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In academic writing you will develop an argument or point of view. This will be supported by concrete evidence, in other words reasons, examples, and information from sources. The writing you produce in this way will need to be 'critical writing'. This section looks at critical writing in detail, first by giving a definition of critical writing and considering how to write critically , then by contrasting critical writing with descriptive writing , with some examples . There is also a discussion of how critical writing relates to Bloom's taxonomy of thinking skills , as well as a checklist to help you check critical writing in your own work.
Critical writing is writing which analyses and evaluates information, usually from multiple sources, in order to develop an argument. A mistake many beginning writers make is to assume that everything they read is true and that they should agree with it, since it has been published in an academic text or journal. Being part of the academic community, however, means that you should be critical of (i.e. question) what you read, looking for reasons why it should be accepted or rejected, for example by comparing it with what other writers say about the topic, or evaluating the research methods to see if they are adequate or whether they could be improved.
In order to write critically, you need to use a range of sources to develop your argument. You cannot rely solely on your own ideas; you need to understand what others have written about the same topic. Additionally, it is not enough to use just a single source to support your argument, for example a source which agrees with your own view, since this could lead to a biased argument. You need to consider all sides of the issue.
Further, in developing your argument, you need to analyse and evaluate the information from other sources. You cannot just string quotes together (A says this, B says that, C says something else), without looking more deeply at the information and building on it to support your own argument. This means you need to break down the information from other sources to determine how the parts relate to one another or to an overall structure or purpose [ analysing ], and then make judgements about it, identifying its strengths and weaknesses, and possibly 'grey areas' in between, which are neither strengths nor weaknesses [ evaluating ]. Critical reading skills will help you with this, as you consider whether the source is reliable, relevant, up-to-date, and accurate. For example, you might examine the research methods used in an experiment [ analysing ] in order to assess why they were chosen or to determine whether they were appropriate [ evaluating ], or you might deconstruct (break down) a writer's line of reasoning [ analysing ] to see if it is valid or whether there are any gaps [ evaluating ].
As a result of analysis and evaluation, you will be able to give reasons why the conclusions of different writers should be accepted or treated with caution . This will help you to build a clear line of reasoning which will lead up to your own conclusions, and you will be writing critically.
Critical writing is often contrasted with descriptive writing . Descriptive writing simply describes what something is like. Although you need a critical voice, description is still necessary in your writing, for example to:
You should, however, keep the amount of description to a minimum. Most assignments will have a strict word limit, and you should aim to maximise the amount of critical writing, while minimising the number of words used for description. If your tutors often write comments such as 'Too descriptive' or 'Too much theory' or 'More analysis needed', you know you need to adjust the balance.
The following table gives some examples to show the difference between descriptive and critical writing. The verbs in bold are key verbs according to Bloom's taxonomy , considered next.
what happened | the significance of what happened |
why something happened | |
what something is like | the strengths and weaknesses of something |
evidence | , using evidence |
what a theory says | why a theory is relevant |
an experimental method | the use of a particular method over another |
, or information from different writers | and the views of different writers |
the relevance or validity of information from different writers | |
of different items | between items, possibly using examples |
the findings of an experiment | between important and less important findings of an experiment |
details | the relative significance of details |
information | information in order of importance |
options | the options in order to the best one |
Bloomâs Taxonomy was developed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist working at the University of Chicago. It classifies the thinking behaviours that are believed to be important in the processes of learning. It was developed in three domains, with the cognitive domain, i.e. the knowledge based domain, consisting of six levels. The taxonomy was revised in 2001 by Anderson and Krathwohl, to reflect more recent understanding of educational processes. Their revised taxonomy also consists of six levels, arranged in order from lower order thinking skills to higher order thinking skills, namely: remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating, and creating.
Bloom's revised taxonomy is relevant since analysing and evaluating , which form the basis of critical writing, are two of the higher order thinking skills in the taxonomy. Descriptive writing, by contrast, is the product of remembering and understanding , the two lowest order thinking skills. The fact that critical writing uses higher order thinking skills is one of the main reasons this kind of writing is expected at university.
The table below gives more details about each of the levels, including a description and some keys verbs associated with each level. Although the verbs are intended for the design of learning outcomes, they are nonetheless representative of the kind of work involved at each level, and are therefore relevant to academic writing.
Recognising or recalling knowledge from memory (definitions, facts, lists, previously learned information). | Constructing meaning from different types of functions (written or graphic), or activities e.g. interpreting, exemplifying, classifying. | Carrying out or using a procedure through executing or implementing, for example using models, presentations, interviews or simulations. | Breaking materials or concepts into parts, determining how the parts relate to one another or to an overall structure or purpose. | Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. | Putting the elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganising elements into a new pattern or structure. | ||
cite define describe draw enumerate find identify index indicate label list match name outline quote recall recite recognise record repeat report reproduce retrieve review select show state tabulate tell trace write | characterise clarify comprehend contrast convert describe discuss distinguish elaborate estimate explain express extend extrapolate generalise give an example infer interpolate paraphrase restate rewrite summarise translate | adapt apply calculate change compute construct customise demonstrate determine discover employ graph illustrate investigate manipulate model modify operate perform personalise practise predict prepare present produce relate show simulate solve use | analyse associate attribute break down categorise classify compare contrast criticise deconstruct diagram differentiate discriminate distinguish examine illustrate infer integrate link organise outline relate select separate simplify | appraise argue assess check conclude consider convince criticise critique decide defend detect determine evaluate experiment grade hypothesise interpret judge justify measure monitor rank rate recommend reflect relate review score standardise support test validate | arrange assemble build combine compile compose constitute construct create derive design develop devise formulate generate hypothesise integrate invent make manage organise plan prepare produce propose publish rearrange reconstruct reorganise revise rewrite synthesise write |
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Below is a checklist for critical writing. Use it to check your own writing, or get a peer (another student) to help you.
 | |||
Is there a good balance between critical and descriptive writing (generally more critical writing than description)? | |||
Are the arguments supported using evidence from other sources (not just the writer's own ideas)? | |||
Is more than one source used? | |||
Does the writer analyse the evidence from other sources, e.g. by breaking it down, comparing or contrasting, categorising, organising? | |||
Does the writing evaluate the evidence from other sources, e.g. by identifying strengths and weaknesses, critiquing, criticising, making judgements? | |||
Are the writer's conclusions justified? Is there a clear line of reasoning leading up to the conclusions? |
Academic Phrasebank , The University of Manchester (2020) Being Critical . Available at: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/being-critical/ (Accessed: 11 September, 2020).
Churches, A. (n.d.) Bloomâs Digital Taxonomy . Available at: https://edorigami.edublogs.org/blooms-digital-taxonomy/ (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Colorado College (n.d.) Bloomâs Revised Taxonomy . Available at: https://www.coloradocollege.edu/other/assessment/how-to-assess-learning/learning-outcomes/blooms-revised-taxonomy.html (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Cottrell, S. (2013) The Study Skills Handbook (4th ed.) . Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan
Shabatura, J. (2013) Using Bloomâs Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Objectives . Available at: https://tips.uark.edu/using-blooms-taxonomy/ (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Sheffield Halam University (2020) Critical Writing . Available at: https://libguides.shu.ac.uk/criticalwriting (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Teesside University (2020). Critical Writing: Help . Available at: https://libguides.tees.ac.uk/critical_writing (Accessed: 11 September, 2020).
University of Hull (2020) Critical writing: Descriptive vs critical . Available at: https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/criticalwriting/descriptive-critical (Accessed: 11 September, 2020).
University of Leicester (2009) What is critical writing . Available at: http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/critical-writing (Access date: 8/12/14).
Wilson, L.O. (2020) Bloomâs Taxonomy Revised . Available at: https://thesecondprinciple.com/essential-teaching-skills/blooms-taxonomy-revised/ (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Yale University (2017) Bloomâs Taxonomy . Available at: https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/BloomsTaxonomy (Accessed: 1 September, 2020).
Find out about research skills in the next section.
Go back to the previous section about writing objectively .
Author: Sheldon Smith    â    Last modified: 06 January 2022.
Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .
Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.
Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).
Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.
Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).
Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.
Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.
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Executive Dean of the College of Arts, Sciences & Education and Professor of Biological Sciences, Florida International University
Michael Heithaus receives funding from the Shark Conservation Fund and the National Science Foundation.
Florida International University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.
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There are more than 500 species of sharks in the worldâs oceans, from the 7-inch dwarf lantern shark to whale sharks that can grow to over 35 feet long. Theyâre found from polar waters to the equator, at the waterâs surface and miles deep, in the open ocean, along coasts and even in some coastal rivers .
With such diversity, itâs no surprise that sharks serve many ecological functions. For example, the largest individuals of some big predatory species, such as tiger and white sharks, can have an oversized role in maintaining balances among species. They do this by feeding on prey and sometimes by just being present and scary enough that prey species change their habits and locations.
In a newly published study , colleagues and I surveyed decades of research on sharksâ ecological roles and considered their future in oceans dominated by people. We found that because sharks play such diverse and sometimes important functions in maintaining healthy oceans, their current decline is an urgent problem. Since 1970, global populations of sharks and rays have decreased by more than 70% .
People are killing many types of sharks at unsustainable rates , mainly through overfishing. We see a need for nations to rethink where and how to conserve sharks for healthy oceans.
Along the remote coast of Western Australia, more than two decades of work shows that the mere presence of tiger sharks shapes the entire seagrass ecosystem by changing where and how big grazers, such as sea turtles and sea cows, feed.
Having tiger sharks nearby protects wide swaths of seagrass from being overgrazed, allowing it to grow into thick underwater meadows that provide habitat for juvenile fish and shellfish. These species are important food for other animals and for humans.
In places where tiger sharks have declined and turtle populations have expanded, seagrasses are being overgrazed. In Bermuda, for example, the exploding turtle population has led to an almost total collapse of seagrasses .
White sharks produce some of the same effects. Along the California coast, where white shark numbers are increasing , otters are spending more time in the safety of protected inland waters and less time in the open waters of Monterey Bay. The otters prey on crabs, which in turn feed on grazing invertebrates such as sea slugs that clean algae from seagrasses. More otters means fewer crabs, more grazers and healthier seagrasses .
Kelp forests are dense stands of large brown algae that grow in shallow zones near coasts. Along the U.S. West Coast, overhunting drove local populations of sea otters to extinction by the early 1900s . This caused huge kelp forest losses by allowing sea urchins â a favorite food of otters â to spread and consume kelp .
Over the past 50 years, otter populations have rebounded with federal protection . But as white sharks expand their ranges northward, they are preventing otters from expanding their range because there arenât kelp forests for the otters to hide in.
The otters will likely expand their ranges only once kelp forests become established. This complicates restoration efforts, since otters wonât be removing enough urchins for kelp to become established.
When sharks are present near coral reefs, fish avoid the sharks by sticking close to the safety of the reef. This reduces grazing on seagrasses and algae across wide areas . There is still much to learn, however, about when, where and how sharks might be important for coral reef health.
Sharks can also be prey. Some, including large species like white sharks , are important food sources for some killer whale populations around the world . Smaller sharks, including blacktip sharks, can be key menu items for larger sharks, such as great hammerheads.
As sharks consume prey in one place and excrete waste elsewhere, they move nutrients throughout the ocean. In the Pacific, for example, gray reef sharks move nitrogen from the offshore waters where they feed to the coral reefs where they spend their days, providing important fertilizer for ocean food webs.
In Floridaâs coastal waters , young bull sharks feed during brief visits to the ocean, then return to safer, nearly freshwater rivers, where they spend most of their time and release nutrients in their waste.
Sometimes sharksâ presence helps other fish. In the open ocean, sharksâ rough scales make perfect scratching posts for fish to remove parasites.
Our review makes clear that sharks play diverse roles in maintaining healthy oceans. We see important implications for shark conservation.
Step 1 would be to set goals beyond simply ensuring that there are sharks in the oceans and to target species that have key ecological roles.
Within populations, it is important to protect certain types of individual sharks. For example, the largest tiger sharks are the ones that shape the behavior of turtles and sea cows, benefiting seagrass ecosystems. Intensive fishing worldwide makes it extremely challenging for large sharks that can live for decades or even centuries to survive and grow to ecologically important sizes.
Working with local communities in coastal areas could build support for protecting these large ocean predators, much as conservationists are working on land to protect iconic predators such as wolves . Nations could build networks of large protected areas that forbid shark fishing, focusing on key areas where individual sharks may roam.
Research shows that sharks benefit from creating protected areas, limiting shark catch outside these zones and restricting use of fishing gear that does the most harm to sharks , such as gill nets and longlines . With a clearer understanding of sharksâ ecological value, my colleagues and I hope to see focused action at all levels to protect these essential animals.
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Critical writing. In academic writing you will develop an argument or point of view. This will be supported by concrete evidence, in other words reasons, examples, and information from sources. The writing you produce in this way will need to be 'critical writing'. This section looks at critical writing in detail, first by giving a definition ...
Our nine writing units are based on real-world features like reviews, photo essays, narratives, podcasts and more.
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