural and recreational resources can provide tenants with new opportunities for social and personal development. Walkable neighborhoods with restaurants, retail, workplaces and housing foster an active and balanced lifestyle. By orienting the office building and two retail pavilions in a U configuration, Horseshoe shapes a central landscaped plaza shared by neighboring residents. A small event lawn will host concerts and other performances. Artwork curated into niches in ground-level facades, along organic pathways and sunken terraces further enhance the complex as a public plaza. Open views offer easy navigation and encourage exploration.

Reimagining Parking Structures to Transform Neighborhoods

NCR Global Headquarters transformed an underutilized parking lot into a transparent and transformative work environment with two distinct towers and a multi-layered vertical program. NCR’s visibility from HWY 75/85—traveled by a million people a day—and adjacency to innovative engineering and design programs at Georgia Tech and SCAD provides an urban environment rich with amenities for NCR’s employees.

Typically, city sites near interstate highways are considered development “dead zones.” Instead, this project’s smart building layout, sensitive site design, and visionary developer and design team reimagined a potentially undesirable location as a marquee urban headquarters. The Fortune 500 company’s relocation brought 3,600 jobs to Atlanta.

During NCR’s design, the project team engaged in public review sessions with Midtown Alliance—a non-profit organization dedicated to planning and developing buildings focused on the safety and quality of the physical environment in Midtown Atlanta. Extensive design materials, including physical models and drawings, were presented for comment and recommendation.

This collaboration led to NCR being featured in the Midtown Alliance Owner’s Manual design guidelines as an exemplary urban response. The case study highlighted the project’s creation of walkable blocks and open spaces, greater density, matching setbacks, compatible massing, unobtrusive driveways and attractive screening. Green design features specific to water quality, groundwater and rainwater harvesting systems, and low-flow fixtures contribute to the complex using 35% less water than a typical office building.

Connecting Mixed-Use Developments to Urban Greenways and Greenspaces

With increased awareness of the impacts of climate change, urban greenspace provides opportunities for key climate mitigation strategies including stormwater runoff control, sunshading, reducing the heat island effect, water filtration and air purification.

Human health is improved by access to greenspace and natural areas. Greenspaces in urban settings have been recognized as having great potential for protecting and promoting human health and well-being. The Republic, a 48-story office tower in Austin, Texas, is located on a full block next to Republic Square—a fully renovated urban park and one of Austin’s four original public squares. A 60-foot setback allows for an expansive covered entry courtyard and a public plaza that expands and complements the Republic Square Park as a destination for events, farmers markets and public art installations. Integrated ground-floor retail faces the plaza and is included on all four sides of the tower. The completed project is expected to be the city’s next landmark building, serving as a nexus point with direct connections to a future light rail serving the City of Austin.

Jay Smith serves as Principal and Design Director at Duda|Paine for diverse corporate, commercial and institutional building typologies. His leadership and strength in analysis and conceptual thinking has established award-winning projects at Duda|Paine including The Republic, NCR Global Headquarters, NC Central University Student Center, 301 Hillsborough at Raleigh Crossing and master plans for UNC Asheville and UNC Pembroke. 

Sanjeev Patel

Sanjeev Patel, who serves as Principal and Design Director at Duda|Paine, is motivated to make the built environment more meaningful and sustainable to inspire well-being and provide opportunities for building community. His expertise has facilitated a broad range of award-winning projects and diverse building typologies, including Horseshoe at Hub RTP, Stratus Midtown in Atlanta, Walton Family Whole Health & Fitness, Duke Student Wellness Center, and Cox Campus in Atlanta. 

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• Published: 26 August 2021

Investigation of sustainability embodied in existing buildings: a case study of refurbishment adopted in a Chinese contemporary building

• Yi Huang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2731-5240 1 , 2 ,
• Chong Xu 2 , 3 ,
• Yufan Xiao 4 &
• Bart Dewancker 2  

Scientific Reports volume  11 , Article number:  17283 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Civil engineering
• Engineering
• Environmental sciences

The Liyuan courtyard buildings are considered as contemporary architectural symbols of the spirit in Qingdao, China. The sustainability potentials embodied in the building is evaluated by building performance simulations analysis based on field investigation in this case study. Two models with optimization refurbishment were made through building simulation software. One model with façade supplemented in the insulation layers of the envelope walls and the other model with further upgrade with consideration of recycling materials mixed were discussed and estimated with building performance simulation method. The energy performance in the building and both scenarios designed can improve the energy efficiency, while the advanced model could achieve better result in the building energy behavior dramatically. Technologies innovation are proved to be good tools to improve energy performance the existing buildings by renovation actions such as insulation improvement and so on. It is concluded the sustainability regain its authentic appearance while achieve energy efficiency embodied within contemporary buildings through adaptational renovation strategies. Multicriteria considerations might influence the balanced between different factors when making decisions in the building restoration project, it is also expected to empower the fresh glory in the development of building protection and restoration.

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Introduction.

Climate changes and environmental issues have drawn concerns by many countries in consensuses with developing sustainable measures to overcome the crisis in energy shortage and living ecology. It comes up with an agreement on meeting human development goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depends 1 . The United Nations set 17 sustainable development goals as the blueprint for all the member nations to achieve a better sustainable future. They list the global challenges to overcome, including those related to poverty, inequality, climate change, peace and justice, especially environmental degradation. The 17 Goals are planned to be achieved by 2030 with no one behind 2 (2021.7.31). As the largest energy consumption resource, the global architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry is also responsible for providing the social and economic tenement to the global population, including preserving or retrofitting the buildings and infrastructure already in use. In 2010, Meggers et al. 3 appraised the true capability of CO 2 emissions reduction from buildings sector covering challenges of cutting emissions from building construction, operation and maintenance, throughout the whole life cycle. Mazria concluded in 2007 4 that once taking the building’s whole life cycle into consideration, more than half of the emissions are relevant to building sector. Roodman and Lenssen evaluated that 35% of energy in the world are used by buildings, while they are directly responsible one third of global emissions with the certain consumption level 5 .

Various strategies have been developed to achieve better living environment with sustainable goals. The U.S. Green Building Council committed to a sustainable, prosperous future with LEED rating system, which is recognized as the leading system as sustainable solution to the buildings sector development. The system enables the buildings and communities to regain and sustain the health and vitality of all life within a generation, by the way buildings and communities are designed, built and operated, to achieve an environmentally and socially responsible, healthy, and prosperous environment that improves the quality of life 6 . In Europe, various member nations established their own low-energy building standards under the European Union's management guidance, in order to upgrade the building standard towards zero-energy goals 7 . In Japan, there are policies in control and regulatory; economic-based, fiscal and information actions to realize building energy saving, with purpose to realize zero energy goals as the average for new housing by 2030 8 . Compared to Japan, China is suffering more obstacles such as inefficient enforcement, insufficient levels of information and awareness and immature financial regulation system etc. 9 . In China, under the premise of sustained and stable economic growth in recent years, the proportion of building energy consumption is still likely to continue to rise. To harness the energy potential of existing buildings is a mile stone to meet the targets for a low carbon economy in 2050 10 .

The new trend of scale expansion and population concentration in urban development threaten the global energy balance and the recovery from environmental pollution. Insufficient natural resource and global warming have become new international concerns, which encouraged new innovation as positive solution to keep the global balance between natural and human society. The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry sector is believed to be responsible for considerable amount of global energy demand resulting in a significant negative environmental impacts 3 , they are evaluated to be responsible for 35% of direct emissions with the certain consumption level 5 .

These contemporary buildings exist not only as the representative symbol of the history, but also a positive cultural resource for the future generations. Reasonable refurbishment gained more attention and accepted as an urgent issue as the practical solution in sustainable development in architectural industry 11 . Protection and restoration might bring new concepts in conservation which is essential as contributor to the reduction in environmental impacts. It is of great significance that appropriate approaches are carried out to preserve the whole body in consistent with reduction of general energy consumption applying impacts on the natural environment.

The renovation of the existing buildings and indicators for sustainability

The energy savings potential by retrofitting existing buildings is a milestone to meet the targets of a Low Carbon Economy. The construction industry has been evolving to embrace sustainability. This has highlighted the necessity to inspect sustainable performances throughout the post-construction building lifecycle. How to implement the retrofit of an existing building efficiently, furthermore, to evaluate the energy performance for low energy goals in environmental impacts is really the problem in the building sector. Considering specific active optional alternatives, it might be an active solution to those 100 years old buildings to overcome the energy hog problem. Deep assessments towards architectural heritages upgrades can be the great opportunities in which the users and residents could face the problem directly. Reasonable retrofit of existing buildings and keep the budget balance would be another option. As such, it relies more on the process, which can be adapted and optimized, than on the results.

A sustainability analysis of building renovation can include many factors; the energy performance, material efficiency, environmental impact, durability, affordability, and social benefit 12 . While the sustainability assessment of buildings and renovation should be based on a lifecycle analysis. Technical performance indicators are added to the environmental performance indicators in a sustainability assessment. Durability of renovation measures is one example of a technical performance indicator. Durability of a building envelope component depends on more factors such as constructional and material properties, maintenance and climate robustness. In a sustainability perspective, the economic performance should be evaluated as life cycle cost 13 . There are many methods are described in the literature as decision making support tools for sustainability assessment 14 , 15 . Quantitative multicriteria models are the engineering approach for sustainability evaluation. Models with linear functions in the simulation tools on thermal comfort and environmental impact potential are used to evaluate renovation measures in the energy production and environmental 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 .

Birgit 13 made sustainability assessment of zero energy renovation of a Norwegian dwelling based on the standard from the British Institute for sustainability, which published an iterative method as a classical retrofit guide. Brito 20 took his perspectives on promotion the renovation alternative from a single heritage house into the whole neighborhood scale, which is quite an collective action by accumulating every single effort to achieve the common aim. The author agrees with the iterative method of the sustainability assessment on energy saving, because the whole process itself is complicated involved many factors to think about, meanwhile, different stakeholders would concentrate on their concerned points subjectively. The author also argues that different perspective can provide more possibility on the sustainability analysis of energy saving potential. The uncertainty of the human factor might result in variations in the final achievement of renovations, succeed in various efficiency and appearance of the final improvement. Therefore, this paper proposed a comprehensive strategy to complete the renovation works towards energy saving and even achieve zero energy ready house in the future prospect. It provides an explore attempt on the existing contemporary building with century history, at the same time, it is expected to show another possibility to manage the sustainability retained in the local residential buildings. while acknowledging that incomplete assessments are used to justify demolition, or to layer fashionable “innovations”.

The renovation project of Qingdao Liyuan buildings

Liyuan buildings are built based upon the European style courtyard style of 1900s. There are typical design features with court surrounded by two to three floors of buildings. This building styles were used as the main residential buildings in the urban planning accompanying the early time when the main urban area appeared its original appearance.

The Liyuan courtyards mentioned in this article refers to the buildings firstly built in the 1900s under the colonial rule by Germany intruders, which was retained its basic appearance till today (Fig.  1 ). Once upon a time, the Liyuan courtyard buildings spanned a century is still a typical representative symbol of the early urban construction of Qingdao. The "blocks" here are defined with boundary of urban traffic nets, including the neighboring buildings served functionally for the courtyards, contains internal plugging and corridors as well as social living spaces. Business and residence are mixed, shops and shops are intertwined. The "Li" concept in “Liyuan” was originally referred to the commercial function, which means the shops outwards to the streets for business negotiation by merchants. They can check goods samples when walked into the "Li” or collect products inside the "Li". On the other hand, the "Yuan" concept referred more specific in the living function, with larger scale than "Li". These two concepts were combined by government architectural department as the current definition of “Liyuan” courtyard only in 1999 21 , 22 , 23 . The Liyuan courtyard building is an important representative architectural style, it also represents a living form of middle-lower-level recognition in Qingdao at earlier period.

The evolution of the Liyuan building according to the time clue.

Incredible development is pushing forward the great changes all over the world and many changes in human behavior results in ultra-large cities with million population in highly concentrated urban scale. To harness the energy potential of existing buildings is a mile stone to meet the targets for a low carbon economy in 2050 10 . Therefore, in China, the urban development is seeking the solution to achieve better energy performance in the limited land area with suitable actions on the existing buildings. Meanwhile, some traditional old town areas are shrinking and might be eventually disappeared 24 , 25 . Similar to that, the distribution of Liyuan courtyard building is turning to shrinkage trends in area size (Fig.  2 ).

The shrinking of the distribution of Liyuan courtyard buildings in Qingdao.

As the purpose of upgrading the appearance of the city and improving the life quality for the domestic people, the municipal government of Qingdao started a series projects on exploration of the revitalization and urban renewal for the old town area from 2015. About 28 square kilometers of old town area are involved in this project, including a large number of Liyuan courtyard buildings protection and retrofit. With the general policy orientation of "Repair the old town and keep its originality, rely on industry-driven and remain technological empowerment", comprehensive assessments and renovation actions have been proposed in order to reform urban infrastructure construction, social livelihood and ecological improvement.

The general layout of the Liyuan courtyard consists of two sections, the outer building looks like the rows of noisy street shops (Fig.  3 ). While the inner part is filled with the private corners with daily lives. A courtyard separates crowed public from quiet corners. When the construction of an open, modern, dynamic and fashionable international metropolis becomes Qingdao's mission, this old building style become the new starting point for the revival of the history of the city. Although neighborhoods are composed of houses, communities are more than just sticks and bricks. They include and are formed by people and social relationships, both within and across houses. This was as true in old times as it is today.

The authentic appearance of a typical Liyuan building example.

It is far from satisfaction by implementation energy saving technologies and renewable energy sources alternatives only in the new built buildings. There is only small percentage of new built buildings in most of the countries all over the world, the large number of existing buildings with high energy consumption in use contains great opportunities to reduce global energy demand and pollution potential in the future. It agrees with the facts in EU project Annex 56 26 that “the greenest buildings” is the one that is already built for long time 27 .

The research objectives

This research is aiming to draw sustainable concept on the energy issues within existing contemporary buildings. Beginning with brief assessments in the case study, the physical and energy performance embedded is illustrated with parametric models and analyzed. With building performance simulations in software Ecotect, it calculated the energy performance in the total energy consumption and discussed motivations of different strategies through renovations and optimization options. It is expected to discover the sustainability embedded within the certain old buildings with feasible upgrades and to emphasize the sustainability and vitality in the architectural preservation. There are several goals to be observed in this paper:

Simulate multiple optimization scenarios and calculate thermal performance though computational simulations;

Evaluate energy saving potentials by comparing parametric results from simulations in renovation scenarios and analyze the energy improvement with suitable renovation.

Discuss the retrofit strategies on different energy efficiency actions in old buildings upgrade and benefits relatively, conclude the sustainability embodied within the comtemporary buildings from different perspectives.

Materials and methods

There are two parts in this research. The first part focuses on finding out the parametric characteristics and dimensional data from observations and field investigation in the architectural features. With other collective data, such as meteorologic, building materials etc., the parametric models was built in Rhino SketchUp for visualization analysis. It is a direct reflection from static state. The second part focuses on the perspective of building energy from computational building performance simulation with all collective data input into Ecotect for further simulation. SketchUp is a 3D modeling computer program for drawing applications such as architectural, interior design and etc. Autodesk Ecotect Analysis is an environmental analysis tool that allows building performance simulation throughout the whole lifecycle covering every stage of conceptual design. The two programs combined analysis functions with an interactive display that presents analytical results directly within the context of the building model.

The enhancement in the building envelope and proposed common upgrade scenarios in the refurbishment were simulated and compared. The aim is to allow the actions shifting resources, maximizing development efforts on BIM solutions for building performance analysis and visualization. It supports the further discussion in sustainability through the energy performance simulation.

Parametric model analysis from static dimensional investigation

Comprehensive field investigation is the most efficient measures to get insight of the building performance, while acknowledging that complete assessments are necessary to justify demolition before any actions of renovation on the heritage buildings. Through literature records study, the historical and physical development documents provide the image on the storyline embedded within the buildings. The detailed field investigation has been carried out from 2017, including external observation, internal assessment, random interview, dimensional measurement and illustration analysis etc.

There are several major parameters influenced the building energy performance analysis, including environmental, insulation and instruments installed. The geographical information decides the meteorological conditions of the area, which provided temperature, humidity and solar radiation etc. It determined the necessary heating and cooling demand and the possible options for refurbishment. The insulation is another important parameter influenced by the structure and materials. Great improvement in materials provided better efficiency and possibilities to reduce the energy consumption and achieve sustainable goals. It is also considered as the recent research focus. New type of instrument with lower energy consumption and green energy supply could supply new developing points in sustainable building performance.

The research of refurbishment would be mainly focus on the insulation improvement here. In order to illustrate the structure and show up the inner design within these Liyuan residential buildings, a digital drawing describing dimensional details was conducted after survey studies. The dimensional information has been visualized to provide a brief look into the facts of these existing buildings throughout hundred years history.

Renovation scenarios and iterative sustainability analysis

It is necessary to fulfill the local architecture building standard before reasonable sustainability analysis of the renovation actions. In China, JGJ26-2018 is published as the green building renovation goal for the renovation standard in Qingdao located in the cold climate zone 28 . Therefore, one scenario of renovation is to fulfill the green building standard for the whole building scale, which contains the consideration of local climate condition and majority of local heating demand and living habits. The other scenario of renovation is to mix part of the exterior insulation layer with recycling concrete materials, in order to discover the energy saving potential embedded within the traditional buildings. Optional alternatives with renewable energy, such as solar panels, taken as for heat demand resources will be discussed as specific supplement choice to the energy supply.

Energy consumption within complicated procedure of renovation requires high quality of modeling effort from captured building data and keep updating, uncertainty of information, objects and relations among software data is a big challenge. Meanwhile, it is agreed that the building performance simulations (Fig.  4 ) can be great helpful to engage the interests from different stakeholders based on their individual background knowledges with intuitive and direct images. Visualization tools empower owners and users with a better understanding of their house’s physical behavior but have limited effect on their renovation decisions.

The building models (left) and performance simulation through Ecotect software (right).

With hypothesis of certain potentials existing in the static and dynamic states, it expected the results would give more impressive imagination of the listed building and old contemporary building when restoration would be the energy improvement embodied this characteristic building structure. It is expected to attract potential stakeholders and users to realize the positive impact from the process of renovation for heritage buildings, meanwhile, to consider and encourage more active positive policy on the sustainability in the building retrofit and use. The results and findings from this paper are extension of the knowledge for all potential stakeholders, to consider the old contemporary buildings as architectural heritage from both static and dynamic states, to broader their awareness on the energy properties in accordance with modern standard.

There are certainly limitations existed in the simulation procedure. The results from building simulation could be only suitable to the certain situation in the case study with specific local information. The complicated building performance is simplified and focus on the energy parameters in the data collection and calculation procedures.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This manuscript does not involve any animals, humans, human data, human tissue or plants.

Consent for publication

This manuscript does not contain any data from any individual person.

In this paper, the dual-perspectives assessment method was carried out in a case study located in the No. 84 of Zhifu Road, which is called “ZF-84” for short. The building locates in the highlighted area at the northern boundary of the original distributed area (Fig.  5 ). The building is in the block surrounded by Licun road, Yizhou road, Jimo road and Zhifu road, underneath the newly built elevated road.

The location of the Liyuan courtyard buildings of the case study in Qingdao on the map.

This ZF-84 building is a two-stories with traditional German style, installed red tiles on top and half-timbered brick structure, from the initial records in historical document and the dimension measurement collected in documents collection, the original land occurrence in the very beginning was 838.74 m 2 , while the current is 968.23 m 2 ; The original building area was 1695.91 m 2 , while the current is 1825.40 m 2 (Table 1 ).

The building was used to be an iron blacksmith store in the early 1930s, which was further modified as an iron plant, together with other surrounding workshops, which was recognized as the predecessor of “Qing gang” Iron factory. It was the most glorious time for this building. After the war time, it was changed as an Asian-American firm store selling skin care products, and also a workshop producing thread rolls. There was some maintenance in partial elements in the 1980s. The original wooden handrails and stairs were changed to stone ones at that time. The pillars used to be made of iron was also replaced by wood materials. There happened other restoration actions in the roof tiles, but it only focused on spray painting on the façade, appearing as a new one from outside. To get rid of the leakage of rain water, during that time, the residents built some personal facilities on their own tiles and added handrails of stairs with cement.

Demonstration of architectural features

The general judgement of the current condition described the building in a bad condition mostly due to the devastated along the long time. There is limited living area in each room space and narrow access available in accordance with the modern living condition, even less public space than imagine due to plenty private additional facilities in the atrium yard. There are obvious defects from the initial observation, which are opponent to the modern comfort demand in the living environments.

With the help of architecture software, the results from investigation on current spatial situation of the buildings are analyzed following different functions for detailed analysis, which focused on the building plans, public areas, function areas and added areas (as shown in Table 2 ). Different colors are labeled in the planning drawings, which are used to explain the relationship between different space area.

The statistical database was summarized based on architecture features from the plan layout analysis in Table 2 . There are totally 28 families still living in the building based on the statistical data collected in 2019. The architectural distribution here are mostly changed by private additional facilities building to meet their basic requirements (Fig.  6 ).

Spatial analysis of rooms in the case study building ZF 84 (Red for 1st floor; Black for 2nd floor).

Simulation of energy performance

For the energy perspective, there are two comparative scenarios analyzed in the building performance simulation, see Table 3 . The original performance of the building labeled as “Model_1” is referred to the original built reference for the listed building, which induced the single glazed timber framed windows, wooden doors, old clay tile roofs, and brick timber framed walls. “Model_2” is one scenario with modification in accordance with conservation requirement standard implemented double glazed windows, exterior walls of insulation and renewal of roofs and doors to improve the thermal properties and physical behavior of the building to fulfill the conservation requirement. “Model_3” is another model implemented with suggested modification by replacement of recycling construction materials 29 in envelope wall and further optimization in other building components. Both renovation scenarios are going to improve the whole building energy saving goals to achieve the green building standard and even higher efficiency.

With suggested analysis on the building energy perspective, comparative review on the three analyzed models of the ZF building in the case study explain how it is working and possible changes with the common suggested refurbishment measures in the terms of energy (Table 3 ) through the building performance simulation. The calculation of the energy consumption didn’t include the associated facilities because the lighting and appliances were installed separately according to the individual intentions.

The thermal transmittance (U-value) of the materials in different construction elements for the three models were calculated according to the National green building standard in the cold zones of China (2019) and the materials properties were obtained from the local design guidance for construction. The U-value of the possible energy refurbishment measures are also shown in Table 3 .

Considering the rate of use of the equipment, lights and occupancy are the same in the three models, the most indicative aspect is the heating and cooling energy demand. From the results of the energy performance simulating presented in Table 3 , it is obviously the Model_3 outperforms a little bit better than the ordinary in Model_2 and it is a significant improvement of the baseline in Model_1.

The energy performance of the three models throughout the year is shown in Fig.  7 . The peak heating demand occurred in period from December to February, the peak cooling demand happened in July to August period. Compared to the peak value of heating demand in the Model_1, it decreased to 24,700 kWh in the Model_2 which was 11.8% reduction, while the value in the Model_3 was decreased to 24,550 kWh which was approximately 12.3% less than the number in Model_1, and even 1% less compared to Model_2 in the same weather condition. There is not a long season required cooling demand, the peak values in cooling demand of all the three models happened around August and have big various due to different modification. But generally, the cooling demand is a slightly increased after insulation modification, but still small percentage compared to the heating demand over the year.

Monthly energy consumption of the models. ( A ) Model_1; ( B ) Model_2; ( C ) Model_3.

The monthly heating loads variation are displayed in Fig.  8 . It is evident the heating loads in Model_2 and Model_3 was significantly reduced than the Model_1 in the winter period. While the cooling demand was increased slightly due to the better insulations retained better thermal properties.

Monthly energy load profile. ( A ) Model_1; ( B ) Model_2; ( C ) Model_3.

There might also certain limitation in the results, because the building is old and most part are under maintenance. There almost too few people to check the validation of the building. However, the simulation and calculation results are expected to aid the stakeholders understand the building performance through different restoration strategies.

Findings and discussion

Every city has its unique historical culture standing for its soul, it is specifically shown in the physical space among the historical blocks and daily life forms of the citizens live in it. As a typical buildings style with 100 years history combining Western and Chinese culture, the Qingdao Liyuan building request a better comprehensive assessment in accordance with modern living standard. According to the dual-perspectives analysis, the deep assessment on the Liyuan buildings is examined and explained from the two perspectives.

Analysis in architectural features

A general spatial analysis of the rooms was conducted focused on various building facilities inside the buildings according to the field measurements data. As shown in Fig.  9 , the minimal to maximum dimensional information was illustrated, it summarized the general features in this Liyuan courtyard building. (1) There is limited access space as the stairs width are from 0.95 to 1.8 m and corridor width are 1–1.4 m; (2) The living space is relatively spacious compared to the commercial space which is normally narrow while the space is generally small in size; (3) the kitchen space is average in size but very little sanitary space arrangement as the dimension in toilets are quite small even smaller than the access space. In general, the rooms in the Liyuan courtyard buildings are quite old-fashioned with small size for living and little space for access and sanitary and kitchen.

Statistical analysis in the spatial information in case study buildings.

There are obvious defects existed in the Liyuan building design which opposed to the development trend of modern comfort in the living environments.

Bad sanitary condition. Only one or two public toilets arranged in the original design in this courtyard for all the residents which reflect the outdated sanitary prohibitions and class discrimination to Chinese workers for low residential standard in the colonial time.

Insufficient facilities served. No associated facilities supporting daily lives to meet the privacy and space requirements of the modern living style.

Small spatial arrangement in the rooms. The space allowance is limited to the minimum living needs, unable to meet more public and flexible areas.

Analysis in energy performance features

The energy performance is always complicated involving considerations on many factors. The analysis through building performance simulation with concerns on the energy performance tried to give deeper impression on the building from dynamic state.

With a comparative analysis of the peak values variation in the heating and cooling demand of the simulation models (Fig.  10 ), the upgrading of thermal insulation and materials improve the building performance greatly. The heating load of the building in the cold season is greatly reduced, saving nearly half of the heat energy. While the cooling load slightly increased during summer period. It shows that changing the thermal performance of building exterior envelope materials can effectively improve indoor comfort and reduce energy consumption in severe cold seasons, but it will also bring negative effects slightly in hot seasons.

The variations in the heating and cooling consumption from the accumulative amount and peak value.

Meanwhile, the data shows that although the energy consumption in the hot season has increased, from a year-round perspective, the heat consumption in Qingdao is several orders of magnitude higher than the cold consumption. The amount of energy saved by increasing the thermal performance of building exterior walls is still considerable. Therefore, it is still a very efficient measure to transform the thermal performance of listed building.

The passive grains breakdown distribution displayed in the Fig.  11 illustrate more consideration on the energy perspective. There are several considerations from the pictures.

The annual heat loss is much higher than the income in the listed building, thus, heat preservation in winter will be far more energy-saving than heat dissipation in summer.

The three models all start from improving the thermal functionality (K value) of the building’s external walls, which succeed in reducing the heat loss caused by heat transfer from 19.3% of the total loss to 12.3% and 12.1%. It is very effective and gradually reduces the energy consumption of the building. However, heat loss from ventilation and heat dissipation is still a drop in the bucket. Therefore, in the conservation of Liyuan building, not only the thermal performance of the material itself, but also the design correction on airtightness of the interior and exterior spaces of the building should be handled well.

The passive grains breakdown analysis. ( A ) Model_1; ( B ) Model_2; ( C ) Model_3.

Related to Qingdao Liyuan building style, the existence of the courtyard increases the building surface area, and the short depth in the rooms also makes it relatively easier access the wind to take away heat from the inside. The general wooden structure of the listed building and wall have high coefficient of expansion, porosity, and poor airtightness, which also increase the ventilation heat loss to a certain extent.

Obviously, the selection of building wall insulation materials has a great impact on building energy conservation. At present, the building wall insulation performance of Liyuan buildings in China is poor, resulting in relatively high heating and air conditioning load of buildings in China, that is, under the same indoor environment, the building energy consumption demand per unit area is relatively high. By increasing the thickness of the external wall and reducing the heat transfer coefficient of the external wall, increasing the thickness of the external wall could increase the weight of the external wall and consume a lot of building materials. Therefore, in energy-saving buildings, the heat transfer coefficient of the external wall could be generally reduced by reducing the heat transfer coefficient of the material and improving the structure.

Sustainability embodied within the contemporary buildings

The existing Liyuan buildings are strongly demonstrate resilience and versatility, their capability to persist throughout long time should be appreciated as a symbol of sustainability. The demand to preserve such heritage buildings and prevent further decay, while preserving embodied unique historical characteristics provide extended perspectives in the project of retrofitting. By protecting the authentic brick façade and maintaining the continuity of the original purpose of the building, it initialized more consideration on other perspectives besides the improvement of the energy performance.

The proposed dual-perspectives method on assessment of retrofitting upgrade was not only focused on the authentic visual appearance, but also estimate the energy performance through reasonable simulations based on the information collected. This can help to verify the extent of how the retrofitting meet the living standards on energy efficiency and comfort conditions comprehensively.

The simulations in this case, analyzed and explained adequate renovation measures with statistical data. By empowering the envelop properties enhancement, it is obvious to gain better energy efficiency and thermal performance in heating demand during winter, while get certain loss in cooling demand during summer. This could be further improved according to the frequency of use of the room in different seasons, so as to adjust the heat energy consumption as much as possible while keeping the cold energy consumption in a stable level.

The proposed upgrade measures reduced the thermal loss from 19.3 to 12.3%, which increased energy efficiency greatly. It is evident the building energy efficiency can be improved with adequate measures, with certain careful consideration of necessary premises for the existing contemporary buildings as following conditions:

Use the environment friendly materials to get rid of the possible embodied emission.

Execute comprehensive analysis of the current conditions of the building.

Determine the restoration goals in different perspectives and the extent.

Decide suitable construction measures to ensure the energy retrofitting goals and maintain the original function following the guidance in the conservation requirement.

Estimate the energy efficiency with reasonable simulation to help making decisions on the choice between different methods, to obtain the general judgement on the building conservation in full-scale.

It is suggested for all the architects to better understand the old contemporary buildings from multi-perspectives, especially with more consideration in the combination of architecture design with energy performance. With the aims to overcome the energy crisis and reduce heat losses, it is necessary to apply adequate thermal insulation in the building envelope elements, which is the most effective measures because the devastated building cannot ensure thermal properties in good condition. While respecting the conservation requirements and maintaining the authentic appearance of the listed building, various models of restoration were suggested and analyzed through building performance simulation (BPS) method. The results and findings of the paper verified the success in the energy efficiency improvement within the example in Qingdao Liyuan buildings, and it contributed with practical certification by applying the principles and retrofitting measures in the restoration project.

This individual approach is necessary in every old contemporary building to ensure the realization of restoration in all the perspectives could be implemented with satisfying results. It suggested the knowledge gained from this case study would serve as support for possibility discussion of specific strategy explore based on the guideline upgrade of the whole neighborhood scale in the retrofit of old buildings in a more comprehensive extent.

Conclusions

This paper investigated the sustainability embodied within a typical contemporary residential building date back to 1900s in China, which still exists nowadays as symbol of traditional culture and classical architectural style. The research is going to consider how the initial residential demands could be satisfied with reasonable renovation actions under energy consumption optimization direction. Field investigation and deep assessment on aesthetic succession were proposed as triggers for new target toward better energy efficiency in building performance. Two scenarios executed in the simulation of case study towards lower energy consumption purpose. This environment friendly practice could fill up the gap between excessive natural resource and limited requirement for architecture buildings. To sort out the internal meaning and information of the traditional architectures in the backward time period, it can be great help to understand how unique they are to maintain detailed records of its characteristics and recover its brightness with the modern technologies. The comprehensive result from the survey investigation in the case study proposed a feasible and ecological design database for the retrofit and improvement of Liyuan courtyards.

Associated with the specific case studies, intuitive descriptions make representations of the reality attractive and understandable by others beyond specific areas of knowledge. Limitations like the difficulty to read plans and cuts, to anticipate cost scenarios and to include holistic complexity find in these models the multidisciplinary convergence needed for applied interdisciplinary studies. Most Liyuan courtyard buildings in Qingdao still have it basic functions for use, and they can somehow retain distinctive architectural forms and pleasant street environment through reasonable renovation and retrofit. As an excellent supplement to tourism resource, this can be valuable attempt to recover the original characteristics and charms by this practice of retrofit and refurbishment operation on the existing Liyuan courtyards. The purpose of reviving the historical architecture can be realized by the careful retrofit constructions. This attraction from history presented as a new form of architectural retrofit will be another achievement of sustainability in the economic manner.

Energy perspectives assessment provided an opportunity to get deeper insight into more detailed information embodied within the contemporary buildings. There are possible measures to improve the living comfort by changing the arrangement of the rooms and purpose of using, which may change the using time and occupancy in the building and furthermore change the human behavior inside the building. By applying insulation or changing the glazing windows and other various measures, the building energy performance could be improved and achieve the modern green building standard. In conclusion, this dual-perspective method provided a chance to explain the old buildings with better acknowledgement within the building and require the architects to apply more comprehensive consideration in the design phase, and get better retrofitting measure in the project of individual contemporary building.

Data availability

The datasets during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully appreciate the suggestive comments from the editors and reviewers for further modification in the manuscript submission. Special appreciate to Mrs. C. X’s. contribution to the experiment design improvement in the revision process, also to the modification suggestions and language edit by Professor B.D.

This research was supported by a project of Shandong Province Higher Educational Science and Technology Program (J18KA090).

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Y.F.X. and F.Y. conducted the dimensional measurement and random interviews in the field survey investigation, they also took photos of the Liyuan courtyards. Y.F.X made some of the digital drawing of illustrations. Y.H. made sustainability analysis from historical and environmental perspectives, modified and organized the methodology, analyzed the illustrations with further modification and wrote the paper; C.X. and Prof B.D. modified and improved the manuscript in the revision and modified the design of the experiment. Prof B.D. is the supervisor of the research. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Huang, Y., Xu, C., Xiao, Y. et al. Investigation of sustainability embodied in existing buildings: a case study of refurbishment adopted in a Chinese contemporary building. Sci Rep 11 , 17283 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96687-9

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A former warehouse in Northwest Portland, Oregon, has been transformed into the home of Great Notion Brewing, whose state-of-the-art taproom, coffee shop, and office space enliven the industrial neighborhood. Designed by ZGF, the building uses modern timber technology and locally harvested materials to showcase the region’s manufacturing roots.

The repurposed taproom, constructed of cross-laminated timber (CLT) and clad in naturally weathering Cor-ten steel panels, is connected to a spacious lobby made of yakisugi Japanese burnt timber. The raw CLT panels contrast with the black charred wood entry to create a bright, warm, and inviting space where patrons can drink Great Notion’s beers and marvel at the massive metal fermentation tanks that sit behind a nearby glass wall. – Ali Oriaku

Architect: Perkins&Will Location: Soo Valley, British Columbia

Client: Delta Land Development Electrical engineer: Rainbow Electric Energy consultants: Gencell, VREC Fire protection engineer: Viking Fire Protection General contractor: Durfeld Builders Glazing: Blackcomb Glass HVAC: Custom Air Structural engineer: StructureCraft Timber supplier: Structurelam Welder: OpenWide Welding Windows: Optiwin

Overlooking the Soo Valley in British Columbia’s Coast Mountains, SoLo, designed by Perkins&Will, is a Passive House–certified home made almost entirely of Douglas fir. Perkins&Will transformed the remote site into a luxury off-grid retreat that produces more energy than it consumes, with combustion and fossil fuels removed from its daily operations.

The project’s strategically limited material palette reduces the home’s embodied carbon footprint. The modular, prefabricated timber panels were trucked to the site and lifted into place by crane, reducing waste and construction time. Because of the valley’s harsh climate, the enclosure is composed of two layers of timber, with a heavy outer frame serving as a weather shield, and an insulated inner layer designed to contain heat. A glass curtain wall found at the rear of the home lets guests take in a view of the valley. – Ali Oriaku

Kendeda Building for Innovative Sustainable Design

Design architect: The Miller Hull Partnership Collaborating architect and prime architect: Lord Aeck Sargent Location: Atlanta

Timber installer/framer: Universal Timber Structures Timber supplier: Unadilla Laminated Products Salvaged lumber finishes supplier: Raydeo Enterprises General contractor: Skanska Landscape architect: Andropogon Design engineer: PAE Electrical engineer: Newcomb & Boyd Civil engineer: Long Engineering Structural engineer: Uzun + Case Graywater systems water consultant: Biohabitats

The Kendeda Building for Innovative Sustainable Design is the first mass timber building on the Georgia Institute of Technology’s campus, and its 46,848 square feet of programmed space makes it the largest higher education building to achieve Living Building certification. It uses FSC-certified, responsibly harvested timber for its decking, benches, tables, and counters. According to the architects, that has saved 33 percent more carbon from being released than if the wood had come from a non–sustainably sourced supplier. The architects also said that the wood in the project has sequestered more than 100,00 kilograms of carbon dioxide. The Kendeda Building embodies a bold, values-driven vision that promotes sustainable construction and design methods. – Keren Dillard

Grafton Architects–designed Anthony Timberlands Center at the University of Arkansas tops out

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Introduction and Acknowledgements                          Overview and Summary of Best Practices Conclusion Case Studies  

Introduction and acknowledgements.

The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC) initiated Four Case Studies Exemplifying Best Practices in Architectural Co-design and Building with First Nations  as a resource for designers, clients, funders, and policymakers.

As the leading voice for excellence in the built environment in Canada, the RAIC believes that architecture is a public-spirited profession with an important role in reconciliation – addressing injustices by giving agency back to Indigenous people.

The document builds on the success of the RAIC International Indigenous Architecture and Design Symposium held in on May 27, 2017. At this ground-breaking event, Indigenous speakers from Canada, New Zealand, Australia and the United States presented best practices in co-design with Indigenous communities and clients. Co-design is a collaborative design process between architects and the Indigenous community as client.

The symposium was a project of the RAIC Indigenous Task Force which seeks ways to foster and promote Indigenous design in Canada.  Its members include Indigenous and non-Indigenous architects, designers, academics, intern architects and architectural students.

The four case studies presented here further explore and exemplify best practice themes, specifically in the context of three First Nations and one Inuit community in Canada. 

Ottawa consultant Louise Atkins carried out the research and writing. Special thanks are extended to the Department of Indigenous Services Canada for funding the case studies, and to the 15 individuals interviewed for the projects who generously shared their time, insights and inspiring stories.

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Overview and summary of best practices.

The four case studies set out to explore best practices in architectural co-design in the context of three First Nations and one Inuit community in Canada. One case study was selected from each of four asset classes – schools, community and cultural centres, administration and business centres, and housing. These asset types would be of special interest to First Nation, Inuit, and other Indigenous communities and to the Department of Indigenous Services Canada as they consider the architectural design, building, and funding of new community infrastructure facilities and housing. 

Best practice insights from these studies can inspire communities and help shape government funders’ policies and practices.

Summary of Best Practices

Interviews were conducted with architects and designers, Indigenous chiefs and community leaders, Indigenous government employees, contractors, and construction company officials, academics, and government funders.  Questions posed in interviews built on best practice themes from the RAIC International Indigenous Architecture and Design Symposium as well as value-added considerations such as Indigenous employment. Best practice findings are divided into four groups.

Project Initiation

The impetus for each project was different. Some were replacement assets. The Six Nations of the Grand River were replacing one-room schools dating from the early 20th-century.  When the Splatsin te Secwepemc lost their “Log Cabin” convenience and artisan craft store in a fire, they replaced it with a much larger business hub, artisan marketplace, and offices. The Squamish and Lil’Wat First Nations leveraged the opportunity of the 2010 Olympic Games to create a cultural centre as a showcase to the world in their shared traditional territory of Whistler, BC. In Nunavik, the major stakeholders came together to design, build and monitor a pilot duplex house that could be a prototype for sustainable northern housing that is culturally responsive, better adapted to climate change, and highly energy efficient.  

Co-design Process

Co-design is the collaborative design process between the architects and the Indigenous community as client. In the four case studies, best practices included architects listening carefully to understand the community’s vision, and working closely with the client throughout the design phase. The resulting building designs were anchored in Indigenous peoples’ connection with the natural world and reflected who they are as people – their traditions, culture, values and lifestyles, and their aspirations.

Co-design is not a formula. In each case study, co-design took its own distinct form. In one project, the architect worked with a large steering committee of Indigenous chiefs and stakeholder officials. Another included Elders as well. A third used a design charrette with a cross-section of Indigenous tenants and a fourth added community open houses to the process. Two of buildings were designed by Indigenous architects, and two were by architects and designers with experience working in Indigenous contexts.

For all four projects, Indigenous respondents underlined the importance of architects who listen well to the community vision and engage in ongoing dialogue. Through an iterative process, the architects brought design options and solutions until their clients were satisfied that their vision developed into a tangible design that met functional requirements and reflected their values, culture, traditions, lifestyles, and aspirations.

Designs referenced ancestral building forms and Indigenous peoples’ reverence for and relationship with the natural world. In every case example, the buildings were anchored to their natural surroundings and most integrated traditional materials, particularly wood. Each project maximized energy conservation through mechanical means, insulation, and designs that utilized natural heating, cooling, and air circulation systems.

The buildings were further enhanced through siting, orientation and natural light. In keeping with Haudenosaunee traditions, Emily C. General School is oriented to the cardinal directions, tracking the sun through the days and seasons. Following Squamish and Lil’Wat traditions, entrances to their cultural centre face east. For the Nunavik pilot duplex, reversible front entrances are an architectural innovation that allows optimal positioning of every house for solar gain and bright living spaces.

Architects and designers and their clients carefully shaped the interior spaces, commissioned artists' installations and added historical and contemporary artifacts to convey the cultures and facilitate traditional practices and teaching.

For example, visitors to the Quilakwa Centre and band members alike can sit and enjoy their Tim Hortons coffee among massive log posts and beams carved with images of bald eagles, salmon, fish, and scenes of traditional Splatsin life.

Building Process

Each community took a hands-on approach to the building process. Strong Indigenous community capacity was demonstrated in project oversight and management. Indigenous construction firms and entities employing Indigenous workers in a broad range of skilled trades built major portions of the projects. Leaders stayed involved and committed the necessary resources to ensure project completion. These best practices could be formulated into a guideline enabling First Nation funders to recognize and assess capacity and shift control of capital projects to qualified First Nations.

Steering committees continued to play an important oversight role, guiding development and consulting with architects, designers, and construction managers, right through to project completion. 

These buildings and facilities were built by Indigenous people. Project management and the majority of the construction was done by Indigenous-owned entities employing local Indigenous tradespeople, exemplifying best practices in employment, skills development, pride in the work and a sense of community ownership of the completed buildings. In every case, these buildings are highly-valued by Indigenous community residents and continue to be well-maintained.

First Nation leaders interviewed for the case studies believe that for communities with proven track records in building projects which are on-specification, on-time, and on-budget, the funding agencies should objectively assess and recognize this capacity and pass control to the First Nation for all aspects of their building projects.

Two case study projects involved First Nations who were large or sole funders of their buildings. The Quilakwa Centre was completely self-funded by the Splastsin First Nation through a combination of insurance and trust funds and loan financing. Large cultural complexes are expensive to build, and despite contributions from all levels of government and the private sector, a large funding gap remained for the Squamish Lil’wat and Squamish Cultural Centre. Both First Nations contributed their own band resources and business know-how to get the projects done.

For all four projects, Indigenous leaders were determined to complete their projects to reflect community identity and become a base for cultural reclamation and growth.

Indigenous respondents all felt that the impact of their co-designed buildings was significant, with positive, far-reaching outcomes. They appreciated the role the architectural co-design process played in creating buildings that resonate with the community and will be of lasting value.  Architectural innovations exemplified in these projects have since been applied more broadly to other building projects.

After 20 years in operation, the IL Thomas and Emily C. General Elementary Schools at Six Nations of the Grand River continue to serve as positive teaching environments and community spaces and are well-maintained. The children are aware and proud that their grandparents, aunts, and uncles built the schools, and vandalism does not occur. The co-design process with the Indigenous architect and project manager, Brian Porter, MRAIC, enabled steering committee members to develop fluency in design and construction processes – knowledge they have applied through a dozen subsequent building projects. Six Nations members continue their tradition as skilled builders and tradespeople. They are respected and employed in their home community, other First Nations and in major North American cities. Read case study

Cultural Centre

For the Squamish Lil’Wat Cultural Centre in Whistler BC, the two First Nations sought out and hired an Indigenous architect, Alfred Waugh, MRAIC. Their goal was to give this large and complex project to an Indigenous architect to develop, innovate and become a role model for Indigenous youth. Today the Squamish Lil’Wat Cultural Centre is a spectacular showcase for the two cultures, welcoming visitors from around the world and inspiring understanding and respect among people. It is also preserving and transmitting architecture, traditional knowledge, culture and spiritual teachings through the generations. Indigenous Youth Ambassadors employed at the centre are enjoying good careers in the tourism and hospitality industries. There are broader outcomes as well. Following construction of the cultural centre, the Squamish established a large Indigenous trades school. The cultural centre has deepened the bonds between the Squamish and Lil’Wat tribes, who are undertaking new joint projects. Architect Alfred Waugh has adapted innovations exemplified in this project to some of his subsequent major design projects. Read case study

Administrative and Business Centre

The Quilakwa Centre , located on Highway 97A in the BC interior attracts many travellers and tourists. With a Tim Hortons restaurant, convenience and craft store, and gas bar, the Splatsin Development Corporation has doubled the number of retail employees and payroll. Due to greatly increased sales of artisan crafts in the new space, traditional basket making and beading are flourishing, and new art forms are emerging. Visitors are enjoying this unique building and showcase for Splatsin culture, history, arts and business acumen. As a favourite local gathering place for people from the reserve and from nearby Enderby, it is strengthening connections between the two communities. Read case study

In Nunavik, traditional ways of life are important to identity and wellbeing. Tenants in the  Nunavik pilot duplex houses  expressed great satisfaction with their physical comfort and the capacity of their homes to support cultural practices. Owing to warm and cold porches and the large flexible kitchen and living space, a hunter and his family can store and butcher game, and hold traditional country food feasts on the floor. Another unit, occupied by a mother and her adult daughter, is an ideal environment for them to sew mitts and boots in the bright sunlight of south-facing windows, and to store sealskin pelts on their outdoor balcony. For these pilot homes, architect Alain Fournier, FIRAC, designed reverse entrances – a true innovation which allows optimal positioning of every house for solar gain. As a prototype, this pilot duplex is being monitored for physical and socio-cultural performance, a best practice that will contribute to sustainable northern housing design.  Read case study

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These four case studies illustrate that through a collaborative co-design approach, architects were successful in taking the visions, ideas, and preferences of their Indigenous clients, and turning them into designs that resonate with the community and are technically sound. These designs and building projects reflect Indigenous identity and become a base for cultural reclamation and growth.

In this way, architecture has an important role in giving agency back to Indigenous people and promoting their aspirations. 

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Case studies:.

Case Study 1: First Nation School Emily C. General Elementary School and IL Thomas Elementary School Six Nations of the Grand River, Ontario Architect:  Brian Porter, MRAIC

Case Study 2: First Nation Cultural Centre Squamish Lil’Wat Cultural Centre Squamish and Lil’Wat First Nations, British Columbia Architect:  Alfred Waugh, MRAIC

Case Study 3: First Nation Administrative and Business Centre Quilakwa Centre Splatsin te Secwepemc First Nation, British Columbia Architect:  Norman Goddard Designer:  Kevin Halchuk

Case Study 4: Inuit Housing Pilot Nunavik Duplex Quaqtaq, Nunavik, Quebec Architect:   Alain Fournier, FIRAC  

Funding for this study was provided by the Department of Indigenous Services Canada.

Information on the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Indigenous Task Force and its membership may be found  here .

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3 important cases of building collapse due to poor construction management.

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Construction is perhaps the most critical stage in the life cycle of structures, mainly because of the danger of failure and the high chances of underestimating construction loads.

A report developed by the American Society of Civil Engineers, based on their study of around 600 failed structures, found that around 40% of the structures failed during the construction stage, 36% of the structures failed during the pre-construction stage due to flawed designs, and 24% failed during their operational stage.

The failure of a structure is described as the propagation of local collapse from one segment to another segment, eventually resulting in the failure of an entire building or its lopsided part. It could be a product of natural disasters, for example, seismic tremors, floods, or coincidental acts such as an explosion in the service system or terrorist bombings.

Analyzing the reasons for explicit structural failures and proposing measures to relieve their effects is a successful measure to lessen risks and improve the safety of structures. Therefore, this article discusses the failure of some major structures, their root causes, and the lessons learned. 

1. The Skyline Plaza Apartment Building, Virginia, US

The design plan of the Skyline Plaza complex included six office buildings, eight apartment buildings, shops, and one hotel. The project was a $200 million residential-commercial complex and was situated in Fairfax County, Virginia. During the construction of the skyline plaza complex, one of the apartment buildings under construction collapsed. A total of 15 labors were killed, and 40 were injured.

Design drawings of the collapsed building included the construction of 26 stories, a penthouse, and a four-story storm basement for parking. The building design was of a reinforced concrete flat plate with a 200 mm thick concrete slab. The height between each story was 2.7 m. 

1.1 Investigation Findings 

On 2 nd March 1973, some portion of the apartment building collapsed during construction. The collapse began on the 23 rd floor when the slab of the 24 th floor was being cast. On the 23 rd floor, the slab started showing cracks and the failure of the building occurred vertically along the full height of the building, including the basement levels. Also, the adjacent post-tensioned reinforced concrete car parking structure collapsed. 

Specialists concurred that the concrete had not acquired sufficient strength to carry the construction loads applied during the construction process. Investigators confirmed that the original design plan had no deficiencies. The most probable reason for the collapse of the building was the punching shear failure on the 23 rd floor of the building.  

After the collapse, a team from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) came to the site and started an investigation. Further, a detailed investigation was conducted by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). 

NBS and OSHA mentioned in their reports that the collapse of the building was directly related to poorly managed construction processes. The court found that the contractor and the site engineer were guilty of negligence as the contractor didn't follow the building code requirement and the site engineer didn't inspect the work properly. 

1.2 Lessons Learned

After the collapse of the Skyline Plaza apartment building, a series of changes were made in the building code related to the progressive collapse failure. Special inspection procedures were added in the inspection section of the building codes. Design criteria were also changed for effective planning to reduce the possibility of failure due to progressive collapse. The following points describe the violations of specified construction requirements and standard practices: 

• Violation of prerequisites to completely shore the two stories underneath the floor being cast. 
• Failure to permit legitimate curing time before removing shoring. 
• Failure to conduct curing test on the concrete specimen in the field. 
• Use of out-of-plumb shoring. 
• Improper inspection during casting and formwork removal to check the strength of concrete.  
• Improper installation of the climbing crane. 

2. Ronan Point Tower, Canning Town ,   London

The need to give substitution lodging to homes destroyed in World War-II encouraged European engineers to develop innovative pre-assembled construction strategies. One such plan included the construction of high-rise buildings using pre-stressed concrete components made in factories.

The structural framework included the construction of load-bearing walls and each floor was directly stacked onto the walls. Grouted bearing surfaces were used to construct the joint between the wall and the floor. This process of construction was termed as system building. A skyscraper at Ronan Point, Canning Town, UK, was built using this system building technique. 

On 16 th May 1968, a blast occurred due to gas leakage in the kitchen of a house on the 18 th floor. Just after the blast, the kitchen walls collapsed, and in-turn, the walls above the 18 th floor caved in. This impacted the floors beneath and obliterated the entire corner of the structure. A total of 14 people were injured and three were killed. 

2.1 Investigation Findings 

The investigation team revealed that the building collapsed due to the non-availability of an alternative load path when one portion of the external wall collapsed. After the demolition of the building, it was also revealed that the quality of the grouted bearing surface for the joints between floors and the walls was poor.

Because of the unprecedented collapse, the government examined the safety of other buildings constructed using the same concept as the Ronan Point Tower. Many buildings were demolished well ahead of their life span. 

The concept of progressive collapse of structures was not much known to the engineers before the failure of the Ronan Point Tower. In such collapses, a local failure is followed by widespread collapse through a chain reaction. What was irregular on account of the failure of the Ronan Point Tower was that a minor gas blast set off the collapse of a huge portion of a finished structure.

2.2 Lessons Learned

The experience due to the failure of Ronan Point Tower re-emphasized the following points: 

• Progressive failure can also occur in fully constructed structures.
• A structure should have redundancies to reduce the possibility of progressive failure. 
• Quality control should strictly be followed in the construction processes. 

3. 2000 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, US

On 25 th January 1971, a two-third portion of a 16-story residential building known as 2000-Commonwealth Avenue in Boston collapsed during construction, leading to the death of four workers. The building was under construction for more than six years. The collapse of the building generated approximately 8000 tons of debris. Luckily, the failure of the building was gradual, giving the workers some time to escape from the building site. 

The building was designed as a reinforced concrete structure and flat slabs were used for the roofing system with an elevator shaft provided in the center. This type of structural design is mainly famous for multi-story construction as it reduces the thickness of the slab and overall height between the floors. The thickness of flat slabs was between 160-190 mm for all the building areas except near the elevator core where it was 230 mm thick. The arrangement of the structural component constituted a height of 2.7 m for all the floors.    

The building, situated at 2000 Commonwealth Avenue, was intended to be 16 stories high with a mechanical room of height 1.5 m for the working of the lift at the rooftop. The plan area of the structure was 56 x 21 m 2 . The building additionally had underground parking of two levels. A pool, auxiliary spaces, and one flat were situated on the first floor, and a total of 132 flats were on the second through sixteen floors. At first, these flats were to be leased. However, the proprietors later chose to advertise them as apartment suites. 

At the hour of the collapse of the building, construction work was almost completed. The brickwork was finished up to the sixteenth floor, and the structure was generally encased from the second to the fifteenth floor. Heating, plumbing, and ventilation frameworks were introduced all through different floors of the structure. The interior work had also started on the lower floors. A temporary lift was constructed to help in moving equipment to various floors. It was assessed that 100 individuals were working in or around the structure at the hour of the collapse. 

The collapse of the building occurred in three stages. These stages were, failure due to punching shear in the rooftop at section E5, the failure of the slab, and in the end, the progressive failure of the structure. 

3.1 Investigation Findings 

The civic chairman of Boston appointed a commission to inquire about the collapse of the building. The commission discovered the following critical observations: 

• There was no signature of an architect or engineer found on a single drawing of the building. 
• The design engineer didn't give the computations supporting his structural drawings to the commission. No head or representative of the team of contractors held a building construction license of Boston city. 
• Ownership of the venture changed a few times, with changes in planners and architects. This scenario added to the general disarray and contributed to the abnormalities referred above. 
• The general contractual worker just had a solitary representative on location. Most subcontracts were given directly by the owner to the subcontractors and bypassed the general contractor. A total of seven subcontractors were involved in the construction. 
• The subcontractor, who was assigned to conduct the cold weather protection work on the structural concrete didn't carry out the assigned work. However, the structural engineer had indicated these measures. 
• There was no proof of any inspection of the work by a specialist despite the fact that the project particulars needed this. 
• The quality of construction material and quality inspections were poor. 
• The collapse of the building occurred due to the development of punching shear mechanism around column E5. Punching shear developed the flexural cracks around the roof slab located near the elevator core. Thus, the slab collapsed due to flexural yielding. 
• The design manual indicated a 28-day strength of 25 MPa. However, at the failure time, 47 days after casting work, the concrete couldn't seem to attain the necessary 28-day strength. 
• The most critical inadequacies were an absence of shoring under the slab at the roof and the quality of the concrete.

3.2 Lessons Learned

The following key factors describe the collapse of the multi-story building situated at 2000 Commonwealth Avenue: 

• Authorized design engineers should be chosen for the development of working drawings for construction. 
• Engineers and architects should be responsible for all the design-related calculations and their design work must be examined by the experts in that field from a government organization. 
• Ownership of a project should not change multiple times to reduce the confusion between the previous engineer and the newly appointed engineer. 
• Inspection at the construction site should be conducted regularly by government organizations, especially for cold weather work.  
• The quality of concrete work should be monitored throughout the project. 
• The construction work should conform to design documents and construction procedures.

The collapse of a building is characterized as the propagation of an initial local collapse from component to component, ultimately resulting in the collapse of a whole structure or a disproportionately large portion of it.

Construction is one of the most critical phases in the life cycle of buildings due to the risk of failure and the possibility of underestimating construction loads.

The structural framework included the construction of load-bearing walls and each floor was directly stacked on the walls. Grouted bearing surfaces were used to construct the joint between the wall and the floor. This process of construction was termed system building.

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CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

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Part of the book series: Building Pathology and Rehabilitation (BUILDING, volume 15)

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The book presents recent research and a collection of case studies and real-world experiences relating to building construction. Covering building rehabilitation, building diagnostics, service-life prediction and life-cycles, and hygrothermal behaviour, it bridges the gap between current approaches to the surveying of buildings and the detailed study of defect diagnosis, prognosis and remediation. The book features several case studies on building pathologies as well as a detailed set of references and suggestions for further reading. Offering a systematic review of the current state of knowledge, it is a valuable resource for scientists, students, practitioners, and lecturers in various scientific and engineering disciplines, including civil and materials engineering, as well as and other interested parties. 

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Editors and Affiliations

J.M.P.Q. Delgado

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Case Studies in Building Constructions

Editors : J.M.P.Q. Delgado

Series Title : Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55893-2

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Engineering , Engineering (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-55892-5 Published: 17 September 2020

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-55895-6 Published: 18 September 2021

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-55893-2 Published: 16 September 2020

Series ISSN : 2194-9832

Series E-ISSN : 2194-9840

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : VII, 154

Number of Illustrations : 27 b/w illustrations, 71 illustrations in colour

Topics : Building Materials , Building Construction and Design , Structural Materials

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Case Study Residence / Arkifex Studios

• Curated by Paula Pintos
• Architects: Arkifex Studios
• Area Area of this architecture project Area:  6200 ft²
• Year Completion year of this architecture project Year:  2017
• Photographs Photographs: Aaron Kimberlin
• Manufacturers Brands with products used in this architecture project Manufacturers:   Lutron , Miele , AutoCAD , Bulthaup , Dorken Delta , HE Williams , Lumen Pulse , Manko Window Systems , Mitsubishi Electric , Trimble Navigation , Unreal Engine
• Lead Architects: Michael Hampton
• Landscape : Grant Williams
• Design Team:  Arkifex Studios
• Clients:  Anonymous Architects
• Engineering Mep:  Interpres Building Solutions/ Structural: J&M Engineering
• City:  Springfield
• Country:  United States
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Text description provided by the architects. A case study on Ozark Modernism. The Case Study Residence harkens back to the post-WWII Case Study Houses project sponsored by Arts and Architecture magazine. Just as the original project was experimentation in modern American residential architecture, the Case Study Residence seeks to define and embody “Ozark Modernism” is an example of single-family residential architecture. For the firm, Case Study Residence is an opportunity to test a hypothesis, develop a specific regional vocabulary within our practice, and to reaffirm our mission statement.

Principal features of the project include: • biophilic design • context sensitive design • an underlying geometric formal logic

• Miesian horizontal symmetry • an emphasis on the haptic modality and visceral experience • a simplified and naturalistic materiality

• passive solar considerations to siting • minimal removal of trees on site • Use of reclaimed walnut, sustainably harvested siding, and locally quarried stone • consideration of archaeoastronomy in the design

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REVIEW article

Sustainable high-rise buildings: toward resilient built environment.

• Department of Urban Planning and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States

This article examines outstanding “sustainable” skyscrapers that received international recognition, including LEED certification. It identifies vital green features in each building and summarizes the prominent elements for informing future projects. Overall, this research is significant because, given the mega-scale of skyscrapers, any improvement in their design, engineering, and construction will have mega impacts and major savings (e.g., structural materials, potable water, energy, etc.). Therefore, the extracted design elements, principles, and recommendations from the reviewed case studies are substantial. Further, the article debates controversial design elements such as wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, glass skin, green roofs, aerodynamic forms, and mixed-use schemes. Finally, it discusses greenwashing and the impact of COVID-19 on sustainable design.

Introduction

As cities cope with rapid urban population growth and attempt to curb urban sprawl, policymakers, and decision-makers are increasingly interested in vertical urbanism. The United Nations estimates that by 2050 the urban population will increase by about 2.5 billion people, which translates to 80 million dwellers a year, 1.5 million new a week, or 220 thousand a day (The United Nations). Furthermore, it estimates that by 2100 the urban population will reach about 9 billion inhabitants, doubling today's urban population of 4.5 billion. Consequently, to accommodate the influx of urban population while reducing urban sprawl, we must engage the vertical dimension of cities ( Beedle et al., 2007 ; Al-Kodmany and Ali, 2013 ; Wood and Henry, 2015 ).

Indeed, employing high-rise buildings is not the only way to increase urban density. However, cities are embracing the tall building typology for additional reasons, including land prices, demographic change, globalization, urban regeneration, agglomeration, land preservation, infrastructure, transportation, international finance, and air right, among others ( Short, 2013 ; Binder, 2015 ; Kim and Lee, 2018 ; Abbood et al., 2021 ). Notably, we have seen in the last 20 years, or so an unprecedented, accelerated pace in constructing significant high-rises. In the previous two decades, the world added 12,979 tall buildings (100+ m) to the 7,804 buildings they previously built. Further, “cities have erected over 1,361 towers with heights that exceed 200 m, while they built only 284 before. Cities also constructed 150 supertalls (300+ m), while they constructed merely 24 supertalls previously. Further, cities recently completed three megatalls (600+ m); and obviously built none before” ( Al-Kodmany, 2018a , p. 31).

Climate change demands a new sustainable design that addresses serious challenges such as massive storms, earthquakes, and flooding. Urban planners have recently developed new models, for example, a “sponge city,” which advocates designing buildings and infrastructure that safely accommodate anticipated massive flooding. The “sponge city” model builds on the Green Infrastructure (GI) model that aims to improve water management systems and enhance the ecological wellbeing of urban habitats. Integrating green elements in buildings and their surrounding will surely help to absorb rainwater. Similarly, incorporating innovative engineering and architectural solutions helps capture and recycle rainwater, further reducing the likelihood of flooding ( Yeang, 2008 ; Wang et al., 2018 ).

Goals and Objectives

The prime goal of this research is to map out “green” design ideas that contribute to the sustainability of tall buildings. This research is significant because, given the mega scale of skyscrapers, any improvement in their design, engineering, and construction will have mega impacts and significant savings. Therefore, the extracted design elements, principles, and recommendations from the case studies examined in this article are substantial. For example, tall buildings require extensive structural materials ( Krummeck and MacLeod, 2016 ). Therefore, we can significantly reduce costs and carbon emissions by employing appropriate technologies and efficient structural systems. Likewise, tall buildings accommodate many tenants who consume enormous quantities of water. We can save valuable potable water by utilizing efficient water systems and gray and black water recycling systems through the full height of tall buildings. Collectively, this article informs the readers of innovative ideas and promising projects that support sustainable architecture, engineering, and urban planning ( Yeang, 1995 , 1996 , 2020 ).

Sustainability as a Comprehensive Conceptual Framework

Sustainability is a buzzword and a current policy, planning, and grant writing trend. Undoubtedly, the concept of urban sustainability continues to help guide and support architecture and urban developments ( Kim and Lee, 2018 ; Abbood et al., 2021 ). In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which details 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG's) and 169 Actionable Targets to be realized by 2030. In particular, Goal #11 refers to creating sustainable cities and communities. Further, the United Nations World Urban Forum (WUF), the world's premier conference on urban development, has embraced “sustainability” as an overarching theme for its agendas. The commitment to SDG's has been apparent since WUF's first meeting in 2002, titled “Sustainable Urbanization,” in Nairobi, Kenya, through the latest in 2020, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. In the same vein, in 2016, the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) adopted the New Urban Agenda (translated to 33 languages), stressing sustainability. Like the United Nations focus on and interest in sustainability, other important organizations, such as the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), Local Government for Sustainability (ICLEI), and Global Platform for Sustainable Cities (GPSC), have worked on and supported local and global sustainability projects, initiatives, and programs (United Nations) ( Short, 2013 ; Kim and Lee, 2018 ).

Likewise, the term “sustainability” frequently appears in academic literature and is discussed in professional conferences. In the United States, the American Planning Association (APA), the prime professional planning organization, continues to use the term “sustainability” in its National Planning Conference (NPC) and publications. In 2010, at the United Nations 5th WUF, the APA announced the creation of the Sustaining Places Initiative, which focuses on sustainability as a key to all urban planning activities. In recent years, the program has published several key reports, articles, and books that highlight this planning approach; see Sustaining Places: Best Practices for Comprehensive Plans by Short (2013) ; Binder (2015) ; Godschalk and Rouse (2015) .

This research views “sustainability” as an overarching theme that links ideas of “ecological,” “green,” “resilient,” and “smart,” where each feeds into the three pillars of sustainability: social, economic, and environmental. That is, “sustainability” can be viewed as a central concept due to its comprehensive framework represented in its three pillars (social, economic, and environmental) or the 3Ps (people, profit, and planet), where “people” refers to community wellbeing and equity; “profit” refers to economic vitality; and “planet” refers to the environment and resource conservation. These pillars or dimensions are also expressed by the 3Es (equality, economic, and ecology) or what is known as the triple bottom line TBL or 3BL. Sustainability seeks to balance these three dimensions according to short- and long-term goals and across geographic scales—from individual habitats to neighborhood, community, city, region, country, continent, and the planet ( Binder, 2015 ; Al-Kodmany, 2018a ).

Sustainability has emphasized the concept of endurance and long-term survival. As such, it augmented the idea of resilience. In turn, global warming and climate change have produced abnormal rates of flooding, droughts, storms, tidal surges, soil erosion, and sea-level rise, which collectively prompted resilience as paramount. As such, sustainable and resilient designs have merged and promoted emergency preparedness to reduce the harmful impacts on people, infrastructure, and institutions caused by unanticipated future natural disasters ( Krummeck and MacLeod, 2016 ).

Similarly, sustainability has always supported embracing technology to improve the performance of buildings, infrastructures, and overall quality of life. For example, it has advocated using technology to generate “green” energy and advanced rail mass systems over the private automobile. Integrating technology into the urban environment is meant to improve the three pillars of sustainability, including economic, social, and environmental.

As such, a plethora of innovative “smart” technologies (e.g., smart elevators, smart appliances, smart payment, smart infrastructure, smart grid, smart traffic management systems, and smart parking) intend to achieve greener, more sustainable, and resilient cities. For example, smart grids can enable the efficient handling, distribution, and delivery of electricity throughout the city. Smart meters can warn homeowners or businesses when they have leaks in their water systems. Smart buildings employ intelligent features that use energy efficiently while increasing user comfort by collecting and interpreting data related to power, security, occupancy, water, temperature, and humidity ( Yeang, 2020 ).

Overall, the sustainability concept has been developed to become comprehensive and inclusive over the past three decades. It helps us adapt our activities to the constraints and opportunities of the natural systems needed to support our lives. It also helps planning for balanced developments that make urban centers prosper and natural landscapes flourish as an integral component of a diverse economy and cultural heritage. Worldwide, sustainability efforts are growing because people—including city officials, planners, architects, and community members—can more easily see the links between environmental, economic, and social objectives and higher quality of life ( Yeang, 1995 , 1996 ).

Case Studies

Over the past decade or so, a wealth of creative green solutions have been developed through the design and construction of skyscrapers, providing valuable knowledge that will benefit the development of future towers ( Du et al., 2015 ; Oldfield, 2019 ). An in-depth evaluation would require building performance and operation data currently unavailable. In some cases, the data is simply not collected, and in others, the data is collected but not shared for liability reasons. Therefore, instead of focusing on evaluation, this paper elaborates on the sustainable design features employed in some of the world's most notable contemporary skyscrapers ( Wood, 2013 ; Al-Kodmany, 2015a , 2018b ). The following 12 case studies highlight vital green features of modern skyscrapers. They come mainly from three continents, including North America, China, and the Middle East.

Bank of America Tower

Bank of America is one of the world's major financial institutions. Bank of America Tower (also known as One Bryant Park) was designed by Cook + Fox Architects ( Abbood et al., 2021 ). The 336 m (1,200 ft) tall, 55-story BoA tower is proclaimed to be among the greenest skyscrapers in the U.S. It is the first commercial high-rise to earn LEED Platinum certification, the highest designation from the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). Table 1 highlights the building's green features.

Table 1 . Bank of America Tower: Key green features.

The Visionaire Tower

The Visionaire Tower is a 35-story building located in Battery Park City, NYC. Completed in 2008, the tower contains 251 condominium units. Notably, it was the first to receive the LEED Platinum from the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in New York City and is considered one of the greenest residential condominiums in the U.S. Pelli Clarke Pelli served as the architect ( Al-Kodmany, 2018b ). Table 2 highlights the building's green features.

Table 2 . Key green features.

One World Trade Center

On September 11, 2001, the twin towers of the World Trade Center and several other buildings in Lower Manhattan were damaged or destroyed. Soon after the devastation, the ambitious reconstruction to replace and honor the World Trade Center began. The massive One World Trade Center on the northwest corner of the 6.5-ha (16-ac) site was completed in 2015. The radio antenna that tops the 123 m (400 ft) spire reaches a symbolic height of precisely 541 m (1,776 ft) high to honor the year of America's independence. The 105-floor 1 WTC is the tallest in North America ( Binder, 2015 ). The building was designed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill (SOM). Table 3 highlights the building's green features.

Table 3 . One World Trade Center: Key green features.

The Tower at PNC Plaza

The 33-story, 167 m (554 ft) Tower at PNC Plaza is the new corporate headquarters for the PNC Financial Services Group, one of America's oldest financial institutions. Gensler led the tower's architectural design, and Buro Happold led the building's engineering in collaboration with the consulting firm Paladino & Co. The tower was completed in 2015 and received LEED Platinum certification ( Barkham et al., 2017 ). Table 4 highlights the building's green features.

Table 4 . The Tower at PNC Plaza: Key green features.

Salesforce Tower

The 326 m (1,070 ft) tall, iconic Transbay Tower is the tallest building in San Francisco, CA. Designed by Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects, the 80-story office tower is located adjacent to the San Francisco Transbay Transit Center (SFTTC), a multi-modal transportation hub. The building received LEED Gold certification ( Al-Kodmany, 2020 ). Table 5 highlights the building's green features.

Table 5 . Salesforce Tower: Key green features.

Devon Energy Center

The Devon Energy Center is the new headquarters of the independent oil and natural gas producer Devon Energy Corporation, located in the heart of Oklahoma City. The 50-story building was completed in 2012. Designed by New Haven-based architects Pickard Chilton, the Devon Energy building is among the largest LEED-NC Gold-certified buildings in the world ( Al-Kodmany, 2018b ). Table 6 highlights the building's green features.

Table 6 . Devon Energy Center: Key green features.

Manitoba Hydro Place

Manitoba Hydro is a major government-owned energy utility (electric and natural gas) in Manitoba, Canada. The complex consists of two 18-story twin office towers that sit on a stepped, three-story podium. Completed in 2009, it is the first in Canada to achieve LEED Platinum Certification from the Canada Green Building Council (CaGBC), the highest certification available under the LEED program. The challenge was to design an energy-efficient building in a place that experiences extreme climates—temperatures fluctuating from −35°C to +34°C (−31°F to +95°F) over the year ( Oldfield, 2019 ). Table 7 highlights the building's green features.

Table 7 . Manitoba Hydro Place (MHP): Key green features.

EnCana Energy Company needed a significant building to consolidate its scattered staff and help revitalize Calgary's downtown, Alberta, Canada. The tower was named after the Bow River and forms the first phase of a master plan covering two city blocks on the east side of Centre Street, a central axis through downtown Calgary. The 58-story Bow office building rises to 238 m (779 ft) and is the tallest office tower in Calgary. The skyscraper is the headquarters for energy giants EnCana (TSX:ECA) and Cenovus (TSX:CVE), among other companies. The 238 m (781 ft) tower was designed by Foster and Partners and completed in 2012. The Bow has achieved LEED Gold certification ( Al-Kodmany and Ali, 2016 ). Table 8 highlights the building's green features.

Table 8 . The Bow: Key green features.

Shanghai Tower

The Shanghai Tower is the third tower in the trio of supertall buildings, including Jin Mao Tower and the Shanghai World Financial Center, located in the heart of Shanghai's new Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone. Rising to a height of 632 m (2,073 ft), it is the tallest building in China. The 121-story tower offers a mix of functions, including offices, hotels, shops, restaurants, and the world's highest open-air observation deck at 562 m (1,844 ft). The tower has achieved LEED Platinum certification ( Al-Kodmany, 2015a ). Table 9 highlights the building's green features.

Table 9 . Shanghai Tower: Key green features.

Greenland Group Suzhou Center

At 358 m (1,175 ft), Greenland Group Suzhou Center (also known as Wujiang Greenland Tower) visually anchors the Wujiang waterfront of Suzhou City, China. The tower is part of a larger multi-block development, and Suzhou Center aims to function as the catalyst. The 78-floor tower accommodates a mixed-use program of hotels, serviced apartments, offices, and retail space. The building was completed in 2021 and aimed to achieve LEED-CS Silver status ( Kim and Lee, 2018 ). Table 10 highlights the building's green features.

Table 10 . Greenland Group Suzhou Center: Key green features.

Parkview Green FangCaoDi

Parkview Green FangCaoDi complex is located in the heart of Beijing's Central Business District (CBD). It is an iconic landmark and a potent symbol of creative design thinking that promotes attractive forms, efficient utilities, functionality, and enjoyable experiences. The project was designed by Integrated Design Projects, engineered by ARUP, developed by Hong Kong Parkview Group, and is owned by Beijing Chyau Fwu Properties Ltd. Parkview Green FangCaoDi has achieved LEED Platinum certification. The project was opened to the public in 2012 ( Wood and Salib, 2013 ; Al-Kodmany, 2015a ). Table 11 highlights the building's green features.

Table 11 . Parkview Green FangCaoDi: Key green features.

Al Bahar Towers

Al Bahar Towers, the new headquarters for the Abu Dhabi Investment Council, occupy a prominent site on the North Shore of Abu Dhabi Island in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Completed in 2012, the project comprises two 25-story, 150 m (490 ft) tall office towers. They are among the first buildings in the Gulf to receive the U.S. Green Building Council LEED Silver rating ( Al-Kodmany, 2014 ). Table 12 highlights the building's green features.

Table 12 . Al Bahar Towers: Key green features.

Vital Green Features

The reviewed case studies offer a wealth of green features. These are inspirational and form a foundation for architects interested in sustainable skyscrapers. Table 13 summarizes the prime green features based on LEED key topics and links them to sustainability. It gives the reader a quick overview and comparison among the different buildings.

Table 13 . Crucial green features based on LEED key topics and link to sustainability.

Who Pays and Who Gains?

It is often unclear who benefits from employing green features. Table 14 attempts to illustrate the complexity of the issue by differentiating among the various stakeholders.

Table 14 . Who pays and who gains by employing green features?

Making a Choice

The tables provided in this article help navigate “green” options. The decision will rely on multiple factors, including cost and benefit analysis. All the green features that suggest employing technology, the final decision will depend on the availability and affordability of technology. When technology needs to be shipped thousands of miles, environmental, and monetary costs could be high. As a result, some of the claimed green features may not be green and may render to be controversial. Here are some examples:

Wind Turbines

Due to the higher velocity of wind at higher altitudes, it would make sense to take advantage of greater heights of tall buildings by integrating wind turbines into them. Further, turbines produce power on-site, saving power transmission costs. As such, tall buildings have the potential to harness wind energy. However, only a handful of tall buildings employed wind turbines worldwide due to practical challenges (e.g., turbulence, small blade size, specialized maintenance, little return on investment, and accidents). For example, Bahrain World Trade Centre, which innovatively integrated wind turbines, reports that management has stopped the turbines as tenants complained about the noise generated by the turbines. Similarly, the power generated by wind turbines installed on the top of the Strata SE1 in London was too little—it can barely light the hallways of the building. Eventually, the turbines were turned off. Likewise, Pearl River Tower reports little benefits from the employed turbines. In the case of Hess (Discovery) Tower in Houston, turbines were never operated because one of the blades fell off the roof onto a pickup truck.

Photovoltaic Panels

Similar renewable energy means, such as photovoltaic panels, continue to be largely impractical. First, the roof area in a skyscraper is relatively small and is often preoccupied by mechanical and digital equipment and antenna. Second, other buildings could block facades of tall buildings. In places that feature long overcast days, solar harnessing is minimal. Further, the technology continues to be inefficient. Therefore, the return on investment is low, discouraging developers from pursuing this type of renewable energy.

Glass skin continues to be controversial. Glass allows in natural light, resulting in a significant saving on artificial lighting. However, Glass increases the demand for cooling and heating. Low-emission coating mitigates the problem. In any case, climatic conditions may influence the decision on the glass percentage. Some architects argue that overall Glass should not exceed 50% of the building. However, real estate experts argue that location to desirable views such as lakes and parks makes the Glass desirable.

Green Roofs

Again, the roof of a skyscraper is relatively tiny, and it is often preoccupied with mechanical and digital equipment. Further, wind's high velocity at higher altitudes may render the place uncomfortable. However, there have been some cases that feature “successful” rooftop parks. For example, the rooftop park in Marina Bay Sands bridges three tall buildings, creating a spacious entertaining space in the sky—it became the signature feature of the entire complex.

Aerodynamic Forms

Aerodynamic forms are meant to mitigate the impact of wind by deflecting its forces. By so doing, the required structural elements will be reduced, entailing significant cost savings. However, manipulating form should not result in unfunctional interior spaces. Further, we may need to overcome “vanity height” (i.e., reducing rather than boosting height for showing off). “A 1,500-foot (457-m) skyscraper must be fifty times stronger against the wind than a 200-foot (61-m) one ( Al-Kodmany, 2018b , p.71).” Tall buildings are tested in a tunnel wind laboratory to optimize their forms at the design stage. A famous example is Burj Khalifa; the architects optimized its final form in a wind tunnel.

Mixed-Use Towers

Recently, mixed-use tall buildings have been proliferating all around the world. As the name indicates, mixed-use towers offer spaces for multiple functions, including residential, office, hotel, retail, educational, restaurant, café, sky-park, and sky-garden functions. The CTBUH defines a mixed-use tower as a tall building that contains two or more functions, where each of the functions occupies at least 15% of the tower's total space. Car parks and mechanical plant space do not count as mixed-use functions—though incorporating them could be essential. A mixed-use tower could be more sustainable than a single-use tower for multiple reasons, namely economic uncertainty and fluctuating markets, commercial synergy that results from diverse functions, adaptive reuse, convenience, and smaller plates on upper floors. Indeed, in an unstable economy, a mixed-use building offers greater opportunities to secure investment in real estate development because the rental income comes from multiple sources. Second, various uses guarantee the presence of people and economic activities for longer hours—potentially around the clock—thereby providing convenience to local tenants and improving the perceived safety and security. Third, mixed-use towers have the potential to use resources and waste efficiently. For example, the water system can capture graywater from residential spaces (which generate a larger amount of graywater) and transfer the recovered water to the cooling system of office spaces where water consumption is high and potable water use is low. This type of system can drastically reduce the use of potable water (which is generally used in the cooling system) in office spaces, resulting in significant savings.

The above examples illustrate that choosing a green feature is not always straightforward. Likewise, assessing “greenness” could be controversial. For example, the Bank of America Tower in NYC employed green features, and upon completion, developers and owners claimed to be among the world's greenest skyscrapers. It explicitly uses the most efficient energy technologies, such as a 4.6-megawatt combined heat and power plant that runs on natural gas. The wasted heat created for electricity is recycled to heat and cool the building in winter and summer, respectively, thus reducing overall natural gas usage. However, the skyscraper is one of the city's highest energy users because it hosts large stock and bond traders who require intensive computing. Similarly, abusive behavior of tenants (e.g., keeping lights on when not needed, overusing water in the shower, etc.) could alter the expected results. As such, trade-off analysis will help decide on selecting green features.

Greenwashing

While sustainability is an important concept, we need to stress that greenwashing is prevalent. Cities' “green” agendas have been “hijacked” by industries that wish to take advantage of the new trend by converting sustainable missions into money-grubbing businesses. Industries propagate the notion that new technologies offer superior benefits. Mouzon reflects on this issue by stating: “Today, most discussions on sustainability focus on ‘gizmo green,' which is the proposition that we can achieve sustainability simply by using better equipment and better materials” ( Mouzon, 2010 , p. 42). Indeed, integrating “smart” technology and “green” machines into our daily life is essential; nevertheless, “this is only a small part of the whole equation. Focusing on gizmo green misses the big picture entirely,” according to Du et al. (2015 , p. 43). We need to question where the technology comes from. In the context of the United States, he argues that using Low-E Glass imported from China and selling organic produce from Chile do not necessarily contribute to making our cities more sustainable when we consider transportation and environmental implications. We need to pay attention to both the broader issues of sustainability and the smaller measures such as banning plastic bags, restricting lawn watering, and using renewable energy.

COVID-19 and Sustainable Skyscraper Design

Most of the examined buildings were conceived and constructed before COVID-19. However, the recent pandemic has stressed the sustainability mission of making our buildings healthier. For example, COVID-19 has reminded us of the importance of natural ventilation that helps reduce the spread of the virus. In the post-pandemic era, it will be easier to make the case to invest in intelligent systems that ensure a high-quality air supply. Likewise, it is likely to be easier to make a case for water filtering systems to fight situations where a virus can contaminate the water supply.

The pandemic also has reminded us of the importance of green and communal spaces within and around tall buildings, on and beyond the ground level, such as sky gardens, sky parks, green roofs, Phyto walls (modular wall system comprising containers of hydroponic plants), public parks, indoor gardens, plants, and open spaces to offer occupants accessibility to nature within tall buildings and combat adverse effects of high density. Architects and tenants will value outdoor elements such as terraces, courtyards, gardens, and balconies to ease access to natural ventilation, daylight, and fresh air.

Further, because of the pandemic, many people will likely favor natural elements such as green landscaping and community gardens to improve air quality and reduce carbon emissions resulting from transporting food. Similarly, the pandemic has taught us the importance of bringing natural light and sun rays into our buildings and public spaces to kill germs and improve our bodies' immune systems. Extra hygiene could be further emphasized in dense places (such as high-rise buildings) in every aspect and scale, such as elevators, stairways, hallways, corridors, door handles, and the like. For reinforcing indoor hygiene, many other innovations will take place. Spaces for exercise and meditation are likely to be emphasized in future offices. Therefore, we predict that a “value” shift is underway. As public health becomes a priority, the sustainability mission will become a priority ( Al-Kodmany, 2018d , e ).

Given the massive densification of the 21 st -century city, architects, engineers, and urban planners increasingly face the challenge of constructing taller buildings. This review paper examines prominent examples of “sustainable” skyscrapers of varying geographic locations, climates, and socio-cultural contexts. It summarizes the prime green features based on LEED key topics and links them to sustainability. The findings are inspirational and form a design foundation for building sustainable skyscrapers. They would help navigate “green” options while considering who pays and benefits from them. The discussions also elaborate on controversial issues.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: power consumption, renewable energy, aerodynamic forms, recycling systems, structural materials, greenwashing, COVID-19

Citation: Al-Kodmany K (2022) Sustainable High-Rise Buildings: Toward Resilient Built Environment. Front. Sustain. Cities 4:782007. doi: 10.3389/frsc.2022.782007

Received: 23 September 2021; Accepted: 23 March 2022; Published: 18 April 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Al-Kodmany. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Kheir Al-Kodmany, kheir@uic.edu

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Seismic retrofit case study of shear-critical rc moment frame t-beams strengthened with full-wrap frp anchored strips in a high-rise building in los angeles.

1. Background

2. literature review, 2.1. externally-bonded frp (eb-frp), 2.2. eb-frp for shear strenghtening of t-beams, 2.3. frp anchors, 2.4. similar anchored eb-frp shear-strengthening applications, 2.5. research posterior to testing program, 3. experimental program, 3.1. geometry and internal reinforcement, 3.2. frp reinforcement, 3.2.1. specimen s1a, 3.2.2. specimen s1b, 3.2.3. specimen s5, 3.3. material properties, 3.4. test procedure, 3.5. instrumentation, 4. beam capacity estimates, 4.1. flexural capacities, 4.2. shear capacities, 5. design of frp strengthening, 5.1. frp laminate, 5.2. frp anchors, 6. experimental results and discussion, 6.1. experimental damage observations and crack patterns, 6.1.1. specimen s1a, 6.1.2. specimen s1b, 6.1.3. specimen s5, 6.2. hysteretic response, 6.3. strength and stiffness degradation, 6.4. energy dissipation, 6.5. displacement components, 6.6. effective stiffness, 7. adjustments to the frp scheme, 8. on-site frp installation, 9. discussion.

• FRP anchors were designed using the strength model by Kim and Smith (2010), the only available model at the time. Although those equations were calibrated using test data for CFRP anchors made from rolled carbon fiber sheets and are only strictly applicable to straight anchors, they constituted the best design model at the time and were considered appropriate for this project given the ample inclination angles adopted in both applications.
• FRP anchors were designed to develop the allowable design strain in the FRP laminates, that is, 0.004 for full-wrap and anchored U-wraps schemes per ACI 440.2R, as opposed to a design for FRP laminate rupture. The arguments supporting this specific design approach, which was also used by del Rey Castillo et al. [ 30 ], are twofold: first and foremost, FRP laminates used to strengthen the yielding region of an MRF beam in shear should not be designed to reach a strain level close to rupture, given the brittle nature of both FRP materials and shear failures and the catastrophic consequences of an MRF beam collapse. Second, anchors designed to fully develop the tensile strength of the FRP laminates are in many cases impractically large, with the drilling of large holes in RC members becoming a concern.
• The development of a full-wrap strengthening scheme for the end-yielding regions of the deficient MRF beams was justified by the following: (1) the ineffectiveness of the embedded FRP anchors added to S1B at the end-yielding region due to premature anchor pullout, resulting in S1A and S1B failing at a similar shear load and rotation demands, (2) the lack of intermediate vertical crossties affecting multiple MRF beams in the building, (3) the reversible nature of seismic demands, and (4) the consequent potential for buckling of the top flexural reinforcement if only a U-wrap were implemented.
• The saw-cut grooves on specimen S5 were intended to force the formation of an even distribution of thinner flexural cracks between the FRP strips to mitigate premature FRP debonding by minimizing concrete cracking behind the FRP reinforcement and, second, to enhance the ductility at the hinging region. Despite the limited data from only one specimen, the authors believe that the evenly spaced crack-control joints promoted a distribution of the plastic rotations across the hinging region that contributed to a more ductile behavior compared to a flexural failure with the plastic rotations concentrated at one dominant crack.
• Strains in the FRP reinforcement applied at the end-yielding regions were not monitored in any of the tests presented in this paper; thus, the adequacy of the prescriptive maximum allowable strain of 0.004 per ACI 440.2R cannot be discussed, and the shear contribution of the FRP (V f ) cannot be verified from the experimental data.
• Due to budget constraints and the high cost of each of these nearly full-scale tests, the performance of the retrofit concept on S5 had to be evaluated without a control specimen (i.e., identical to S5 but with no shear retrofit).

10. Conclusions and Results

Author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

Click here to enlarge figure

• Kim and Smith (2010) [ 24 ] (SI units):

• del Rey Castillo et al. (2019) [ 33 ] (SI units):

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Share and Cite

Anacleto-Lupianez, S.; Herrera, L.; Arnold, S.F.; Chai, W.; Erickson, T.; Lemnitzer, A. Seismic Retrofit Case Study of Shear-Critical RC Moment Frame T-Beams Strengthened with Full-Wrap FRP Anchored Strips in a High-Rise Building in Los Angeles. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 8654. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198654

Anacleto-Lupianez S, Herrera L, Arnold SF, Chai W, Erickson T, Lemnitzer A. Seismic Retrofit Case Study of Shear-Critical RC Moment Frame T-Beams Strengthened with Full-Wrap FRP Anchored Strips in a High-Rise Building in Los Angeles. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(19):8654. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198654

Anacleto-Lupianez, Susana, Luis Herrera, Scott F. Arnold, Winston Chai, Todd Erickson, and Anne Lemnitzer. 2024. "Seismic Retrofit Case Study of Shear-Critical RC Moment Frame T-Beams Strengthened with Full-Wrap FRP Anchored Strips in a High-Rise Building in Los Angeles" Applied Sciences 14, no. 19: 8654. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198654

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