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ANU Undergraduate Research Journal: Volume Four, 2012

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The ANU Undergraduate Research Journal presents outstanding essays taken from ANU undergraduate essay submissions. The breadth and depth of the articles chosen for publication by the editorial team and reviewed by leading ANU academics demonstrates the quality and research potential of the undergraduate talent being nurtured at ANU across a diverse range of fields.

Established in 2008, AURJ was designed to give students a unique opportunity to publish their undergraduate work; it is a peer-reviewed journal managed by a team of postgraduate student editors, with guidance from the staff of the Office of the Dean of Students.

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ANU Undergraduate Research Journal: Volume Four, 2012 »

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• Preliminary pages (PDF, 125KB)
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• All at Sea: Romanticism in Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (PDF, 1.1MB) – Galven Keng Yue Lee doi
• Compatibility before Commitment: Do Couples Consider Compatibility before Marriage? (PDF, 97KB) – Emma Best-Prothero doi
• Selective Cleavage of SCO by Transition Metal Complexes (PDF, 263KB) – Tekle Setargew doi
• Terrorists, Freedom Fighters and Refugees: Non-Political Crimes in Article 1F(b) of the Refugee Convention (PDF, 117KB) – Jasmine Still doi
• Reducing Car Use in Canberra: A Holistic Policy Approach (PDF, 124KB) – Elizabeth P. Proctor doi
• An Investigation of the Adaptive Coefficient Setting Method for the Two-Hop Consensus Protocol and the Effect of Network Topology on Power Systems (PDF, 330KB) – Craig Wang doi
• Gender, Empire and the Church Missionary Society in British Uganda, 1895–1930 (PDF, 113KB) – Jayne Regan doi
• Lost in the Struggle: Aussie Battlers in the Rhetoric of Opposition (PDF, 130KB) – Joshua Bee doi
• The Impact of Microplastics on Salp Feeding in the Tropical Pacific (PDF, 323KB) – Wing Y. Chan and Jan Witting doi
• Giving the Nod to Bacterial Symbionts: The Nod Signal Transduction Pathway (PDF, 166KB) – Kevin Murray doi
• 'Liberty', Judicial Independence, and the Separation of Judicial Power Doctrine: A Uniquely Australian Approach (PDF, 129KB) – Aman Gaur doi
• Here, Do This For Me: The Impact of Delegated Legislative Power on Separation of Powers and the Rule of Law (PDF, 98KB) – Gretal Wee doi

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Please note that the best resource to help you is your academic supervisor and any post-graduate students you may have worked with.

Options for ANU undergraduate and postgraduate coursework students

• ANU Student Research Conference (SRC ) :  The ANU SRC is usually a two-day conference in the spring, usually September,  that includes oral and poster presentations by current undergraduate, Honours and postgraduate coursework students of ANU and workshops hosted by ANU learning communities.
• ANU Open Research Repository  in the Student Output Collection: Coursework students at The Australian National University (ANU) can now publish their research in the University’s Open Research Repository, which provides a dedicated digital space for the research outputs of ANU undergraduate, Honours and postgraduate coursework students.  The repository is a project between Student Experience and Career Development and the ANU Library.
• ANU Undergraduate Research Journal : AURJ selects and reviews undergraduate essay submissions across a wide range of fields.  One issue a year is produced and can be accessed online at no cost.  You can see the  2016 issue here .
• The Human Voyage: Undergraduate Research in Biological Anthropology  is a journal that publishes outstanding student articles in all areas of biological anthropology, including primatology, palaeoanthropology, bioarchaeology and human behavioural ecology. While the primary goal of this journal is to publish work of the highest quality authored by undergraduate students, it will also educate students in regards to publishing in academia. All submissions will be peer-reviewed and edited by ANU academic staff.

Undergraduate research organisations & conferences

• Australasian Conference of Undergraduate Research (ACUR)  is a non-profit association in New South Wales, Australia whose mission is is to promote and advance the spread of undergraduate research in Australasia. ACUR publishes  URNA (Undergraduate Research News Australasia) , a newsletter designed to provide information about developments, upcoming events, and resources on engaging undergraduates in research and inquiry.   ACUR also holds  conferences and events , including an annual Conference and periodic Posters in Parliament.
• Council on Undergraduate Research (CUR) : CUR is a non-profit organization based in the United States that supports and encourages undergraduate research opportunities.  While most of their activities focus on faculty and institutional development, they sponsor  two annual student events  that offer undergraduates the opportunity to present their research, the National Conference on Undergraduate Research and Posters on the Hill.
• The International Conference of Undergraduate Research (ICUR) is an annual event that is unique in concept and design. Using the latest in high-definition video conferencing technology, it connects students from universities across the world to a single 24-hour forum. It is a platform to showcase the work of some of the world’s best undergraduate researchers from any discipline or area. Undergraduates present their research in joint sessions alongside peers on the other side of the world, interacting with fellow presenters and audiences in real-time through video-links and social media.
• Online Conference for Undergraduate Research in Australia (OCURA)  allows undergraduate research students an opportunity to gain experience and present their work in a virtual online space. There is usually no registration fee and it is open to all schools of undergraduate research (including honours*) across all Australian universities.

Helpful websites

• Web Guide to Undergraduate Research  (WebGURU) (comprehensive guide for undergraduate research in the USA). Includes general information on  Getting Started , including selecting a supervisor, who is called an advisor in the US, and questions to ask.

Lists of undergraduate research journals

• Undergraduate Research Journals  (from the University of Nebraska - Lincoln)
• Undergraduate Research Journal Listing (from Council on Undergraduate Research )
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Tuckwell Scholar, Luke McNamara (2023) published in the ANU Undergraduate Research Journal

Tuckwell Scholar, Luke McNamara (2023) has had his essay 'We must be quickly sailing' published in the ANU Undergraduate Research Journal. His essay was written in the  ANU Research School of Economics  class ECHI1006: The Australian Economy, Past and Present and examines convict contributions to the economic development of Australia.

Luke, along with writing for the ANU Undergraduate Research Journal is also a UNICEF Australia Young Ambassador and editor for the 2023 edition of The Bell , the scholar-edited annual magazine produced for the Tuckwell Scholarship Program. 

Congratulations Luke, we can’t wait to see what you do next!

Luke’s essay can be accessed here: ‘We must be quickly sailing’: Convict contributions to the economic development of Australia | ANU Undergraduate Research Journal

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Some results uranium dioxide powder structure investigation

• Processes of Obtaining and Properties of Powders
• Published: 28 June 2009
• Volume 50 , pages 281–285, ( 2009 )

Cite this article

• E. I. Andreev 1 ,
• K. V. Glavin 2 ,
• A. V. Ivanov 3 ,
• V. V. Malovik 3 ,
• V. V. Martynov 3 &
• V. S. Panov 2  

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Features of the macrostructure and microstructure of uranium dioxide powders are considered. Assumptions are made on the mechanisms of the behavior of powders of various natures during pelletizing. Experimental data that reflect the effect of these powders on the quality of fuel pellets, which is evaluated by modern procedures, are presented. To investigate the structure of the powders, modern methods of electron microscopy, helium pycnometry, etc., are used. The presented results indicate the disadvantages of wet methods for obtaining the starting UO 2 powders by the ammonium diuranate (ADU) flow sheet because strong agglomerates and conglomerates, which complicate the process of pelletizing, are formed. The main directions of investigation that can lead to understanding the regularities of formation of the structure of starting UO 2 powders, which will allow one to control the process of their fabrication and stabilize the properties of powders and pellets, are emphasized.

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Investigation of the Properties of Uranium-Molybdenum Pellet Fuel for VVER

Investigation of the Influence of the Energy of Thermal Plasma on the Morphology and Phase Composition of Aluminosilicate Microspheres

Evaluation of the possibility of fabricating uranium-molybdenum fuel for vver by powder metallurgy methods.

Patlazhan, S.A., Poristost’ i mikrostruktura sluchainykh upakovok tverdykh sharov raznykh razmerov (Porosity and Microstructure of Chaotic Packings of Solid Spheres of Different Sizes), Chernogolovka: IKhF RAN, 1993.

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Andreev, E.I., Bocharov, A.S., Ivanov, A.V., et al., Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved., Tsvetn. Metall. , 2003, no. 1, p. 48.

Assmann, H., Dörr, W., and Peehs, M., “Control of HO 2 Microstructure by Oxidative Sintering,” J. Nucl. Mater. , 1986, vol. 140,issue 1, pp. 1–6.

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Elektrostal’ Polytechnical Institute (Branch), Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys, ul. Pervomaiskaya 7, Elektrostal’, Moscow oblast, 144000, Russia

E. I. Andreev

Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys (State Technical University), Leninskii pr. 4, Moscow, 119049, Russia

K. V. Glavin & V. S. Panov

JSC “Mashinostroitelny Zavod”, ul. K. Marksa 12, Elektrostal’, Moscow oblast, 144001, Russia

A. V. Ivanov, V. V. Malovik & V. V. Martynov

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Correspondence to K. V. Glavin .

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Original Russian Text © E.I. Andreev, K.V. Glavin, A.V. Ivanov, V.V. Malovik, V.V. Martynov, V.S. Panov, 2009, published in Izvestiya VUZ. Poroshkovaya Metallurgiya i Funktsional’nye Pokrytiya, 2008, No. 4, pp. 19–24.

About this article

Andreev, E.I., Glavin, K.V., Ivanov, A.V. et al. Some results uranium dioxide powder structure investigation. Russ. J. Non-ferrous Metals 50 , 281–285 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3103/S1067821209030183

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Published : 28 June 2009

Issue Date : June 2009

DOI : https://doi.org/10.3103/S1067821209030183

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Research School of Earth Sciences ANU College of Science

Professor nerilie abram.

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About me .

I am a paleoclimate scientist, with research expertise covering natural climate variability and human-caused climate change impacts from the tropical oceans to Antarctica. 

My research team is supported by ARC-funded projects through the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes , the Australian Centre for Excellence in Antarctic Science , and through an ARC Future Fellowship.

In 2023 we will be working to establish a new Centre of Excellence for the Weather of the 21st Century , due to commence in February 2024.

I'm actively involved in the international Iso2k and CoralHydro2k reconstruction teams for the Past Global Changes 2k projects , and was a Coordinating Lead Author for the IPCC special report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate released in 2019. I am a member of the international Climate Crisis Advisory Group .

I am lucky to work with an amazing group of early career researchers. Currently group members include Georgy Falster , Chiara Holgate , Sarah Jackson , Kelly Lawler and Laura Velasquez Jiminez .

Where I've studied and worked

• 2011-present: Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University
• 2004-2011: British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council (Cambridge, UK)
• 2000-2004: PhD, The Australian National University
• 1996-1999: BSc Advanced with honours and university medal, University of Sydney

Images are from coral drilling of Krakatau tsunami blocks in Sunda Strait, 2012

Affiliations

• Climate & Ocean Geoscience , Member
• Palaeoenvironments , Researcher

Research interests

Research highlights, response of the east antarctic ice sheet to past and future climate change.

The vast East Antarctic ice sheet has often been viewed as being relatively insensitive to climate warming. But oberservations of ice loss in some parts of the ice sheet, as well as paleoclimate evidence for large ice losses at times of only moderate climate warming are challenging this view. This review paper finds that substantial ice loss from East Antarctica over coming centuries can still be avoided, but only if the Paris Agreement goal of limiting warming to well below 2°C is met.

Stokes et al., (2022) Nature , doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-04946-0. Links:  paper    press release     Conversation article

Connections of climate variability and change to bushfires in southeast Australia

This comprehensive review of the climate influences on bushfires in southeast Australia was a rapid response to Australia’s Black Summer disaster. The paper demonstrated the emergence of fire weather outside of historical experience, and the multiple climate variability and change factors expected to increase future fire risk. It also identified aspects of weather and climate where future changes in southeast Australia were uncertain, leading to new research that identified an increase in the frequency and strength of fire-promoting cold fronts over southeast Australia.

Abram et al., (2021) Communications Earth and Environment , doi: 10.1038/s43247-020-00065-8. Links:  paper    twitter summary    twitter summary on backstory and open letter   

Cai, Abram et al., (2022) Environmental Research Letters , doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac8e88. Links:  paper

Indian Ocean Dipole variability during the last millennium

By reconstructing 500-years of monthly-resolved Indian Ocean Dipole variability, this study was the first to demonstrate a tight coupling of interannual variability between the Indian and Pacific oceans, and potential for much larger IOD events than known historically, even without human forcing of the climate. Using this new paleoclimate evidence alongside observations and climate simulations increases confidence in projected future intensification of the IOD.

Abram et al., (2020) Nature , doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2084-4. Links:  paper    data    Conversation article

Abram et al., (2020) Quaternary Science Reviews , doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106302 .

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

The ocean and cyrosphere (frozen parts of our planet) are essential for our life on Earth, but climate change is already impacting from the tops of our highest mountains to the deepest parts of the ocean. This assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change involved more than 100 authors from 36 countries, who reviewed almost 7000 scientific studies and responded to more than 30,000 review comments. Our assessment shows how the ocean and cryosphere are changing, what our choices for the future will mean for how much and how quickly they continue to change, and what options are available to help people and ecosystems adapt to unavoidable future change.

IPCC (2019). Links:  report webpage   Public lecture    Radio interview    The Conversation

Early onset of industrial-era warming across the oceans and continents

Instrumental records of temperature provide unambiguous evidence for climate warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions during the 20 th and 21 st Centuries. But is this the full picture? Using palaeoclimate reconstructions and simulations spanning the last 500 years, this research finds that industrial-era warming first began in some parts of the world as early as the 1830s. The small but measureable response of Earth's climate to rising greenhouse gas levels during the 19 th century needs to be considered to fully account for how much and how quickly humans have altered our climate. Read more in The Conversation .

Abram et al., and the PAGES 2k Consortium (2016) Nature , 536, 411-418. Links:  paper    data    press release    video   

Tropical sea-surface temperatures for the past four centuries reconstructed from coral archives

Reconstructions of natural and human-induced climate change over the last millennium are primarily derived from land-based records, making it difficult to assess how climate changes have evolved across the large areas of ocean that cover the Earth. In this study, an international team of researchers has synthesised annually resolved coral records to produce sea surface temperature histories over four tropical ocean regions. The work is part of the Ocean2k project, as part of the wider Past Global Changes 2k initiative (PAGES2k).

Tierney, Abram et al., (2015) Paleoceanography , doi: 10.1002/2014PA002717. Links:  paper    data   

Evolution of the Southern Annular Mode during the past millennium

The winds that circle around the Southern Ocean determine how much rainfall falls over southern parts of Australia. These winds also affect the temperature of the ocean and air around Antarctica. This study shows that increasing greenhouse gas levels are causing the Southern Ocean winds to get stronger and pull in tighter around Antarctica, meaning that Australia misses out on winter rain and making parts of the Antarctic ice sheets more susceptible to melting.

Abram et al., (2014) Nature Climate Change , 4, 564-569. Links:  paper    data    press release    video

Acceleration of snow melt in an Antarctic Peninsula ice core during the twentieth century

This unique record of past ice melt shows that the current levels of melting on the Antarctic Peninsula are higher than at any other time over at least the last 1000 years. Melting has been increasing dramatically since the mid 20th century and the record gives a clear example of the potential for rapid increases in melting to even small amounts of warming in places where summer temperatures are close to 0 degreesC. Read more in the News and Views  and  The Conversation  commentary pieces on this study

Abram et al., (2013) Nature Geoscience , 6, 404-411.  Links:  paper    data    press release

Recent Antarctic Peninsula warming relative to Holocene climate and ice-shelf history

The Antarctic Peninsula is warming faster than any other place in the Southern Hemisphere. In this work we developed the first ice core record from the Antarctic Peninsula spanning the full Holocene, showing that the very rapid rate warming in this region over the past 50 years is very unusual in a geological context. Read more in the  News and Views  and  Real Climate  pieces written by Eric Steig.

Mulvaney, Abram et al., (2012) Nature , 498, 141-144.  Links:  paper    data    press release

Ice core evidence for a 20th century decline of sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea, Antarctica

Using the chemical fingerprints in an array of ice cores from around Antarctica this study was able to show the different regional patterns of sea ice retreat around Antarctica over the 20th Century. These long sea ice reconstructions contrast with the short satellite observations of Antarctic sea ice change, which have seen an overall increase in the extent of Antarctic sea ice since the 1980s.

Abram et al., (2010) Journal of Geophysical Research , 115, D23101, doi:10.1029/2010JD014644.  Links:  paper    BAS featured research . This 2013 invited review paper gives more details about how we can use ice cores to reconstruct Antarctic sea ice changes.

Oscillations in the southern extent of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool during the mid-Holocene

This study showed that accurate assessments of past ocean temperatures can be obtained by looking at the bulk geochemical signal of large groups of fossil corals. Applying this to corals from offshore of Sumatra and Papua New Guinea showed that the very warm waters that lie to the north of Australia (and are important for bringing rain to parts of the country) have moved closer and further way from Australia at different times during the last 7000 years

Abram et al., (2009) Quaternary Science Reviews , 28, 2794-2803 . Links:  paper    data

Recent intensification of tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean

This study used corals to extend the short instrumental record of the Indian Ocean Dipole (the Indian Ocean's equivalent to El Nino) back by more than 100 years. This long perspective shows how unusual the recent cluster of strong and frequent IOD events is; whereas these events typically only occurred every 20 years at the start of the 1900s, we are now seeing events roughly every 4 years.

Abram et al., (2008) Nature Geoscience , 1, 849-853.  Links:  paper    data

Seasonal characteristics of the Indian Ocean Dipole during the Holocene epoch

Detailed analysis of the chemistry of fossil coral skeletons showed how the temperature and rainfall changes during Indian Ocean Dipole events changed when the Asian monsoon was stronger than today. Understanding the potential for future changes in the duration and intensity of Indian Ocean Dipole droughts will be important for climate change adaption in the Indian Ocean region.

Abram et al., (2007) Nature , 445, 299-302.  Links:  paper    data    news & views

Coral reef death during the 1997 Indian Ocean Dipole linked to Indonesian wildfires

Our team were Eureka Prize finalists for the unique finding that nutrients from wildfires can fertilise the ocean and lead to destructive algal blooms. The findings were based on the death of a 400km long section of reef off the coast of Sumatra following massive wildfires in 2007.

Abram et al., (2003) Science , 301, 952-955.  Links:  paper

Research funding

My research is supported by a number of grants awarded by the Australian Research Council, including an ARC Future Fellowship and the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes and the Australian Centre for Excellence in Antarctic Science.

• Antarctic and tropical climate variability over the last millennium, and impacts on southern Australian rainfall , Principal investigator
• Unraveling the changing patterns of Australian rainfall , Supervisor

Teaching information

Image from ice core drilling on James Ross Island, Antarctica, 2008

• In semester 1 I teach Climate change: past, present and future (ENVS3013/6303) between the Fenner and Earth Sciences schools, and contribute to Blue Planet (EMSC1006).
• I also teach into ANU's Coral Reef Field Studies course (EMSC3019) on the Great Barrier Reef.
• I am able to offer research supervision for undergraduate students wishing to complete third year Special Topics (EMSC3050) or Honours year (EMSC4005) research projects.
• All of these undergraduate courses can be taken as part of the ANU Climate Science major that launched in 2021

Supervised students

• Sarah Jackson

Publications

You can also access my publication history through Google Scholar . Some of my publications require an academic library subscription to read the full content. Please email me if you aren't able to access one of my papers and would like me to send you a pdf copy.

Funding acknowledgements give details for papers where the Australian Research Council supported my work through project costs and/or salary.

Walter, R. M., Sayani, H. R., Felis, T., Cobb, K. M., Abram, N. J. , Arzey, A. K., Atwood, A. R., Brenner, L. D., Dassié, É. P., DeLong, K. L., Ellis, B., Fischer, M. J., Goodkin, N. F., Hargreaves, J. A., Kilbourne, K. H., Krawczyk, H., McKay, N. P., Murty, S. A., Ramos, R. D., Reed, E. V., Samanta, D., Sanchez, S. C., Zinke, J., and the PAGES CoralHydro2k Project Members. (2023). The CoralHydro2k Database: a global, actively curated compilation of coral δ 18 O and Sr/Ca proxy records of tropical ocean hydrology and temperature for the Common Era, Earth System Science Data , https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2022-172 . Funding support from CE170100023 and FT160100029.

Priestley, S.C., Treble, P.C., Griffiths, A.D., Baker, A., Abram, N.J. and Meredith, K.T. (in press). Caves demonstrate decrease in rainfall recharge of groundwater is unprecedented for the last 800 years. Communications Earth and Environment. Funding support from CE170100023 and DP140102059.

Jackson, S. L., Vance, T. R., Crockart, C., Moy, A., Plummer, C., and Abram, N.J. (2023 in revision). Climatology of the Mount Brown South ice core site in East Antarctica: implications for the interpretation of a water isotope record, Climate of the Past, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-1171 . Funding support from CE170100023 and SR200100008.

Abram, N.J. (2023). What can we expect from the final UN climate report? And what is the IPCC anyway? The Conversation .

Stokes, C.R., Abram, N.J. , Bentley, M.J., Edwards, T.L., England, M.H., Foppert, A., Jamieson, S.S.R., Jones, R.S., King, M.A., Lenaerts, J.T.M., Medley, B., Miles, B.W.J., Paxman, G.J.G., Ritz, C., van de Flierdt, T. and Whitehouse, P. (2022). Response of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet to past and future climate change. Nature 608, 275–286 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04946-0 . Funding support from FT160100029 and SR200100008.

Feng, P., Wang, B., Macadam, I., Taschetto, A.S., Abram, N.J. , Luo, J-J., King, A.D., Chen, Y., Li, Y., Liu, D.L., Yu, Q. and Hu, K. (2022). Increasing dominance of Indian Ocean variability impacts Australian wheat yields. Nature Food 3, 862–870. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00613-9 Funding support from CE170100023.

Cai., D., Abram, N.J. , Sharples, J.J., and Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. (2022). Increasing intensity and frequency of cold fronts contributed to Australia's 2019-2020 Black Summer fire disaster. Environmental Research Letters , 17, 094044, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac8e88 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023 .

Wright, N. M., Krause, C. E., Phipps, S. J., Boschat, G., and Abram, N.J. (2022). Influence of long-term changes in solar irradiance forcing on the Southern Annular Mode, Climate of the Past , 18, 1509–1528, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1509-2022 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023 .

Treble, P.C., Baker, A., Abram, N.J. et al. (2022). Ubiquitous karst hydrological control on speleothem oxygen isotope variability in a global study. Communications Earth and Environment 3, 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00347-3 . Funding support from DP140102059.

Erhardt, T., Bigler, M., Federer, U., Gfeller, G., Leuenberger, D., Stowasser, O., Röthlisberger, R., Schüpbach, S., Ruth, U., Twarloh, B., Wegner, A., Goto-Azuma, K., Kuramoto, T., Kjær, H. A., Vallelonga, P. T., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Hansson, M. E., Benton, A. K., Fleet, L. G., Mulvaney, R., Thomas, E. R., Abram, N. , Stocker, T. F., and Fischer, H. (2022). High-resolution aerosol concentration data from the Greenland NorthGRIP and NEEM deep ice cores, Earth System Science Data, 14, 1215–1231, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1215-2022 .

Abram, N.J. (2022). I am a climate scientist - and this is my plea to our newly elected politicians. The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. (2022). I am a climate scientist - and this is my plea to our newly elected politicians. In Hopkins (ed.) 2022: Reckoning with Power and Privilege . ISBN: 9781760762995 .

Abram, N.J. , Henley, B.J., Sen Gupta, A. et al. (2021). Connections of climate change and variability to large and extreme forest fires in southeast Australia. Commun Earth Environ 2, 8, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-00065-8 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023.

Crockart, C. K., Vance, T. R., Fraser, A. D., Abram, N. J. , Criscitiello, A. S., Curran, M. A. J., Favier, V., Gallant, A. J. E., Kjær, H. A., Klekociuk, A. R., Jong, L. M., Moy, A. D., Plummer, C. T., Vallelonga, P. T., Wille, J., and Zhang, L. (2021). El Niño Southern Oscillation signal in a new East Antarctic ice core, Mount Brown South, Climate of the Past . https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1795-202 1. Funding support from CE170100023.

McConnell, J.R., Chellman, N.J., Mulvaney, R., Eckhardt, S., Stohl, A., Plunkett, G., Kipfstuhl, S., Freitag, J., Isaksson, E., Gleason, K.E., Brugger, S.O., McWethy, D.B., Abram, N.J. , Liu, P. and Aristarain, A. (2021). Hemispheric black carbon increase after the 13th-century Māori arrival in New Zealand. Nature, 598, 82–85. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03858-9 .

Ummenhofer, C.C., Murty, S.A., Sprintall, J., Lee, T. and Abram. N.J. (2021). Heat and freshwater changes in the Indian Ocean region. Nature Reviews Earth and Environment , 2, 525–541. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00192-6 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023.

Abram, N.J. , Kaufman, D., McGregor, H., Martrat, B., Bothe, O. and Linderholm, H. (2020). Global climate goes regional, and vice versa: Reflecting on 14 years of the PAGES 2k Network. Past Global Changes Magazine , 29 (1), 16-17.

King, A., Abram, N.J. and Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. (2021). There's no end to the damage humans can wreak on the climate. This is how bad its likely to get. The Conversation .

McGregor, S., Abram, N.J. and Reef, R. (2021). 'How high above sea level am I?' If you've googled this, your likely asking the wrong questions - an expert explains. The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. , King, A., Pitman, A., Jakob, C., Arblaster, J., Alexander, L., Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S., McGregor, S. and Sherwood, S. (2021). Yes, a few climate models give unexpected predictions - but the technology remains a powerful tool. The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. , Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. and De Kauwe, M. (2021). Matt Canavan suggested the cold snap means global warming isn't real. We bust this and 2 other climate myths. The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. , Wright, N.M., Ellis, B., Dixon, B.C., Wurtzel, J.B., England, M.H. Ummenhofer, C.C., Philibosian, B., Cahyarini, S.Y., Yu, T.-L., Shen, C.-C., Cheng, H., Edwards, R,L. and Heslop, D. (2020). Coupling of Indo-Pacific climate variability over the last millennium. Nature 579, 385-392, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2084-4 . Funding support from DP110101161, DP140102059, FT160100029 and CE170100023.

• Database archive:  https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo-search/study/28451

Abram, N.J. , Hargreaves, J.A., Wright, N.M., Thirumalai, K., Ummenhofer, C.C. and England, M.H. (2020). Palaeoclimate perspectives on the Indian Ocean Dipole. Quaternary Science Reviews 237, 106302,   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106302 [ invited contribution ]. Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023.

Konecky, B. L., McKay, N. P., Churakova (Sidorova), O. V., Comas-Bru, L., Dassié, E. P., DeLong, K. L., Falster, G. M., Fischer, M. J., Jones, M. D., Jonkers, L., Kaufman, D. S., Leduc, G., Managave, S. R., Martrat, B., Opel, T., Orsi, A. J., Partin, J. W., Sayani, H. R., Thomas, E. K., Thompson, D. M., Tyler, J. J., Abram, N. J. , Atwood, A. R., Cartapanis, O., Conroy, J. L., Curran, M. A., Dee, S. G., Deininger, M., Divine, D. V., Kern, Z., Porter, T. J., Stevenson, S. L., von Gunten, L., and Iso2k Project Members (2020). The Iso2k database: a global compilation of paleo-δ 18 O and δ 2 H records to aid understanding of Common Era climate, Earth Syst. Sci. Data , 12, 2261–2288, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2261-2020

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/29593

Wright, N.M., Ellis, B. and Abram, N.J. (2020). A rare natural phenomenon brings severe drought to Australia. Climate change is making it more common. The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. (2019). Australia's Angry Summer: This is what climate change looks like . Scientific American . 31st December 2019.

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (2019). Monaco, 25th September 2019. Contributions include:

• • IPCC (2019), Summary for Policy Makers.
• • Abram, Gattuso, Prakash et al., (2019), Chapter 1: Framing and Context.
• • Abram et al., (2019), Cross-Chapter Box 1: Scenarios, Pathways and Reference Periods.
• • Adler, Oppenheimer, Abram et al., (2019), Cross-Chapter Box 5: Confidence and Deep Uncertainty.
• • See livestream video of public lecture , listen to ABC Radio National interview , read our Conversation article

Freund, M.B., Henley, B.J., Karoly, D.J., McGregor, H.V., Abram, N.J. , and Dommenget, D. (2019). Higher frequency of Central Pacific El Niño events in recent decades. Nature Geoscience . doi: 10.1038/s41561-019-0353-3 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023.

• Associated article: Freund, M.B., Henley, B.J., Karoly, D.J., McGregor, H.V., and Abram, N.J. , (2019). El Niño has rapidly become stronger and stranger, according to coral records . The Conversation

Datwyler, C., Abram, N.J. , Grosjean, M., Wahl, E., Neukom, R. (2019). ENSO variability, teleconnection changes and response to large volcanic eruptions since AD 1000. International Journal of Climatology . doi: 10.1002/joc.5983. Funding support from FT160100029 .

Dey, R., Lewis, S., and Abram, N.J. (2019). Investigating observed northwest Australian rainfall trends in CMIP5 detection and attribution experiments. International Journal of Climatology , 39 (1), 112-127, doi: 10.1002/joc.5788 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE110001028.

Dey, R., Lewis, S., Arblaster, J., and Abram, N.J. (2019). A Review of Past and Projected Changes in Australia’s Precipitation: Trends, Means and Extremes. WIRES Climate Change , https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.577 .  Funding support from FT160100029 and CE110001028.

Ellis, B., Grant, K., Mallela, J., Abram, N.J. (2019). Is XRF core scanning a viable method of coral palaeoclimate temperature reconstructions? Quaternary International . doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2018.11.044. Funding support from FT160100029, DP140102059, and CE110001028 .

Krause, C.E., Gagan, M.K., Dunbar, G.B., Helstrom, J.C., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., Hantoro, W.S., Abram, N.J., and Rifai, H. (2019). Meridional and zonal drivers of Australasian monsoon hydroclimate over the last 40,000 years. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 513, 103-112, doi: 10.1016/j/epsl.2019.01.045. Funding support from DP110101161, FT160100029 and CE110001028.

Klein, F., Abram, N.J. , Curran, M.A.J., Goosse, H., Goursaud, S., Masson-Delmotte, V., Moy, A., Neukom, R., Orsi, A., Sjolte, J., Steiger, N., Stenni, B., and Werner, M. (2019). Assessing the robustness of Antarctic temperature reconstructions over the past two millennia using pseudoproxy and data assimilation experiments. Climate of the Past . 15, 661-684, doi: 10.5194/cp-15-661-2019 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023 .

Turney, C.S.M, McGregor, H.V., Francus, P., Abram, N. , Evans, M.N., Goosse, H., von Gunten, L., Kaufman, D., Linderholm, H., Loutre, M.F. and Neukom, R. (2019). Introduction to the Special Issue on Climate of the Past 2000 Years: Global and Regional Syntheses. Climate of the Past , 16, 611-615, doi: 10.5194/cp-15-611-2019

Wurtzel, J.B., Abram, N.J. , Lewis, S.E., Bajo, P., Helstrom, J.C., Troitzsch, U. and Heslop, D. (2018). Tropical Indo-Pacific hydroclimate response to North Atlantic forcing during the last deglaciation as recorded by a speleothem from Sumatra, Indonesia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , 492, 264-278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.04.001 Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/23790

Abram, N.J. (2018). Past warming events in the Arctic linked to shifting winds in the Antarctic. Nature , 563, 630-631 (News and Views).

Fischer, H., Meissner, K., Mix, A., et al., including Abram N.J. (2018), Palaeoclimate constraints on the impact of 2 o C anthropogenic warming and beyond. Nature Geoscience . doi: 10.1038/s41561-018-0146-0 . Funding support from FT160100029 and CE170100023.

Kaufman, D. and PAGES 2k special-issue editorial team, including Abram, N.J. (2018), Technical Note: Open-paleo-data implementation pilot – The PAGES 2k special issue, Climate of the Past , https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-593-2018 . Funding support from FT160100029.

NEEM Aerosol Community, led by Fischer, H. and including Abram, N.J. (2018), Greenland records of aerosol source and atmospheric lifetime changes from the Eemian to the Holocene. Nature Communications , 9:1476, doi : 10.1038/s41467-018-03924-3

Sigl, M., Abram, N. J. , Gabrieli, J., Jenk, T. M., Osmont, D., and Schwikowski, M. (2018), 19th century glacier retreat in the Alps preceded the emergence of industrial black carbon deposition on high-alpine glaciers, The Cryosphere , https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3311-2018

Abram, N.J. (2017). FactCheck Q&A: Was it four degrees hotter 110,000 years ago? The Conversation .

Abram, N.J. (2017). FactCheck Q&A: Was it four degrees hotter 110,000 years ago? In: Watson, J. The Conversation Yearbook 2017: 50 articles that informed public debate . Melbourne University Press, ISBN: 9780522872668 .

Dasse, E., and 37 others including Abram, N.J. (2017). Saving our marine archives. Eos, 98, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017EO068159 .

Datwyler, C., Neukom, R., Abram, N.J. , Gallant, A., Grosjean, M., Jacques-Coper, M., Karoly, D., and Villalba, R. (2017). Teleconnection stationarity, variability and trends of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) during the last millennium. Climate Dynamics , doi:10.1007/s00382-017-4015-0.

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/23130

Henley, B, and Abram, N.J. (2017). The three-minute story of 800,000 years of climate change with a sting in the tail . The Conversation (including YouTube video) .

Hessl, A., Allen, K., Vance, T., Abram, N.J. and Saunders, K. (2017). Reconstructions of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) during the Last Millennium. Progress in Physical Geography . doi:10.1177/0309133317743165 . Funding support from DP140102059 .

PAGES 2k Consortium, led by Emile-Geay, J. and including Abram, N.J. (2017). A global multiproxy database for temperature reconstructions of the Common Era. Nature Scientific Data , doi: 10.1038/sdata.2017.88

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/21171

Stenni, B., Curran, M., Abram, N.J. , Orsi, A., and 14 others from the Antarctica 2k working group (2017). Antarctic climate variability at regional and continental scales over the last 2,000 years,  Climate of the Past, doi:10.5194/cp-13-1609-2017 . Funding support from DP140102059 and CE110001028.

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/22589

Turner, J., Comiso, J., and 20 co-signatories including Abram, N.J. (2017). Solve Antarctica's sea-ice puzzle. Nature , 547, 275–277, doi:10.1038/547275a

Abram, N.J. , McGregor, H.V., Tierney, J.E., Evans, M.N., McKay, N.P., Kaufman, D.S. and the PAGES 2k Consortium (2016). Early onset of industrial-era warming across the oceans and continents. Nature , 536, 411-418, doi:10.1038/nature19082 . Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

• Associated article: McGregor, H.V., Abram, N.J. , Gergis, J. and Phipps, S. (2016). The Industrial Revolution kick-started global warming much earlier than we realised . The Conversation
• Press Release and Video
• Database and code archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/20083

Jones, J.M., Gille, S.T., Goosse, H., Abram, N.J. , and 21 other co-authors (2016). Assessing recent trends in high-latitude Southern Hemisphere surface climate. Nature Climate Change , 6, 917-926, doi:10.1038/nclimate3103 . Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

• Associated article: Abram, N.J. , England, M.E., and Vance, T.R. (2016). Record high to record low: what on earth is happening to Antarctica's sea ice? The Conversation

Abram, N.J. (2016). Climate's Playground. Nature Geoscience , doi:10.1038/ngeo2856 .

Abram, N.J. (2016). Climate shenanigans at the ends of the Earth: why has sea ice gone haywire? The Conversation .

Hobbs, W., Curran, M.A.J., Abram, N.J. and Thomas, E.R. (2016). Century-scale perspectives on observed and simulated Southern Ocean sea ice trends. Journal of Geophysical Research , 121, 7804-7818 , doi: 10.1002/2016JC012111 . Funding support from DP110101161.

Thomas, E.R. and  Abram, N.J. (2016). Ice core reconstruction of sea ice change in the Amundsen-Ross Seas since 1702AD. Geophysical Research Letters , 43, 5309-5317 , doi: 10.1002/2016GL068130 . Funding support from DP110101161.

Vance, T., Roberts, J., Moy, A., Curran, M., Tozer, C., Gallant, A., Abram, N.J. , van Ommen, T., Young, D., Blankenship, D., Siegert, M., and Grima, C. (2016). Optimal site selection for a high resolution ice core record in East Antarctica. Climate of the Past , 12, 595-610, doi:10.5194/cp-12-595-2016 . Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

Tierney, J.E., Abram, N.J. , Anchukaitis, K.J., Evans, M.N., Giry, C., Kilbourne, K.H., Saenger, C.P., Wu, H.C., Zinke, J. (2015). Tropical sea-surface temperatures for the past four centuries reconstructed from coral archives. Paleoceanography , 30, 226-252, doi: 10.1002/2014PA002717 . Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

• Database archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/17955

Abram, N.J. , Dixon, B.C., Rosevear, M.G., Plunkett, B., Gagan, M.K., Hantoro, W.S. and Phipps, S.J. (2015). Optimised coral records of the Indian Ocean Dipole: an assessment of location and length considerations. Paleoceanography , 30, 1391-1405, doi: 10.1002/2015PA002810 . Funding support from DP110101161 and DP140102059.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/18895

King, P.L., Edwards, A., and Abram, N.J. (2015) Recognising biases that affect women geoscientists in the workplace . Elements Magazine , 11 (April), 88-89.

Abram, N.J.  (2014). Antarctic ice: going, going, ... In: The Best Australian Science Writing 2014 (ed. A. Hay).

Murphy, E.J., Clarke, A., Abram, N.J. and Turner, J. (2014). Variability of sea-ice in the northern Weddell Sea during the 20th century. Journal of Geophysical Research . doi:10.1002/2013JC009511 . Funding support from DP110101161.

Abram, N.J. , Mulvaney, R., Vimeux, F., Phipps, S.J. Turner, J. and England, M.E. (2014). Evolution of the Southern Annular Mode during the past millennium.  Nature Climate Change, 4, 564-569. doi:10.1038/nclimate2235 . Funding support from DP140102059 and DP110101161.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/16197

Abram, N.J.  (2013). Antarctic ice...going, going,gone? In:  The Curious Country  (ed. L. Dayton). pp. 14-19. From the Office of the Chief Scientist and available as a  free e-book through ANU Press

Abram, N.J. , Mulvaney, R., Wolff, E.W., Triest, J., Kipfstuhl, S., Trusel, L.D., Vimeux, F., Fleet, L. and Arrowsmith, C. (2013). Acceleration of snow melt in an Antarctic Peninsula ice core during the twentieth century.  Nature Geoscience,  6, 404-411 ,  doi:10.1038/ngeo1787 . Funding support from DP110101161.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/14201

Abram, N.J. , Wolff, E.W. and Curran, M.A.J (2013). A review of sea ice proxy information from polar ice cores. Quaternary Science Reviews ,  doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.01.011 . Funding support from DP110101161.

Mulvaney R.*,  Abram, N.J. *, Hindmarsh, R.C.A., Arrowsmith C., Fleet L., Triest J., Sime, L.C., Alemany O. and Foord, S. Recent Antarctic Peninsula warming relative to Holocene climate and ice shelf history (2012), Nature,  489, 141-144,  doi:10.1038/nature11391 . * equal contributions.   Funding support from DP110101161.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/13954

Wheatley, J.J., Blackwell, P.G.,  Abram, N.J. , McConnell, J.R., Thomas, E.R. and Wolff, E.W. (2012). Automated ice-core layer-counting with strong univariate signals.  Climate of the Past  8, 1869-1879,  doi:10.5194/cp-8-1869-2012

Abram, N.J ., Mulvaney, R. and Arrowsmith, C (2011). Environmental signals in a highly resolved ice core from James Ross Island, Antarctica.  Journal of Geophysical Research . 116, D20116, doi:10.1029/2011JD016147

D’Arrigo R.,  Abram N.J ., Ummenhoffer C., Palmer J. and Mudelsee M. (2011). Reconstructed streamflow for Citarum River, Java, Indonesia: linkages to tropical climate dynamics.  Climate Dynamics  36, 451-462, doi:10.1007/s00382-009-0717-2 .

Gagan, M.K. and  Abram, N.J.  (2011). Stable isotopes and trace elements.  In  Hopley, D. (ed)  Encyclopedia of modern coral reefs: structure, form and process . Encyclopedia of Earth Science Series, Springer-Verlag.

Abram, N.J. , Thomas, E.R, McConnell, J.R., Mulvaney, R., Bracegirdle, T.J., Sime, L.C., and Aristarain, A.J. (2010). Ice core evidence for a 20th century decline of sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea, Antarctica.  Journal of Geophysical   Research  115, D23101, doi:10.1029/2010JD014644 .

Rothlisberger R., Crosta X.,  Abram N.J ., Armand L. and Wolff E.W. (2010). Potential and limitations of marine and ice core proxies: An example from the Indian Ocean sector.  Quaternary Science Reviews  29, 296-302, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.10.005 .

Abram N.J ., McGregor H.V., Gagan M.K. Hantoro W.S. and Suwargadi B.W. (2009). Oscillations in the southern extent of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool during the mid-Holocene.  Quaternary Science Reviews   28 , 2794-2803 , doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.07.006 . Funding support from DP0663227.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/9819

Ault T.R., Cole J.E., Evans M.N., Barnett H.,  Abram N.J ., Tudhope A.W. and Linsley B.K. (2009). Intensified decadal variability in tropical climate during the late 19th century,  Geophysical Research Letters  36, L08602, doi:10.1029/2008GL036924 .

Hodgson, D.A.,  Abram, N.J. , Anderson, J., Bargelloni L., Barrett P., Bentley M.J., Bertler N.A.N., Chown S., Clarke A., Convey P., Crame A., Crosta X., Curran M., di Prisco G., Francis J.E., Goodwin I., Gutt J., Masse G., Masson-Delmotte V., Mayewski P.A., Mulvaney R., Peck L., Portner H.-O., Rothlisberger R., Stevens M.I., Summerhayes C.P., van Ommen T., Verde C., Verleyen E., Vyverman W., Wiencke C. and Zane L. (2009) Antarctic climate and environmental history in the pre-instrumental period . In: Turner, J. Convey P., di Prisco G., Mayewski P.A., Hodgson D.A., Fahrbach E, Bindschadler R. and Gutt J. (eds)  Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment . Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research, Cambridge.

Abram N.J ., Gagan M.K., Cole J.E., Hantoro W.S., and Mudelsee M. (2008). Recent intensification of tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean,  Nature Geoscience  1 (12), 849-853, doi:10.1038/ngeo357 . Funding support from DP0342017 and DP0663227.

• Data archive: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/8607

McGregor H.V. and  Abram N.J . (2008). Images of diagenetic textures in  Porites  corals from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia,  Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems  9 (10), Q10013, doi:10.1029/2008GC002093 .

Reda T., Plugge C.M.,  Abram N.J.  and Hirst J. (2008). Reversible interconversion of carbon dioxide and formate by an electroactive enzyme.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  105 (31), 10654-10658 , doi:10.1073/pnas.0801290105 .

Abram N.J ., Curran M.A.J., Mulvaney R. and Vance T. (2008). The preservation of methanesulphonic acid in frozen ice-core samples.  Journal of Glaciology   54 (187) , 680-684.

Abram N.J ., Mulvaney R. Wolff E.W. and Mudelsee M. (2007). Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica.  Journal of Geophysical Research   112 , D15101, doi:10.1029/2006JD008139 .

Abram N.J ., Gagan M.K., Liu, Z., Hantoro W.S., McCulloch M.T. and Suwargadi B.W. (2007). Seasonal characteristics of the Indian Ocean Dipole during the Holocene epoch,  Nature  445, 299-302, doi:10.1038/nature05477 . Funding support from DP0342017 and DP0663227.

Abram N.J. , Gagan M.K., Mcculloch M.T., Chappell J., and Hantoro W.S. (2004) Sudden death of a coral reef. Science  303, 1293-1294, doi:10.1126/science.303.5662.1293b

Grumet N.S.,  Abram N.J ., Beck J.W., Dunbar R.B., Gagan M.K. Guilderson T.P., Hantoro W.S. and Suwargadi B.W. (2004). Coral radiocarbon records of Indian Ocean water mass mixing and wind-induced upwelling along the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia,  Journal of Geophysical Research  109, C05003, doi:10.1029/2003JC002087

Abram N.J ., Gagan M.K., McCulloch M.T., Chappell J. and Hantoro W.S. (2003). Coral reef death during the 1997 Indian Ocean Dipole linked to Indonesian wildfires,  Science  301, 952-955, doi:10.1126/science.1083841 . Funding support from DP0342017.

Abram N.J ., Webster J.M., Davies P.J. and Dullo W-C. (2001). Biological response of coral reefs to sea surface temperature variation: Evidence from the raised Holocene reefs at Kikai-jima (Ryukyu Islands, Japan), Coral Reefs , 20, 221-234, doi:10.1007/s003380100163

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Geographic coordinates of Elektrostal, Moscow Oblast, Russia

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Coordinates of Elektrostal in decimal degrees

Coordinates of elektrostal in degrees and decimal minutes, utm coordinates of elektrostal, geographic coordinate systems.

WGS 84 coordinate reference system is the latest revision of the World Geodetic System, which is used in mapping and navigation, including GPS satellite navigation system (the Global Positioning System).

Geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) define a position on the Earth’s surface. Coordinates are angular units. The canonical form of latitude and longitude representation uses degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″). GPS systems widely use coordinates in degrees and decimal minutes, or in decimal degrees.

Latitude varies from −90° to 90°. The latitude of the Equator is 0°; the latitude of the South Pole is −90°; the latitude of the North Pole is 90°. Positive latitude values correspond to the geographic locations north of the Equator (abbrev. N). Negative latitude values correspond to the geographic locations south of the Equator (abbrev. S).

Longitude is counted from the prime meridian ( IERS Reference Meridian for WGS 84) and varies from −180° to 180°. Positive longitude values correspond to the geographic locations east of the prime meridian (abbrev. E). Negative longitude values correspond to the geographic locations west of the prime meridian (abbrev. W).

UTM or Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system divides the Earth’s surface into 60 longitudinal zones. The coordinates of a location within each zone are defined as a planar coordinate pair related to the intersection of the equator and the zone’s central meridian, and measured in meters.

Elevation above sea level is a measure of a geographic location’s height. We are using the global digital elevation model GTOPO30 .

Elektrostal , Moscow Oblast, Russia