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What Is Context In English And How Do I Write About It?

Confused by context? Befuddled by the difference between values and attitudes? In this article, we'll clear those concepts up and show you how to ace your next contextual study.

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Do you get confused by the whole “context” business that crops up in various English Modules? You’re not alone. Many students get confused by conflicting messages to “talk about context” when also being instructed to “not write a history essay.’ Others aren’t entirely sure what context is, what’s meant by values and attitudes. To help you out, we’re going to answer the question, “What is context in English and how do I write about it?”

What is context?

Context, in terms of the study of High School English, is best described as the circumstances surrounding the composition of a text. When we discuss the context of a text, we need to think about the following aspects of the text’s composition:

• Historical – What has happened at the time
• Political – What the political climate and events of the period were
• Economic and Socio-economic – What the financial situation of the period was and how it affected individuals of the time
• Cultural and social – These are social impacts on a text that can be from artistic movements or cultural practices from customs to colloquialisms
• Religious – The impacts religion and religious beliefs have on the text
• Geographic – How has the location of the text’s composition shaped its meaning?
• The composer’s personal context – What events in a composers life have shaped their writing?

Complicating thing it’s not enough to say that “Shakespeare was a catholic who wrote in the Elizabethan period.” We also need to think about why context is important, this means digging into relevant contextual details and thinking about values and attitudes . This may seem overwhelming, but it shouldn’t be. So, let’s unpack these, one by one.

What’s ‘relevant’ context?

The first question you need to address is whether the context you’re exploring is relevant or not. How do I tell if an aspect of context is important or not, you ask.

The simplest way to approach this at a High School level is to consider if it has a direct impact on the text’s content and meaning or its composition. To answer this you’ll have to know your text and you’ll have to know some contextual details to decide whether they should be investigated further or not.

A good place to start is the dates involved in a text’s composition. A good text and context combination to consider as an example are the poems of TS Eliot that are set for study in the HSC and the contextual event of the First World War. This is a common one students get tripped up with.

The poems set for study are :

• Preludes – composed 1910-11, first published in 1915
• Rhapsody on a winter’s night – composed 1910-11, first published in 1915
• The love song of J Alfred Prufrock – composed 1910-11, first published in 1915
• The Hollow Men – composed and published in 1925
• Journey of the Magi – composed and published 1927

Many students discuss the tensions in Preludes, Rhapsody, and The love song of J Alfred Prufrock as caused by the horrors of World War 1: July 1914 – November 1918. This can be a bit confusing. The poems were mostly written in 1910 when Eliot was studying in France. They were published a few years later by his friend after he’d settled in England.

However, the poems clearly predate the 1st World War and while the political and nationalistic tensions that led to the conflict, placing too much weight on that would be very tenuous. This is a bit of anachronism: thinking of things “out of time.” Instead, we can see that these poems all occur in the wake of the second industrial revolution where urbanisation and economic upheaval have had profound impacts on the lives of people living in European cities.

You can read more about TS Eliot, here .

How much detail should I discuss?

It’s important to strike a balance between making a concise contextual point and writing a history essay! This can be challenging, especially the more you know about history. A significant paradox – you can’t write about context without understanding details about it: writing concisely and briefly about context becomes more challenging the more you know!

Let’s look at George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four  as an example. 1984 was written in 1944 – 1948. Clearly, we can see the following events could have had an impact on the composition of his final novel:

• The Russian Revolution (October 1918) and rise of communism – 1917 onwards (The Soviet Union Collapsed four decades after Orwell’s death in 1950)
• The rise of Fascism across Europe – 1922 onwards
• The Spanish Civil War – 1936 – 1939
• The Second World War 1938-1945
• The development of nuclear weapons and bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Orwell’s leftist political leanings and hatred of Communism
• Orwell’s personal health – He died of tuberculosis
• Orwell’s relationships – He had tumultuous relationships and was a notorious womaniser

As you can see, there are myriad things that you can connect to context for the novel that are important and relevant. Your job, as a critic is to concisely include references to the events that are particularly pertinent to answer the question you’ve been set. Let’s use the Spanish Civil War as an example.

The Spanish Civil War is important contextually because:

• It saw the rise of fascist leader General Fransisco Franco
• Many in Europe romanticised the uprising of the people against a fascist military
• Many artists flocked to Spain to fight against the fascists
• Orwell fought and was seriously injured there
• Orwell wrote about his experiences in Homage to Catalonia
• The truces between Stalin, Hitler, Franco, and the rest of Europe were important blueprints for the fictional conflicts and alliances between Eurasia, Oceania, and East Asia
• The Soviet secret police hunted down and executed dissidents on behalf of Franco’s forces
• Orwell spent a night hiding in a bombed-out church while being pursued by the NKVD

There’s a lot to digest there. So, to give an example of dos and don’ts, let us consider a quotation from the text where context is essential to explain things.

What’s the example:

The Thought Police would get him just the same. He had committed–would still have committed, even if he had never set pen to paper–the essential crime that contained all others in itself. – Chapter 1

In this extract, the protagonist, Winston, describes the dangers of the secret police that enforce the law in the dystopian world of the novel. He uses a paradox to describe this – that he would still be guilty even if he hadn’t committed the crime.

Don’t get lost in context:

While some of this is quite pertinent information, it is too detailed and doesn’t really serve to further an argument. Instead,

Do connect context to analysis concisely:

As you can see, just one or two concise pieces of contextual information support the argument being made.

Need expert help refining your writing about context?

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What are values and attitudes?

Another aspect of writing about context that frustrates students is discussing values and attitudes .

First, some definitions:

• Values : These are the beliefs – cultural, religious, political, economic, philosophical, social – that exist in any given period. Democracy is the dominant political value in Australia in the 2020s.
• Attitudes : These are the perspectives individuals or larger groups have towards values. For example, some members of society might have the attitude that feels democracy is a terrible idea and they should be in charge of an Australian dictatorship.

All texts deal with values and attitudes. Quite often, composers of texts convey the prevailing values of a society in the background context of a text. They then present their perspective on these things, their attitude, by how they have characters interact or act under these values.

To return to the example of Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four:

• The setting of Airstrip One and Oceania reflects the creeping values of fascism and tyranny across Europe during the years of World War 2
• Winston’s futile struggle against Big Brother and Ingsoc arguably reflect Orwell’s growing pessimistic attitude towards escaping such tyranny.

We could convert this in our previous response by amending it to:

If you want to learn more about Nineteen Eighty-Four, read this article .

How should I structure contextual information in a response?

Many students struggle with writing things in a manner that connects the example and analysis to relevant contextual information.

Let’s look at a couple of different ways you can structure all of this in a response. To illustrate, let’s look at a pair of contrasting examples from Stephen Daldry’s 2002 film, The Hours (set for English Adv Mod A).

What is The Hours, what’s it about?

Daldry’s film is an adaptation of Virginia Woolf’s 1925 novel Mrs Dalloway (to be specific, it’s an adaptation of a novel by Michael Cunningham which is an adaptation of Woolf’s text). Woolf’s novel depicted a day in the life of housewife Clarissa Dalloway as she set about hosting a party. In brief, throughout the novel, she seeks to be recognised for hosting a party as male characters are recognised for their pursuits. In The Hours , the characters of Laura and Clarissa are simulacra of Clarissa Dalloway. Unlike Clarissa, Laura – a housewife in 1950s America, is not adept at fulfilling the oppressive stereotypical roles of being a housewife – she feels smothered by her responsibilities as a wife and a mother. Clarissa is a successful editor at a prestigious publishing house, in the film, she is organising a party to celebrate her friend and former lover Richard’s career. Where Laura struggles with fulfilling expectations, Clarissa does them effortlessly – successful career, doting mother, loving wife, caring friend, wizard in the kitchen, effortless hostess.

Daldry conveys this in the film by using contrasting mise en scene across the different time periods:

In these contrasting stills, we can see is en scene being used to convey contextual information as well as contrasting different characteristics about the two women relevant to the film’s themes.

In the left hand still, Laura struggles to bake a cake for her husband’s birthday. While dressed in a fancy frock, she is a little unkempt her hair isn’t done, her dress is a little wrinkled, her cake is a disaster. The costuming and set dressing clearly mark the setting as the 1950s, yet Laura’s appearance and creation show she doesn’t fit the stereotypical wife (especially in contrast to her impeccably dressed best friend, Kitty). This is a commentary on the oppressive nature of gender roles during that period of time.

In the right hand still, Clarissa is choosing to host a party for her friend and lover. While she has a successful career, she still can’t escape the expectations of society that she be all things for all people. Unlike the mise-en-scene on the left, Clarissa is effortlessly dressed and wearing a stereotypical apron. She is seemingly effortlessly throwing a complex banquet for several dozen people. When she breaks down in tears later in the scene, it’s not so much the pressure of cooking that triggers it but Lois’ visit and behaviour that dredges up the past.

How does context feature here?

The Hours  comments on the role of women in society in different time periods and the pressures placed upon them:

• In the 1950s, the expectation was that women would be housewives and raise children and keep an immaculately clean home. Queer women were expected to adhere to heteronormative ideals or face ostracism.
• In the 2000s, while women could now have successful careers and queer relationships, they couldn’t escape domestic expectations.

How do I write about this?

There are a couple of ways we can present contextual information around an example from the text. We want to discuss:

When writing a response, there are a couple of different ways you can present information:

Context → Example → Explanation

Example → Context → Explanation

Now let’s look at a couple of examples:

If you want to learn more about The Hours and Mrs Dalloway , read this article .

How do I make sure I ace writing about context?

There are a few key things that top students do to make sure they nail their contextual study essays. If you want to emulate them, you need to:

• Make sure you’ve read or viewed the text multiple times : There is no substitute for detailed knowledge of the text. It always shows in written responses.
• Make notes of your analysis : Don’t just read and write essays, make notes! Students who have detailed notes of Techniques and effects are better positioned to discuss context effectively. Again, this always shows in written responses.
• Do your own research into context : Students who rely on in-class handouts about context or the odd introduction to a set text, lack the insight and breadth of knowledge compared to those students who dig into the background of a text.
• Write practice responses, lots of them : At the end of the day, writing is a craft and skill, you improve through practice. Students who write more essays always perform far better than those who don’t!
• Get feedback : Competent students can muddle through on their own, but exceptional students consistently seek out feedback on their writing and put it into practice in their next effort.

What you should do now is reflect on your own study habits and make a list of what you need to start doing, now , so you can improve your marks.

Written by Matrix English Team

© Matrix Education and www.matrix.edu.au, 2023. Unauthorised use and/or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this site’s author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Matrix Education and www.matrix.edu.au with appropriate and specific direction to the original content.

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1 Audience, Purpose, & Context

Questions to Ponder

Discuss these following scenario with your partners:

Imagine you are a computer scientist, and you have written an important paper about cybersecurity. You have been invited to speak at a conference to explain your ideas. As you prepare your slides and notes for your speech, you are thinking about these questions:

• What kind of language should I use?
• What information should I include on my slides?

Now, imagine you are the same computer scientist, and you have a nephew in 3rd grade. Your nephew’s teacher has invited you to come to his class for Parents’ Day, to explain what you do at work. Will you give the same speech to the class of eight-year-olds? How will your language and information be the same or different?

Thinking about audience, purpose, and context

Before we give the presentations in the scenarios described above, we need to consider our audience, purpose, and context. We need to adjust the formality and complexity of our language, depending on what our audience already knows. In the context of a professional conference, we can assume that our audience knows the technical language of our subject. In a third grade classroom, on the other hand, we would use less complex language. For the professional conference, we could include complicated information on our slides, but that probably wouldn’t be effective for children. Our purpose will also affect how we make our presentation; we want to inform our listeners about cybersecurity, but we may need to entertain an audience of third graders a bit more than our professional colleagues.

The same thing is true with writing. For example, when we are writing for an academic audience of classmates and instructors, we use more formal, complex language than when we are writing for an audience of children. In all cases, we need to consider what our audience already knows, what they might think about our topic, and how they will respond to our ideas.

In writing, we also need to think about appearance, just as we do when giving a presentation. The way our essay looks is an important part of establishing our credibility as authors, in the same way that our appearance matters in a professional setting. Careful use of MLA format and careful proofreading help our essays to appear professional; consult  MLA Formatting Guides for advice.

Before you start to write, you need to know:

Who is the intended  audience ? ( Who  are you writing this for?)

What is the  purpose ? ( Why  are you writing this?)

What is the  context ? ( What  is the situation,  when  is the time period, and  where  are your readers?)

We will examine each of these below.

AUDIENCE ~ Who are you writing for?

Your audience are the people who will read your writing, or listen to your presentation. In the examples above, the first audience were your professional colleagues; the second audience were your daughter and her classmates. Naturally, your presentation will not be the same to these two audiences.

Here are some questions you might think about as you’re deciding what to write about and how to shape your message:

• What do I know about my audience? (What are their ages, interests, and biases? Do they have an opinion already? Are they interested in the topic? Why or why not?)
• What do they know about my topic? (And, what does this audience not  know about the topic? What do they need to know?)
• What details might affect the way this audience thinks about my topic? (How will facts, statistics, personal stories, examples, definitions, or other types of evidence affect this audience?)

In academic writing, your readers will usually be your classmates and instructors. Sometimes, your instructor may ask you to write for a specific audience. This should be clear from the assignment prompt; if you are not sure, ask your instructor who the intended audience is.

PURPOSE – Why are you writing?

Your primary purpose for academic writing may be to inform, to persuade, or to entertain your audience. In the examples above, your primary purpose was to inform your listeners about cybersecurity.

Audience and purpose work together, as in these examples:

• I need to write a letter to my landlord explaining why my rent is late so she won’t be upset. (Audience = landlord; Purpose = explaining my situation and keeping my landlord happy)
• I want to write a proposal for my work team to persuade them to change our schedule. (Audience = work team; Purpose = persuading them to get the schedule changed)
• I have to write a research paper for my environmental science instructor comparing solar to wind power. (Audience = instructor; Purpose = informing by analyzing and showing that you understand these two power sources)

Here are some of the main kinds of informative and persuasive writing you will do in college:

How Do I Know What My Purpose Is?

Sometimes your instructor will give you a purpose, like in the example above about the environmental science research paper ( to inform ), but other times, in college and in life, your purpose will depend on what effect you want your writing to have on your audience. What is the goal of your writing? What do you hope for your audience to think, feel, or do after reading it? Here are a few possibilities:

• Persuade or inspire them to act or to think about an issue from your point of view.
• Challenge them or make them question their thinking or behavior.
• Argue for or against something they believe or do; change their minds or behavior.
• Inform or teach them about a topic they don’t know much about.
• Connect with them emotionally; help them feel understood.

There are many different types of writing in college: essays, lab reports, case studies, business proposals, and so on. Your audience and purpose may be different for each type of writing, and each discipline, or kind of class. This brings us to context.

CONTEXT ~ What is the situation?

When and where are you and your readers situated? What are your readers’ circumstances? What is happening around them? Answering these questions will help you figure out the context, which helps you decide what kind of writing fits the situation best. The context is the situation, setting, or environment; it is the place and time that you are writing for. In our examples above, the first context is a professional conference; the second context is a third-grade classroom. The kind of presentation you write would be very different for these different contexts.

Here’s another example: Imagine that your car breaks down on the way to class. You need to send a message to someone to help you.

AUDIENCE : your friends

PURPOSE : to ask for help

CONTEXT : you are standing by the side of Little Patuxent Parkway, 10 minutes before class begins. Your friends are already at the campus Starbucks or in Duncan Hall.

Do you and your readers have time for you to write a 1,000-word essay about how a car works, and how yours has broken down? Or would one word (‘help!’) and a photo be a better way to send your message?

Now imagine that you are enrolled in a mechanical engineering class, and your professor has asked for a 4-page explanation of how internal combustion works in your car. What kind of writing should you produce? This would be the appropriate audience, purpose, and context for the 1,000-word essay about how a car works.

Activity ~ A Note about Tone

As you consider your audience, purpose, and context, you will need to think about your word choice as well. For example, say these two phrases out loud:

• very sick kids
• seriously ill children

Do they mean the same thing? Would you use the phrases in the same way? How about:

• lots of stuff

The words we choose help determine the tone of our writing, which is connected to audience, purpose, and context. Can you think of other examples using formal and informal tone?

Is this chapter:

…about right, but you would like more detail? –> Watch “ Audience: Introduction & Overview ” and from Purdue’s Online Writing Lab. Also, view “ Purpose, Audience, & Context ” from The Ohio State University.

…about right, but you prefer to listen and learn? –> Try “ Thinking About Your Assignment ” from the Excelsior OWL and “ A Smart Move: Responding the Rhetorical Situation .”

…too easy? –> Watch “ Writing for Audiences in U.S. Academic Settings ” from Purdue OWL.

Or, how about watching a funny video? In this short (3.5 minutes) video from the popular children’s program Sesame Street , Sir Ian McKellen tries to teach Cookie Monster a new word, but at first, Sir Ian doesn’t really understand what his audience knows (or doesn’t know), so Cookie Monster doesn’t understand.

Portions of this chapter were modified from the following Open Educational Resources:

Saylor Academy under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License  without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensor.

“ Audience ” and “ Purpose ” chapters from The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Note: links open in new tabs.

to think about

believability

ENGLISH 087: Academic Advanced Writing Copyright © 2020 by Nancy Hutchison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply —use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

When you receive a paper assignment, your first step should be to read the assignment prompt carefully to make sure you understand what you are being asked to do. Sometimes your assignment will be open-ended (“write a paper about anything in the course that interests you”). But more often, the instructor will be asking you to do something specific that allows you to make sense of what you’ve been learning in the course. You may be asked to put new ideas in context, to analyze course texts, or to do research on something related to the course.

Even if the instructor has introduced the assignment in class, make sure to read the prompt on your own. You’d be surprised how often someone comes to the Writing Center to ask for help on a paper before reading the prompt. Once they do read the prompt, they often find that it answers many of their questions.

When you read the assignment prompt, you should do the following:  

• Look for action verbs. Verbs like analyze , compare , discuss , explain , make an argument , propose a solution , trace , or research can help you understand what you’re being asked to do with an assignment.

Unless the instructor has specified otherwise, most of your paper assignments at Harvard will ask you to make an argument. So even when the assignment instructions tell you to “discuss” or “consider,” your instructor generally expects you to offer an arguable claim in the paper. For example, if you are asked to “discuss” several proposals for reaching carbon neutral by 2050, your instructor would likely not be asking you to list the proposals and summarize them; instead, the goal would be to analyze them in relation to each other and offer some sort of claim—either about the differences between the proposals, the potential outcomes of following one rather than another, or something that has been overlooked in all of the proposals. While you would need to summarize those proposals in order to make a claim about them, it wouldn’t be enough just to summarize them. Similarly, if you’re asked to compare sources or consider sources in relation to each other, it is not enough to offer a list of similarities and differences. Again, this type of assignment is generally asking you to make some claim about the sources in relation to each other.

• Consider the broader goals of the assignment. What kind of thinking is your instructor asking you to do? Are you supposed to be deciding whether you agree with one theorist more than another? Are you supposed to be trying out a particular method of analysis on your own body of evidence? Are you supposed to be learning a new skill (close reading? data analysis? recognizing the type of questions that can be asked in a particular discipline?)? If you understand the broader goals of the assignment, you will have an easier time figuring out if you are on the right track.
• Look for instructions about the scope of the assignment. Are you supposed to consult sources other than those you have read in class? Are you supposed to keep your focus narrow (on a passage, a document, a claim made by another author) or choose your own focus (raise a question that is sparked by course texts, pair texts in a new way)? If your instructor has told you not to consider sources outside of those specified in the assignment, then you should follow that instruction. In those assignments, the instructor wants to know what you think about the assigned sources and about the question, and they do not want you to bring in other sources.
• If you’re writing a research paper, do not assume that your reader has read all the sources that you are writing about. You’ll need to offer context about what those sources say so that your reader can understand why you have brought them into the conversation.
• If you’re writing only about assigned sources, you will still need to provide enough context to orient the reader to the main ideas of the source. While you may not need to summarize the entire text, you will need to give readers enough information to follow your argument and understand what you are doing with the text. If you’re not sure whether you should assume that readers are familiar with the ideas in the text, you should ask your instructor.  
• Ask questions! If you’re not sure what you’re supposed to do, email your instructor or go to office hours and ask.
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How to Write Assignment Content: A Step-by-Step Guide for Academic Excellence

Acing Academic Tasks: A Definitive Roadmap

Assignments are an essential part of the academic process because they allow instructors to evaluate students' comprehension, critical thinking abilities, and effective communication of concepts. Whether you're a high school student, an undergraduate, or a postgraduate, mastering the art of assignment writing is essential for academic success. This thorough guide will give you insightful advice and effective techniques to improve your assignment writing so you may constantly turn in excellent work that wows your teachers.  

Understanding the Essence of Assignment Writing

Types of assignments in academia.

Academia encompasses a wide range of assignment types, each with its unique purpose and structure. These may include research papers, essays, case studies, literature reviews, lab reports, and more. It is essential to comprehend the particular demands and standards associated with each kind of task in order to customize your strategy and produce a polished result.  

Significance of Well-Written Assignments

Well-written assignments are not only a reflection of your knowledge and academic abilities but also demonstrate your commitment to excellence. They demonstrate your capacity for critical thought, your capacity for research, and your capacity for succinctly and simply expressing complicated concepts. Crafting high-quality assignments can greatly impact your overall academic performance, paving the way for success in your chosen field of study.

Enhance your academic assignments with our blog's advice:  Homework Writing Decoded: Expert Guidance for Academic Achievement

Formulating an Effective Assignment Structure

Organizing the content: introduction, body, and conclusion.

A well-structured assignment follows a logical flow, guiding the reader through your ideas and arguments seamlessly. The introduction should capture the reader's attention, provide context, and present a clear thesis statement. The body should be organized into coherent sections or paragraphs, each supporting and developing the main arguments. Ultimately, the conclusion needs to encapsulate the main ideas, support the thesis, and make a strong impact.  

Developing a Logical Outline and Flow

Before diving into the writing process, it is essential to create a detailed outline that serves as a roadmap for your assignment. A well-structured outline ensures that your ideas are organized and interconnected, creating a logical flow that facilitates easy comprehension for the reader. This step also helps you identify potential gaps or weaknesses in your arguments, allowing you to address them proactively.

Incorporating Supporting Elements: Examples, Analysis, and Statistics

Effective assignments go beyond mere descriptions or recitations of facts; they incorporate supporting elements that strengthen and validate your arguments. This could contain pertinent illustrations, in-depth research, statistical information, or academic references. By deftly incorporating these components into your writing, you give your work legitimacy and show that you have a thorough comprehension of the subject.

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Selecting an Appropriate Writing Style

Narrative style: storytelling and character development.

In certain assignments, particularly those in the humanities or creative writing disciplines, a narrative style may be appropriate. This style involves storytelling techniques, character development, and the use of descriptive language to engage the reader and convey a message or theme effectively.

Descriptive Style: Vivid Imagery and Sensory Details

A descriptive writing style is often used in assignments that require vivid descriptions of people, places, objects, or events. This writing style uses sensory details, metaphorical language, and vivid imagery to provide the reader with a rich, immersive experience that helps them better visualize and comprehend the subject matter.

Persuasive Style: Convincing Arguments and Rhetoric

In many academic disciplines, the ability to construct persuasive arguments is highly valued. A persuasive writing style focuses on presenting logical, well-reasoned arguments supported by evidence and rhetorical techniques. This style aims to convince the reader of a particular viewpoint or position, making it an essential skill for essays, debates, and persuasive speeches.

Expository Style: Informative and Explanatory Writing

Expository writing is a style commonly used in research papers, reports, and other informative assignments. This style prioritizes clear and concise explanations, objective analysis, and the presentation of factual information. Expository writing is a crucial talent for both academic and professional settings since it tries to educate the reader on a certain topic, idea, or procedure.

Key Elements of an Impactful Assignment

Writing an effective introduction and thesis statement.

A strong start is crucial for setting the tone for your task and grabbing the reader's attention. The start should provide context, establish the importance of the topic, and culminate in a clear and concise thesis statement. Your assignment's thesis statement acts as the cornerstone, directing the growth of your arguments and guaranteeing a clear, concise framework.  

Developing a Well-Structured Body with Relevant Information

The body of your assignment is where you present your main arguments, supporting evidence, and in-depth analysis. Each paragraph or section should build upon the previous one, creating a logical progression that reinforces your thesis statement. Effective use of topic sentences, transitions, and relevant examples will enhance the clarity and flow of your writing, making it easier for the reader to follow your line of reasoning.

Crafting a Concise and Insightful Conclusion

This is your chance to make a lasting impact on the reader with the conclusion. It should summarize your primary ideas, freshly repeat your thesis, and offer wise conclusions or suggestions. A well-written conclusion brings your assignment's many components together, highlighting the importance of your effort and providing the reader with a satisfying sense of closure.  

Learning Referencing and Citations

Understanding citation styles (apa, mla, chicago, etc.).

Academic writing requires adherence to specific citation styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, or Harvard, among others. Each style has its own set of rules and guidelines for properly citing sources and formatting references. Understanding the implication of the required citation style is crucial to ensure that your work meets academic standards and avoids plagiarism concerns.

Properly Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism

Presenting another person's concepts or works as your own is a major academic offense known as plagiarism, which carries harsh penalties. All sources included in your assignment, whether they be direct quotes, paraphrased text, or borrowed concepts, must be properly cited in order to prevent plagiarism. You show respect for intellectual property and academic integrity by correctly citing information sources.  

Creating an Accurate and Wide Reference List

In addition to in-text citations, most assignments require a reference list or bibliography at the end of the document. This list should include all sources cited within your assignment, formatted according to the specified citation style. A well-organized and comprehensive reference list not only demonstrates your research efforts but also serves as a valuable resource for readers who may wish to explore the topic further.

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Why Students Seek Professional Assignment Writing Assistance

Ensuring academic integrity and high-quality work.

A major motivation for students to look for expert assignment writing help is to maintain their academic integrity and generate excellent work. Reputable assignment writing services employ subject matter experts who possess in-depth knowledge and adhere to strict guidelines for plagiarism prevention and academic honesty.

Gaining Subject Matter Expertise and Guidance

Assignment writing often requires a deep understanding of complex topics and concepts. Students can improve their comprehension and academic performance by working with professional writers who specialize in different academic subjects. By doing so, they can obtain invaluable insights, assistance, and subject matter expertise.  

Maintaining Work-Life Balance and Meeting Deadlines

Juggling multiple assignments, extracurricular activities, and personal commitments can be overwhelming for many students. Professional assignment writing services provide a solution by offering timely assistance, allowing students to maintain a healthy work-life balance while ensuring that their assignments are completed to

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. how to write an assignment step by step.

Understand the assignment type, develop an outline, write an effective introduction with a thesis, structure the body with relevant information and analysis, craft an insightful conclusion, and properly cite sources following the required citation style. 

2. Tips for writing a good assignment

Organize content logically, incorporate supporting elements like examples and statistics, select an appropriate writing style, use transitions for better flow, adhere to citation styles, proofread thoroughly, and ensure the work is original and well-researched.

3. Best assignment writing service online

The blog does not recommend any specific service but suggests that reputable services employ subject matter experts who follow academic integrity guidelines, produce high-quality work, and help students gain subject expertise while meeting deadlines.

4. Assignment writing tips and tricks

Create a detailed outline to organize ideas, use relevant examples and evidence to support arguments, write an attention-grabbing introduction and impactful conclusion, maintain a logical flow through effective transitions, follow the required citation style meticulously, and proofread to eliminate errors.

5. Assignment writing structure and format

A well-structured assignment typically consists of an introduction that presents the thesis, body paragraphs/sections that develop arguments with supporting evidence, and a conclusion that summarizes the main points and reinforces the thesis statement, adhering to the specified formatting and citation guidelines.

6. How to write an assignment introduction?

The introduction should capture the reader's attention with an engaging opening, provide relevant background information and context, highlight the significance of the topic, and present a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of the assignment.

If you need assistance with assignment writing, contact our team via email at  [email protected]  or phone at  +91-8690865785 .

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How to Write an Effective Assignment

At their base, all assignment prompts function a bit like a magnifying glass—they allow a student to isolate, focus on, inspect, and interact with some portion of your course material through a fixed lens of your choosing.

The Key Components of an Effective Assignment Prompt

All assignments, from ungraded formative response papers all the way up to a capstone assignment, should include the following components to ensure that students and teachers understand not only the learning objective of the assignment, but also the discrete steps which they will need to follow in order to complete it successfully:

• Preamble.  This situates the assignment within the context of the course, reminding students of what they have been working on in anticipation of the assignment and how that work has prepared them to succeed at it. 
• Justification and Purpose.  This explains why the particular type or genre of assignment you’ve chosen (e.g., lab report, policy memo, problem set, or personal reflection) is the best way for you and your students to measure how well they’ve met the learning objectives associated with this segment of the course.
• Mission.  This explains the assignment in broad brush strokes, giving students a general sense of the project you are setting before them. It often gives students guidance on the evidence or data they should be working with, as well as helping them imagine the audience their work should be aimed at.  
• Tasks.  This outlines what students are supposed to do at a more granular level: for example, how to start, where to look, how to ask for help, etc. If written well, this part of the assignment prompt ought to function as a kind of "process" rubric for students, helping them to decide for themselves whether they are completing the assignment successfully.
• Submission format.  This tells students, in appropriate detail, which stylistic conventions they should observe and how to submit their work. For example, should the assignment be a five-page paper written in APA format and saved as a .docx file? Should it be uploaded to the course website? Is it due by Tuesday at 5:00pm?

For illustrations of these five components in action, visit our gallery of annotated assignment prompts .

For advice about creative assignments (e.g. podcasts, film projects, visual and performing art projects, etc.), visit our  Guidance on Non-Traditional Forms of Assessment .

For specific advice on different genres of assignment, click below:

Response Papers

Problem sets, source analyses, final exams, concept maps, research papers, oral presentations, poster presentations.

• Learner-Centered Design
• Putting Evidence at the Center
• What Should Students Learn?
• Start with the Capstone
• Gallery of Annotated Assignment Prompts
• Scaffolding: Using Frequency and Sequencing Intentionally
• Curating Content: The Virtue of Modules
• Syllabus Design
• Catalogue Materials
• Making a Course Presentation Video
• Teaching Teams
• In the Classroom
• Getting Feedback
• Equitable & Inclusive Teaching
• Advising and Mentoring
• Teaching and Your Career
• Teaching Remotely
• Tools and Platforms
• The Science of Learning
• Bok Publications
• Other Resources Around Campus

Information to Include in Writing Assignments

What types of information do effective writing assignments offer to students?

Students often need more specific information about a writing task than faculty anticipate. In some cases, faculty are asking students to compose a type of text students have never written before. In others, faculty may be asking students to write a familiar text but have somewhat different expectations than students have been given in the past. The following types of information, provided in a written prompt and/or during a conversation in class, help college writers understand a writing assignment.

• Assignment description . Provide a concise description (a few sentences) of the most essential elements of the assignment. It is helpful to make sure the most important information about the genre, purpose, topic(s), and length of the paper are very easy to find. You could think of this as the "executive summary" of the assignment.
• Context (or keys to success). This section of an assignment can provide additional explanation of the essential elements of the assignment. It may also highlight the challenges students typically have with the assignment and offer guidance for avoiding those challenges. It should remind students about resources or models faculty have provided that will help them succeed.
• Audience . Most students write with one audience in mind: a professor (or TA) who is grading their paper. This can lead students to either over-explain or under-explain key topics. (They over-explain when they imagine the reader as a grader and hope to demonstrate how much they have learned. They under-explain when they imagine the reader as an expert who already knows all the relevant context and won't need to see it repeated.) When possible, provide students with a real-world audience. For example, for a chemistry research abstract, an audience could be any of the following, depending on course learning goals: "professional researchers in synthetic chemistry," "professional researchers in chemistry who focus on sub-fields unrelated to your topic," "students in next year's section of Synthetic Chemistry 101 who haven't yet learned about dicarboxylic acids," or "high school students taking AP Chemistry." Consider spending time in class discussing what expectations the assigned audience might have.
• Citation . Be clear about your expectations for in-text citation and references. Conventions vary considerably across disciplines. Be clear about if/how students should cite the assigned reading and lectures from the course.
• Generative AI. Let students if the use of generative AI tools is disallowed, allowed, or required. See our guidelines on teaching writing and generative AI for more guidance on this topic.
• Learning goals . Assignments often focus on what students are being asked to do, and they less commonly address why they are being asked to do that work. Clear explanation of the things students will learn from doing an assignment can provide motivation and help clarify the task.
• Grading . Let students know how their work will be assessed. This could be presented as a rubric or a list of top priorities.
• Formatting . Formatting can be important, but often information about formatting gets in the way of more substantive aspects of the assignment. This might include information about document design, file names, or file types.
• Plan of work . If the assignment is highly scaffolded (e.g., it will require the submission of drafts along the way), provide that information here. If the assignment contains minimal scaffolding, consider offering students advice for a pace of work that will lead to success. This can help students see that starting work right before the due date in unlikely to be successful and give them an alternative plan to consider.

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Understanding Writing Assignments

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How to Decipher the Paper Assignment

Many instructors write their assignment prompts differently. By following a few steps, you can better understand the requirements for the assignment. The best way, as always, is to ask the instructor about anything confusing.

• Read the prompt the entire way through once. This gives you an overall view of what is going on.
• Underline or circle the portions that you absolutely must know. This information may include due date, research (source) requirements, page length, and format (MLA, APA, CMS).
• Underline or circle important phrases. You should know your instructor at least a little by now - what phrases do they use in class? Does he repeatedly say a specific word? If these are in the prompt, you know the instructor wants you to use them in the assignment.
• Think about how you will address the prompt. The prompt contains clues on how to write the assignment. Your instructor will often describe the ideas they want discussed either in questions, in bullet points, or in the text of the prompt. Think about each of these sentences and number them so that you can write a paragraph or section of your essay on that portion if necessary.
• Rank ideas in descending order, from most important to least important. Instructors may include more questions or talking points than you can cover in your assignment, so rank them in the order you think is more important. One area of the prompt may be more interesting to you than another.
• Ask your instructor questions if you have any.

After you are finished with these steps, ask yourself the following:

• What is the purpose of this assignment? Is my purpose to provide information without forming an argument, to construct an argument based on research, or analyze a poem and discuss its imagery?
• Who is my audience? Is my instructor my only audience? Who else might read this? Will it be posted online? What are my readers' needs and expectations?
• What resources do I need to begin work? Do I need to conduct literature (hermeneutic or historical) research, or do I need to review important literature on the topic and then conduct empirical research, such as a survey or an observation? How many sources are required?
• Who - beyond my instructor - can I contact to help me if I have questions? Do you have a writing lab or student service center that offers tutorials in writing?

(Notes on prompts made in blue )

Poster or Song Analysis: Poster or Song? Poster!

Goals : To systematically consider the rhetorical choices made in either a poster or a song. She says that all the time.

Things to Consider: ah- talking points

• how the poster addresses its audience and is affected by context I'll do this first - 1.
• general layout, use of color, contours of light and shade, etc.
• use of contrast, alignment, repetition, and proximity C.A.R.P. They say that, too. I'll do this third - 3.
• the point of view the viewer is invited to take, poses of figures in the poster, etc. any text that may be present
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing I'll cover this second - 2.
• ethical implications
• how the poster affects us emotionally, or what mood it evokes
• the poster's implicit argument and its effectiveness said that was important in class, so I'll discuss this last - 4.
• how the song addresses its audience
• lyrics: how they rhyme, repeat, what they say
• use of music, tempo, different instruments
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing
• emotional effects
• the implicit argument and its effectiveness

These thinking points are not a step-by-step guideline on how to write your paper; instead, they are various means through which you can approach the subject. I do expect to see at least a few of them addressed, and there are other aspects that may be pertinent to your choice that have not been included in these lists. You will want to find a central idea and base your argument around that. Additionally, you must include a copy of the poster or song that you are working with. Really important!

I will be your audience. This is a formal paper, and you should use academic conventions throughout.

Length: 4 pages Format: Typed, double-spaced, 10-12 point Times New Roman, 1 inch margins I need to remember the format stuff. I messed this up last time =(

Academic Argument Essay

5-7 pages, Times New Roman 12 pt. font, 1 inch margins.

Minimum of five cited sources: 3 must be from academic journals or books

• Design Plan due: Thurs. 10/19
• Rough Draft due: Monday 10/30
• Final Draft due: Thurs. 11/9

Remember this! I missed the deadline last time

The design plan is simply a statement of purpose, as described on pages 40-41 of the book, and an outline. The outline may be formal, as we discussed in class, or a printout of an Open Mind project. It must be a minimum of 1 page typed information, plus 1 page outline.

This project is an expansion of your opinion editorial. While you should avoid repeating any of your exact phrases from Project 2, you may reuse some of the same ideas. Your topic should be similar. You must use research to support your position, and you must also demonstrate a fairly thorough knowledge of any opposing position(s). 2 things to do - my position and the opposite.

Your essay should begin with an introduction that encapsulates your topic and indicates 1 the general trajectory of your argument. You need to have a discernable thesis that appears early in your paper. Your conclusion should restate the thesis in different words, 2 and then draw some additional meaningful analysis out of the developments of your argument. Think of this as a "so what" factor. What are some implications for the future, relating to your topic? What does all this (what you have argued) mean for society, or for the section of it to which your argument pertains? A good conclusion moves outside the topic in the paper and deals with a larger issue.

You should spend at least one paragraph acknowledging and describing the opposing position in a manner that is respectful and honestly representative of the opposition’s 3 views. The counterargument does not need to occur in a certain area, but generally begins or ends your argument. Asserting and attempting to prove each aspect of your argument’s structure should comprise the majority of your paper. Ask yourself what your argument assumes and what must be proven in order to validate your claims. Then go step-by-step, paragraph-by-paragraph, addressing each facet of your position. Most important part!

Finally, pay attention to readability . Just because this is a research paper does not mean that it has to be boring. Use examples and allow your opinion to show through word choice and tone. Proofread before you turn in the paper. Your audience is generally the academic community and specifically me, as a representative of that community. Ok, They want this to be easy to read, to contain examples I find, and they want it to be grammatically correct. I can visit the tutoring center if I get stuck, or I can email the OWL Email Tutors short questions if I have any more problems.

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Chapter 2: Understanding Assignment Outlines and Instructions

Understanding assignment outlines and instructions, writing for whom writing for what.

The first principle of good communication is knowing your audience .  Often when you write for an audience of one, you might write a text or email. But college papers aren’t written like emails; they’re written like articles for a hypothetical group of readers that you don’t actually know much about. There’s a fundamental mismatch between the real-life audience and the form your writing takes.

Unless there is a particular audience specified in the assignment, you would do well to imagine yourself writing for a group of peers who have some introductory knowledge of the field but are unfamiliar with the specific topic you’re discussing. Imagine them being interested in your topic but also busy; try to write something that is well worth your readers’ time. Keeping an audience like this in mind will help you distinguish common knowledge in the field from that which must be defined and explained in your paper.

Another basic tenet of good communication is clarifying the purpose of the communication and letting that purpose shape your decisions. Your professor wants to see you work through complex ideas and demonstrate your learning through the process of producing the paper. Each assignment—be it an argumentative paper, reaction paper, reflective paper, lab report, discussion question, blog post, essay exam, project proposal, or what have you—is ultimately about your learning. To succeed with writing assignments (and benefit from them) you first have to understand their learning-related purposes. As you write for your audience, you’re demonstrating to your professor how far you’ve gotten in analyzing your topic.

Professors don’t assign writing lightly. Grading student writing is generally the hardest, most intensive work instructors do. You would do well to approach every assignment by putting yourself in the shoes of your instructor and asking yourself, “Why did she give me this assignment? How does it fit into the learning goals of the course? Why is this question/topic/problem so important to my professor that he is willing to spend time reading and commenting on several dozen papers on it?”

Professors certainly vary in the quantity and specificity of the guidelines and suggestions they distribute with each writing assignment. Some professors make a point to give very few parameters about an assignment—perhaps just a topic and a length requirement—and they likely have some good reasons for doing so. Here are some possible reasons:

• They figured it out themselves when they were students .  Many instructors will teach how they were taught in school.  The emphasis on student-centered instruction is relatively recent; your instructors more often had professors who adhered to the classic model of college instruction: they went to lectures and/or labs and wrote papers.  Students were often ‘on their own’ to learn the lingo and conventions of each field, to identify the key concepts and ideas within readings and lectures, and to sleuth out instructors’ expectations for written work. Learning goals, rubrics, quizzes, and preparatory assignments were generally rare.
• They think figuring it out yourself is good for you . Because your professors often  succeeded in a much less supportive environment , they appreciate how learning to thrive in those conditions gave them life-long problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Many think you should be able to figure it out yourself and that it would be good practice for you to do so. Even those who do include a lot of guidance with writing assignments sometimes worry that they’re depriving you of an important personal and intellectual challenge. Figuring out unspoken expectations is a valuable skill in itself.  They may also want to give you the freedom to explore and produce new and interesting ideas and feel that instructions that are too specific may limit you.  There’s a balancing act to creating a good assignment outline, so sometimes you might need to ask for clarification.
• They think you already know the skills/concepts :  Some professors assume that students come with a fully developed set of academic skills and knowledge.  You may need to ask your professor for clarification or help and it’s good to learn what additional resources are out there to assist you (the Library, Writing Guides, etc).

It is understandably frustrating when you feel you don’t know how to direct your efforts to succeed with an assignment.  The transparency that you get from some professors—along with books like this one—will be a big help to you in situations where you have to be scrappier and more pro-active, piecing together the clues you get from your professors, the readings, and other course documents.

The assignment prompt: what does “analyze” mean anyway?

Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment—what professors call the assignment prompt or outline—will explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation.

Sometimes, though—especially when you are new to a field—you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Here are some tips:

Video source: https://youtu.be/JZ175MLpOmE

• Try to brainstorm or do a free-write . A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn’t sound very “free;” it actually sounds kind of coerced. The “free” part is what you write—it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writers block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can’t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on “I don’t understand this” or “I’d really rather be doing something else,” eventually you’ll write something like “I guess the main point of this is …” and—booyah!—you’re off and running. If your instructor doesn’t make time for that in class, a quick free-write on your own will quickly reveal whether you need clarification about the assignment and, often, what questions to ask.

Rubrics as road maps

Not all professors use rubrics : some mark “holistically” (which means that they evaluate the paper as a whole), versus “analytically” (where they break down the marks by criteria).  If the professor took the trouble to prepare and distribute a rubric, you can be sure that they will use it to grade your paper.  A rubric is the clearest possible statement of what the professor is looking for in the paper. If it’s wordy, it may seem like those online “terms and conditions” that we routinely accept without reading. But you really should read it over carefully before you begin and again as your work progresses. A lot of rubrics do have some useful specifics. Even less specific criteria (such as “incorporates course concepts” and “considers counter-arguments”) will tell you how you should be spending your writing time.

Even the best rubrics aren’t completely transparent because they simply can’t be. For example, what is the real difference between “demonstrating a thorough understanding of context, audience, and purpose” and “demonstrating adequate consideration” of the same? It depends on the specific context. So how can you know whether you’ve done that? A big part of what you’re learning, through feedback from your professors, is to judge the quality of your writing for yourself. Your future employers are counting on that. At this point, it is better to think of rubrics as roadmaps, displaying your destination, rather than a GPS system directing every move you make.

Video source: https://youtu.be/mXRzyZAE8Y4

What’s critical about critical thinking?

Critical thinking is one of those terms that has been used so often and in so many different ways that if often seems meaningless. It also makes one wonder, is there such a thing as uncritical thinking? If you aren’t thinking critically, then are you even thinking?

Despite the prevalent ambiguities, critical thinking actually does mean something. The Association of American Colleges and Universities usefully defines it as “a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion.” [1]

The critical thinking rubric produced by the AAC&U describes the relevant activities of critical thinking in more detail. To think critically, one must …

(a) “clearly state and comprehensively describe the issue or problem”,

(b) “independently interpret and evaluate sources”,

(c) “thoroughly analyze assumptions behind and context of your own or others’ ideas”,

(d) “argue a complex position and one that takes counter-arguments into account,” and

(e) “arrive at logical and well informed conclusions”. [2]

While you are probably used to providing some evidence for your claims, you can see that college-level expectations go quite a bit further. When professors assign an analytical paper, they don’t just want you to formulate a plausible-sounding argument. They want you to dig into the evidence, think hard about unspoken assumptions and the influence of context, and then explain what you really think and why.

Thinking critically—thoroughly questioning your immediate intuitive responses—is difficult work, but every organization and business in the world needs people who can do that effectively.  The ability to think critically also entails being able to hear and appreciate multiple perspectives on an issue, even if we don’t agree with them.  While writing time is often solitary, it’s meant to plug you into a vibrant academic community. What your professors want, overall, is for you to join them in asking and pursuing important questions about the natural, social, and creative worlds.

• Terrel Rhodes, ed., Assessing Outcomes and Improving Achievement: Tips and Tools for Using Rubrics (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2010). ↵
• Ibid ↵

Writing for Academic and Professional Contexts: An Introduction Copyright © 2023 by Sheridan College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing Assignments

Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine

Introduction

Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Developing critical thinking and writing skills are also necessary to demonstrate your ability to understand and apply information about your topic.  It is not uncommon to be unsure about the processes of writing assignments at university.

• You may be returning to study after a break
• You may have come from an exam based assessment system and never written an assignment before
• Maybe you have written assignments but would like to improve your processes and strategies

This chapter has a collection of resources that will provide you with the skills and strategies to understand assignment requirements and effectively plan, research, write and edit your assignments.  It begins with an explanation of how to analyse an assignment task and start putting your ideas together.  It continues by breaking down the components of academic writing and exploring the elements you will need to master in your written assignments. This is followed by a discussion of paraphrasing and synthesis, and how you can use these strategies to create a strong, written argument. The chapter concludes with useful checklists for editing and proofreading to help you get the best possible mark for your work.

Task Analysis and Deconstructing an Assignment

It is important that before you begin researching and writing your assignments you spend sufficient time understanding all the requirements. This will help make your research process more efficient and effective. Check your subject information such as task sheets, criteria sheets and any additional information that may be in your subject portal online. Seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you are still unsure about how to begin your assignments.

The task sheet typically provides key information about an assessment including the assignment question. It can be helpful to scan this document for topic, task and limiting words to ensure that you fully understand the concepts you are required to research, how to approach the assignment, and the scope of the task you have been set. These words can typically be found in your assignment question and are outlined in more detail in the two tables below (see Table 19.1 and Table 19.2 ).

Table 19.1 Parts of an Assignment Question

Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the task word requires you to address.

Table 19.2 Task words

The criteria sheet , also known as the marking sheet or rubric, is another important document to look at before you begin your assignment. The criteria sheet outlines how your assignment will be marked and should be used as a checklist to make sure you have included all the information required.

The task or criteria sheet will also include the:

• Word limit (or word count)
• Referencing style and research expectations
• Formatting requirements

Task analysis and criteria sheets are also discussed in the chapter Managing Assessments for a more detailed discussion on task analysis, criteria sheets, and marking rubrics.

Preparing your ideas

Brainstorm or concept map:  List possible ideas to address each part of the assignment task based on what you already know about the topic from lectures and weekly readings.

Finding appropriate information: Learn how to find scholarly information for your assignments which is

See the chapter Working With Information for a more detailed explanation .

What is academic writing?

Academic writing tone and style.

Many of the assessment pieces you prepare will require an academic writing style.  This is sometimes called ‘academic tone’ or ‘academic voice’.  This section will help you to identify what is required when you are writing academically (see Table 19.3 ). The best way to understand what academic writing looks like, is to read broadly in your discipline area.  Look at how your course readings, or scholarly sources, are written. This will help you identify the language of your discipline field, as well as how other writers structure their work.

Table 19.3 Comparison of academic and non-academic writing

Thesis statements

Essays are a common form of assessment that you will likely encounter during your university studies. You should apply an academic tone and style when writing an essay, just as you would in in your other assessment pieces. One of the most important steps in writing an essay is constructing your thesis statement.  A thesis statement tells the reader the purpose, argument or direction you will take to answer your assignment question. A thesis statement may not be relevant for some questions, if you are unsure check with your lecturer. The thesis statement:

• Directly  relates to the task .  Your thesis statement may even contain some of the key words or synonyms from the task description.
• Does more than restate the question.
• Is specific and uses precise language.
• Let’s your reader know your position or the main argument that you will support with evidence throughout your assignment.
• The subject is the key content area you will be covering.
• The contention is the position you are taking in relation to the chosen content.

Your thesis statement helps you to structure your essay.  It plays a part in each key section: introduction, body and conclusion.

Planning your assignment structure

When planning and drafting assignments, it is important to consider the structure of your writing. Academic writing should have clear and logical structure and incorporate academic research to support your ideas.  It can be hard to get started and at first you may feel nervous about the size of the task, this is normal. If you break your assignment into smaller pieces, it will seem more manageable as you can approach the task in sections. Refer to your brainstorm or plan. These ideas should guide your research and will also inform what you write in your draft. It is sometimes easier to draft your assignment using the 2-3-1 approach, that is, write the body paragraphs first followed by the conclusion and finally the introduction.

Writing introductions and conclusions

Clear and purposeful introductions and conclusions in assignments are fundamental to effective academic writing. Your introduction should tell the reader what is going to be covered and how you intend to approach this. Your conclusion should summarise your argument or discussion and signal to the reader that you have come to a conclusion with a final statement.  These tips below are based on the requirements usually needed for an essay assignment, however, they can be applied to other assignment types.

Writing introductions

Most writing at university will require a strong and logically structured introduction. An effective introduction should provide some background or context for your assignment, clearly state your thesis and include the key points you will cover in the body of the essay in order to prove your thesis.

Usually, your introduction is approximately 10% of your total assignment word count. It is much easier to write your introduction once you have drafted your body paragraphs and conclusion, as you know what your assignment is going to be about. An effective introduction needs to inform your reader by establishing what the paper is about and provide four basic things:

• A brief background or overview of your assignment topic
• A thesis statement (see section above)
• An outline of your essay structure
• An indication of any parameters or scope that will/ will not be covered, e.g. From an Australian perspective.

The below example demonstrates the four different elements of an introductory paragraph.

1) Information technology is having significant effects on the communication of individuals and organisations in different professions. 2) This essay will discuss the impact of information technology on the communication of health professionals.   3)  First, the provision of information technology for the educational needs of nurses will be discussed.  4)  This will be followed by an explanation of the significant effects that information technology can have on the role of general practitioner in the area of public health.  5)  Considerations will then be made regarding the lack of knowledge about the potential of computers among hospital administrators and nursing executives.  6)   The final section will explore how information technology assists health professionals in the delivery of services in rural areas .  7)  It will be argued that information technology has significant potential to improve health care and medical education, but health professionals are reluctant to use it.

1 Brief background/ overview | 2 Indicates the scope of what will be covered |   3-6 Outline of the main ideas (structure) | 7 The thesis statement

Note : The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing conclusions

You should aim to end your assignments with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should restate your thesis and summarise the key points you have used to prove this thesis. Finish with a key point as a final impactful statement.  Similar to your introduction, your conclusion should be approximately 10% of the total assignment word length. If your assessment task asks you to make recommendations, you may need to allocate more words to the conclusion or add a separate recommendations section before the conclusion. Use the checklist below to check your conclusion is doing the right job.

Conclusion checklist 

• Have you referred to the assignment question and restated your argument (or thesis statement), as outlined in the introduction?
• Have you pulled together all the threads of your essay into a logical ending and given it a sense of unity?
• Have you presented implications or recommendations in your conclusion? (if required by your task).
• Have you added to the overall quality and impact of your essay? This is your final statement about this topic; thus, a key take-away point can make a great impact on the reader.
• Remember, do not add any new material or direct quotes in your conclusion.

This below example demonstrates the different elements of a concluding paragraph.

1) It is evident, therefore, that not only do employees need to be trained for working in the Australian multicultural workplace, but managers also need to be trained.  2)  Managers must ensure that effective in-house training programs are provided for migrant workers, so that they become more familiar with the English language, Australian communication norms and the Australian work culture.  3)  In addition, Australian native English speakers need to be made aware of the differing cultural values of their workmates; particularly the different forms of non-verbal communication used by other cultures.  4)  Furthermore, all employees must be provided with clear and detailed guidelines about company expectations.  5)  Above all, in order to minimise communication problems and to maintain an atmosphere of tolerance, understanding and cooperation in the multicultural workplace, managers need to have an effective knowledge about their employees. This will help employers understand how their employee’s social conditioning affects their beliefs about work. It will develop their communication skills to develop confidence and self-esteem among diverse work groups. 6) The culturally diverse Australian workplace may never be completely free of communication problems, however,   further studies to identify potential problems and solutions, as well as better training in cross cultural communication for managers and employees,   should result in a much more understanding and cooperative environment. 

1  Reference to thesis statement – In this essay the writer has taken the position that training is required for both employees and employers . | 2-5 Structure overview – Here the writer pulls together the main ideas in the essay. | 6  Final summary statement that is based on the evidence.

Note: The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing paragraphs

Paragraph writing is a key skill that enables you to incorporate your academic research into your written work.  Each paragraph should have its own clearly identified topic sentence or main idea which relates to the argument or point (thesis) you are developing.  This idea should then be explained by additional sentences which you have paraphrased from good quality sources and referenced according to the recommended guidelines of your subject (see the chapter Working with Information ). Paragraphs are characterised by increasing specificity; that is, they move from the general to the specific, increasingly refining the reader’s understanding. A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows.

Topic Sentence 

This is the main idea of the paragraph and should relate to the overall issue or purpose of your assignment is addressing. Often it will be expressed as an assertion or claim which supports the overall argument or purpose of your writing.

Explanation/ Elaboration

The main idea must have its meaning explained and elaborated upon. Think critically, do not just describe the idea.

These explanations must include evidence to support your main idea. This information should be paraphrased and referenced according to the appropriate referencing style of your course.

Concluding sentence (critical thinking)

This should explain why the topic of the paragraph is relevant to the assignment question and link to the following paragraph.

Use the checklist below to check your paragraphs are clear and well formed.

Paragraph checklist

• Does your paragraph have a clear main idea?
• Is everything in the paragraph related to this main idea?
• Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
• Do your sentences run together smoothly?
• Have you included evidence to support your ideas?
• Have you concluded the paragraph by connecting it to your overall topic?

Writing sentences

Make sure all the sentences in your paragraphs make sense. Each sentence must contain a verb to be a complete sentence. Avoid sentence fragments . These are incomplete sentences or ideas that are unfinished and create confusion for your reader. Avoid also run on sentences . This happens when you join two ideas or clauses without using the appropriate punctuation. This also confuses your meaning (See the chapter English Language Foundations for examples and further explanation).

Use transitions (linking words and phrases) to connect your ideas between paragraphs and make your writing flow. The order that you structure the ideas in your assignment should reflect the structure you have outlined in your introduction. Refer to transition words table in the chapter English Language Foundations.

Paraphrasing and Synthesising

Paraphrasing and synthesising are powerful tools that you can use to support the main idea of a paragraph. It is likely that you will regularly use these skills at university to incorporate evidence into explanatory sentences and strengthen your essay. It is important to paraphrase and synthesise because:

• Paraphrasing is regarded more highly at university than direct quoting.
• Paraphrasing can also help you better understand the material.
• Paraphrasing and synthesising demonstrate you have understood what you have read through your ability to summarise and combine arguments from the literature using your own words.

What is paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing is changing the writing of another author into your words while retaining the original meaning. You must acknowledge the original author as the source of the information in your citation. Follow the steps in this table to help you build your skills in paraphrasing (see Table 19.4 ).

Table 19.4 Paraphrasing techniques

Example of paraphrasing

Please note that these examples and in text citations are for instructional purposes only.

Original text

Health care professionals   assist people often when they are at their most  vulnerable . To provide the best care and understand their needs, workers must demonstrate good communication skills .  They must develop patient trust and provide empathy   to effectively work with patients who are experiencing a variety of situations including those who may be suffering from trauma or violence, physical or mental illness or substance abuse (French & Saunders, 2018).

Poor quality paraphrase example

This is a poor example of paraphrasing. Some synonyms have been used and the order of a few words changed within the sentences however the colours of the sentences indicate that the paragraph follows the same structure as the original text.

Health care sector workers are often responsible for vulnerable  patients.   To understand patients and deliver good service , they need to be excellent communicators .  They must establish patient rapport and show empathy if they are to successfully care for patients from a variety of backgrounds  and with different medical, psychological and social needs (French & Saunders, 2018).

A good quality paraphrase example

This example demonstrates a better quality paraphrase. The author has demonstrated more understanding of the overall concept in the text by using the keywords as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph. Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up to see how much the structure has changed from the original text.

Empathetic   communication is a vital skill for health care workers.   Professionals in these fields   are often responsible for patients with complex medical, psychological and social needs. Empathetic   communication assists in building rapport and gaining the necessary trust   to assist these vulnerable patients  by providing appropriate supportive care (French & Saunders, 2018).

The good quality paraphrase example demonstrates understanding of the overall concept in the text by using key words as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph.  Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up, which indicates how much the structure has changed from the original text.

What is synthesising?

Synthesising means to bring together more than one source of information to strengthen your argument. Once you have learnt how to paraphrase the ideas of one source at a time, you can consider adding additional sources to support your argument. Synthesis demonstrates your understanding and ability to show connections between multiple pieces of evidence to support your ideas and is a more advanced academic thinking and writing skill.

Follow the steps in this table to improve your synthesis techniques (see Table 19.5 ).

Table 19.5 Synthesising techniques

Example of synthesis

There is a relationship between academic procrastination and mental health outcomes.  Procrastination has been found to have a negative effect on students’ well-being (Balkis, & Duru, 2016). Yerdelen, McCaffrey, and Klassens’ (2016) research results suggested that there was a positive association between procrastination and anxiety. This was corroborated by Custer’s (2018) findings which indicated that students with higher levels of procrastination also reported greater levels of the anxiety. Therefore, it could be argued that procrastination is an ineffective learning strategy that leads to increased levels of distress.

Topic sentence | Statements using paraphrased evidence | Critical thinking (student voice) | Concluding statement – linking to topic sentence

This example demonstrates a simple synthesis. The author has developed a paragraph with one central theme and included explanatory sentences complete with in-text citations from multiple sources. Note how the blocks of colour have been used to illustrate the paragraph structure and synthesis (i.e., statements using paraphrased evidence from several sources). A more complex synthesis may include more than one citation per sentence.

Creating an argument

What does this mean.

Throughout your university studies, you may be asked to ‘argue’ a particular point or position in your writing. You may already be familiar with the idea of an argument, which in general terms means to have a disagreement with someone. Similarly, in academic writing, if you are asked to create an argument, this means you are asked to have a position on a particular topic, and then justify your position using evidence.

What skills do you need to create an argument?

In order to create a good and effective argument, you need to be able to:

• Read critically to find evidence
• Plan your argument
• Think and write critically throughout your paper to enhance your argument

For tips on how to read and write critically, refer to the chapter Thinking for more information. A formula for developing a strong argument is presented below.

A formula for a good argument

What does an argument look like?

As can be seen from the figure above, including evidence is a key element of a good argument. While this may seem like a straightforward task, it can be difficult to think of wording to express your argument. The table below provides examples of how you can illustrate your argument in academic writing (see Table 19.6 ).

Table 19.6 Argument

Editing and proofreading (reviewing)

Once you have finished writing your first draft it is recommended that you spend time revising your work.  Proofreading and editing are two different stages of the revision process.

• Editing considers the overall focus or bigger picture of the assignment
• Proofreading considers the finer details

As can be seen in the figure above there are four main areas that you should review during the editing phase of the revision process. The main things to consider when editing include content, structure, style, and sources. It is important to check that all the content relates to the assignment task, the structure is appropriate for the purposes of the assignment, the writing is academic in style, and that sources have been adequately acknowledged. Use the checklist below when editing your work.

Editing checklist

• Have I answered the question accurately?
• Do I have enough credible, scholarly supporting evidence?
• Is my writing tone objective and formal enough or have I used emotive and informal language?
• Have I written in the third person not the first person?
• Do I have appropriate in-text citations for all my information?
• Have I included the full details for all my in-text citations in my reference list?

There are also several key things to look out for during the proofreading phase of the revision process. In this stage it is important to check your work for word choice, grammar and spelling, punctuation and referencing errors. It can be easy to mis-type words like ‘from’ and ‘form’ or mix up words like ‘trail’ and ‘trial’ when writing about research, apply American rather than Australian spelling, include unnecessary commas or incorrectly format your references list. The checklist below is a useful guide that you can use when proofreading your work.

Proofreading checklist

• Is my spelling and grammar accurate?
•  Are they complete?
• Do they all make sense?
• Do they only contain only one idea?
• Do the different elements (subject, verb, nouns, pronouns) within my sentences agree?
• Are my sentences too long and complicated?
• Do they contain only one idea per sentence?
• Is my writing concise? Take out words that do not add meaning to your sentences.
• Have I used appropriate discipline specific language but avoided words I don’t know or understand that could possibly be out of context?
• Have I avoided discriminatory language and colloquial expressions (slang)?
• Is my referencing formatted correctly according to my assignment guidelines? (for more information on referencing refer to the Managing Assessment feedback section).

This chapter has examined the experience of writing assignments.  It began by focusing on how to read and break down an assignment question, then highlighted the key components of essays. Next, it examined some techniques for paraphrasing and summarising, and how to build an argument. It concluded with a discussion on planning and structuring your assignment and giving it that essential polish with editing and proof-reading. Combining these skills and practising them, can greatly improve your success with this very common form of assessment.

• Academic writing requires clear and logical structure, critical thinking and the use of credible scholarly sources.
• A thesis statement is important as it tells the reader the position or argument you have adopted in your assignment. Not all assignments will require a thesis statement.
• Spending time analysing your task and planning your structure before you start to write your assignment is time well spent.
• Information you use in your assignment should come from credible scholarly sources such as textbooks and peer reviewed journals. This information needs to be paraphrased and referenced appropriately.
• Paraphrasing means putting something into your own words and synthesising means to bring together several ideas from sources.
• Creating an argument is a four step process and can be applied to all types of academic writing.
• Editing and proofreading are two separate processes.

Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing an introduction and conclusion . University of Canberra, accessed 13 August, 2013, http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/conclusions

Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2016). Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: underregulation or misregulation form. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31 (3), 439-459.

Custer, N. (2018). Test anxiety and academic procrastination among prelicensure nursing students. Nursing education perspectives, 39 (3), 162-163.

Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16 (1).

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Java SE > Java SE Specifications > Java Language Specification

Chapter 5. Conversions and Contexts

Table of Contents

Every expression written in the Java programming language either produces no result ( §15.1 ) or has a type that can be deduced at compile time ( §15.3 ). When an expression appears in most contexts, it must be compatible with a type expected in that context; this type is called the target type . For convenience, compatibility of an expression with its surrounding context is facilitated in two ways:

First, for some expressions, termed poly expressions ( §15.2 ), the deduced type can be influenced by the target type. The same expression can have different types in different contexts.

Second, after the type of the expression has been deduced, an implicit conversion from the type of the expression to the target type can sometimes be performed.

If neither strategy is able to produce the appropriate type, a compile-time error occurs.

The rules determining whether an expression is a poly expression, and if so, its type and compatibility in a particular context, vary depending on the kind of context and the form of the expression. In addition to influencing the type of the expression, the target type may in some cases influence the run time behavior of the expression in order to produce a value of the appropriate type.

Similarly, the rules determining whether a target type allows an implicit conversion vary depending on the kind of context, the type of the expression, and, in one special case, the value of a constant expression ( §15.28 ). A conversion from type S to type T allows an expression of type S to be treated at compile time as if it had type T instead. In some cases this will require a corresponding action at run time to check the validity of the conversion or to translate the run-time value of the expression into a form appropriate for the new type T .

Example 5.0-1. Conversions at Compile Time and Run Time

A conversion from type Object to type Thread requires a run-time check to make sure that the run-time value is actually an instance of class Thread or one of its subclasses; if it is not, an exception is thrown.

A conversion from type Thread to type Object requires no run-time action; Thread is a subclass of Object , so any reference produced by an expression of type Thread is a valid reference value of type Object .

A conversion from type int to type long requires run-time sign-extension of a 32-bit integer value to the 64-bit long representation. No information is lost.

A conversion from type double to type long requires a non-trivial translation from a 64-bit floating-point value to the 64-bit integer representation. Depending on the actual run-time value, information may be lost.

The conversions possible in the Java programming language are grouped into several broad categories:

Identity conversions

Widening primitive conversions

Narrowing primitive conversions

Widening reference conversions

Narrowing reference conversions

Boxing conversions

Unboxing conversions

Unchecked conversions

Capture conversions

String conversions

Value set conversions

There are six kinds of conversion contexts in which poly expressions may be influenced by context or implicit conversions may occur. Each kind of context has different rules for poly expression typing and allows conversions in some of the categories above but not others. The contexts are:

Assignment contexts ( §5.2 , §15.26 ), in which an expression's value is bound to a named variable. Primitive and reference types are subject to widening, values may be boxed or unboxed, and some primitive constant expressions may be subject to narrowing. An unchecked conversion may also occur.

Strict invocation contexts ( §5.3 , §15.9 , §15.12 ), in which an argument is bound to a formal parameter of a constructor or method. Widening primitive, widening reference, and unchecked conversions may occur.

Loose invocation contexts ( §5.3 , §15.9 , §15.12 ), in which, like strict invocation contexts, an argument is bound to a formal parameter. Method or constructor invocations may provide this context if no applicable declaration can be found using only strict invocation contexts. In addition to widening and unchecked conversions, this context allows boxing and unboxing conversions to occur.

String contexts ( §5.4 , §15.18.1 ), in which a value of any type is converted to an object of type String .

Casting contexts ( §5.5 ), in which an expression's value is converted to a type explicitly specified by a cast operator ( §15.16 ). Casting contexts are more inclusive than assignment or loose invocation contexts, allowing any specific conversion other than a string conversion, but certain casts to a reference type are checked for correctness at run time.

Numeric contexts ( §5.6 ), in which the operands of a numeric operator may be widened to a common type so that an operation can be performed.

The term "conversion" is also used to describe, without being specific, any conversions allowed in a particular context. For example, we say that an expression that is the initializer of a local variable is subject to "assignment conversion", meaning that a specific conversion will be implicitly chosen for that expression according to the rules for the assignment context.

Example 5.0-2. Conversions In Various Contexts

This program produces the output:

5.1. Kinds of Conversion

Specific type conversions in the Java programming language are divided into 13 categories.

5.1.1. Identity Conversion

A conversion from a type to that same type is permitted for any type.

This may seem trivial, but it has two practical consequences. First, it is always permitted for an expression to have the desired type to begin with, thus allowing the simply stated rule that every expression is subject to conversion, if only a trivial identity conversion. Second, it implies that it is permitted for a program to include redundant cast operators for the sake of clarity.

5.1.2. Widening Primitive Conversion

19 specific conversions on primitive types are called the widening primitive conversions :

byte to short , int , long , float , or double

short to int , long , float , or double

char to int , long , float , or double

int to long , float , or double

long to float or double

float to double

A widening primitive conversion does not lose information about the overall magnitude of a numeric value in the following cases, where the numeric value is preserved exactly:

from an integral type to another integral type

from byte , short , or char to a floating point type

from int to double

from float to double in a strictfp expression ( §15.4 )

A widening primitive conversion from float to double that is not strictfp may lose information about the overall magnitude of the converted value.

A widening primitive conversion from int to float , or from long to float , or from long to double , may result in loss of precision - that is, the result may lose some of the least significant bits of the value. In this case, the resulting floating-point value will be a correctly rounded version of the integer value, using IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode ( §4.2.4 ).

A widening conversion of a signed integer value to an integral type T simply sign-extends the two's-complement representation of the integer value to fill the wider format.

A widening conversion of a char to an integral type T zero-extends the representation of the char value to fill the wider format.

Despite the fact that loss of precision may occur, a widening primitive conversion never results in a run-time exception ( §11.1.1 ).

Example 5.1.2-1. Widening Primitive Conversion

This program prints:

thus indicating that information was lost during the conversion from type int to type float because values of type float are not precise to nine significant digits.

5.1.3. Narrowing Primitive Conversion

22 specific conversions on primitive types are called the narrowing primitive conversions :

short to byte or char

char to byte or short

int to byte , short , or char

long to byte , short , char , or int

float to byte , short , char , int , or long

double to byte , short , char , int , long , or float

A narrowing primitive conversion may lose information about the overall magnitude of a numeric value and may also lose precision and range.

A narrowing primitive conversion from double to float is governed by the IEEE 754 rounding rules ( §4.2.4 ). This conversion can lose precision, but also lose range, resulting in a float zero from a nonzero double and a float infinity from a finite double . A double NaN is converted to a float NaN and a double infinity is converted to the same-signed float infinity.

A narrowing conversion of a signed integer to an integral type T simply discards all but the n lowest order bits, where n is the number of bits used to represent type T . In addition to a possible loss of information about the magnitude of the numeric value, this may cause the sign of the resulting value to differ from the sign of the input value.

A narrowing conversion of a char to an integral type T likewise simply discards all but the n lowest order bits, where n is the number of bits used to represent type T . In addition to a possible loss of information about the magnitude of the numeric value, this may cause the resulting value to be a negative number, even though chars represent 16-bit unsigned integer values.

A narrowing conversion of a floating-point number to an integral type T takes two steps:

In the first step, the floating-point number is converted either to a long , if T is long , or to an int , if T is byte , short , char , or int , as follows:

If the floating-point number is NaN ( §4.2.3 ), the result of the first step of the conversion is an int or long 0 .

Otherwise, if the floating-point number is not an infinity, the floating-point value is rounded to an integer value V , rounding toward zero using IEEE 754 round-toward-zero mode ( §4.2.3 ). Then there are two cases:

If T is long , and this integer value can be represented as a long , then the result of the first step is the long value V .

Otherwise, if this integer value can be represented as an int , then the result of the first step is the int value V .

Otherwise, one of the following two cases must be true:

The value must be too small (a negative value of large magnitude or negative infinity), and the result of the first step is the smallest representable value of type int or long .

The value must be too large (a positive value of large magnitude or positive infinity), and the result of the first step is the largest representable value of type int or long .

In the second step:

If T is int or long , the result of the conversion is the result of the first step.

If T is byte , char , or short , the result of the conversion is the result of a narrowing conversion to type T ( §5.1.3 ) of the result of the first step.

Despite the fact that overflow, underflow, or other loss of information may occur, a narrowing primitive conversion never results in a run-time exception ( §11.1.1 ).

Example 5.1.3-1. Narrowing Primitive Conversion

The results for char , int , and long are unsurprising, producing the minimum and maximum representable values of the type.

The results for byte and short lose information about the sign and magnitude of the numeric values and also lose precision. The results can be understood by examining the low order bits of the minimum and maximum int . The minimum int is, in hexadecimal, 0x80000000 , and the maximum int is 0x7fffffff . This explains the short results, which are the low 16 bits of these values, namely, 0x0000 and 0xffff ; it explains the char results, which also are the low 16 bits of these values, namely, '\u0000' and '\uffff' ; and it explains the byte results, which are the low 8 bits of these values, namely, 0x00 and 0xff .

Example 5.1.3-2. Narrowing Primitive Conversions that lose information

5.1.4. Widening and Narrowing Primitive Conversion

The following conversion combines both widening and narrowing primitive conversions:

byte to char

First, the byte is converted to an int via widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 ), and then the resulting int is converted to a char by narrowing primitive conversion ( §5.1.3 ).

5.1.5. Widening Reference Conversion

A widening reference conversion exists from any reference type S to any reference type T , provided S is a subtype ( §4.10 ) of T .

Widening reference conversions never require a special action at run time and therefore never throw an exception at run time. They consist simply in regarding a reference as having some other type in a manner that can be proved correct at compile time.

5.1.6. Narrowing Reference Conversion

Six kinds of conversions are called the narrowing reference conversions :

From any reference type S to any reference type T , provided that S is a proper supertype of T ( §4.10 ).

An important special case is that there is a narrowing reference conversion from the class type Object to any other reference type ( §4.12.4 ).

From any class type C to any non-parameterized interface type K , provided that C is not final and does not implement K .

From any interface type J to any non-parameterized class type C that is not final .

From any interface type J to any non-parameterized interface type K , provided that J is not a subinterface of K .

From the interface types Cloneable and java.io.Serializable to any array type T [] .

From any array type SC [] to any array type TC [] , provided that SC and TC are reference types and there is a narrowing reference conversion from SC to TC .

Such conversions require a test at run time to find out whether the actual reference value is a legitimate value of the new type. If not, then a ClassCastException is thrown.

5.1.7. Boxing Conversion

Boxing conversion converts expressions of primitive type to corresponding expressions of reference type. Specifically, the following nine conversions are called the boxing conversions :

From type boolean to type Boolean

From type byte to type Byte

From type short to type Short

From type char to type Character

From type int to type Integer

From type long to type Long

From type float to type Float

From type double to type Double

From the null type to the null type

This rule is necessary because the conditional operator ( §15.25 ) applies boxing conversion to the types of its operands, and uses the result in further calculations.

At run time, boxing conversion proceeds as follows:

If p is a value of type boolean , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Boolean , such that r .booleanValue() == p

If p is a value of type byte , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Byte , such that r .byteValue() == p

If p is a value of type char , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Character , such that r .charValue() == p

If p is a value of type short , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Short , such that r .shortValue() == p

If p is a value of type int , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Integer , such that r .intValue() == p

If p is a value of type long , then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Long , such that r .longValue() == p

If p is a value of type float then:

If p is not NaN, then boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Float , such that r .floatValue() evaluates to p

Otherwise, boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Float such that r .isNaN() evaluates to true

If p is a value of type double , then:

If p is not NaN, boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Double , such that r .doubleValue() evaluates to p

Otherwise, boxing conversion converts p into a reference r of class and type Double such that r .isNaN() evaluates to true

If p is a value of any other type, boxing conversion is equivalent to an identity conversion ( §5.1.1 ).

If the value p being boxed is an integer literal of type int between -128 and 127 inclusive ( §3.10.1 ), or the boolean literal true or false ( §3.10.3 ), or a character literal between '\u0000' and '\u007f' inclusive ( §3.10.4 ), then let a and b be the results of any two boxing conversions of p . It is always the case that a == b .

Ideally, boxing a primitive value would always yield an identical reference. In practice, this may not be feasible using existing implementation techniques. The rule above is a pragmatic compromise, requiring that certain common values always be boxed into indistinguishable objects. The implementation may cache these, lazily or eagerly. For other values, the rule disallows any assumptions about the identity of the boxed values on the programmer's part. This allows (but does not require) sharing of some or all of these references. Notice that integer literals of type long are allowed, but not required, to be shared.

This ensures that in most common cases, the behavior will be the desired one, without imposing an undue performance penalty, especially on small devices. Less memory-limited implementations might, for example, cache all char and short values, as well as int and long values in the range of -32K to +32K.

A boxing conversion may result in an OutOfMemoryError if a new instance of one of the wrapper classes ( Boolean , Byte , Character , Short , Integer , Long , Float , or Double ) needs to be allocated and insufficient storage is available.

5.1.8. Unboxing Conversion

Unboxing conversion converts expressions of reference type to corresponding expressions of primitive type. Specifically, the following eight conversions are called the unboxing conversions :

From type Boolean to type boolean

From type Byte to type byte

From type Short to type short

From type Character to type char

From type Integer to type int

From type Long to type long

From type Float to type float

From type Double to type double

At run time, unboxing conversion proceeds as follows:

If r is a reference of type Boolean , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .booleanValue()

If r is a reference of type Byte , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .byteValue()

If r is a reference of type Character , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .charValue()

If r is a reference of type Short , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .shortValue()

If r is a reference of type Integer , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .intValue()

If r is a reference of type Long , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .longValue()

If r is a reference of type Float , unboxing conversion converts r into r .floatValue()

If r is a reference of type Double , then unboxing conversion converts r into r .doubleValue()

If r is null , unboxing conversion throws a NullPointerException

A type is said to be convertible to a numeric type if it is a numeric type ( §4.2 ), or it is a reference type that may be converted to a numeric type by unboxing conversion.

A type is said to be convertible to an integral type if it is an integral type, or it is a reference type that may be converted to an integral type by unboxing conversion.

5.1.9. Unchecked Conversion

Let G name a generic type declaration with n type parameters.

There is an unchecked conversion from the raw class or interface type ( §4.8 ) G to any parameterized type of the form G < T 1 ,..., T n > .

There is an unchecked conversion from the raw array type G [] k to any array type of the form G < T 1 ,..., T n > [] k . (The notation [] k indicates an array type of k dimensions.)

Use of an unchecked conversion causes a compile-time unchecked warning unless all type arguments T i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ) are unbounded wildcards ( §4.5.1 ), or the unchecked warning is suppressed by the SuppressWarnings annotation ( §9.6.4.5 ).

Unchecked conversion is used to enable a smooth interoperation of legacy code, written before the introduction of generic types, with libraries that have undergone a conversion to use genericity (a process we call generification). In such circumstances (most notably, clients of the Collections Framework in java.util ), legacy code uses raw types (e.g. Collection instead of Collection<String> ). Expressions of raw types are passed as arguments to library methods that use parameterized versions of those same types as the types of their corresponding formal parameters.

Such calls cannot be shown to be statically safe under the type system using generics. Rejecting such calls would invalidate large bodies of existing code, and prevent them from using newer versions of the libraries. This in turn, would discourage library vendors from taking advantage of genericity. To prevent such an unwelcome turn of events, a raw type may be converted to an arbitrary invocation of the generic type declaration to which the raw type refers. While the conversion is unsound, it is tolerated as a concession to practicality. An unchecked warning is issued in such cases.

5.1.10. Capture Conversion

Let G name a generic type declaration ( §8.1.2 , §9.1.2 ) with n type parameters A 1 ,..., A n with corresponding bounds U 1 ,..., U n .

There exists a capture conversion from a parameterized type G < T 1 ,..., T n > ( §4.5 ) to a parameterized type G < S 1 ,..., S n > , where, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n :

If T i is a wildcard type argument ( §4.5.1 ) of the form ? , then S i is a fresh type variable whose upper bound is U i [ A 1 := S 1 ,..., A n := S n ] and whose lower bound is the null type ( §4.1 ).

If T i is a wildcard type argument of the form ? extends B i , then S i is a fresh type variable whose upper bound is glb( B i , U i [ A 1 := S 1 ,..., A n := S n ] ) and whose lower bound is the null type.

glb( V 1 ,..., V m ) is defined as V 1 & ... & V m .

It is a compile-time error if, for any two classes (not interfaces) V i and V j , V i is not a subclass of V j or vice versa.

If T i is a wildcard type argument of the form ? super B i , then S i is a fresh type variable whose upper bound is U i [ A 1 := S 1 ,..., A n := S n ] and whose lower bound is B i .

Otherwise, S i = T i .

Capture conversion on any type other than a parameterized type ( §4.5 ) acts as an identity conversion ( §5.1.1 ).

Capture conversion is not applied recursively.

Capture conversion never requires a special action at run time and therefore never throws an exception at run time.

Capture conversion is designed to make wildcards more useful. To understand the motivation, let's begin by looking at the method java.util.Collections.reverse() :

The method reverses the list provided as a parameter. It works for any type of list, and so the use of the wildcard type List<?> as the type of the formal parameter is entirely appropriate.

Now consider how one would implement reverse() :

The implementation needs to copy the list, extract elements from the copy, and insert them into the original. To do this in a type-safe manner, we need to give a name, T , to the element type of the incoming list. We do this in the private service method rev() . This requires us to pass the incoming argument list, of type List<?> , as an argument to rev() . In general, List<?> is a list of unknown type. It is not a subtype of List<T> , for any type T . Allowing such a subtype relation would be unsound. Given the method:

the following code would undermine the type system:

So, without some special dispensation, we can see that the call from reverse() to rev() would be disallowed. If this were the case, the author of reverse() would be forced to write its signature as:

This is undesirable, as it exposes implementation information to the caller. Worse, the designer of an API might reason that the signature using a wildcard is what the callers of the API require, and only later realize that a type safe implementation was precluded.

The call from reverse() to rev() is in fact harmless, but it cannot be justified on the basis of a general subtyping relation between List<?> and List<T> . The call is harmless, because the incoming argument is doubtless a list of some type (albeit an unknown one). If we can capture this unknown type in a type variable X , we can infer T to be X . That is the essence of capture conversion. The specification of course must cope with complications, like non-trivial (and possibly recursively defined) upper or lower bounds, the presence of multiple arguments etc.

Mathematically sophisticated readers will want to relate capture conversion to established type theory. Readers unfamiliar with type theory can skip this discussion - or else study a suitable text, such as Types and Programming Languages by Benjamin Pierce, and then revisit this section.

Here then is a brief summary of the relationship of capture conversion to established type theoretical notions. Wildcard types are a restricted form of existential types. Capture conversion corresponds loosely to an opening of a value of existential type. A capture conversion of an expression e can be thought of as an open of e in a scope that comprises the top level expression that encloses e .

The classical open operation on existentials requires that the captured type variable must not escape the opened expression. The open that corresponds to capture conversion is always on a scope sufficiently large that the captured type variable can never be visible outside that scope. The advantage of this scheme is that there is no need for a close operation, as defined in the paper On Variance-Based Subtyping for Parametric Types by Atsushi Igarashi and Mirko Viroli, in the proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Object Oriented Programming (ECOOP 2002). For a formal account of wildcards, see Wild FJ by Mads Torgersen, Erik Ernst and Christian Plesner Hansen, in the 12th workshop on Foundations of Object Oriented Programming (FOOL 2005).

5.1.11. String Conversion

Any type may be converted to type String by string conversion .

A value x of primitive type T is first converted to a reference value as if by giving it as an argument to an appropriate class instance creation expression ( §15.9 ):

If T is boolean , then use new Boolean( x ) .

If T is char , then use new Character( x ) .

If T is byte , short , or int , then use new Integer( x ) .

If T is long , then use new Long( x ) .

If T is float , then use new Float( x ) .

If T is double , then use new Double( x ) .

This reference value is then converted to type String by string conversion.

Now only reference values need to be considered:

If the reference is null , it is converted to the string " null " (four ASCII characters n , u , l , l ).

Otherwise, the conversion is performed as if by an invocation of the toString method of the referenced object with no arguments; but if the result of invoking the toString method is null , then the string " null " is used instead.

The toString method is defined by the primordial class Object ( §4.3.2 ). Many classes override it, notably Boolean , Character , Integer , Long , Float , Double , and String .

See §5.4 for details of the string context.

5.1.12. Forbidden Conversions

Any conversion that is not explicitly allowed is forbidden.

5.1.13. Value Set Conversion

Value set conversion is the process of mapping a floating-point value from one value set to another without changing its type.

Within an expression that is not FP-strict ( §15.4 ), value set conversion provides choices to an implementation of the Java programming language:

If the value is an element of the float-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation may, at its option, map the value to the nearest element of the float value set. This conversion may result in overflow (in which case the value is replaced by an infinity of the same sign) or underflow (in which case the value may lose precision because it is replaced by a denormalized number or zero of the same sign).

If the value is an element of the double-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation may, at its option, map the value to the nearest element of the double value set. This conversion may result in overflow (in which case the value is replaced by an infinity of the same sign) or underflow (in which case the value may lose precision because it is replaced by a denormalized number or zero of the same sign).

Within an FP-strict expression ( §15.4 ), value set conversion does not provide any choices; every implementation must behave in the same way:

If the value is of type float and is not an element of the float value set, then the implementation must map the value to the nearest element of the float value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

If the value is of type double and is not an element of the double value set, then the implementation must map the value to the nearest element of the double value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

Within an FP-strict expression, mapping values from the float-extended-exponent value set or double-extended-exponent value set is necessary only when a method is invoked whose declaration is not FP-strict and the implementation has chosen to represent the result of the method invocation as an element of an extended-exponent value set.

Whether in FP-strict code or code that is not FP-strict, value set conversion always leaves unchanged any value whose type is neither float nor double .

5.2. Assignment Contexts

Assignment contexts allow the value of an expression to be assigned ( §15.26 ) to a variable; the type of the expression must be converted to the type of the variable.

Assignment contexts allow the use of one of the following:

an identity conversion ( §5.1.1 )

a widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 )

a widening reference conversion ( §5.1.5 )

a boxing conversion ( §5.1.7 ) optionally followed by a widening reference conversion

an unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ) optionally followed by a widening primitive conversion.

If, after the conversions listed above have been applied, the resulting type is a raw type ( §4.8 ), an unchecked conversion ( §5.1.9 ) may then be applied.

In addition, if the expression is a constant expression ( §15.28 ) of type byte , short , char , or int :

A narrowing primitive conversion may be used if the type of the variable is byte , short , or char , and the value of the constant expression is representable in the type of the variable.

A narrowing primitive conversion followed by a boxing conversion may be used if the type of the variable is:

Byte and the value of the constant expression is representable in the type byte .

Short and the value of the constant expression is representable in the type short .

Character and the value of the constant expression is representable in the type char .

The compile-time narrowing of constant expressions means that code such as:

is allowed. Without the narrowing, the fact that the integer literal 42 has type int would mean that a cast to byte would be required:

Finally, a value of the null type (the null reference is the only such value) may be assigned to any reference type, resulting in a null reference of that type.

It is a compile-time error if the chain of conversions contains two parameterized types that are not in the subtype relation ( §4.10 ).

An example of such an illegal chain would be:

The first three elements of the chain are related by widening reference conversion, while the last entry is derived from its predecessor by unchecked conversion. However, this is not a valid assignment conversion, because the chain contains two parameterized types, Comparable<Integer> and Comparable<String> , that are not subtypes.

If the type of the expression cannot be converted to the type of the variable by a conversion permitted in an assignment context, then a compile-time error occurs.

If the type of an expression can be converted to the type of a variable by assignment conversion, we say the expression (or its value) is assignable to the variable or, equivalently, that the type of the expression is assignment compatible with the type of the variable.

If the type of the variable is float or double , then value set conversion ( §5.1.13 ) is applied to the value v that is the result of the conversion(s):

If v is of type float and is an element of the float-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation must map v to the nearest element of the float value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

If v is of type double and is an element of the double-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation must map v to the nearest element of the double value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

The only exceptions that may arise from conversions in an assignment context are:

A ClassCastException if, after the conversions above have been applied, the resulting value is an object which is not an instance of a subclass or subinterface of the erasure ( §4.6 ) of the type of the variable.

This circumstance can only arise as a result of heap pollution ( §4.12.2 ). In practice, implementations need only perform casts when accessing a field or method of an object of parameterized type when the erased type of the field, or the erased return type of the method, differ from its unerased type.

An OutOfMemoryError as a result of a boxing conversion.

A NullPointerException as a result of an unboxing conversion on a null reference.

An ArrayStoreException in special cases involving array elements or field access ( §10.5 , §15.26.1 ).

Example 5.2-1. Assignment Conversion for Primitive Types

The following program, however, produces compile-time errors:

because not all short values are char values, and neither are all char values short values.

Example 5.2-2. Assignment Conversion for Reference Types

The following test program illustrates assignment conversions on reference values, but fails to compile, as described in its comments. This example should be compared to the preceding one.

Example 5.2-3. Assignment Conversion for Array Types

In this example:

The value of veclong cannot be assigned to a Long variable, because Long is a class type other than Object . An array can be assigned only to a variable of a compatible array type, or to a variable of type Object , Cloneable or java.io.Serializable .

The value of veclong cannot be assigned to vecshort , because they are arrays of primitive type, and short and long are not the same primitive type.

The value of cpvec can be assigned to pvec , because any reference that could be the value of an expression of type ColoredPoint can be the value of a variable of type Point . The subsequent assignment of the new Point to a component of pvec then would throw an ArrayStoreException (if the program were otherwise corrected so that it could be compiled), because a ColoredPoint array cannot have an instance of Point as the value of a component.

The value of pvec cannot be assigned to cpvec , because not every reference that could be the value of an expression of type ColoredPoint can correctly be the value of a variable of type Point . If the value of pvec at run time were a reference to an instance of Point[] , and the assignment to cpvec were allowed, a simple reference to a component of cpvec , say, cpvec[0] , could return a Point , and a Point is not a ColoredPoint . Thus to allow such an assignment would allow a violation of the type system. A cast may be used ( §5.5 , §15.16 ) to ensure that pvec references a ColoredPoint[] :

5.3. Invocation Contexts

Invocation contexts allow an argument value in a method or constructor invocation ( §8.8.7.1 , §15.9 , §15.12 ) to be assigned to a corresponding formal parameter.

Strict invocation contexts allow the use of one of the following:

Loose invocation contexts allow a more permissive set of conversions, because they are only used for a particular invocation if no applicable declaration can be found using strict invocation contexts. Loose invocation contexts allow the use of one of the following:

a boxing conversion ( §5.1.7 ) optionally followed by widening reference conversion

an unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ) optionally followed by a widening primitive conversion

If, after the conversions listed for an invocation context have been applied, the resulting type is a raw type ( §4.8 ), an unchecked conversion ( §5.1.9 ) may then be applied.

A value of the null type (the null reference is the only such value) may be assigned to any reference type.

If the type of the expression cannot be converted to the type of the parameter by a conversion permitted in a loose invocation context, then a compile-time error occurs.

If the type of an argument expression is either float or double , then value set conversion ( §5.1.13 ) is applied after the conversion(s):

If an argument value of type float is an element of the float-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation must map the value to the nearest element of the float value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

If an argument value of type double is an element of the double-extended-exponent value set, then the implementation must map the value to the nearest element of the double value set. This conversion may result in overflow or underflow.

The only exceptions that may arise in an invocation context are:

A ClassCastException if, after the type conversions above have been applied, the resulting value is an object which is not an instance of a subclass or subinterface of the erasure ( §4.6 ) of the corresponding formal parameter type.

Neither strict nor loose invocation contexts include the implicit narrowing of integer constant expressions which is allowed in assignment contexts. The designers of the Java programming language felt that including these implicit narrowing conversions would add additional complexity to the rules of overload resolution ( §15.12.2 ).

Thus, the program:

causes a compile-time error because the integer literals 12 and 2 have type int , so neither method m matches under the rules of overload resolution. A language that included implicit narrowing of integer constant expressions would need additional rules to resolve cases like this example.

5.4. String Contexts

String contexts apply only to an operand of the binary + operator which is not a String when the other operand is a String .

The target type in these contexts is always String , and a string conversion ( §5.1.11 ) of the non- String operand always occurs. Evaluation of the + operator then proceeds as specified in §15.18.1 .

5.5. Casting Contexts

Casting contexts allow the operand of a cast operator ( §15.16 ) to be converted to the type explicitly named by the cast operator.

Casting contexts allow the use of one of:

a narrowing primitive conversion ( §5.1.3 )

a widening and narrowing primitive conversion ( §5.1.4 )

a widening reference conversion ( §5.1.5 ) optionally followed by either an unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ) or an unchecked conversion ( §5.1.9 )

a narrowing reference conversion ( §5.1.6 ) optionally followed by either an unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ) or an unchecked conversion ( §5.1.9 )

a boxing conversion ( §5.1.7 ) optionally followed by a widening reference conversion ( §5.1.5 )

an unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ) optionally followed by a widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 ).

Value set conversion ( §5.1.13 ) is applied after the type conversion.

The compile-time legality of a casting conversion is as follows:

An expression of a primitive type may undergo casting conversion to another primitive type, by an identity conversion (if the types are the same), or by a widening primitive conversion, or by a narrowing primitive conversion, or by a widening and narrowing primitive conversion.

An expression of a primitive type may undergo casting conversion to a reference type without error, by boxing conversion.

An expression of a reference type may undergo casting conversion to a primitive type without error, by unboxing conversion.

An expression of a reference type may undergo casting conversion to another reference type if no compile-time error occurs given the rules in §5.5.1 .

The following tables enumerate which conversions are used in certain casting conversions. Each conversion is signified by a symbol:

- signifies no casting conversion allowed

≈ signifies identity conversion ( §5.1.1 )

ω signifies widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 )

η signifies narrowing primitive conversion ( §5.1.3 )

ω η signifies widening and narrowing primitive conversion ( §5.1.4 )

⇑ signifies widening reference conversion ( §5.1.5 )

⇓ signifies narrowing reference conversion ( §5.1.6 )

⊕ signifies boxing conversion ( §5.1.7 )

⊗ signifies unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 )

In the tables, a comma between symbols indicates that a casting conversion uses one conversion followed by another. The type Object means any reference type other than the eight wrapper classes Boolean , Byte , Short , Character , Integer , Long , Float , Double .

Table 5.5-A. Casting conversions to primitive types

Table 5.5-B. Casting conversions to reference types

5.5.1. Reference Type Casting

Given a compile-time reference type S (source) and a compile-time reference type T (target), a casting conversion exists from S to T if no compile-time errors occur due to the following rules.

If S is a class type:

If T is a class type, then either | S | <: | T |, or | T | <: | S |. Otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

Furthermore, if there exists a supertype X of T , and a supertype Y of S , such that both X and Y are provably distinct parameterized types ( §4.5 ), and that the erasures of X and Y are the same, a compile-time error occurs.

If T is an interface type:

If S is not a final class ( §8.1.1 ), then, if there exists a supertype X of T , and a supertype Y of S , such that both X and Y are provably distinct parameterized types, and that the erasures of X and Y are the same, a compile-time error occurs.

Otherwise, the cast is always legal at compile time (because even if S does not implement T , a subclass of S might).

If S is a final class ( §8.1.1 ), then S must implement T , or a compile-time error occurs.

If T is a type variable, then this algorithm is applied recursively, using the upper bound of T in place of T .

If T is an array type, then S must be the class Object , or a compile-time error occurs.

If T is an intersection type, T 1 & ... & T n , then it is a compile-time error if there exists a T i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ) such that S cannot be cast to T i by this algorithm. That is, the success of the cast is determined by the most restrictive component of the intersection type.

If S is an interface type:

If T is an array type, then S must be the type java.io.Serializable or Cloneable (the only interfaces implemented by arrays), or a compile-time error occurs.

If T is a class or interface type that is not final ( §8.1.1 ), then if there exists a supertype X of T , and a supertype Y of S , such that both X and Y are provably distinct parameterized types, and that the erasures of X and Y are the same, a compile-time error occurs.

Otherwise, the cast is always legal at compile time (because even if T does not implement S , a subclass of T might).

If T is a class type that is final , then:

If S is not a parameterized type or a raw type, then T must implement S , or a compile-time error occurs.

Otherwise, S is either a parameterized type that is an invocation of some generic type declaration G , or a raw type corresponding to a generic type declaration G . Then there must exist a supertype X of T , such that X is an invocation of G , or a compile-time error occurs.

Furthermore, if S and X are provably distinct parameterized types then a compile-time error occurs.

If T is an intersection type, T 1 & ... & T n , then it is a compile-time error if there exists a T i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ) such that S cannot be cast to T i by this algorithm.

If S is a type variable, then this algorithm is applied recursively, using the upper bound of S in place of S .

If S is an intersection type A 1 & ... & A n , then it is a compile-time error if there exists an A i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ) such that A i cannot be cast to T by this algorithm. That is, the success of the cast is determined by the most restrictive component of the intersection type.

If S is an array type SC [] , that is, an array of components of type SC :

If T is a class type, then if T is not Object , then a compile-time error occurs (because Object is the only class type to which arrays can be assigned).

If T is an interface type, then a compile-time error occurs unless T is the type java.io.Serializable or the type Cloneable (the only interfaces implemented by arrays).

If T is an array type TC [] , that is, an array of components of type TC , then a compile-time error occurs unless one of the following is true:

TC and SC are the same primitive type.

TC and SC are reference types and type SC can undergo casting conversion to TC .

Example 5.5.1-1. Casting Conversion for Reference Types

Here, the first compile-time error occurs because the class types Long and Point are unrelated (that is, they are not the same, and neither is a subclass of the other), so a cast between them will always fail.

The second compile-time error occurs because a variable of type EndPoint can never reference a value that implements the interface Colorable . This is because EndPoint is a final type, and a variable of a final type always holds a value of the same run-time type as its compile-time type. Therefore, the run-time type of variable e must be exactly the type EndPoint , and type EndPoint does not implement Colorable .

Example 5.5.1-2. Casting Conversion for Array Types

This program compiles without errors and produces the output:

5.5.2. Checked Casts and Unchecked Casts

A cast from a type S to a type T is statically known to be correct if and only if S <: T ( §4.10 ).

A cast from a type S to a parameterized type ( §4.5 ) T is unchecked unless at least one of the following is true:

All of the type arguments ( §4.5.1 ) of T are unbounded wildcards

T <: S and S has no subtype X other than T where the type arguments of X are not contained in the type arguments of T .

A cast from a type S to a type variable T is unchecked unless S <: T .

A cast from a type S to an intersection type T 1 & ... & T n is unchecked if there exists a T i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ) such that a cast from S to T i is unchecked.

An unchecked cast from S to a non-intersection type T is completely unchecked if the cast from | S | to | T | is statically known to be correct. Otherwise, it is partially unchecked .

An unchecked cast from S to an intersection type T 1 & ... & T n is completely unchecked if, for all i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ), a cast from S to T i is either statically known to be correct or completely unchecked. Otherwise, it is partially unchecked .

An unchecked cast causes a compile-time unchecked warning, unless suppressed by the SuppressWarnings annotation ( §9.6.4.5 ).

A cast is checked if it is not statically known to be correct and it is not unchecked.

If a cast to a reference type is not a compile-time error, there are several cases:

The cast is statically known to be correct.

No run-time action is performed for such a cast.

The cast is a completely unchecked cast.

The cast is a partially unchecked or checked cast to an intersection type.

Where the intersection type is T 1 & ... & T n , then for all i (1 ≤ i ≤ n ), any run-time check required for a cast from S to T i is also required for the cast to the intersection type.

The cast is a partially unchecked cast to a non-intersection type.

Such a cast requires a run-time validity check. The check is performed as if the cast had been a checked cast between | S | and | T |, as described below.

The cast is a checked cast to a non-intersection type.

Such a cast requires a run-time validity check. If the value at run time is null , then the cast is allowed. Otherwise, let R be the class of the object referred to by the run-time reference value, and let T be the erasure ( §4.6 ) of the type named in the cast operator. A cast conversion must check, at run time, that the class R is assignment compatible with the type T , via the algorithm in §5.5.3 .

Note that R cannot be an interface when these rules are first applied for any given cast, but R may be an interface if the rules are applied recursively because the run-time reference value may refer to an array whose element type is an interface type.

5.5.3. Checked Casts at Run Time

Here is the algorithm to check whether the run-time type R of an object is assignment compatible with the type T which is the erasure ( §4.6 ) of the type named in the cast operator. If a run-time exception is thrown, it is a ClassCastException .

If R is an ordinary class (not an array class):

If T is a class type, then R must be either the same class ( §4.3.4 ) as T or a subclass of T , or a run-time exception is thrown.

If T is an interface type, then R must implement ( §8.1.5 ) interface T , or a run-time exception is thrown.

If T is an array type, then a run-time exception is thrown.

If R is an interface:

If T is a class type, then T must be Object ( §4.3.2 ), or a run-time exception is thrown.

If T is an interface type, then R must be either the same interface as T or a subinterface of T , or a run-time exception is thrown.

If R is a class representing an array type RC [] , that is, an array of components of type RC :

If T is an interface type, then a run-time exception is thrown unless T is the type java.io.Serializable or the type Cloneable (the only interfaces implemented by arrays).

This case could slip past the compile-time checking if, for example, a reference to an array were stored in a variable of type Object .

If T is an array type TC [] , that is, an array of components of type TC , then a run-time exception is thrown unless one of the following is true:

TC and RC are the same primitive type.

TC and RC are reference types and type RC can be cast to TC by a recursive application of these run-time rules for casting.

Example 5.5.3-1. Incompatible Types at Run Time

This program uses casts to compile, but it throws exceptions at run time, because the types are incompatible.

5.6. Numeric Contexts

Numeric contexts apply to the operands of an arithmetic operator.

Numeric contexts allow the use of:

A numeric promotion is a process by which, given an arithmetic operator and its argument expressions, the arguments are converted to an inferred target type T . T is chosen during promotion such that each argument expression can be converted to T and the arithmetic operation is defined for values of type T .

The two kinds of numeric promotion are unary numeric promotion ( §5.6.1 ) and binary numeric promotion ( §5.6.2 ).

5.6.1. Unary Numeric Promotion

Some operators apply unary numeric promotion to a single operand, which must produce a value of a numeric type:

If the operand is of compile-time type Byte , Short , Character , or Integer , it is subjected to unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ). The result is then promoted to a value of type int by a widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 ) or an identity conversion ( §5.1.1 ).

Otherwise, if the operand is of compile-time type Long , Float , or Double , it is subjected to unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ).

Otherwise, if the operand is of compile-time type byte , short , or char , it is promoted to a value of type int by a widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 ).

Otherwise, a unary numeric operand remains as is and is not converted.

After the conversion(s), if any, value set conversion ( §5.1.13 ) is then applied.

Unary numeric promotion is performed on expressions in the following situations:

Each dimension expression in an array creation expression ( §15.10.1 )

The index expression in an array access expression ( §15.10.3 )

The operand of a unary plus operator + ( §15.15.3 )

The operand of a unary minus operator - ( §15.15.4 )

The operand of a bitwise complement operator ~ ( §15.15.5 )

Each operand, separately, of a shift operator << , >> , or >>> ( §15.19 ).

A long shift distance (right operand) does not promote the value being shifted (left operand) to long .

Example 5.6.1-1. Unary Numeric Promotion

5.6.2. Binary Numeric Promotion

When an operator applies binary numeric promotion to a pair of operands, each of which must denote a value that is convertible to a numeric type, the following rules apply, in order:

If any operand is of a reference type, it is subjected to unboxing conversion ( §5.1.8 ).

Widening primitive conversion ( §5.1.2 ) is applied to convert either or both operands as specified by the following rules:

If either operand is of type double , the other is converted to double .

Otherwise, if either operand is of type float , the other is converted to float .

Otherwise, if either operand is of type long , the other is converted to long .

Otherwise, both operands are converted to type int .

After the conversion(s), if any, value set conversion ( §5.1.13 ) is then applied to each operand.

Binary numeric promotion is performed on the operands of certain operators:

The multiplicative operators * , / , and % ( §15.17 )

The addition and subtraction operators for numeric types + and - ( §15.18.2 )

The numerical comparison operators < , <= , > , and >= ( §15.20.1 )

The numerical equality operators == and != ( §15.21.1 )

The integer bitwise operators & , ^ , and | ( §15.22.1 )

In certain cases, the conditional operator ? : ( §15.25 )

Example 5.6.2-1. Binary Numeric Promotion

The example converts the ASCII character G to the ASCII control-G (BEL), by masking off all but the low 5 bits of the character. The 7 is the numeric value of this control character.

Portfolio 3: Audience and Context Comparative Analysis

Overview: This assignment (which we will refer to as the context comparison) serves as prewriting for your arguing essays by providing an opportunity to analyze the audiences and contexts for your arguments. Understanding your two audiences is important since you need to know who your readers are before you can effectively convince them to consider your arguments. Examining your contexts is equally important because your argument will only be taken seriously or be considered for publication if it meets context expectations. Since you are examining two contexts, the assignment implies that you’ll need to think about how you would compare and contrast these writing situations, even though the format of this written analysis doesn’t require the formal use of the comparison/contrast mode of writing.

Purposes for this Analysis: To distinguish the audiences and contexts of two arguing essays.

Audience: You and your instructor.

Length of the Analysis: Your analysis should be roughly 750-1000 words (or 3-4 pages) in length.

Format of the Analysis: You need not think of this assignment as a paper. Your analysis will consist of three parts. You may use headings. You may also number your responses. You do NOT need to think of this as a comparison/contrast paper even though your thinking will compel you to consider the similarities and differences between two distinctive publications.

Part I - Purpose

• What will you argue? What is your position on this issue? How might your position need to be adapted or modified for the differing contexts?
• Will both of your arguments be intended to convince or will one or both be persuasive in purpose?
• What do you hope to accomplish with each argument? What might you reasonably hope to achieve with these audiences? (Note: your answer should be quite different for each publication. Also, be as specific here as possible.)
• What else might you hope to accomplish by entering this discussion/conversation in the context of these two publications (make a name for yourself, challenge authority, etc.)
• Write the main tentative claim for each of your arguments.

Part II - Context Analysis

• Where will your readers encounter your first argument? Please name the specific person, journal, magazine, or organization that you will write to for Argument 1. In general how does this publication compare and contrast with your assigned audience for the second arguing essay, the Editorial page of the New York Times ?
• Describe your contexts for writing. In order to sufficiently complete this section, you'll need to familiarize yourself with the publication context you've chosen and reacquaint yourself with the New York Times Editorial page. Research and read two or three existing copies of your selected publication to learn what the expectations and requirements are. Please also continue to read the Editorial page of the Times . When you are ready, use the following questions to guide the development of your comparison, and develop your response to at least a few paragraphs to provide sufficient detail for my understanding.

·        What is each publication’s general purpose?

·        Who are the target readers of each?

·        What type of content is most suitable for each publication? What kinds of topics and issues are typically addressed within them?

·        What is the appropriate length of a text written for these publications?

·        What do typical pieces of writing for these publications look like? (Describe fully.)

·        How would you describe the tone, style, and register (level of formality in word choice, use of jargon, etc.) used by writers whose work appear in these publications?

·        What patterns can you note? (i.e. Do all articles or columns begin the same way? Are most arguments well supported? Are they highly opinionated?)

·        Are there specific requirements of which you should be aware, such as guidelines for citing sources?

• What are the two or three most important things you'll need to keep in mind about the expectations and requirements of these publications when you're writing your argument?
• What are the most important differences between the two contexts you’ll be writing for?

Part III - Audience Analysis

• Who will your target audiences be? Define them specifically in terms of age, economic status, social class, gender, education, and so forth.
• Why did you choose the first audience? How is it distinguishable from the audience for the New York Times Editorial page?
• What can your readers in each publication already be expected to know about your issue? What will they want or need to know? What are their typical attitudes or viewpoints toward your issue? How are their views similar to your own? How do they differ? How are the views of readers of the two publications similar and different from each other?
• What social and cultural factors might account for the similarities and differences in the readers of these two publications? How might your own social and cultural background account for the difference in your perspective from either or both of these publications?

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When you encounter a vocabulary word with which you are unfamiliar, what do you do? Use the context clues to determine the word's meaning. In addition to the great context clues worksheets on this page, check out this free context clues game that I made. Students learn hundreds of challenging vocabulary words while playing a fun climbing game.

I used the context clues worksheets on this page to help my students in the classroom. I am sharing them with you in the hopes that they will help you as well. The words have been selected from texts recommended by Common Core. These context clues worksheets have been divided into three levels:

• Level 1 - 3rd-6th Grade Vocabulary Words
• Level 2 - 5th-8th Grade Vocabulary Words
• Level 3 - 8th-12th Grade Vocabulary Words

These are the easiest context clues worksheets. These worksheets were designed to help struggling students or students in lower grades. They were written to help students reading at a 3rd to 6th grade reading level . Be sure to preview all materials before using them in your classroom.

Level Three

What are Context Clues?

Context clues are hints in the sentence that help good readers figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words. When we look at the "context" of a word, we look at how it is being used. Based on how these words are used, and on our knowledge of the other words in the sentence, we make an educated prediction as to what the challenging vocabulary word may mean.

Example of Using Context Clues

Examine these lines from Lewis Carroll's poem, "Jabberwocky":

Jubjub , frumious , and Bandersnatch were NOT words before Carroll coined them. Yet readers are able to get meaning from them based on how the words are used. A reading of the whole poem is helpful way to introduce context clues to your students.

Free Context Clues Video Game

Context Clues Common Core State Standards

151 Comments

Carl anthony peterson.

Excellent worksheet/resources to use to help your young person build and increase their vocabulary. Thank you sharing!

Trevina Gima

Coming from a country where english is our third or 4th language but its also our language of instruction

YOUR MATERIALS HERE ARE AWSOME

I REALLY THANK YOU ALL FOR ALL THE BEAUTIFUL MATERIALS

TREVINA GIMA

Juleby S. Reyes

I would like to express my warmest gratitude for these worksheets. It helps us educators to intensify the skills of students in reading comprehension through context clues. Thank you! God Bless and More Power!

thank you so much. These worksheets are helpful.

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• assignments basic law

Assignments: The Basic Law

The assignment of a right or obligation is a common contractual event under the law and the right to assign (or prohibition against assignments) is found in the majority of agreements, leases and business structural documents created in the United States.

As with many terms commonly used, people are familiar with the term but often are not aware or fully aware of what the terms entail. The concept of assignment of rights and obligations is one of those simple concepts with wide ranging ramifications in the contractual and business context and the law imposes severe restrictions on the validity and effect of assignment in many instances. Clear contractual provisions concerning assignments and rights should be in every document and structure created and this article will outline why such drafting is essential for the creation of appropriate and effective contracts and structures.

The reader should first read the article on Limited Liability Entities in the United States and Contracts since the information in those articles will be assumed in this article.

Basic Definitions and Concepts:

An assignment is the transfer of rights held by one party called the “assignor” to another party called the “assignee.” The legal nature of the assignment and the contractual terms of the agreement between the parties determines some additional rights and liabilities that accompany the assignment. The assignment of rights under a contract usually completely transfers the rights to the assignee to receive the benefits accruing under the contract. Ordinarily, the term assignment is limited to the transfer of rights that are intangible, like contractual rights and rights connected with property. Merchants Service Co. v. Small Claims Court , 35 Cal. 2d 109, 113-114 (Cal. 1950).

An assignment will generally be permitted under the law unless there is an express prohibition against assignment in the underlying contract or lease. Where assignments are permitted, the assignor need not consult the other party to the contract but may merely assign the rights at that time. However, an assignment cannot have any adverse effect on the duties of the other party to the contract, nor can it diminish the chance of the other party receiving complete performance. The assignor normally remains liable unless there is an agreement to the contrary by the other party to the contract.

The effect of a valid assignment is to remove privity between the assignor and the obligor and create privity between the obligor and the assignee. Privity is usually defined as a direct and immediate contractual relationship. See Merchants case above.

Further, for the assignment to be effective in most jurisdictions, it must occur in the present. One does not normally assign a future right; the assignment vests immediate rights and obligations.

No specific language is required to create an assignment so long as the assignor makes clear his/her intent to assign identified contractual rights to the assignee. Since expensive litigation can erupt from ambiguous or vague language, obtaining the correct verbiage is vital. An agreement must manifest the intent to transfer rights and can either be oral or in writing and the rights assigned must be certain.

Note that an assignment of an interest is the transfer of some identifiable property, claim, or right from the assignor to the assignee. The assignment operates to transfer to the assignee all of the rights, title, or interest of the assignor in the thing assigned. A transfer of all rights, title, and interests conveys everything that the assignor owned in the thing assigned and the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor. Knott v. McDonald’s Corp ., 985 F. Supp. 1222 (N.D. Cal. 1997)

The parties must intend to effectuate an assignment at the time of the transfer, although no particular language or procedure is necessary. As long ago as the case of National Reserve Co. v. Metropolitan Trust Co ., 17 Cal. 2d 827 (Cal. 1941), the court held that in determining what rights or interests pass under an assignment, the intention of the parties as manifested in the instrument is controlling.

The intent of the parties to an assignment is a question of fact to be derived not only from the instrument executed by the parties but also from the surrounding circumstances. When there is no writing to evidence the intention to transfer some identifiable property, claim, or right, it is necessary to scrutinize the surrounding circumstances and parties’ acts to ascertain their intentions. Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998)

The general rule applicable to assignments of choses in action is that an assignment, unless there is a contract to the contrary, carries with it all securities held by the assignor as collateral to the claim and all rights incidental thereto and vests in the assignee the equitable title to such collateral securities and incidental rights. An unqualified assignment of a contract or chose in action, however, with no indication of the intent of the parties, vests in the assignee the assigned contract or chose and all rights and remedies incidental thereto.

More examples: In Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs ., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998), the court held that the assignee of a party to a subordination agreement is entitled to the benefits and is subject to the burdens of the agreement. In Florida E. C. R. Co. v. Eno , 99 Fla. 887 (Fla. 1930), the court held that the mere assignment of all sums due in and of itself creates no different or other liability of the owner to the assignee than that which existed from the owner to the assignor.

And note that even though an assignment vests in the assignee all rights, remedies, and contingent benefits which are incidental to the thing assigned, those which are personal to the assignor and for his sole benefit are not assigned. Rasp v. Hidden Valley Lake, Inc ., 519 N.E.2d 153, 158 (Ind. Ct. App. 1988). Thus, if the underlying agreement provides that a service can only be provided to X, X cannot assign that right to Y.

Novation Compared to Assignment:

Although the difference between a novation and an assignment may appear narrow, it is an essential one. “Novation is a act whereby one party transfers all its obligations and benefits under a contract to a third party.” In a novation, a third party successfully substitutes the original party as a party to the contract. “When a contract is novated, the other contracting party must be left in the same position he was in prior to the novation being made.”

A sublease is the transfer when a tenant retains some right of reentry onto the leased premises. However, if the tenant transfers the entire leasehold estate, retaining no right of reentry or other reversionary interest, then the transfer is an assignment. The assignor is normally also removed from liability to the landlord only if the landlord consents or allowed that right in the lease. In a sublease, the original tenant is not released from the obligations of the original lease.

Equitable Assignments:

An equitable assignment is one in which one has a future interest and is not valid at law but valid in a court of equity. In National Bank of Republic v. United Sec. Life Ins. & Trust Co. , 17 App. D.C. 112 (D.C. Cir. 1900), the court held that to constitute an equitable assignment of a chose in action, the following has to occur generally: anything said written or done, in pursuance of an agreement and for valuable consideration, or in consideration of an antecedent debt, to place a chose in action or fund out of the control of the owner, and appropriate it to or in favor of another person, amounts to an equitable assignment. Thus, an agreement, between a debtor and a creditor, that the debt shall be paid out of a specific fund going to the debtor may operate as an equitable assignment.

In Egyptian Navigation Co. v. Baker Invs. Corp. , 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 30804 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 14, 2008), the court stated that an equitable assignment occurs under English law when an assignor, with an intent to transfer his/her right to a chose in action, informs the assignee about the right so transferred.

An executory agreement or a declaration of trust are also equitable assignments if unenforceable as assignments by a court of law but enforceable by a court of equity exercising sound discretion according to the circumstances of the case. Since California combines courts of equity and courts of law, the same court would hear arguments as to whether an equitable assignment had occurred. Quite often, such relief is granted to avoid fraud or unjust enrichment.

Note that obtaining an assignment through fraudulent means invalidates the assignment. Fraud destroys the validity of everything into which it enters. It vitiates the most solemn contracts, documents, and even judgments. Walker v. Rich , 79 Cal. App. 139 (Cal. App. 1926). If an assignment is made with the fraudulent intent to delay, hinder, and defraud creditors, then it is void as fraudulent in fact. See our article on Transfers to Defraud Creditors .

But note that the motives that prompted an assignor to make the transfer will be considered as immaterial and will constitute no defense to an action by the assignee, if an assignment is considered as valid in all other respects.

Enforceability of Assignments:

Whether a right under a contract is capable of being transferred is determined by the law of the place where the contract was entered into. The validity and effect of an assignment is determined by the law of the place of assignment. The validity of an assignment of a contractual right is governed by the law of the state with the most significant relationship to the assignment and the parties.

In some jurisdictions, the traditional conflict of laws rules governing assignments has been rejected and the law of the place having the most significant contacts with the assignment applies. In Downs v. American Mut. Liability Ins. Co ., 14 N.Y.2d 266 (N.Y. 1964), a wife and her husband separated and the wife obtained a judgment of separation from the husband in New York. The judgment required the husband to pay a certain yearly sum to the wife. The husband assigned 50 percent of his future salary, wages, and earnings to the wife. The agreement authorized the employer to make such payments to the wife.

After the husband moved from New York, the wife learned that he was employed by an employer in Massachusetts. She sent the proper notice and demanded payment under the agreement. The employer refused and the wife brought an action for enforcement. The court observed that Massachusetts did not prohibit assignment of the husband’s wages. Moreover, Massachusetts law was not controlling because New York had the most significant relationship with the assignment. Therefore, the court ruled in favor of the wife.

Therefore, the validity of an assignment is determined by looking to the law of the forum with the most significant relationship to the assignment itself. To determine the applicable law of assignments, the court must look to the law of the state which is most significantly related to the principal issue before it.

Assignment of Contractual Rights:

Generally, the law allows the assignment of a contractual right unless the substitution of rights would materially change the duty of the obligor, materially increase the burden or risk imposed on the obligor by the contract, materially impair the chance of obtaining return performance, or materially reduce the value of the performance to the obligor. Restat 2d of Contracts, § 317(2)(a). This presumes that the underlying agreement is silent on the right to assign.

If the contract specifically precludes assignment, the contractual right is not assignable. Whether a contract is assignable is a matter of contractual intent and one must look to the language used by the parties to discern that intent.

In the absence of an express provision to the contrary, the rights and duties under a bilateral executory contract that does not involve personal skill, trust, or confidence may be assigned without the consent of the other party. But note that an assignment is invalid if it would materially alter the other party’s duties and responsibilities. Once an assignment is effective, the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor and assumes all of assignor’s rights. Hence, after a valid assignment, the assignor’s right to performance is extinguished, transferred to assignee, and the assignee possesses the same rights, benefits, and remedies assignor once possessed. Robert Lamb Hart Planners & Architects v. Evergreen, Ltd. , 787 F. Supp. 753 (S.D. Ohio 1992).

On the other hand, an assignee’s right against the obligor is subject to “all of the limitations of the assignor’s right, all defenses thereto, and all set-offs and counterclaims which would have been available against the assignor had there been no assignment, provided that these defenses and set-offs are based on facts existing at the time of the assignment.” See Robert Lamb , case, above.

The power of the contract to restrict assignment is broad. Usually, contractual provisions that restrict assignment of the contract without the consent of the obligor are valid and enforceable, even when there is statutory authorization for the assignment. The restriction of the power to assign is often ineffective unless the restriction is expressly and precisely stated. Anti-assignment clauses are effective only if they contain clear, unambiguous language of prohibition. Anti-assignment clauses protect only the obligor and do not affect the transaction between the assignee and assignor.

Usually, a prohibition against the assignment of a contract does not prevent an assignment of the right to receive payments due, unless circumstances indicate the contrary. Moreover, the contracting parties cannot, by a mere non-assignment provision, prevent the effectual alienation of the right to money which becomes due under the contract.

A contract provision prohibiting or restricting an assignment may be waived, or a party may so act as to be estopped from objecting to the assignment, such as by effectively ratifying the assignment. The power to void an assignment made in violation of an anti-assignment clause may be waived either before or after the assignment. See our article on Contracts.

Noncompete Clauses and Assignments:

Of critical import to most buyers of businesses is the ability to ensure that key employees of the business being purchased cannot start a competing company. Some states strictly limit such clauses, some do allow them. California does restrict noncompete clauses, only allowing them under certain circumstances. A common question in those states that do allow them is whether such rights can be assigned to a new party, such as the buyer of the buyer.

A covenant not to compete, also called a non-competitive clause, is a formal agreement prohibiting one party from performing similar work or business within a designated area for a specified amount of time. This type of clause is generally included in contracts between employer and employee and contracts between buyer and seller of a business.

Many workers sign a covenant not to compete as part of the paperwork required for employment. It may be a separate document similar to a non-disclosure agreement, or buried within a number of other clauses in a contract. A covenant not to compete is generally legal and enforceable, although there are some exceptions and restrictions.

Whenever a company recruits skilled employees, it invests a significant amount of time and training. For example, it often takes years before a research chemist or a design engineer develops a workable knowledge of a company’s product line, including trade secrets and highly sensitive information. Once an employee gains this knowledge and experience, however, all sorts of things can happen. The employee could work for the company until retirement, accept a better offer from a competing company or start up his or her own business.

A covenant not to compete may cover a number of potential issues between employers and former employees. Many companies spend years developing a local base of customers or clients. It is important that this customer base not fall into the hands of local competitors. When an employee signs a covenant not to compete, he or she usually agrees not to use insider knowledge of the company’s customer base to disadvantage the company. The covenant not to compete often defines a broad geographical area considered off-limits to former employees, possibly tens or hundreds of miles.

Another area of concern covered by a covenant not to compete is a potential ‘brain drain’. Some high-level former employees may seek to recruit others from the same company to create new competition. Retention of employees, especially those with unique skills or proprietary knowledge, is vital for most companies, so a covenant not to compete may spell out definite restrictions on the hiring or recruiting of employees.

A covenant not to compete may also define a specific amount of time before a former employee can seek employment in a similar field. Many companies offer a substantial severance package to make sure former employees are financially solvent until the terms of the covenant not to compete have been met.

Because the use of a covenant not to compete can be controversial, a handful of states, including California, have largely banned this type of contractual language. The legal enforcement of these agreements falls on individual states, and many have sided with the employee during arbitration or litigation. A covenant not to compete must be reasonable and specific, with defined time periods and coverage areas. If the agreement gives the company too much power over former employees or is ambiguous, state courts may declare it to be overbroad and therefore unenforceable. In such case, the employee would be free to pursue any employment opportunity, including working for a direct competitor or starting up a new company of his or her own.

It has been held that an employee’s covenant not to compete is assignable where one business is transferred to another, that a merger does not constitute an assignment of a covenant not to compete, and that a covenant not to compete is enforceable by a successor to the employer where the assignment does not create an added burden of employment or other disadvantage to the employee. However, in some states such as Hawaii, it has also been held that a covenant not to compete is not assignable and under various statutes for various reasons that such covenants are not enforceable against an employee by a successor to the employer. Hawaii v. Gannett Pac. Corp. , 99 F. Supp. 2d 1241 (D. Haw. 1999)

It is vital to obtain the relevant law of the applicable state before drafting or attempting to enforce assignment rights in this particular area.

Conclusion:

In the current business world of fast changing structures, agreements, employees and projects, the ability to assign rights and obligations is essential to allow flexibility and adjustment to new situations. Conversely, the ability to hold a contracting party into the deal may be essential for the future of a party. Thus, the law of assignments and the restriction on same is a critical aspect of every agreement and every structure. This basic provision is often glanced at by the contracting parties, or scribbled into the deal at the last minute but can easily become the most vital part of the transaction.

As an example, one client of ours came into the office outraged that his co venturer on a sizable exporting agreement, who had excellent connections in Brazil, had elected to pursue another venture instead and assigned the agreement to a party unknown to our client and without the business contacts our client considered vital. When we examined the handwritten agreement our client had drafted in a restaurant in Sao Paolo, we discovered there was no restriction on assignment whatsoever…our client had not even considered that right when drafting the agreement after a full day of work.

One choses who one does business with carefully…to ensure that one’s choice remains the party on the other side of the contract, one must master the ability to negotiate proper assignment provisions.

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Home » Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Assignment is a task given to students by a teacher or professor, usually as a means of assessing their understanding and application of course material. Assignments can take various forms, including essays, research papers, presentations, problem sets, lab reports, and more.

Assignments are typically designed to be completed outside of class time and may require independent research, critical thinking, and analysis. They are often graded and used as a significant component of a student’s overall course grade. The instructions for an assignment usually specify the goals, requirements, and deadlines for completion, and students are expected to meet these criteria to earn a good grade.

History of Assignment

The use of assignments as a tool for teaching and learning has been a part of education for centuries. Following is a brief history of the Assignment.

• Ancient Times: Assignments such as writing exercises, recitations, and memorization tasks were used to reinforce learning.
• Medieval Period : Universities began to develop the concept of the assignment, with students completing essays, commentaries, and translations to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• 19th Century : With the growth of schools and universities, assignments became more widespread and were used to assess student progress and achievement.
• 20th Century: The rise of distance education and online learning led to the further development of assignments as an integral part of the educational process.
• Present Day: Assignments continue to be used in a variety of educational settings and are seen as an effective way to promote student learning and assess student achievement. The nature and format of assignments continue to evolve in response to changing educational needs and technological innovations.

Types of Assignment

Here are some of the most common types of assignments:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument, analysis, or interpretation of a topic or question. It usually consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Essay structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and thesis statement
• Body paragraphs : each paragraph presents a different argument or idea, with evidence and analysis to support it
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and reiterates the thesis statement

Research paper

A research paper involves gathering and analyzing information on a particular topic, and presenting the findings in a well-structured, documented paper. It usually involves conducting original research, collecting data, and presenting it in a clear, organized manner.

Research paper structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the paper, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the paper’s main points and conclusions
• Introduction : provides background information on the topic and research question
• Literature review: summarizes previous research on the topic
• Methodology : explains how the research was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the research
• Discussion : interprets the results and draws conclusions
• Conclusion : summarizes the key findings and implications

A case study involves analyzing a real-life situation, problem or issue, and presenting a solution or recommendations based on the analysis. It often involves extensive research, data analysis, and critical thinking.

Case study structure:

• Introduction : introduces the case study and its purpose
• Background : provides context and background information on the case
• Analysis : examines the key issues and problems in the case
• Solution/recommendations: proposes solutions or recommendations based on the analysis
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and implications

A lab report is a scientific document that summarizes the results of a laboratory experiment or research project. It typically includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Lab report structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the experiment, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the purpose, methodology, and results of the experiment
• Methods : explains how the experiment was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the experiment

Presentation

A presentation involves delivering information, data or findings to an audience, often with the use of visual aids such as slides, charts, or diagrams. It requires clear communication skills, good organization, and effective use of technology.

Presentation structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and purpose of the presentation
• Body : presents the main points, findings, or data, with the help of visual aids
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and provides a closing statement

Creative Project

A creative project is an assignment that requires students to produce something original, such as a painting, sculpture, video, or creative writing piece. It allows students to demonstrate their creativity and artistic skills.

Creative project structure:

• Introduction : introduces the project and its purpose
• Body : presents the creative work, with explanations or descriptions as needed
• Conclusion : summarizes the key elements and reflects on the creative process.

Examples of Assignments

Following are Examples of Assignment templates samples:

Essay template:

I. Introduction

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention with a catchy opening sentence.
• Background: Provide some context or background information on the topic.
• Thesis statement: State the main argument or point of your essay.

II. Body paragraphs

• Topic sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Provide evidence or examples to support your point.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your argument.
• Transition: Use a transition sentence to lead into the next paragraph.

III. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Summarize your main argument or point.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your essay.
• Concluding thoughts: End with a final thought or call to action.

Research paper template:

I. Title page

• Title: Give your paper a descriptive title.
• Author: Include your name and institutional affiliation.
• Date: Provide the date the paper was submitted.

II. Abstract

• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of your research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of your research.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions of your research.

III. Introduction

• Background: Provide some background information on the topic.
• Research question: State your research question or hypothesis.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your research.

IV. Literature review

• Background: Summarize previous research on the topic.
• Gaps in research: Identify gaps or areas that need further research.

V. Methodology

• Participants: Describe the participants in your study.
• Procedure: Explain the procedure you used to conduct your research.
• Measures: Describe the measures you used to collect data.

VI. Results

• Quantitative results: Summarize the quantitative data you collected.
• Qualitative results: Summarize the qualitative data you collected.

VII. Discussion

• Interpretation: Interpret the results and explain what they mean.
• Implications: Discuss the implications of your research.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of your research.

VIII. Conclusion

• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your paper.

Case study template:

• Background: Provide background information on the case.
• Research question: State the research question or problem you are examining.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the case study.

II. Analysis

• Problem: Identify the main problem or issue in the case.
• Factors: Describe the factors that contributed to the problem.
• Alternative solutions: Describe potential solutions to the problem.

III. Solution/recommendations

• Proposed solution: Describe the solution you are proposing.
• Rationale: Explain why this solution is the best one.
• Implementation: Describe how the solution can be implemented.

IV. Conclusion

• Summary: Summarize the main points of your case study.

Lab report template:

• Title: Give your report a descriptive title.
• Date: Provide the date the report was submitted.
• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of the experiment.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct the experiment.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of the experiment.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions
• Background: Provide some background information on the experiment.
• Hypothesis: State your hypothesis or research question.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the experiment.

IV. Materials and methods

• Materials: List the materials and equipment used in the experiment.
• Procedure: Describe the procedure you followed to conduct the experiment.
• Data: Present the data you collected in tables or graphs.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and describe the patterns or trends you observed.

VI. Discussion

• Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of the experiment.

VII. Conclusion

• Restate hypothesis: Summarize your hypothesis or research question.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your report.

Presentation template:

• Attention grabber: Grab the audience’s attention with a catchy opening.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your presentation.
• Overview: Provide an overview of what you will cover in your presentation.

II. Main points

• Main point 1: Present the first main point of your presentation.
• Supporting details: Provide supporting details or evidence to support your point.
• Main point 2: Present the second main point of your presentation.
• Main point 3: Present the third main point of your presentation.
• Summary: Summarize the main points of your presentation.
• Call to action: End with a final thought or call to action.

Creative writing template:

• Setting: Describe the setting of your story.
• Characters: Introduce the main characters of your story.
• Rising action: Introduce the conflict or problem in your story.
• Climax: Present the most intense moment of the story.
• Falling action: Resolve the conflict or problem in your story.
• Resolution: Describe how the conflict or problem was resolved.
• Final thoughts: End with a final thought or reflection on the story.

How to Write Assignment

Here is a general guide on how to write an assignment:

• Understand the assignment prompt: Before you begin writing, make sure you understand what the assignment requires. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific requirements or guidelines.
• Research and gather information: Depending on the type of assignment, you may need to do research to gather information to support your argument or points. Use credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Organize your ideas : Once you have gathered all the necessary information, organize your ideas into a clear and logical structure. Consider creating an outline or diagram to help you visualize your ideas.
• Write a draft: Begin writing your assignment using your organized ideas and research. Don’t worry too much about grammar or sentence structure at this point; the goal is to get your thoughts down on paper.
• Revise and edit: After you have written a draft, revise and edit your work. Make sure your ideas are presented in a clear and concise manner, and that your sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly.
• Proofread: Finally, proofread your work for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It’s a good idea to have someone else read over your assignment as well to catch any mistakes you may have missed.
• Submit your assignment : Once you are satisfied with your work, submit your assignment according to the instructions provided by your instructor or professor.

Applications of Assignment

Assignments have many applications across different fields and industries. Here are a few examples:

• Education : Assignments are a common tool used in education to help students learn and demonstrate their knowledge. They can be used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic, to develop critical thinking skills, and to improve writing and research abilities.
• Business : Assignments can be used in the business world to assess employee skills, to evaluate job performance, and to provide training opportunities. They can also be used to develop business plans, marketing strategies, and financial projections.
• Journalism : Assignments are often used in journalism to produce news articles, features, and investigative reports. Journalists may be assigned to cover a particular event or topic, or to research and write a story on a specific subject.
• Research : Assignments can be used in research to collect and analyze data, to conduct experiments, and to present findings in written or oral form. Researchers may be assigned to conduct research on a specific topic, to write a research paper, or to present their findings at a conference or seminar.
• Government : Assignments can be used in government to develop policy proposals, to conduct research, and to analyze data. Government officials may be assigned to work on a specific project or to conduct research on a particular topic.
• Non-profit organizations: Assignments can be used in non-profit organizations to develop fundraising strategies, to plan events, and to conduct research. Volunteers may be assigned to work on a specific project or to help with a particular task.

Purpose of Assignment

The purpose of an assignment varies depending on the context in which it is given. However, some common purposes of assignments include:

• Assessing learning: Assignments are often used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic or concept. This allows educators to determine if a student has mastered the material or if they need additional support.
• Developing skills: Assignments can be used to develop a wide range of skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, research, and communication. Assignments that require students to analyze and synthesize information can help to build these skills.
• Encouraging creativity: Assignments can be designed to encourage students to be creative and think outside the box. This can help to foster innovation and original thinking.
• Providing feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for teachers to provide feedback to students on their progress and performance. Feedback can help students to understand where they need to improve and to develop a growth mindset.
• Meeting learning objectives : Assignments can be designed to help students meet specific learning objectives or outcomes. For example, a writing assignment may be designed to help students improve their writing skills, while a research assignment may be designed to help students develop their research skills.

When to write Assignment

Assignments are typically given by instructors or professors as part of a course or academic program. The timing of when to write an assignment will depend on the specific requirements of the course or program, but in general, assignments should be completed within the timeframe specified by the instructor or program guidelines.

It is important to begin working on assignments as soon as possible to ensure enough time for research, writing, and revisions. Waiting until the last minute can result in rushed work and lower quality output.

It is also important to prioritize assignments based on their due dates and the amount of work required. This will help to manage time effectively and ensure that all assignments are completed on time.

In addition to assignments given by instructors or professors, there may be other situations where writing an assignment is necessary. For example, in the workplace, assignments may be given to complete a specific project or task. In these situations, it is important to establish clear deadlines and expectations to ensure that the assignment is completed on time and to a high standard.

Characteristics of Assignment

Here are some common characteristics of assignments:

• Purpose : Assignments have a specific purpose, such as assessing knowledge or developing skills. They are designed to help students learn and achieve specific learning objectives.
• Requirements: Assignments have specific requirements that must be met, such as a word count, format, or specific content. These requirements are usually provided by the instructor or professor.
• Deadline: Assignments have a specific deadline for completion, which is usually set by the instructor or professor. It is important to meet the deadline to avoid penalties or lower grades.
• Individual or group work: Assignments can be completed individually or as part of a group. Group assignments may require collaboration and communication with other group members.
• Feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for feedback from the instructor or professor. This feedback can help students to identify areas of improvement and to develop their skills.
• Academic integrity: Assignments require academic integrity, which means that students must submit original work and avoid plagiarism. This includes citing sources properly and following ethical guidelines.
• Learning outcomes : Assignments are designed to help students achieve specific learning outcomes. These outcomes are usually related to the course objectives and may include developing critical thinking skills, writing abilities, or subject-specific knowledge.

Advantages of Assignment

There are several advantages of assignment, including:

• Helps in learning: Assignments help students to reinforce their learning and understanding of a particular topic. By completing assignments, students get to apply the concepts learned in class, which helps them to better understand and retain the information.
• Develops critical thinking skills: Assignments often require students to think critically and analyze information in order to come up with a solution or answer. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills, which are important for success in many areas of life.
• Encourages creativity: Assignments that require students to create something, such as a piece of writing or a project, can encourage creativity and innovation. This can help students to develop new ideas and perspectives, which can be beneficial in many areas of life.
• Builds time-management skills: Assignments often come with deadlines, which can help students to develop time-management skills. Learning how to manage time effectively is an important skill that can help students to succeed in many areas of life.
• Provides feedback: Assignments provide an opportunity for students to receive feedback on their work. This feedback can help students to identify areas where they need to improve and can help them to grow and develop.

Limitations of Assignment

There are also some limitations of assignments that should be considered, including:

• Limited scope: Assignments are often limited in scope, and may not provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. They may only cover a specific aspect of a topic, and may not provide a full picture of the subject matter.
• Lack of engagement: Some assignments may not engage students in the learning process, particularly if they are repetitive or not challenging enough. This can lead to a lack of motivation and interest in the subject matter.
• Time-consuming: Assignments can be time-consuming, particularly if they require a lot of research or writing. This can be a disadvantage for students who have other commitments, such as work or extracurricular activities.
• Unreliable assessment: The assessment of assignments can be subjective and may not always accurately reflect a student’s understanding or abilities. The grading may be influenced by factors such as the instructor’s personal biases or the student’s writing style.
• Lack of feedback : Although assignments can provide feedback, this feedback may not always be detailed or useful. Instructors may not have the time or resources to provide detailed feedback on every assignment, which can limit the value of the feedback that students receive.

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Success Skills

Text: what to do with essay assignments.

Writing assignments can be as varied as the instructors who assign them. Some assignments are explicit about what exactly you’ll need to do, in what order, and how it will be graded. Some assignments are very open-ended, leaving you to determine the best path toward answering the project. Most fall somewhere in the middle, containing details about some aspects but leaving other assumptions unstated. It’s important to remember that your first resource for getting clarification about an assignment is your instructor—she or he will be very willing to talk out ideas with you, to be sure you’re prepared at each step to do well with the writing.

Most writing in college will be a direct response to class materials—an assigned reading, a discussion in class, an experiment in a lab. Generally speaking, these writing tasks can be divided into three broad categories.

Summary Assignments

Being asked to summarize a source is a common task in many types of writing. It can also seem like a straightforward task: simply restate, in shorter form, what the source says. A lot of advanced skills are hidden in this seemingly simple assignment, however.

An effective summary does the following:

• reflects your accurate understanding of a source’s thesis or purpose
• differentiates between major and minor ideas in a source
• demonstrates your ability to identify key phrases to quote
• demonstrates your ability to effectively paraphrase most of the source’s ideas
• captures the tone, style, and distinguishing features of a source
• does not reflect your personal opinion about the source

That last point is often the most challenging: we are opinionated creatures, by nature, and it can be very difficult to keep our opinions from creeping into a summary, which is meant to be completely neutral.

In college-level writing, assignments that are only summary are rare. That said, many types of writing tasks contain at least some element of summary, from a biology report that explains what happened during a chemical process, to an analysis essay that requires you to explain what several prominent positions about gun control are, as a component of comparing them against one another.

Defined-Topic Assignments

Many writing tasks will ask you to address a particular topic or a narrow set of topic options. Even with the topic identified, however, it can sometimes be difficult to determine what aspects of the writing will be most important when it comes to grading.

• Focus on the verbs . Look for verbs like compare, explain, justify, reflect , or the all-purpose analyze . You’re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you’re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?
• Put the assignment in context . Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. If the assignment isn’t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the span of the course (early, midterm, or toward the end), and how it relates to readings and other assignments. For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way.
• Try a free-write . A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn’t sound very “free”; it actually sounds kind of coerced, right? The “free” part is what you write—it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writer’s block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can’t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on “I don’t understand this” or “I’d really rather be doing something else,” eventually you’ll write something like “I guess the main point of this is…,” and—booyah!—you’re off and running.
• Ask for clarification . Even the most carefully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially if you’re new to a course or field. Try to convey to your instructor that you want to learn and you’re ready to work, and not just looking for advice on how to get an A.

Although the topic may be defined, you can’t just grind out four or five pages of discussion, explanation, or analysis. It may seem strange, but even when you’re asked to “show how” or “illustrate,” you’re still being asked to make an argument. You must shape and focus that discussion or analysis so that it supports a claim that you discovered and formulated and that all of your discussion and explanation develops and supports. 

Defined-topic writing assignments are used primarily to identify your familiarity with the subject matter.

Undefined-Topic Assignments

Another writing assignment you’ll potentially encounter is one in which the topic may be only broadly identified (“water conservation” in an ecology course, for instance, or “the Dust Bowl” in a U.S. History course), or even completely open (“compose an argumentative research essay on a subject of your choice”).

The first hurdle with this type of task is to find a focus that interests you. Don’t just pick something you feel will be “easy to write about”—that almost always turns out to be a false assumption. Instead, you’ll get the most value out of, and find it easier to work on, a topic that intrigues you personally in some way.

The same getting-started ideas described for defined-topic assignments will help with these kinds of projects, too.  You can also try talking with your instructor or a writing tutor (at your college’s writing center) to help brainstorm ideas and make sure you’re on track. You want to feel confident that you’ve got a clear idea of what it means to be successful in the writing and not waste time working in a direction that won’t be fruitful.

• Writing Strategies. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.candelalearning.com/lumencollegesuccess/chapter/writing-strategies/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence. Authored by : Amy Guptill. Provided by : SUNY Open Textbooks. Located at : http://textbooks.opensuny.org/writing-in-college-from-competence-to-excellence/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Image of woman reading. Authored by : Aaron Osborne. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/dPLmVV . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Image of sketches of magnifying glass. Authored by : Matt Cornock. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/eBSLmg . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial