what is a research paper blueprint

Jerz's Literacy Weblog (est. 1999)

Blueprinting: using the thesis paragraph to plan your essay.

The blueprint, typically found in the thesis paragraph, is a list of the topics you plan to cover in oder to prove your thesis. A useful blueprint will preview the relationship between all sub-points (or at least list the points) in the order they will appear in the body of your paper, before the paper launches into details about the first sub-point.

Including a good blueprint will not only help your reader follow your argument, it will help your writing. It’s easier to add a room, move a hallway, or redesign a whole wing at the blueprinting stage, rather than tearing down sections of a partially-built house.

	This paper will explore the , , and messages in Huckleberry Finn in order to argue [your goes here].

	The Great Depression’s lasting impact on the , the and the explain why [your goes here]”.
Note that — a good reasoning blueprint explains the thesis, so you need a good thesis in order to have a good blueprint. See “ .”)

	The biography challenges the Western genre’s stereotype of the “savage Indian” through .
A reader who encounters the list “attention to cultural detail, use of Indian words, and direct quotes from Black Elk” will expect your paper to treat each of those subjects, in that order. A five-paragraph paper might have an introduction, one supporting paragraph on each topic, and a conclusion. A longer paper might devote several pages to each supporting point.

If your paper begins with a rambling introduction that serves up chunks that you recall from lectures and random web pages, the reader will have a hard time picking out your main point (because you don’t really have one).

The Great Depression was an important time in our nation’s history. Unemployment, urban decay, and a sense of hopelessness filled almost every part of human life. People tried many different ways to relieve their tensions, from religious revivals, to Jazz music, to membership in the Communist party. Average people who were suffering in their daily lives often looked for things that would help them deal with the consequences of living in the industrial age. They often sought escapist entertainment in the form of movies. One such movie was Charlie Chaplin’s . In that film, “The Little Tramp” symbolizes the simple human values that are threatened by industrialism.

The author of the above passage not only wastes time composing five sentences before getting to her thesis (the very last sentence), she also clouds the issue by bringing up topics (religion, music, and Communism) that she has no intention of ever mentioning again. The following revision introduces just the three main points that drive the rest of the paper.

	In Charlie Chaplin’s , his character “The Little Tramp” symbolizes the simple human values that are threatened by industrialism: .
The above revision is simply the [slightly edited] last sentence of the original wordy and vague paragraph. This clear, direct thesis statement helps the student and reader focus on the task at hand. The blueprint is very short — just a list of three terms; but even that is enough to communicate how the rest of the paper will work.

Serial Organization (weak integration)

Sticking to one idea or per paragraph often leads to summary.

If I have to plough read all the details about the subject of the yellow paragraph before I see even the first mention of the topics of the blue and pink paragraphs, I will have no idea where your argument is going.

A stronger introduction would at least mention how your paper will connect the dots.

Revision: Some Attempt to Organize

Before we see all the gory details of the gold paragraph, we are introduced to the blue and pink topics. The black sentence in the first paragraph comes right out and states, in brief, the conclusion that you will develop in the final paragraph.

An academic paper is not a mystery novel. Don’t save your best stuff for last. Give it away in your thesis statement, and use the body of your paper to prove your claim.

A clear intro would synthesize these multiple points into a coherent argument, rather than just offering a list of “things to talk about.”

For more details about organizing, see .

The list of topics you plan to address in the body of your paper is important, but I’m using letters so that you can focus more closely on the structures that link those ideas.

	This paper A, B, and C.
Yes, this is a clear list of three points, but an academic author has do more than “talk about” a string of sub-topics. A strong reasoning blueprint will knit those topics together in order to on a topic.

	X than Y.
That’s kind of stark; this paper has a purpose, but the thesis statement doesn’t offer a reasoning blueprint. Or, to use a different metaphor, the paper doesn’t point out the landmarks we will use as we navigate our way from our starting point to our destination.

Examples of thesis statements with a reasoning blueprint:

Note that the reasoning blueprint introduces subpoints that the reader will expect you to cover in the same order.

	For , X is better than Y.
	X is better than Y, for .
For a short paper (1 or 2 pages), with a simple argument that fits the small space well, the above blueprint is probably fine.

Personal essays and reflection papers may require no sources other than the author’s opinions and personal experiences, but a college research paper will require deep engagement with outside sources. For the next example, we’ll assume your instructor accepts Smith as a credible source for this paper.

, Smith’s plan X will not actually deliver all the benefits that Smith promises when he rejects Y.

The reader will expect a section on P and Q, a section on why Smith says he rejected Y and preferred X, and then a section on why Smith was wrong. (Did he exaggerate? rely on outdated data? overgeneralize?) If this student simply started listing accurate details — “talking about” problems P and Q — then it would be confusing and frustrating for the reader to encounter, at the top of page 3, a critique of Smith’s promises about plan X.

	Although Jones is right to point out that does , in community P, incidents of problem A are so rare that , because only Y will help us avoid (which are more common than usual in community P).
The above example makes a complex claim. If you want to make this argument, but you start your paper “talking about” X and then “talking about” Y, your reader may miss the whole point — which is that, despite the fact Jones is right about why X is good, community P would be better served by Y.

Below is an even more complex argument, which demonstrates a college-level ability to sift through ideas from multiple sources.

	While experts Smith, Jones, Brown, and Lee all , their research fails to account for special case W, which would cause if exposed to X, and which will provide huge if exposed to Y. Although X is still a good option in most cases, no solution will be complete unless people affected by W have the freedom to choose Y.
The above is a very complex blueprint; as you can see, the idea here is so complex that the author has split the thesis statement and the reasoning blueprint up into separate sentences. That’s perfectly fine.

Use “Thesis Reminders” for Transitions

No matter how good your thesis, your writing is worth little if it does not cohere (hold together) and demonstrate to the reader how each new point advances the main idea . You can accomplish both goals by providing your reader with thesis reminders.

A thesis reminder is a direct echo of the thesis statement , used as a transition between supporting points.

	The next point I want to talk about is…
Not a good transition, because it does nothing to help the reader understand how the supporting points fit into the master plan of your paper.

A good thesis sentence has three main parts: the limited subject (what your paper is about), the precise opinion (what you’re trying to say about that subject), and the blueprint (what this web page is about). (See: “ Thesis Statements “)

Here are two examples of using the thesis and the blueprint to maintain coherence.

Thesis: Restoring old houses is rewarding because it is exciting , relaxing , and satisfying .

Part of the lies in the of discovering the original interior.

Not only is there in , but working with one’s hands is .

However you may be when you have finished , nothing beats the found in viewing the completed project.

Thesis: Becoming a ski patroller turned out to be harder than I thought because of the studying, the skiing , and the time demands .

The first was the amount of the medical terms, symptoms and signs, and treatments.

to pass the first aid and CPR exams; a also has to train for and demonstrate on the slope.

Studying and ski training are both very , yet, even after pass all the exams, they still themselves to skiing many hours regardless of the weather or snow conditions.

You Don’t Need Exactly Three Points!

If you are writing a more complex essay, you may use a different format, but you still must include blueprints and reminders.

For example, a critical essay may have a thesis, antithesis, and a synthesis. The antithesis presents all the arguments against your thesis, and a synthesis is a kind of compromise, in which you attempt to prove that, whatever points your opponents might have in their favor, your thesis still stands.

Each of these sections may have 3 or more points, which are united by local blueprints and local reminders, capped off by local conclusions, and worked into by the tapestry of the whole argument.

Varieties of Blueprints

These are all acceptable ways to blueprint in a thesis statement.

	Renting a new apartment during college is exciting because it .
separating each blueprint item.

	Taking Professor Jerz’s Technical writing course is a wise choice.
This example is okay but a bit choppy — here, having a is pretty much a waste of words. (But see revision, below.)

Taking Professor Jerz’s Technical writing course is a wise choice. It focuses on one of Jerz’s favorite things: . It amplifies textbook knowledge by providing students with valuable . And it forces students to learn — a skill that many college students lack.

This example is a bit more complex — the sentences which introduce the blueprint items are actually delivering some of the paper’s argument; hence, .A student who has nothing more to say about a point than, for instance, “time management is a skill that many college students lack” is not going to want to give away that one idea in the blueprint; instead, he or she will try to create an entire paragraph around that one idea.

The result will be wordy and boring. By contrast, a student who can slip an interesting observation into the blueprint, and then follow up with even moreintelligent and insightful things in the body of the paper, is demonstrating much more advanced writing skill.

Use Good Structure

The order of the points in the blueprint should perfectly parallel the points in the essay. If you say you are going to talk about “ships, shoes, and sealing wax,” but your essay starts with “sealing wax,” then your blueprint is distorted.

Here is an example of a different kind of distortion — faulty parallelism .

	Taking Professor Jerz’s Technical Writing course is a wise choice because it focuses on correct grammar and allowing students to gain experience in the outside world. Students are also permitted to budget their time.
What is wrong with this example? How could it be fixed?

Note : A thesis statement amounts to nothing if the paper is not completely focused on that main point. Proper blueprinting facilitates the coherency of the thesis throughout the rest of the essay.

Jordan and Jerz

A thesis statement is the main idea that your essay supports. The thesis statement has 3 main parts: the , the , and the .Hochstein, Jordan, and Jerz

A thesis reminder is a direct echo of the thesis statement. In a short paper, the topic sentence of each paragraph should repeat words or phrases from the thesis statement.

8 thoughts on “ Blueprinting: Using the Thesis Paragraph to Plan Your Essay ”

Pingback: Academic Argument: an evidence-based defense of a non-obvious position on a complex issue. | Jerz's Literacy Weblog (est. 1999)

Pingback: how to essay | sarah med

in what essay type do we use blue printing?

Other writing teachers may have a different name for the overview, road map, list of supporting points, abstract, etc., but I would say any kind of complex persuasive or informative essay would benefit from a blueprint.

this topic is incredibly helpful.

Pingback: Consultations – Seminar in Thinking and Writing (LA101)

yes this blue print is not difficult, u can also use in the conclusion the clincher and the reminder of the thesis .

How many more must die? The issue of child abuse is of utmost importance because children cannot speak for themselves. Child abuse is when a parent or guardian causes or allows a child to suffer neglect, physical, sexual and emotional harm.Child abuse creates a sense of hopelessness,high crime rate and a breakdown in society. who is to blame? Parents or the lack of protective laws and legislation.

Blueprints for Academic Research Projects

Today's post is written by Dr. Ben Ellway, the founder of www.academic-toolkit.com . Ben completed his Ph.D. at The University of Cambridge and created the Research Design Canvas , a multipurpose tool for learning about academic research and designing a research project.

Based on requests from students for examples of completed research canvases, Ben created the Research Model Builder Canvas .

This canvas modifies the original questions in the nine building blocks to enable students to search for key information in a journal article and then reassemble it on the canvas to form a research model — a single-page visual summary of the journal article which captures how the research was designed and conducted.

Ben’s second book, Building Research Models, explains how to use the Research Model Builder Canvas to become a more confident and competent reader of academic journal articles, while simultaneously building research models to use as blueprints to guide the design of your own project .

Ben has created a template for Stormboard based on this tool and this is his brief guide on how to begin using it.

Starting with a blank page can be daunting

The Research Design Canvas brings together the key building blocks of academic research on a single page and provides targeted questions to help you design your own project. However, starting with a blank page can be a daunting prospect!

Academic research is complex as it involves multiple components, so designing and conducting your own project can be overwhelming, especially if you lack confidence in making decisions or are confused about how the components of a project fit together. It is much easier to start a complex task and long process such as designing a research project when you have an existing research model or ‘blueprint’ to work from.

Starting with a ‘blueprint’ — tailored to your topic area — is much easier

Using the Research Model Builder Canvas, you can transform a journal article in your topic into a research model or blueprint — a single-page visualization of how a project was designed and conducted.

The research model — and equally importantly the process of building it — will improve your understanding of academic research, and will also provide you with a personalized learning resource for your Thesis. You can use the research model as a blueprint to refer to specific decisions and their justification, and how components of research fit together, to help you begin to build your own project.

Obviously, each project is unique so you’ll be using the blueprint as a guide rather than as a ‘cookie cutter’ solution. Seeing the components of a completed research project together on a single page (which you produced from a ten or twenty-page journal article) — is a very powerful learning resource to have on your academic research journey.

Build research models on Stormboard

If you prefer to work digitally rather than with paper and pen, you can use the Research Model Builder Canvas Template in Stormboard.

By using the Stormboard template, you’ll be able to identify key content and points from the journal article and then quickly summarize these on digital sticky notes. You can easily edit the sticky notes to rearrange, delete, or expand upon the ideas and points. You can then refer back to the permanent visual research model you created, share it with fellow students, or discuss it with your supervisors.

What are the building blocks of the research model?

The template has nine building blocks.

The original questions in the building blocks of the research design canvas are modified in the research model builder canvas. They are designed to help you locate the most important points, decisions, and details in a journal article.

A brief introduction to the purpose of each building block is provided below to help you familiarize yourself with the research model you will build.

Phenomenon / Problem

What does the research focus on? What were the main ‘things’ investigated and discussed in the journal article? Did the research involve a real-world problem?

What area (or areas) of past literature are identified and introduced? Which sources are especially important?

Observations & Arguments

What are the most crucial points made by the authors in their analysis of past research? What evidence, issues, and themes are the focus of the literature review? Is a gap in past research identified?

Research Questions / Hypotheses

What are the research questions and/or hypotheses? How are they justified? If none are stated, what line of investigation is pursued?

Theory & Concepts

Does the research involve a theoretical or conceptual component? If so, what are the key concepts / theory? What role do they play in the research?

Methodology / Design / Methods

What methods and data were used? How are the decisions justified?

Sample / Context

What sampling method is used? Is the research context important?

Contributions

What contribution(s) do the authors claim that their research makes? Is the value-add more academically or practically-oriented? Are real-world stakeholders and the implications for them mentioned?

Philosophical Assumptions / Research Paradigm

These are not usually mentioned or discussed in journal articles. Indeed, this building block can be confusing if you are not familiar with research philosophy or are confused by its seemingly abstract focus. If you understand these ideas, can you identify any implicit assumptions or a research paradigm in the article?

Compare two research models to appreciate the diversity of research

The easiest way to increase your appreciation of the different types and ways of conducting academic research is to build multiple research models.

Start by building two models. Compare and contrast them. Which decisions and aspects are similar and which are different? What can you learn from each research model and how can this help you when designing your own research and Thesis?

Building research models will help you to appreciate the diversity in the different types of research conducted in your topic area.

Transforming a ten or twenty-page journal article into a single-page visual summary is a powerful way to learn about how academic research is designed and conducted — and also what a completed research project looks like.

The Stormboard template makes the process of building research models easy, and the ability to save, edit, and share them ensures that you’ll be able to refer back to these blueprints at various stages throughout your research journey and Thesis writing process.

When you get confused, become stuck, or feel overwhelmed by the complexity of academic research, you can fall back on the research models you created to guide you and get you back on track. Good luck!

Are you interested in trying the Research Model Builder Canvas? Sign up for a free trial now!

Keep reading.

A Beginner’s Guide to Agile Retrospective Meetings

A Retrospective meeting (or Retrospective sprint as it is sometimes called) is a step in the Agile model that allows for teams to take an overall look at what they have done over a period of time — a week, a month, etc. — to determine what’s working for them and what’s not.

Stormboard Now Offers Beat Board Templates for Screenplays and Novels

Get free Save the Cat and 5-act beat board templates with Stormboard! Simplify your writing process with unlimited space, seamless collaboration, and easy recovery of discarded ideas. Perfect for novelists and screenwriters, our templates help you map out your story visually and clearly.

Scrum Confessions: Real Devs Spill Their Agile Pet Peeves

Discover the unspoken challenges faced by developers in agile teams. This blog reveals the core issues beyond common complaints, helping scrum masters improve team dynamics and productivity.

The Most Underrated Use for AI During Meetings: Being Your Devil’s Advocate

Explore the counterintuitive idea that even well-functioning teams with solid brainstorming sessions can benefit from AI. By playing the role of the devil's advocate, AI can introduce healthy disagreement and challenge the status quo, potentially leading to groundbreaking ideas.

5 Best Practices for Running a Daily Standup Meeting

If your Agile team uses the Scrum methodology, you are probably already practicing Daily Standup meetings (or Daily Scrum meetings). These meetings are an essential part of Scrum that should be done to keep the process on track. What is…

5 Reasons to Keep PI Planning Remotely in 2024

Enterprise organizations who have adopted the highly-effective Agile PI Planning strategy, have recently been forced to do their planning sessions remotely…

Defining and Adopting the Agile Framework for your Business

By definition, the word Agile means the “ability to move with quick, easy grace.” While this is how most of us would define Agile, the term has grown over the years to have a much more diverse, broad meaning — especially in the business world.

Collaborative Work for Hybrid Agile Teams – Tips and Best Practices

In today's evolving work environment, creating agile teams can change the face of team building in the modern workplace. Learn more about how you can manage your agile teams easily - whether you are in office, remote, or hybrid.

What Your Agile Team Wished You Knew About Your Meetings

Explore the hidden costs of excessive meetings in Agile environments and learn how to streamline your team's workflow for optimal productivity. Discover practical solutions to common complaints and transform your meetings into valuable assets that drive efficiency and collaboration.

StormAI: Our Next-Gen Update to the Industry’s First AI Collaborator

Discover the latest advancements in StormAI, the industry's first augmented intelligence collaborator, with exciting updates that enhance its capabilities. Learn about the innovative features and improvements that make StormAI 2.0 a groundbreaking technology for collaborative work.

Scrum Strategies: What Should Be Done With Spilled Stories?

Discover the contrasting views within the Agile community regarding spilled stories (or spillover) in sprint cycles and delve into strategies adopted by different teams. Gain insights into the pros and cons of each approach to better inform your Agile methodology.

Integrating Renewable Energy: The Role of Collaborative Platforms in Managing Transition

Uncover the pivotal role collaborative platforms play in facilitating a seamless transition towards sustainable energy solutions. From project management to real-time communication, explore how these tools are reshaping the landscape for utility companies amidst the push for renewable energy adoption.

How to Track Your Team’s Workflow Remotely

Archive - 2021 business trends.

Research Design 101

Everything You Need To Get Started (With Examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewers: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) & Kerryn Warren (PhD) | April 2023

Research design for qualitative and quantitative studies

Navigating the world of research can be daunting, especially if you’re a first-time researcher. One concept you’re bound to run into fairly early in your research journey is that of “ research design ”. Here, we’ll guide you through the basics using practical examples , so that you can approach your research with confidence.

Overview: Research Design 101

What is research design.

Research design types for quantitative studies
Video explainer : quantitative research design
Research design types for qualitative studies
Video explainer : qualitative research design
How to choose a research design
Key takeaways

Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project , from its conception to the final data analysis. A good research design serves as the blueprint for how you, as the researcher, will collect and analyse data while ensuring consistency, reliability and validity throughout your study.

Understanding different types of research designs is essential as helps ensure that your approach is suitable given your research aims, objectives and questions , as well as the resources you have available to you. Without a clear big-picture view of how you’ll design your research, you run the risk of potentially making misaligned choices in terms of your methodology – especially your sampling , data collection and data analysis decisions.

The problem with defining research design…

One of the reasons students struggle with a clear definition of research design is because the term is used very loosely across the internet, and even within academia.

Some sources claim that the three research design types are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods , which isn’t quite accurate (these just refer to the type of data that you’ll collect and analyse). Other sources state that research design refers to the sum of all your design choices, suggesting it’s more like a research methodology . Others run off on other less common tangents. No wonder there’s confusion!

In this article, we’ll clear up the confusion. We’ll explain the most common research design types for both qualitative and quantitative research projects, whether that is for a full dissertation or thesis, or a smaller research paper or article.

Research Design: Quantitative Studies

Quantitative research involves collecting and analysing data in a numerical form. Broadly speaking, there are four types of quantitative research designs: descriptive , correlational , experimental , and quasi-experimental .

Descriptive Research Design

As the name suggests, descriptive research design focuses on describing existing conditions, behaviours, or characteristics by systematically gathering information without manipulating any variables. In other words, there is no intervention on the researcher’s part – only data collection.

For example, if you’re studying smartphone addiction among adolescents in your community, you could deploy a survey to a sample of teens asking them to rate their agreement with certain statements that relate to smartphone addiction. The collected data would then provide insight regarding how widespread the issue may be – in other words, it would describe the situation.

The key defining attribute of this type of research design is that it purely describes the situation . In other words, descriptive research design does not explore potential relationships between different variables or the causes that may underlie those relationships. Therefore, descriptive research is useful for generating insight into a research problem by describing its characteristics . By doing so, it can provide valuable insights and is often used as a precursor to other research design types.

Correlational Research Design

Correlational design is a popular choice for researchers aiming to identify and measure the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them . In other words, this type of research design is useful when you want to know whether a change in one thing tends to be accompanied by a change in another thing.

For example, if you wanted to explore the relationship between exercise frequency and overall health, you could use a correlational design to help you achieve this. In this case, you might gather data on participants’ exercise habits, as well as records of their health indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, or body mass index. Thereafter, you’d use a statistical test to assess whether there’s a relationship between the two variables (exercise frequency and health).

As you can see, correlational research design is useful when you want to explore potential relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled for ethical, practical, or logistical reasons. It is particularly helpful in terms of developing predictions , and given that it doesn’t involve the manipulation of variables, it can be implemented at a large scale more easily than experimental designs (which will look at next).

That said, it’s important to keep in mind that correlational research design has limitations – most notably that it cannot be used to establish causality . In other words, correlation does not equal causation . To establish causality, you’ll need to move into the realm of experimental design, coming up next…

Need a helping hand?

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is used to determine if there is a causal relationship between two or more variables . With this type of research design, you, as the researcher, manipulate one variable (the independent variable) while controlling others (dependent variables). Doing so allows you to observe the effect of the former on the latter and draw conclusions about potential causality.

For example, if you wanted to measure if/how different types of fertiliser affect plant growth, you could set up several groups of plants, with each group receiving a different type of fertiliser, as well as one with no fertiliser at all. You could then measure how much each plant group grew (on average) over time and compare the results from the different groups to see which fertiliser was most effective.

Overall, experimental research design provides researchers with a powerful way to identify and measure causal relationships (and the direction of causality) between variables. However, developing a rigorous experimental design can be challenging as it’s not always easy to control all the variables in a study. This often results in smaller sample sizes , which can reduce the statistical power and generalisability of the results.

Moreover, experimental research design requires random assignment . This means that the researcher needs to assign participants to different groups or conditions in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group (note that this is not the same as random sampling ). Doing so helps reduce the potential for bias and confounding variables . This need for random assignment can lead to ethics-related issues . For example, withholding a potentially beneficial medical treatment from a control group may be considered unethical in certain situations.

Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Quasi-experimental research design is used when the research aims involve identifying causal relations , but one cannot (or doesn’t want to) randomly assign participants to different groups (for practical or ethical reasons). Instead, with a quasi-experimental research design, the researcher relies on existing groups or pre-existing conditions to form groups for comparison.

For example, if you were studying the effects of a new teaching method on student achievement in a particular school district, you may be unable to randomly assign students to either group and instead have to choose classes or schools that already use different teaching methods. This way, you still achieve separate groups, without having to assign participants to specific groups yourself.

Naturally, quasi-experimental research designs have limitations when compared to experimental designs. Given that participant assignment is not random, it’s more difficult to confidently establish causality between variables, and, as a researcher, you have less control over other variables that may impact findings.

All that said, quasi-experimental designs can still be valuable in research contexts where random assignment is not possible and can often be undertaken on a much larger scale than experimental research, thus increasing the statistical power of the results. What’s important is that you, as the researcher, understand the limitations of the design and conduct your quasi-experiment as rigorously as possible, paying careful attention to any potential confounding variables .

The four most common quantitative research design types are descriptive, correlational, experimental and quasi-experimental.

Research Design: Qualitative Studies

There are many different research design types when it comes to qualitative studies, but here we’ll narrow our focus to explore the “Big 4”. Specifically, we’ll look at phenomenological design, grounded theory design, ethnographic design, and case study design.

Phenomenological Research Design

Phenomenological design involves exploring the meaning of lived experiences and how they are perceived by individuals. This type of research design seeks to understand people’s perspectives , emotions, and behaviours in specific situations. Here, the aim for researchers is to uncover the essence of human experience without making any assumptions or imposing preconceived ideas on their subjects.

For example, you could adopt a phenomenological design to study why cancer survivors have such varied perceptions of their lives after overcoming their disease. This could be achieved by interviewing survivors and then analysing the data using a qualitative analysis method such as thematic analysis to identify commonalities and differences.

Phenomenological research design typically involves in-depth interviews or open-ended questionnaires to collect rich, detailed data about participants’ subjective experiences. This richness is one of the key strengths of phenomenological research design but, naturally, it also has limitations. These include potential biases in data collection and interpretation and the lack of generalisability of findings to broader populations.

Grounded Theory Research Design

Grounded theory (also referred to as “GT”) aims to develop theories by continuously and iteratively analysing and comparing data collected from a relatively large number of participants in a study. It takes an inductive (bottom-up) approach, with a focus on letting the data “speak for itself”, without being influenced by preexisting theories or the researcher’s preconceptions.

As an example, let’s assume your research aims involved understanding how people cope with chronic pain from a specific medical condition, with a view to developing a theory around this. In this case, grounded theory design would allow you to explore this concept thoroughly without preconceptions about what coping mechanisms might exist. You may find that some patients prefer cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) while others prefer to rely on herbal remedies. Based on multiple, iterative rounds of analysis, you could then develop a theory in this regard, derived directly from the data (as opposed to other preexisting theories and models).

Grounded theory typically involves collecting data through interviews or observations and then analysing it to identify patterns and themes that emerge from the data. These emerging ideas are then validated by collecting more data until a saturation point is reached (i.e., no new information can be squeezed from the data). From that base, a theory can then be developed .

As you can see, grounded theory is ideally suited to studies where the research aims involve theory generation , especially in under-researched areas. Keep in mind though that this type of research design can be quite time-intensive , given the need for multiple rounds of data collection and analysis.

Ethnographic Research Design

Ethnographic design involves observing and studying a culture-sharing group of people in their natural setting to gain insight into their behaviours, beliefs, and values. The focus here is on observing participants in their natural environment (as opposed to a controlled environment). This typically involves the researcher spending an extended period of time with the participants in their environment, carefully observing and taking field notes .

All of this is not to say that ethnographic research design relies purely on observation. On the contrary, this design typically also involves in-depth interviews to explore participants’ views, beliefs, etc. However, unobtrusive observation is a core component of the ethnographic approach.

As an example, an ethnographer may study how different communities celebrate traditional festivals or how individuals from different generations interact with technology differently. This may involve a lengthy period of observation, combined with in-depth interviews to further explore specific areas of interest that emerge as a result of the observations that the researcher has made.

As you can probably imagine, ethnographic research design has the ability to provide rich, contextually embedded insights into the socio-cultural dynamics of human behaviour within a natural, uncontrived setting. Naturally, however, it does come with its own set of challenges, including researcher bias (since the researcher can become quite immersed in the group), participant confidentiality and, predictably, ethical complexities . All of these need to be carefully managed if you choose to adopt this type of research design.

Case Study Design

With case study research design, you, as the researcher, investigate a single individual (or a single group of individuals) to gain an in-depth understanding of their experiences, behaviours or outcomes. Unlike other research designs that are aimed at larger sample sizes, case studies offer a deep dive into the specific circumstances surrounding a person, group of people, event or phenomenon, generally within a bounded setting or context .

As an example, a case study design could be used to explore the factors influencing the success of a specific small business. This would involve diving deeply into the organisation to explore and understand what makes it tick – from marketing to HR to finance. In terms of data collection, this could include interviews with staff and management, review of policy documents and financial statements, surveying customers, etc.

While the above example is focused squarely on one organisation, it’s worth noting that case study research designs can have different variation s, including single-case, multiple-case and longitudinal designs. As you can see in the example, a single-case design involves intensely examining a single entity to understand its unique characteristics and complexities. Conversely, in a multiple-case design , multiple cases are compared and contrasted to identify patterns and commonalities. Lastly, in a longitudinal case design , a single case or multiple cases are studied over an extended period of time to understand how factors develop over time.

As you can see, a case study research design is particularly useful where a deep and contextualised understanding of a specific phenomenon or issue is desired. However, this strength is also its weakness. In other words, you can’t generalise the findings from a case study to the broader population. So, keep this in mind if you’re considering going the case study route.

Case study design often involves investigating an individual to gain an in-depth understanding of their experiences, behaviours or outcomes.

How To Choose A Research Design

Having worked through all of these potential research designs, you’d be forgiven for feeling a little overwhelmed and wondering, “ But how do I decide which research design to use? ”. While we could write an entire post covering that alone, here are a few factors to consider that will help you choose a suitable research design for your study.

Data type: The first determining factor is naturally the type of data you plan to be collecting – i.e., qualitative or quantitative. This may sound obvious, but we have to be clear about this – don’t try to use a quantitative research design on qualitative data (or vice versa)!

Research aim(s) and question(s): As with all methodological decisions, your research aim and research questions will heavily influence your research design. For example, if your research aims involve developing a theory from qualitative data, grounded theory would be a strong option. Similarly, if your research aims involve identifying and measuring relationships between variables, one of the experimental designs would likely be a better option.

Time: It’s essential that you consider any time constraints you have, as this will impact the type of research design you can choose. For example, if you’ve only got a month to complete your project, a lengthy design such as ethnography wouldn’t be a good fit.

Resources: Take into account the resources realistically available to you, as these need to factor into your research design choice. For example, if you require highly specialised lab equipment to execute an experimental design, you need to be sure that you’ll have access to that before you make a decision.

Keep in mind that when it comes to research, it’s important to manage your risks and play as conservatively as possible. If your entire project relies on you achieving a huge sample, having access to niche equipment or holding interviews with very difficult-to-reach participants, you’re creating risks that could kill your project. So, be sure to think through your choices carefully and make sure that you have backup plans for any existential risks. Remember that a relatively simple methodology executed well generally will typically earn better marks than a highly-complex methodology executed poorly.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. Let’s recap by looking at the key takeaways:

Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project, from its conception to the final analysis of data.
Research designs for quantitative studies include descriptive , correlational , experimental and quasi-experimenta l designs.
Research designs for qualitative studies include phenomenological , grounded theory , ethnographic and case study designs.
When choosing a research design, you need to consider a variety of factors, including the type of data you’ll be working with, your research aims and questions, your time and the resources available to you.

If you need a helping hand with your research design (or any other aspect of your research), check out our private coaching services .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

14 Comments

Is there any blog article explaining more on Case study research design? Is there a Case study write-up template? Thank you.

Thanks this was quite valuable to clarify such an important concept.

Thanks for this simplified explanations. it is quite very helpful.

This was really helpful. thanks

Thank you for your explanation. I think case study research design and the use of secondary data in researches needs to be talked about more in your videos and articles because there a lot of case studies research design tailored projects out there.

Please is there any template for a case study research design whose data type is a secondary data on your repository?

This post is very clear, comprehensive and has been very helpful to me. It has cleared the confusion I had in regard to research design and methodology.

This post is helpful, easy to understand, and deconstructs what a research design is. Thanks

This post is really helpful.

how to cite this page

Thank you very much for the post. It is wonderful and has cleared many worries in my mind regarding research designs. I really appreciate .

how can I put this blog as my reference(APA style) in bibliography part?

This post has been very useful to me. Confusing areas have been cleared

This is very helpful and very useful!

Wow! This post has an awful explanation. Appreciated.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Print Friendly

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Types of Research Designs
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

Introduction

Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study .

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in order to integrate, in a coherent and logical way, the different components of the study, thus ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and interpretation of information and data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design you choose, not the other way around!

De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

General Structure and Writing Style

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible . In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test the underlying assumptions of a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.

With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be undermined.

The length and complexity of describing the research design in your paper can vary considerably, but any well-developed description will achieve the following :

Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been used,
Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the research problem,
Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem,
Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how such information and/or data will be obtained, and
Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

The research design is usually incorporated into the introduction of your paper . You can obtain an overall sense of what to do by reviewing studies that have utilized the same research design [e.g., using a case study approach]. This can help you develop an outline to follow for your own paper.

NOTE: Use the SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases and the SAGE Research Methods Videos databases to search for scholarly resources on how to apply specific research designs and methods . The Research Methods Online database contains links to more than 175,000 pages of SAGE publisher's book, journal, and reference content on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodologies. Also included is a collection of case studies of social research projects that can be used to help you better understand abstract or complex methodological concepts. The Research Methods Videos database contains hours of tutorials, interviews, video case studies, and mini-documentaries covering the entire research process.

Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2018; De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod. Practical Research: Planning and Design . Tenth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2013; Vogt, W. Paul, Dianna C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele. When to Use What Research Design . New York: Guilford, 2012.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

What do these studies tell you ?

This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community situations.
Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and advocating for change.
There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you ?

It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on responsibilities of advocating for change as well as for researching the topic.
Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that you can use a standard format to report your findings effectively [i.e., data is often in the form of stories or observation].
Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action [e.g. change] and research [e.g. understanding] is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.

Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of Action Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2014; Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid. Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide . New York: Guilford, 2013; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605; McNiff, Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research . London: Sage, 2014; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.

Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the extension of methodologies.
The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the findings.
Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular case.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 4, Flexible Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Greenhalgh, Trisha, editor. Case Study Evaluation: Past, Present and Future Challenges . Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2015; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory . Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

Causal Design

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable.
Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.
Replication is possible.
There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject selection and equity of groups being compared.
Not all relationships are causal! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is the actual effect.

Beach, Derek and Rasmus Brun Pedersen. Causal Case Study Methods: Foundations and Guidelines for Comparing, Matching, and Tracing . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2016; Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice . Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007; Brewer, Ernest W. and Jennifer Kubn. “Causal-Comparative Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 125-132; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 11, Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Cohort Design

Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos, you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed. Research that measures risk factors often relies upon cohort designs.
Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural, political, economic, etc.].
Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding variables.
Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially impacting the validity of the findings.
Due to the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Glenn, Norval D, editor. Cohort Analysis . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Payne, Geoff. “Cohort Study.” In The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods . Victor Jupp, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), pp. 31-33; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study. Wikipedia.

Cross-Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the whole population.
Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific variable can be difficult.
Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
There is no follow up to the findings.

Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences . Herman J Adèr and Gideon J Mellenbergh, editors. (London, England: Sage, 1999), pp. 110-43; Bourque, Linda B. “Cross-Sectional Design.” In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao. (Thousand Oaks, CA: 2004), pp. 230-231; Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study. Wikipedia.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems].
Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively.
If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Given, Lisa M. "Descriptive Research." In Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics . Neil J. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), pp. 251-254; McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn. Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008; Erickson, G. Scott. "Descriptive Research Design." In New Methods of Market Research and Analysis . (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), pp. 51-77; Sahin, Sagufta, and Jayanta Mete. "A Brief Study on Descriptive Research: Its Nature and Application in Social Science." International Journal of Research and Analysis in Humanities 1 (2021): 11; K. Swatzell and P. Jennings. “Descriptive Research: The Nuts and Bolts.” Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 20 (2007), pp. 55-56; Kane, E. Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities . London: Marion Boyars, 1985.

Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses of participants.
Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally designed studies.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L. "Experimental Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 448-453; "Experimental Design." In Social Research Methods . Nicholas Walliman, editor. (London, England: Sage, 2006), pp, 101-110; Experimental Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Kirk, Roger E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental Research. Slideshare presentation.

Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome . The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.
Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not generalizable to the population at large.
The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about the findings. They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.
The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value to decision-makers.
Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Streb, Christoph K. "Exploratory Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Albert J. Mills, Gabrielle Durepos and Eiden Wiebe, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 372-374; Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research. Wikipedia.

Field Research Design

Sometimes referred to as ethnography or participant observation, designs around field research encompass a variety of interpretative procedures [e.g., observation and interviews] rooted in qualitative approaches to studying people individually or in groups while inhabiting their natural environment as opposed to using survey instruments or other forms of impersonal methods of data gathering. Information acquired from observational research takes the form of “ field notes ” that involves documenting what the researcher actually sees and hears while in the field. Findings do not consist of conclusive statements derived from numbers and statistics because field research involves analysis of words and observations of behavior. Conclusions, therefore, are developed from an interpretation of findings that reveal overriding themes, concepts, and ideas. More information can be found HERE .

Field research is often necessary to fill gaps in understanding the research problem applied to local conditions or to specific groups of people that cannot be ascertained from existing data.
The research helps contextualize already known information about a research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins, scope, and scale of a problem and to gage the causes, consequences, and means to resolve an issue based on deliberate interaction with people in their natural inhabited spaces.
Enables the researcher to corroborate or confirm data by gathering additional information that supports or refutes findings reported in prior studies of the topic.
Because the researcher in embedded in the field, they are better able to make observations or ask questions that reflect the specific cultural context of the setting being investigated.
Observing the local reality offers the opportunity to gain new perspectives or obtain unique data that challenges existing theoretical propositions or long-standing assumptions found in the literature.

What these studies don't tell you

A field research study requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved with preparing for the gathering of information, including for example, examining background information about the study site, obtaining permission to access the study site, and building trust and rapport with subjects.
Requires a commitment to staying engaged in the field to ensure that you can adequately document events and behaviors as they unfold.
The unpredictable nature of fieldwork means that researchers can never fully control the process of data gathering. They must maintain a flexible approach to studying the setting because events and circumstances can change quickly or unexpectedly.
Findings can be difficult to interpret and verify without access to documents and other source materials that help to enhance the credibility of information obtained from the field [i.e., the act of triangulating the data].
Linking the research problem to the selection of study participants inhabiting their natural environment is critical. However, this specificity limits the ability to generalize findings to different situations or in other contexts or to infer courses of action applied to other settings or groups of people.
The reporting of findings must take into account how the researcher themselves may have inadvertently affected respondents and their behaviors.

Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the study.
The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.
There is often no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a previous study.
The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access. This may especially challenging for digital or online-only sources.
Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.
It is rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be acknowledged.

Howell, Martha C. and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; Lundy, Karen Saucier. "Historical Research." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 396-400; Marius, Richard. and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing about History . 9th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015; Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-58; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular phenomenon.
Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable only with experiments.
The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.
The data collection method may change over time.
Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period of time.
It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
This design often needs qualitative research data to explain fluctuations in the results.
A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
It can take a long period of time to gather results.
There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach representativness.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Forgues, Bernard, and Isabelle Vandangeon-Derumez. "Longitudinal Analyses." In Doing Management Research . Raymond-Alain Thiétart and Samantha Wauchope, editors. (London, England: Sage, 2001), pp. 332-351; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Menard, Scott, editor. Longitudinal Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal Study. Wikipedia.

Meta-Analysis Design

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects of interest. The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new understanding of a research problem using synoptic reasoning. The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing the precision by which effects are estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of information in each study to properly analyze their findings. Lack of information can severely limit the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the more difficult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results. A meta-analysis needs to fulfill the following requirements to ensure the validity of your findings:

Clearly defined description of objectives, including precise definitions of the variables and outcomes that are being evaluated;
A well-reasoned and well-documented justification for identification and selection of the studies;
Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the identification and selection of those studies;
Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the sample size of studies reviewed; and,
Justification of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.
Can be an effective strategy for determining gaps in the literature.
Provides a means of reviewing research published about a particular topic over an extended period of time and from a variety of sources.
Is useful in clarifying what policy or programmatic actions can be justified on the basis of analyzing research results from multiple studies.
Provides a method for overcoming small sample sizes in individual studies that previously may have had little relationship to each other.
Can be used to generate new hypotheses or highlight research problems for future studies.
Small violations in defining the criteria used for content analysis can lead to difficult to interpret and/or meaningless findings.
A large sample size can yield reliable, but not necessarily valid, results.
A lack of uniformity regarding, for example, the type of literature reviewed, how methods are applied, and how findings are measured within the sample of studies you are analyzing, can make the process of synthesis difficult to perform.
Depending on the sample size, the process of reviewing and synthesizing multiple studies can be very time consuming.

Beck, Lewis W. "The Synoptic Method." The Journal of Philosophy 36 (1939): 337-345; Cooper, Harris, Larry V. Hedges, and Jeffrey C. Valentine, eds. The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis . 2nd edition. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009; Guzzo, Richard A., Susan E. Jackson and Raymond A. Katzell. “Meta-Analysis Analysis.” In Research in Organizational Behavior , Volume 9. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp 407-442; Lipsey, Mark W. and David B. Wilson. Practical Meta-Analysis . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001; Study Design 101. Meta-Analysis. The Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, George Washington University; Timulak, Ladislav. “Qualitative Meta-Analysis.” In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis . Uwe Flick, editor. (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 481-495; Walker, Esteban, Adrian V. Hernandez, and Micheal W. Kattan. "Meta-Analysis: It's Strengths and Limitations." Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75 (June 2008): 431-439.

Mixed-Method Design

Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric data, while numeric data can add precision to narrative and non-textual information.
Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a grounded theory approach to describe and explain the phenomenon under study.
A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated because the researcher is not constrained by using only one method.
The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent weaknesses of another method.
Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or set of recommendations.
May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights, patterns, or relationships that a single methodological approach might not reveal.
Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can be used to increase the generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.
A researcher must be proficient in understanding how to apply multiple methods to investigating a research problem as well as be proficient in optimizing how to design a study that coherently melds them together.
Can increase the likelihood of conflicting results or ambiguous findings that inhibit drawing a valid conclusion or setting forth a recommended course of action [e.g., sample interview responses do not support existing statistical data].
Because the research design can be very complex, reporting the findings requires a well-organized narrative, clear writing style, and precise word choice.
Design invites collaboration among experts. However, merging different investigative approaches and writing styles requires more attention to the overall research process than studies conducted using only one methodological paradigm.
Concurrent merging of quantitative and qualitative research requires greater attention to having adequate sample sizes, using comparable samples, and applying a consistent unit of analysis. For sequential designs where one phase of qualitative research builds on the quantitative phase or vice versa, decisions about what results from the first phase to use in the next phase, the choice of samples and estimating reasonable sample sizes for both phases, and the interpretation of results from both phases can be difficult.
Due to multiple forms of data being collected and analyzed, this design requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved in data gathering and interpretation.

Burch, Patricia and Carolyn J. Heinrich. Mixed Methods for Policy Research and Program Evaluation . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Creswell, John w. et al. Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences . Bethesda, MD: Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of Health, 2010Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014; Domínguez, Silvia, editor. Mixed Methods Social Networks Research . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice . New York: Guilford Press, 2010; Niglas, Katrin. “How the Novice Researcher Can Make Sense of Mixed Methods Designs.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 3 (2009): 34-46; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Nancy L. Leech. “Linking Research Questions to Mixed Methods Data Analysis Procedures.” The Qualitative Report 11 (September 2006): 474-498; Tashakorri, Abbas and John W. Creswell. “The New Era of Mixed Methods.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1 (January 2007): 3-7; Zhanga, Wanqing. “Mixed Methods Application in Health Intervention Research: A Multiple Case Study.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 8 (2014): 24-35 .

Observational Design

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe [data is emergent rather than pre-existing].
The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior.
Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
You can generalize your results to real life situations.
Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before applying other methods like experiments.
Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.
Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task and are difficult to replicate.
In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want to see."
There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing is manipulated.
Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
Any group that is knowingly studied is altered to some degree by the presence of the researcher, therefore, potentially skewing any data collected.

Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods . Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Payne, Geoff and Judy Payne. "Observation." In Key Concepts in Social Research . The SAGE Key Concepts series. (London, England: Sage, 2004), pp. 158-162; Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies . New York: Springer, 2010;Williams, J. Patrick. "Nonparticipant Observation." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor.(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 562-563.

Philosophical Design

Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:

Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, by what means does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we know?
Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.
Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge about the purposes of research.
Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
Philosophy informs methodology.
Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of thought and discourse.
Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms, concepts, and ideas.
Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?" question in social science research].
Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to real-life issues.
While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical analysis.
There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.

Burton, Dawn. "Part I, Philosophy of the Social Sciences." In Research Training for Social Scientists . (London, England: Sage, 2000), pp. 1-5; Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR), University of South Africa; Jarvie, Ian C., and Jesús Zamora-Bonilla, editors. The SAGE Handbook of the Philosophy of Social Sciences . London: Sage, 2011; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide . Washington, DC: Falmer Press, 1994; McLaughlin, Hugh. "The Philosophy of Social Research." In Understanding Social Work Research . 2nd edition. (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2012), pp. 24-47; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.

Sequential Design

The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the sampling schedule.
Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
This is a useful design for exploratory studies.
There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce intensive.
Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known before the next sample is taken and analyzed. This provides opportunities for continuous improvement of sampling and methods of analysis.
The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more specific sample can be difficult.
The design cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population because the sampling technique is not randomized. Generalizability from findings is, therefore, limited.
Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.

Betensky, Rebecca. Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. "Sequential Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 1347-1352; Cresswell, John W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research . Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-240; Henry, Gary T. "Sequential Sampling." In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman and Tim Futing Liao, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. 1027-1028; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.

Systematic Review

A systematic review synthesizes the findings of multiple studies related to each other by incorporating strategies of analysis and interpretation intended to reduce biases and random errors.
The application of critical exploration, evaluation, and synthesis methods separates insignificant, unsound, or redundant research from the most salient and relevant studies worthy of reflection.
They can be use to identify, justify, and refine hypotheses, recognize and avoid hidden problems in prior studies, and explain data inconsistencies and conflicts in data.
Systematic reviews can be used to help policy makers formulate evidence-based guidelines and regulations.
The use of strict, explicit, and pre-determined methods of synthesis, when applied appropriately, provide reliable estimates about the effects of interventions, evaluations, and effects related to the overarching research problem investigated by each study under review.
Systematic reviews illuminate where knowledge or thorough understanding of a research problem is lacking and, therefore, can then be used to guide future research.
The accepted inclusion of unpublished studies [i.e., grey literature] ensures the broadest possible way to analyze and interpret research on a topic.
Results of the synthesis can be generalized and the findings extrapolated into the general population with more validity than most other types of studies .
Systematic reviews do not create new knowledge per se; they are a method for synthesizing existing studies about a research problem in order to gain new insights and determine gaps in the literature.
The way researchers have carried out their investigations [e.g., the period of time covered, number of participants, sources of data analyzed, etc.] can make it difficult to effectively synthesize studies.
The inclusion of unpublished studies can introduce bias into the review because they may not have undergone a rigorous peer-review process prior to publication. Examples may include conference presentations or proceedings, publications from government agencies, white papers, working papers, and internal documents from organizations, and doctoral dissertations and Master's theses.

Denyer, David and David Tranfield. "Producing a Systematic Review." In The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods . David A. Buchanan and Alan Bryman, editors. ( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), pp. 671-689; Foster, Margaret J. and Sarah T. Jewell, editors. Assembling the Pieces of a Systematic Review: A Guide for Librarians . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017; Gough, David, Sandy Oliver, James Thomas, editors. Introduction to Systematic Reviews . 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2017; Gopalakrishnan, S. and P. Ganeshkumar. “Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis: Understanding the Best Evidence in Primary Healthcare.” Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2 (2013): 9-14; Gough, David, James Thomas, and Sandy Oliver. "Clarifying Differences between Review Designs and Methods." Systematic Reviews 1 (2012): 1-9; Khan, Khalid S., Regina Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes. “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (2003): 118-121; Mulrow, C. D. “Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 309:597 (September 1994); O'Dwyer, Linda C., and Q. Eileen Wafford. "Addressing Challenges with Systematic Review Teams through Effective Communication: A Case Report." Journal of the Medical Library Association 109 (October 2021): 643-647; Okoli, Chitu, and Kira Schabram. "A Guide to Conducting a Systematic Literature Review of Information Systems Research." Sprouts: Working Papers on Information Systems 10 (2010); Siddaway, Andy P., Alex M. Wood, and Larry V. Hedges. "How to Do a Systematic Review: A Best Practice Guide for Conducting and Reporting Narrative Reviews, Meta-analyses, and Meta-syntheses." Annual Review of Psychology 70 (2019): 747-770; Torgerson, Carole J. “Publication Bias: The Achilles’ Heel of Systematic Reviews?” British Journal of Educational Studies 54 (March 2006): 89-102; Torgerson, Carole. Systematic Reviews . New York: Continuum, 2003.

<< Previous: Purpose of Guide
Next: Design Flaws to Avoid >>
Last Updated: Sep 4, 2024 9:40 AM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

_Featured Posts
_Post Layouts
_Error Page
_RTL Version

Research Paper Blueprint: A Step-by-Step Guide to Creating Research Paper

Welcome to the ultimate guide on how to create a stellar research paper. Whether you are a student, an academic, or a professional researcher, this step-by-step blueprint will help you navigate the challenging terrain of research paper writing. From choosing a topic to presenting your findings, we will cover everything you need to know to produce a high-quality research paper.

Understanding the Research Paper

Before we dive into the intricacies of research paper writing, it is crucial to understand the purpose and structure of this academic document. A research paper is a formal piece of writing that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic. It contributes to the existing body of knowledge and provides insights into a particular subject area.

Choosing a Topic

The first step in creating a stellar research paper is selecting a compelling and manageable topic. Consider your interests, expertise, and the scope of the assignment or publication requirements. Ensure that your chosen topic is relevant, researchable, and has sufficient available resources for investigation.

Conducting In-Depth Research

Once you have identified your research topic, it's time to conduct in-depth research. Utilize various academic databases, libraries, and credible online sources to gather relevant information, scholarly articles, and data related to your subject matter. Take notes and organize your findings to ensure easy retrieval during the writing process.

Creating an Outline

An outline serves as a roadmap for your research paper. It helps you organize your thoughts, maintain a logical flow, and ensure that you cover all essential aspects of your topic. Your outline should include headings and subheadings that represent the main sections and subsections of your paper.

Writing the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your research paper. It provides background information on the topic, establishes its significance, and presents your research objectives and hypothesis. Grab the reader's attention with a compelling opening statement and clearly state the purpose of your study.

Developing the Literature Review

A literature review demonstrates your understanding of existing research on your topic. Summarize and analyze relevant studies, theories, and scholarly works that contribute to your research area. Identify any gaps or controversies in the literature and explain how your study will address them.

Formulating the Research Methodology

The research methodology section outlines the methods and procedures you will employ to gather and analyze data. Describe your research design, participants or sample, data collection instruments, and data analysis techniques. Justify your choices and ensure the replicability of your study.

Collecting and Analyzing Data

In this phase, you will collect and analyze the data necessary to answer your research questions or test your hypothesis. Implement your chosen data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations. Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques to interpret your findings accurately.

Presenting the Results

Present your research findings in a clear and organized manner. Utilize tables, graphs, charts, and visual aids to enhance the readability and comprehension of your data. Provide detailed explanations and interpretations of your results, highlighting their significance and relevance to your research objectives.

Discussing the Findings

In the discussion section, analyze and interpret your results within the broader context of your research area. Compare your findings with previous studies, identify patterns or trends, and explain any unexpected or contradictory outcomes. Address the limitations of your study and propose recommendations for further research.

Creating a Compelling Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes your research paper and reaffirms its significance. Restate your main findings, review your research objectives, and discuss the implications of your study. Emphasize the contributions your research makes to the field and suggest avenues for future exploration.

Editing and Proofreading

Editing and proofreading are crucial to ensure the clarity, coherence, and accuracy of your research paper. Review your content for grammar, spelling, punctuation errors, and refine your writing style. Pay attention to the overall structure and flow of your paper, making necessary revisions to enhance its readability.

Formatting and Citations

Follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your educational institution or target journal. Use the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) consistently throughout your paper to acknowledge the sources you have referenced. Double-check your citations and reference list to ensure accuracy and adherence to the required format.

Reviewing and Revising

Once you have completed your initial draft, take the time to review and revise your research paper. Evaluate the clarity of your arguments, the cohesiveness of your ideas, and the overall effectiveness of your writing. Seek feedback from peers or mentors to gain different perspectives and make necessary improvements.

Finalizing and Submitting

After incorporating revisions, finalize your research paper by proofreading it one last time. Ensure that all components are in place, including the title page, abstract (if required), main content, and references. Follow the submission guidelines provided by your instructor or target publication and submit your paper for evaluation or publication.

1. How long should a research paper be?

The length of a research paper can vary depending on the requirements set by your educational institution or target journal. However, most research papers range from 1500 to 5000 words.

2. Can I use personal pronouns in a research paper?

While the use of personal pronouns is generally discouraged in formal academic writing, some disciplines and publication styles may allow their use in certain contexts. It's essential to consult the specific guidelines of your institution or journal.

3. How many sources should I include in my literature review?

The number of sources in a literature review can vary depending on the scope and depth of your research. Aim to include a sufficient number of high-quality sources that represent the current state of knowledge in your research area.

4. What is the importance of citations in a research paper?

Citations are crucial in a research paper as they acknowledge the contributions of previous authors, provide evidence for your arguments, and allow readers to locate and verify your sources. Proper citation also helps avoid plagiarism.

5. How can I make my research paper stand out?

To make your research paper stand out, ensure that your topic is unique and relevant. Conduct thorough and innovative research, present your findings clearly and concisely, and provide a fresh perspective or novel insights in your discussion section.

Creating a stellar research paper requires careful planning, meticulous execution, and effective communication of your findings. By following this step-by-step guide, you can navigate the research paper writing process with confidence and produce a high-quality paper that contributes to your field of study.

Please do not spam in the comment box and Do not paste any kind of link here and Don’t use any kind of bad words here. Remember your comments will be reviewed by the administration.

Our website uses cookies to improve your experience. Learn more

Contact Form

Research Design

First Online: 13 April 2022

Cite this chapter

Yanmei Li 3 &
Sumei Zhang 4

1094 Accesses

This chapter introduces methods to design the research. Research design is the blueprint of how to conduct research from conception to completion. It requires careful crafts to ensure success. The initial step of research design is to theorize key concepts of the research questions, operationalize the variables used to measure the key concepts, and carefully identify the levels of measurements for all the key variables. After theorization of the key concepts, a thorough literature search and synthetization is imperative to explore extant studies related to the research questions. The purpose of literature review is to retrieve ideas, replicate studies, or fill the gap for issues and theories that extant research has (or has not) investigated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

Get 10 units per month
Download Article/Chapter or eBook
1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
Cancel anytime
Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Available as EPUB and PDF
Compact, lightweight edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info
Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Borrego, M., Douglas, E. P., & Amelink, C. T. (2009). Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methods in engineering education. Journal of Engineering Education, 98 (1), 53–66.

Article Google Scholar

Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., & Garrett, A. L. (2008). Methodological issues in conducting mixed methods research design. In M. M. Bergman (Ed.), Advances in mixed methods research: Theories and application (pp. 66–83). Sage.

Google Scholar

Li, Y., & Walter, R. (2013). Single-family housing market segmentation, post-foreclosure resale duration, and neighborhood attributes. Housing Policy Debate, 23 (4), 643–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2013.835331

Opoku, A., Ahmed, V., & Akotia, J. (2016). Choosing an appropriate research methodology and method. In V. Ahmed, A. Opoku, & Z. Aziz (Eds.), Research methodology in the built environment: A selection of case studies . Routledge.

Pickering, C., Johnson, M., & Byrne, J. (2021). Using systematic quantitative literature reviews for urban analysis. In S. Baum (Ed.). Methods in Urban Analysis (Cities Research Series) (pp. 29–49) . Singapore: Springer.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA

University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA

Sumei Zhang

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Electronic Supplementary Material

(docx 13 kb), rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Li, Y., Zhang, S. (2022). Research Design. In: Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93574-0_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93574-0_3

Published : 13 April 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-93573-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-93574-0

eBook Packages : Mathematics and Statistics Mathematics and Statistics (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

blog @ precision

Chapter 1: creating the blueprint for your dissertation.

The first chapter of your dissertation can be challenging to complete, and as many of our dissertation assistance clients have shared, it can even be difficult to start! This is because the introduction to the dissertation provides a blueprint for the rest of the study, laying out key aspects of your proposed research that will be covered in more depth in subsequent chapters.

This means that in addition to mastering the fine art of APA editing and formatting, you need to have a fairly solid understanding of the applications of quantitative or qualitative research methods, an in-depth appraisal of the current literature on your topic, and a firm grasp of the concept of alignment to write your first chapter. Understandably, this might seem a bit intimidating for first-time researchers! We hope that the following section-by-section overview helps to ease you into this first major chapter in your dissertation.

Background: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

All studies, dissertations included, contribute to the larger body of research on a particular topic, and your aim with this section is to help the reader understand the specific literature context for your dissertation. As you may already know, you will complete an in-depth discussion of the research literature related to your topic in your literature review chapter; however, a brief background section in your first chapter helps to orient the reader to the current research related to your dissertation topic.

When writing the background section, include at least one paragraph on each key element of your topic (Sampson, 2012). For example, if you plan to conduct statistical analysis to determine the relationship between exposure to trauma, substance misuse, and homelessness in men with schizophrenia, your background will need to cover the four key elements of: (a) trauma exposure, (b) substance misuse, (c) homelessness, and (d) men who experience schizophrenia.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Background Section?

Brief summary of relevant research on key elements of your topic
Description of gap in research that your study will help to address
Explanation of the reason the study is needed

Problem Statement: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

Although the problem statement i s fairly short, usually running 250 to 350 words, many of our dissertation consulting clients have expressed that they found it to be the most challenging section of Chapter 1 to write. This short section is the centerpiece of the topic development process, as it helps to illustrate the need for your study by explaining the problem that you will address with your dissertation, including whom the problem affects and how. Because your dissertation must contribute to an existing gap in the research, it is important that you draw only from very recent sources (i.e., those published within the last 3 to 5 years) when developing the problem statement.

A common mistake we encourage our dissertation assistance clients to avoid is equating a lack of research with the research gap; these are not the same thing. Instead, the research gap actually consists of at least three other recent studies that express a need for additional quantitative or qualitative research in a particular area. Another common error is to use this section to describe what you intend to investigate through your study or to explain what type of statistical analysis or qualitative analysis you have planned; but, save that information for later in the chapter and just focus on the problem for now.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Problem Statement Section?

Description of problem of interest, including whom it affects and how
Prevalence statistic (i.e., how widespread is the problem?)
Citations of 12-15 recent (i.e., published within last 3-5 years) sources that document the existence of the problem
Citations of at least three current studies that note a need for additional research on the topic

Purpose: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

In this very short section of the chapter, your goal is to help the reader understand the aims of your dissertation. The first sentence—or purpose statement—should contain all key information on how you intend to address the problem you articulated in the previous section (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). As the purpose statement is presented verbatim throughout the dissertation, it helps to be thorough and yet concise, stating the method, design, variables or phenomena of interest, population, and often, location of the study. Our dissertation assistance clients often find that they need to go through a few rounds of committee review and editing in order to get the phrasing of the purpose statement just right.

An important note is that the verbs you choose for the purpose statement must align with the research method and design . For example, you might say that the purpose of a qualitative research study is to explore the lived experiences of your participants with regard to some specific phenomenon. On the other hand, you would not use the verb “explore” if you’re planning a study that involves statistical analysis of relationships between variables. For quantitative studies, use verbs such as “examine” or “investigate.” As an example, you might say that the purpose of a quantitative correlational study is to examine the relationship between two or more variables of interest.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Purpose Section?

Specify the method and design
Use a verb that aligns with method and design
Specify variables when using quantitative method, or phenomenon of interest for qualitative research

Research Questions: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

In this section, your aim is to help readers understand the specific questions that you will answer through your dissertation. These are your research questions, which must convey “all methodological aspects of the research” (Sampson, 2012, p. 28). Because of this, they need to align with your purpose statement, using the same terminology for population and variables/phenomena of interest.

Research questions must also be carefully worded so that they reflect the research approach and intended analysis. For example, statistical analysis terminology such as “relationship” and “difference” should not be used in qualitative research questions, as qualitative analysis cannot determine relationships or differences between variables. As with your dissertation’s purpose statement, perfecting the research questions may require a few rounds of committee review and editing because every word matters.

If you are planning to conduct qualitative research, it may help to understand that the research questions are not the same as the interview questions that you will later ask your participants. This is a common misunderstanding among our dissertation consulting clients who are conducting qualitative research for the first time. For example, imagine that you are planning a qualitative analysis of African American executives’ experiences of ascent to leadership positions. Although you might be interested in asking your participants questions about their early experiences, education, mentorship, training, and networking, you wouldn’t write research questions for each of these topics. Instead, you would create one or two very broad research questions that refer to the phenomenon of interest (i.e., experiences of ascent to leadership positions for African American executives), which create an “umbrella” for the more specific interview questions that will guide data collection for your dissertation.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Research Questions Section?

Align the research questions with the purpose statement
Align the research questions with research method and design
Present the research questions with hypotheses if using a quantitative method

Theoretical Framework: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

In this section, your aim is to help the reader understand the explanatory structure that will hold your dissertation together logically. With a theoretical framework, you base this structure on established theories that help to explain how specific variables or dimensions relate to each other; with a conceptual framework, you base the structure on your own literature-based analysis of how key variables or phenomena relate to one another. To provide an appropriate explanatory structure, the theoretical or conceptual framework needs to align with your problem, purpose, and research questions (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Whether you are conducting qualitative analysis or statistical analysis, you will also need to interpret your dissertation’s findings through the lens of your framework in your discussion chapter .

What Are the Essential Elements of the Theoretical Framework Section?

Cite the originators of the theory
Explain the key tenets of the theory
Explain how the framework makes sense for your study, given its topic

Nature of the Study: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

When developing this section, your aim is to help the reader to understand the proposed methodological plan for your dissertation. In addition to specifying the research method and research design, you must also present your rationale for choosing this approach (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). For example, if you have selected a qualitative research method , you will need to explain not only why this method aligns with your purpose but also why statistical analysis (i.e., a quantitative method) would not be suitable for answering your research questions. Although you will cover this in greater depth in your methods chapter, this section should also briefly discuss your sample and data collection, along with the specific type of statistical analysis or qualitative analysis you will use to analyze your data.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Nature of the Study Section?

Provide rationale for choice of method
Provide rationale for choice of research design
Briefly describe sample, data collection, data analysis

Assumptions: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

Your objective in this section is to help readers understand the assumptions that it was necessary for you to make to conduct your study; these are aspects of your dissertation that you believe—but cannot prove—to be true. One common assumption is that participants will respond to questions honestly and accurately. Note that for quantitative studies, there will also be assumptions that are related to the statistical analysis regarding properties of the data, such as independence of observations, normality of the distribution, and homogeneity of variances. Our statisticians often help with developing appropriate assumptions for our dissertation assistance clients who are completing quantitative studies.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Assumptions Section?

Only include those assumptions that are essential to the particular study
Explain why it is necessary to make those assumptions

Scope and Delimitations: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

In writing this section, your aim is to help the reader to understand the specific aspects of the problem you will investigate through your dissertation (i.e., its scope) and also aspects of the problem that you will not examine (i.e., its delimitations). For example, imagine that you are conducting qualitative research to explore perspectives on cognitive-behavior therapy among persons who experience depression. You would explain this focus and why you selected it, additionally specifying populations (e.g., persons with co-occurring mental health diagnoses) and treatments (e.g., mindfulness-based therapies) that you have chosen not to focus on in your dissertation.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Scope and Delimitations Section?

Specific focus of study and why you chose this
Aspects of topic, populations, or frameworks that you will not investigate

Limitations: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

Your aim in this section is to help readers understand the potential shortcomings of your study. Limitations may arise from your dissertation’s methodology or procedures, and they typically relate to either internal validity or external validity (Price & Murnan, 2004). For example, internal validity may be threatened if you are using an instrument with incomplete or inadequate psychometric properties, and procedures such as convenience sampling may limit the external validity (i.e., generalizability) of your results. The small, purposive samples typically used in qualitative research also limit generalizability, and even though this is normal and expected, it is still important to acknowledge this limitation formally.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Limitations Section?

Aspects of the study that could limit generalizability
Potential sources of bias
Steps you will take to minimize these limitations

Significance: What Is the Overall Aim of This Section?

When preparing the significance section, your aim is to help readers understand how your dissertation’s findings might benefit specific individuals or the general public by reducing or eliminating the issue you described in your problem statement. By demonstrating the social significance of your proposed study in this section, you justify the investment in time and resources that you, your committee, and your university will make over the course of the study (Sampson, 2012).

As an example, imagine that your plan is to use your dissertation to help address the general problem of teacher attrition in rural school districts, and your specific problem is lack of effective mentorship in such settings. An outcome that you would hope for, given this general and specific problem, is that your dissertation’s findings would help to increase the quality of mentorship for new teachers in rural areas, thereby increasing retention. Note that it is important to keep your significance statements reasonable, considering the scope and boundaries of your dissertation. Although you might hope that increasing teacher retention would help to increase high school students’ graduation rates and college readiness, these student-specific implications would be outside of the bounds of your specific study.

What Are the Essential Elements of the Significance Section?

Explain potential contributions to knowledge and practice
Align implications for positive social change with the field of study
Keep implications reasonable, given the scope of the study

Final Thoughts

The potential contributions you can make to the world around you through your research are undoubtedly considerable, and our dissertation consultants would be thrilled to support you to bring your study to its full potential. We definitely recommend that you take the time to develop a top-notch Chapter 1, as this sets the tone for the remainder of your dissertation research. Best of luck with your research, and if we can help in any way, please let us know !

Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from beginning to end . Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226613.n1

Grant, C., & Osanloo, A. (2014). Understanding, selecting, and integrating a theoretical framework in dissertation research: Creating the blueprint for your “house”. Administrative Issues Journal , 4 (2), 12-26. https://doi.org/10.5929/2014.4.2.9

Price, J. H., & Murnan, J. (2004). Research limitations and the necessity of reporting them. American Journal of Health Education , 35 (2), 66-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2004.10603611

Sampson, J. P. (2012). Guide to quantitative and qualitative dissertation research . Florida State University Libraries. https://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/islandora/object/fsu:405471/datastream/PDF/view

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper

Banner image displaying students at OISE

What is a research proposal paper, why write a research proposal paper.

How to Plan a Research Proposal Paper

Components of a Research Proposal Paper

Research proposal examples, help & additional resources, this resource page will help you:.

Learn what a research proposal paper is. 
Understand the importance of writing a research proposal paper.
Understand the steps in the planning stages of a research proposal paper. 
Identify the components of a research proposal paper.

A research proposal paper:  

includes sufficient information about a research study that you propose to conduct for your thesis (e.g., in an MT, MA, or Ph.D. program) or that you imagine conducting (e.g., in an MEd program). It should help your readers understand the scope, validity, and significance of your proposed study.
may be a stand-alone paper or one part of a larger research project, depending on the nature of your assignment.
typically follows the citation format of your field, which at OISE is APA .

Your instructor will provide you with assignment details that can help you determine how much information to include in your research proposal, so you should carefully check your course outline and assignment instructions. 

Writing a research proposal allows you to

develop skills in designing a comprehensive research study;

learn how to identify a research problem that can contribute to advancing knowledge in your field of interest;

further develop skills in finding foundational and relevant literature related to your topic;

critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem;

see yourself as an active participant in conducting research in your field of study.

Writing a research proposal paper can help clarify questions you may have before designing your research study. It is helpful to get feedback on your research proposal and edit your work to be able to see what you may need to change in your proposal. The more diverse opinions you receive on your proposal, the better prepared you will be to design a comprehensive research study.

How to Plan your Research Proposal

Before starting your research proposal, you should clarify your ideas and make a plan. Ask yourself these questions and take notes:

What do I want to study?

Why is the topic important? Why is it important to me?

How is the topic significant within the subject areas covered in my class?

What problems will it help solve?

How does it build on research already conducted on the topic?

What exactly should I plan to do to conduct a study on the topic?

It may be helpful to write down your answers to these questions and use them to tell a story about your chosen topic to your classmates or instructor. As you tell your story, write down comments or questions from your listeners. This will help you refine your proposal and research questions.

This is an example of how to start planning and thinking about your research proposal assignment. You will find a student’s notes and ideas about their research proposal topic - "Perspectives on Textual Production, Student Collaboration, and Social Networking Sites”. This example is hyperlinked in the following Resource Page: 

A research proposal paper typically includes:

an introduction
a theoretical framework
a literature review
the methodology
the implications of the proposed study and conclusion
references

Start your introduction by giving the reader an overview of your study. Include:

the research context (in what educational settings do you plan to conduct this study?)
the research problem, purpose (What do you want to achieve by conducting this study?)
a brief overview of the literature on your topic and the gap your study hopes to fill
research questions and sub-questions
a brief mention of your research method (How do you plan to collect and analyze your data?)
your personal interest in the topic.

Conclude your introduction by giving your reader a roadmap of your proposal.

To learn more about paper introductions, check How to write Introductions .

A theoretical framework refers to the theories that you will use to interpret both your own data and the literature that has come before. Think about theories as lenses that help you look at your data from different perspectives, beyond just your own personal perspective. Think about the theories that you have come across in your courses or readings that could apply to your research topic. When writing the theoretical framework, include

A description of where the theories come from (original thinkers), their key components, and how they have developed over time.
How you plan to use the theories in your study / how they apply to your topic.

The literature review section should help you identify topics or issues that will help contextualize what the research has/hasn’t found and discussed on the topic so far and convince your reader that your proposed study is important. This is where you can go into more detail on the gap that your study hopes to fill. Ultimately, a good literature review helps your reader learn more about the topic that you have chosen to study and what still needs to be researched

To learn more about literature reviews check What is a Literature Review .

The methods section should briefly explain how you plan to conduct your study and why you have chosen a particular method. You may also include

your overall study design (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) and the proposed stages
your proposed research instruments (e.g. surveys, interviews)
your proposed participant recruitment channels / document selection criteria
a description of your proposed study participants (age, gender, etc.).
how you plan to analyze the data.

You should cite relevant literature on research methods to support your choices.

The conclusion section should include a short summary about the implications and significance of your proposed study by explaining how the possible findings may change the ways educators and/or stakeholders address the issues identified in your introduction.

Depending on the assignment instructions, the conclusion can also highlight next steps and a timeline for the research process.

To learn more about paper conclusions, check How to write Conclusions .

List all references you used and format them according to APA style. Make sure that everything in your reference list is cited in the paper, and every citation in your paper is in your reference list.

To learn more about writing citations and references, check Citations & APA .

These are detailed guidelines on how to prepare a quantitative research proposal. Adapted from the course APD2293 “Interpretation of Educational Research”. These guidelines are hyperlinked in the following Resource Page:  

Related Resource Pages on ASH

What is a Literature Review?
How to Prepare a Literature Review
How to Understand & Plan Assignments
Citations and APA Style
How to Integrate Others' Research into your Writing
How to Write Introductions
How to Write Conclusions

Additional Resources

Writing a research proposal– University of Southern California 
Owl Purdue-Graduate-Specific Genres-Purdue University
10 Tips for Writing a research proposal – McGill University

On Campus Services

Book a writing consultation (OSSC)
Book a Research Consultation (OISE Library)

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

12.1 Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

Apply strategies for drafting an effective introduction and conclusion.
Identify when and how to summarize, paraphrase, and directly quote information from research sources.
Apply guidelines for citing sources within the body of the paper and the bibliography.
Use primary and secondary research to support ideas.
Identify the purposes for which writers use each type of research.

At last, you are ready to begin writing the rough draft of your research paper. Putting your thinking and research into words is exciting. It can also be challenging. In this section, you will learn strategies for handling the more challenging aspects of writing a research paper, such as integrating material from your sources, citing information correctly, and avoiding any misuse of your sources.

The Structure of a Research Paper

Research papers generally follow the same basic structure: an introduction that presents the writer’s thesis, a body section that develops the thesis with supporting points and evidence, and a conclusion that revisits the thesis and provides additional insights or suggestions for further research.

Your writing voice will come across most strongly in your introduction and conclusion, as you work to attract your readers’ interest and establish your thesis. These sections usually do not cite sources at length. They focus on the big picture, not specific details. In contrast, the body of your paper will cite sources extensively. As you present your ideas, you will support your points with details from your research.

Writing Your Introduction

There are several approaches to writing an introduction, each of which fulfills the same goals. The introduction should get readers’ attention, provide background information, and present the writer’s thesis. Many writers like to begin with one of the following catchy openers:

A surprising fact
A thought-provoking question
An attention-getting quote
A brief anecdote that illustrates a larger concept
A connection between your topic and your readers’ experiences

The next few sentences place the opening in context by presenting background information. From there, the writer builds toward a thesis, which is traditionally placed at the end of the introduction. Think of your thesis as a signpost that lets readers know in what direction the paper is headed.

Jorge decided to begin his research paper by connecting his topic to readers’ daily experiences. Read the first draft of his introduction. The thesis is underlined. Note how Jorge progresses from the opening sentences to background information to his thesis.

Beyond the Hype: Evaluating Low-Carb Diets

I. Introduction

Over the past decade, increasing numbers of Americans have jumped on the low-carb bandwagon. Some studies estimate that approximately 40 million Americans, or about 20 percent of the population, are attempting to restrict their intake of food high in carbohydrates (Sanders and Katz, 2004; Hirsch, 2004). Proponents of low-carb diets say they are not only the most effective way to lose weight, but they also yield health benefits such as lower blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Meanwhile, some doctors claim that low-carb diets are overrated and caution that their long-term effects are unknown. Although following a low-carbohydrate diet can benefit some people, these diets are not necessarily the best option for everyone who wants to lose weight or improve their health.

Write the introductory paragraph of your research paper. Try using one of the techniques listed in this section to write an engaging introduction. Be sure to include background information about the topic that leads to your thesis.

Writers often work out of sequence when writing a research paper. If you find yourself struggling to write an engaging introduction, you may wish to write the body of your paper first. Writing the body sections first will help you clarify your main points. Writing the introduction should then be easier. You may have a better sense of how to introduce the paper after you have drafted some or all of the body.

Writing Your Conclusion

In your introduction, you tell readers where they are headed. In your conclusion, you recap where they have been. For this reason, some writers prefer to write their conclusions soon after they have written their introduction. However, this method may not work for all writers. Other writers prefer to write their conclusion at the end of the paper, after writing the body paragraphs. No process is absolutely right or absolutely wrong; find the one that best suits you.

No matter when you compose the conclusion, it should sum up your main ideas and revisit your thesis. The conclusion should not simply echo the introduction or rely on bland summary statements, such as “In this paper, I have demonstrated that.…” In fact, avoid repeating your thesis verbatim from the introduction. Restate it in different words that reflect the new perspective gained through your research. That helps keep your ideas fresh for your readers. An effective writer might conclude a paper by asking a new question the research inspired, revisiting an anecdote presented earlier, or reminding readers of how the topic relates to their lives.

Writing at Work

If your job involves writing or reading scientific papers, it helps to understand how professional researchers use the structure described in this section. A scientific paper begins with an abstract that briefly summarizes the entire paper. The introduction explains the purpose of the research, briefly summarizes previous research, and presents the researchers’ hypothesis. The body provides details about the study, such as who participated in it, what the researchers measured, and what results they recorded. The conclusion presents the researchers’ interpretation of the data, or what they learned.

Using Source Material in Your Paper

One of the challenges of writing a research paper is successfully integrating your ideas with material from your sources. Your paper must explain what you think, or it will read like a disconnected string of facts and quotations. However, you also need to support your ideas with research, or they will seem insubstantial. How do you strike the right balance?

You have already taken a step in the right direction by writing your introduction. The introduction and conclusion function like the frame around a picture. They define and limit your topic and place your research in context.

In the body paragraphs of your paper, you will need to integrate ideas carefully at the paragraph level and at the sentence level. You will use topic sentences in your paragraphs to make sure readers understand the significance of any facts, details, or quotations you cite. You will also include sentences that transition between ideas from your research, either within a paragraph or between paragraphs. At the sentence level, you will need to think carefully about how you introduce paraphrased and quoted material.

Earlier you learned about summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting when taking notes. In the next few sections, you will learn how to use these techniques in the body of your paper to weave in source material to support your ideas.

Summarizing Sources

When you summarize material from a source, you zero in on the main points and restate them concisely in your own words. This technique is appropriate when only the major ideas are relevant to your paper or when you need to simplify complex information into a few key points for your readers.

Be sure to review the source material as you summarize it. Identify the main idea and restate it as concisely as you can—preferably in one sentence. Depending on your purpose, you may also add another sentence or two condensing any important details or examples. Check your summary to make sure it is accurate and complete.

In his draft, Jorge summarized research materials that presented scientists’ findings about low-carbohydrate diets. Read the following passage from a trade magazine article and Jorge’s summary of the article.

Assessing the Efficacy of Low-Carbohydrate Diets

Adrienne Howell, Ph.D.

Over the past few years, a number of clinical studies have explored whether high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are more effective for weight loss than other frequently recommended diet plans, such as diets that drastically curtail fat intake (Pritikin) or that emphasize consuming lean meats, grains, vegetables, and a moderate amount of unsaturated fats (the Mediterranean diet). A 2009 study found that obese teenagers who followed a low-carbohydrate diet lost an average of 15.6 kilograms over a six-month period, whereas teenagers following a low-fat diet or a Mediterranean diet lost an average of 11.1 kilograms and 9.3 kilograms respectively. Two 2010 studies that measured weight loss for obese adults following these same three diet plans found similar results. Over three months, subjects on the low-carbohydrate diet plan lost anywhere from four to six kilograms more than subjects who followed other diet plans.

In three recent studies, researchers compared outcomes for obese subjects who followed either a low-carbohydrate diet, a low-fat diet, or a Mediterranean diet and found that subjects following a low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight in the same time (Howell, 2010).

A summary restates ideas in your own words—but for specialized or clinical terms, you may need to use terms that appear in the original source. For instance, Jorge used the term obese in his summary because related words such as heavy or overweight have a different clinical meaning.

On a separate sheet of paper, practice summarizing by writing a one-sentence summary of the same passage that Jorge already summarized.

Paraphrasing Sources

When you paraphrase material from a source, restate the information from an entire sentence or passage in your own words, using your own original sentence structure. A paraphrased source differs from a summarized source in that you focus on restating the ideas, not condensing them.

Again, it is important to check your paraphrase against the source material to make sure it is both accurate and original. Inexperienced writers sometimes use the thesaurus method of paraphrasing—that is, they simply rewrite the source material, replacing most of the words with synonyms. This constitutes a misuse of sources. A true paraphrase restates ideas using the writer’s own language and style.

In his draft, Jorge frequently paraphrased details from sources. At times, he needed to rewrite a sentence more than once to ensure he was paraphrasing ideas correctly. Read the passage from a website. Then read Jorge’s initial attempt at paraphrasing it, followed by the final version of his paraphrase.

Dieters nearly always get great results soon after they begin following a low-carbohydrate diet, but these results tend to taper off after the first few months, particularly because many dieters find it difficult to follow a low-carbohydrate diet plan consistently.

People usually see encouraging outcomes shortly after they go on a low-carbohydrate diet, but their progress slows down after a short while, especially because most discover that it is a challenge to adhere to the diet strictly (Heinz, 2009).

After reviewing the paraphrased sentence, Jorge realized he was following the original source too closely. He did not want to quote the full passage verbatim, so he again attempted to restate the idea in his own style.

Because it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009).

On a separate sheet of paper, follow these steps to practice paraphrasing.

Choose an important idea or detail from your notes.
Without looking at the original source, restate the idea in your own words.
Check your paraphrase against the original text in the source. Make sure both your language and your sentence structure are original.
Revise your paraphrase if necessary.

Quoting Sources Directly

Most of the time, you will summarize or paraphrase source material instead of quoting directly. Doing so shows that you understand your research well enough to write about it confidently in your own words. However, direct quotes can be powerful when used sparingly and with purpose.

Quoting directly can sometimes help you make a point in a colorful way. If an author’s words are especially vivid, memorable, or well phrased, quoting them may help hold your reader’s interest. Direct quotations from an interviewee or an eyewitness may help you personalize an issue for readers. And when you analyze primary sources, such as a historical speech or a work of literature, quoting extensively is often necessary to illustrate your points. These are valid reasons to use quotations.

Less experienced writers, however, sometimes overuse direct quotations in a research paper because it seems easier than paraphrasing. At best, this reduces the effectiveness of the quotations. At worst, it results in a paper that seems haphazardly pasted together from outside sources. Use quotations sparingly for greater impact.

When you do choose to quote directly from a source, follow these guidelines:

Make sure you have transcribed the original statement accurately.
Represent the author’s ideas honestly. Quote enough of the original text to reflect the author’s point accurately.
Never use a stand-alone quotation. Always integrate the quoted material into your own sentence.
Use ellipses (…) if you need to omit a word or phrase. Use brackets [ ] if you need to replace a word or phrase.
Make sure any omissions or changed words do not alter the meaning of the original text. Omit or replace words only when absolutely necessary to shorten the text or to make it grammatically correct within your sentence.
Remember to include correctly formatted citations that follow the assigned style guide.

Jorge interviewed a dietician as part of his research, and he decided to quote her words in his paper. Read an excerpt from the interview and Jorge’s use of it, which follows.

Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype about low-carbohydrate miracle diets like Atkins and so on. Sure, for some people, they are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.

Registered dietician Dana Kwon (2010) admits, “Personally, I don’t really buy into all of the hype.…Sure, for some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.”

Notice how Jorge smoothly integrated the quoted material by starting the sentence with an introductory phrase. His use of ellipses and brackets did not change the source’s meaning.

Documenting Source Material

Throughout the writing process, be scrupulous about documenting information taken from sources. The purpose of doing so is twofold:

To give credit to other writers or researchers for their ideas
To allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired

You will cite sources within the body of your paper and at the end of the paper in your bibliography. For this assignment, you will use the citation format used by the American Psychological Association (also known as APA style). For information on the format used by the Modern Language Association (MLA style), see Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” .

Citing Sources in the Body of Your Paper

In-text citations document your sources within the body of your paper. These include two vital pieces of information: the author’s name and the year the source material was published. When quoting a print source, also include in the citation the page number where the quoted material originally appears. The page number will follow the year in the in-text citation. Page numbers are necessary only when content has been directly quoted, not when it has been summarized or paraphrased.

Within a paragraph, this information may appear as part of your introduction to the material or as a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence. Read the examples that follow. For more information about in-text citations for other source types, see Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” .

Leibowitz (2008) found that low-carbohydrate diets often helped subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels.

The introduction to the source material includes the author’s name followed by the year of publication in parentheses.

Low-carbohydrate diets often help subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels (Leibowitz, 2008).

The parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence includes the author’s name, a comma, and the year the source was published. The period at the end of the sentence comes after the parentheses.

Creating a List of References

Each of the sources you cite in the body text will appear in a references list at the end of your paper. While in-text citations provide the most basic information about the source, your references section will include additional publication details. In general, you will include the following information:

The author’s last name followed by his or her first (and sometimes middle) initial
The year the source was published
The source title
For articles in periodicals, the full name of the periodical, along with the volume and issue number and the pages where the article appeared

Additional information may be included for different types of sources, such as online sources. For a detailed guide to APA or MLA citations, see Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” . A sample reference list is provided with the final draft of Jorge’s paper later in this chapter.

Using Primary and Secondary Research

As you write your draft, be mindful of how you are using primary and secondary source material to support your points. Recall that primary sources present firsthand information. Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources. They present a writer’s analysis or interpretation of primary source materials. How you balance primary and secondary source material in your paper will depend on the topic and assignment.

Using Primary Sources Effectively

Some types of research papers must use primary sources extensively to achieve their purpose. Any paper that analyzes a primary text or presents the writer’s own experimental research falls in this category. Here are a few examples:

A paper for a literature course analyzing several poems by Emily Dickinson
A paper for a political science course comparing televised speeches delivered by two presidential candidates
A paper for a communications course discussing gender biases in television commercials
A paper for a business administration course that discusses the results of a survey the writer conducted with local businesses to gather information about their work-from-home and flextime policies
A paper for an elementary education course that discusses the results of an experiment the writer conducted to compare the effectiveness of two different methods of mathematics instruction

For these types of papers, primary research is the main focus. If you are writing about a work (including nonprint works, such as a movie or a painting), it is crucial to gather information and ideas from the original work, rather than relying solely on others’ interpretations. And, of course, if you take the time to design and conduct your own field research, such as a survey, a series of interviews, or an experiment, you will want to discuss it in detail. For example, the interviews may provide interesting responses that you want to share with your reader.

Using Secondary Sources Effectively

For some assignments, it makes sense to rely more on secondary sources than primary sources. If you are not analyzing a text or conducting your own field research, you will need to use secondary sources extensively.

As much as possible, use secondary sources that are closely linked to primary research, such as a journal article presenting the results of the authors’ scientific study or a book that cites interviews and case studies. These sources are more reliable and add more value to your paper than sources that are further removed from primary research. For instance, a popular magazine article on junk-food addiction might be several steps removed from the original scientific study on which it is loosely based. As a result, the article may distort, sensationalize, or misinterpret the scientists’ findings.

Even if your paper is largely based on primary sources, you may use secondary sources to develop your ideas. For instance, an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock’s films would focus on the films themselves as a primary source, but might also cite commentary from critics. A paper that presents an original experiment would include some discussion of similar prior research in the field.

Jorge knew he did not have the time, resources, or experience needed to conduct original experimental research for his paper. Because he was relying on secondary sources to support his ideas, he made a point of citing sources that were not far removed from primary research.

Some sources could be considered primary or secondary sources, depending on the writer’s purpose for using them. For instance, if a writer’s purpose is to inform readers about how the No Child Left Behind legislation has affected elementary education, a Time magazine article on the subject would be a secondary source. However, suppose the writer’s purpose is to analyze how the news media has portrayed the effects of the No Child Left Behind legislation. In that case, articles about the legislation in news magazines like Time , Newsweek , and US News & World Report would be primary sources. They provide firsthand examples of the media coverage the writer is analyzing.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Your research paper presents your thinking about a topic, supported and developed by other people’s ideas and information. It is crucial to always distinguish between the two—as you conduct research, as you plan your paper, and as you write. Failure to do so can lead to plagiarism.

Intentional and Accidental Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting someone else’s work as your own. Sometimes a writer plagiarizes work on purpose—for instance, by purchasing an essay from a website and submitting it as original course work. In other cases, a writer may commit accidental plagiarism due to carelessness, haste, or misunderstanding. To avoid unintentional plagiarism, follow these guidelines:

Understand what types of information must be cited.
Understand what constitutes fair use of a source.
Keep source materials and notes carefully organized.
Follow guidelines for summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting sources.

When to Cite

Any idea or fact taken from an outside source must be cited, in both the body of your paper and the references list. The only exceptions are facts or general statements that are common knowledge. Common-knowledge facts or general statements are commonly supported by and found in multiple sources. For example, a writer would not need to cite the statement that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is well known and well documented. However, if a writer explained in detail the differences among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, a citation would be necessary. When in doubt, cite.

In recent years, issues related to the fair use of sources have been prevalent in popular culture. Recording artists, for example, may disagree about the extent to which one has the right to sample another’s music. For academic purposes, however, the guidelines for fair use are reasonably straightforward.

Writers may quote from or paraphrase material from previously published works without formally obtaining the copyright holder’s permission. Fair use means that the writer legitimately uses brief excerpts from source material to support and develop his or her own ideas. For instance, a columnist may excerpt a few sentences from a novel when writing a book review. However, quoting or paraphrasing another’s work at excessive length, to the extent that large sections of the writing are unoriginal, is not fair use.

As he worked on his draft, Jorge was careful to cite his sources correctly and not to rely excessively on any one source. Occasionally, however, he caught himself quoting a source at great length. In those instances, he highlighted the paragraph in question so that he could go back to it later and revise. Read the example, along with Jorge’s revision.

Heinz (2009) found that “subjects in the low-carbohydrate group (30% carbohydrates; 40% protein, 30% fat) had a mean weight loss of 10 kg (22 lbs) over a 4-month period.” These results were “noticeably better than results for subjects on a low-fat diet (45% carbohydrates, 35% protein, 20% fat)” whose average weight loss was only “7 kg (15.4 lbs) in the same period.” From this, it can be concluded that “low-carbohydrate diets obtain more rapid results.” Other researchers agree that “at least in the short term, patients following low-carbohydrate diets enjoy greater success” than those who follow alternative plans (Johnson & Crowe, 2010).

After reviewing the paragraph, Jorge realized that he had drifted into unoriginal writing. Most of the paragraph was taken verbatim from a single article. Although Jorge had enclosed the material in quotation marks, he knew it was not an appropriate way to use the research in his paper.

Low-carbohydrate diets may indeed be superior to other diet plans for short-term weight loss. In a study comparing low-carbohydrate diets and low-fat diets, Heinz (2009) found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate plan (30% of total calories) for 4 months lost, on average, about 3 kilograms more than subjects who followed a low-fat diet for the same time. Heinz concluded that these plans yield quick results, an idea supported by a similar study conducted by Johnson and Crowe (2010). What remains to be seen, however, is whether this initial success can be sustained for longer periods.

As Jorge revised the paragraph, he realized he did not need to quote these sources directly. Instead, he paraphrased their most important findings. He also made sure to include a topic sentence stating the main idea of the paragraph and a concluding sentence that transitioned to the next major topic in his essay.

Working with Sources Carefully

Disorganization and carelessness sometimes lead to plagiarism. For instance, a writer may be unable to provide a complete, accurate citation if he didn’t record bibliographical information. A writer may cut and paste a passage from a website into her paper and later forget where the material came from. A writer who procrastinates may rush through a draft, which easily leads to sloppy paraphrasing and inaccurate quotations. Any of these actions can create the appearance of plagiarism and lead to negative consequences.

Carefully organizing your time and notes is the best guard against these forms of plagiarism. Maintain a detailed working bibliography and thorough notes throughout the research process. Check original sources again to clear up any uncertainties. Allow plenty of time for writing your draft so there is no temptation to cut corners.

Citing other people’s work appropriately is just as important in the workplace as it is in school. If you need to consult outside sources to research a document you are creating, follow the general guidelines already discussed, as well as any industry-specific citation guidelines. For more extensive use of others’ work—for instance, requesting permission to link to another company’s website on your own corporate website—always follow your employer’s established procedures.

Academic Integrity

The concepts and strategies discussed in this section of Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” connect to a larger issue—academic integrity. You maintain your integrity as a member of an academic community by representing your work and others’ work honestly and by using other people’s work only in legitimately accepted ways. It is a point of honor taken seriously in every academic discipline and career field.

Academic integrity violations have serious educational and professional consequences. Even when cheating and plagiarism go undetected, they still result in a student’s failure to learn necessary research and writing skills. Students who are found guilty of academic integrity violations face consequences ranging from a failing grade to expulsion from the university. Employees may be fired for plagiarism and do irreparable damage to their professional reputation. In short, it is never worth the risk.

Key Takeaways

An effective research paper focuses on the writer’s ideas. The introduction and conclusion present and revisit the writer’s thesis. The body of the paper develops the thesis and related points with information from research.
Ideas and information taken from outside sources must be cited in the body of the paper and in the references section.
Material taken from sources should be used to develop the writer’s ideas. Summarizing and paraphrasing are usually most effective for this purpose.
A summary concisely restates the main ideas of a source in the writer’s own words.
A paraphrase restates ideas from a source using the writer’s own words and sentence structures.
Direct quotations should be used sparingly. Ellipses and brackets must be used to indicate words that were omitted or changed for conciseness or grammatical correctness.
Always represent material from outside sources accurately.
Plagiarism has serious academic and professional consequences. To avoid accidental plagiarism, keep research materials organized, understand guidelines for fair use and appropriate citation of sources, and review the paper to make sure these guidelines are followed.

U.S. Locations
UMGC Europe
Learn Online
Find Answers
855-655-8682
Current Students

Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

Online Guide to Writing

Structuring the Research Paper

Formal research structure.

These are the primary purposes for formal research:

enter the discourse, or conversation, of other writers and scholars in your field

learn how others in your field use primary and secondary resources

find and understand raw data and information

Top view of textured wooden desk prepared for work and exploration - wooden pegs, domino, cubes and puzzles with blank notepads, paper and colourful pencils lying on it.

For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research. The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Usually, research papers flow from the general to the specific and back to the general in their organization. The introduction uses a general-to-specific movement in its organization, establishing the thesis and setting the context for the conversation. The methods and results sections are more detailed and specific, providing support for the generalizations made in the introduction. The discussion section moves toward an increasingly more general discussion of the subject, leading to the conclusions and recommendations, which then generalize the conversation again.

Sections of a Formal Structure

The introduction section.

Many students will find that writing a structured  introduction  gets them started and gives them the focus needed to significantly improve their entire paper.

Introductions usually have three parts:

presentation of the problem statement, the topic, or the research inquiry

purpose and focus of your paper

summary or overview of the writer’s position or arguments

In the first part of the introduction—the presentation of the problem or the research inquiry—state the problem or express it so that the question is implied. Then, sketch the background on the problem and review the literature on it to give your readers a context that shows them how your research inquiry fits into the conversation currently ongoing in your subject area.

In the second part of the introduction, state your purpose and focus. Here, you may even present your actual thesis. Sometimes your purpose statement can take the place of the thesis by letting your reader know your intentions.

The third part of the introduction, the summary or overview of the paper, briefly leads readers through the discussion, forecasting the main ideas and giving readers a blueprint for the paper.

The following example provides a blueprint for a well-organized introduction.

Example of an Introduction

Entrepreneurial Marketing: The Critical Difference

In an article in the Harvard Business Review, John A. Welsh and Jerry F. White remind us that “a small business is not a little big business.” An entrepreneur is not a multinational conglomerate but a profit-seeking individual. To survive, he must have a different outlook and must apply different principles to his endeavors than does the president of a large or even medium-sized corporation. Not only does the scale of small and big businesses differ, but small businesses also suffer from what the Harvard Business Review article calls “resource poverty.” This is a problem and opportunity that requires an entirely different approach to marketing. Where large ad budgets are not necessary or feasible, where expensive ad production squanders limited capital, where every marketing dollar must do the work of two dollars, if not five dollars or even ten, where a person’s company, capital, and material well-being are all on the line—that is, where guerrilla marketing can save the day and secure the bottom line (Levinson, 1984, p. 9).

By reviewing the introductions to research articles in the discipline in which you are writing your research paper, you can get an idea of what is considered the norm for that discipline. Study several of these before you begin your paper so that you know what may be expected. If you are unsure of the kind of introduction your paper needs, ask your professor for more information. The introduction is normally written in present tense.

THE METHODS SECTION

The methods section of your research paper should describe in detail what methodology and special materials if any, you used to think through or perform your research. You should include any materials you used or designed for yourself, such as questionnaires or interview questions, to generate data or information for your research paper. You want to include any methodologies that are specific to your particular field of study, such as lab procedures for a lab experiment or data-gathering instruments for field research. The methods section is usually written in the past tense.

THE RESULTS SECTION

How you present the results of your research depends on what kind of research you did, your subject matter, and your readers’ expectations. 

Quantitative information —data that can be measured—can be presented systematically and economically in tables, charts, and graphs. Quantitative information includes quantities and comparisons of sets of data.

Qualitative information , which includes brief descriptions, explanations, or instructions, can also be presented in prose tables. This kind of descriptive or explanatory information, however, is often presented in essay-like prose or even lists.

There are specific conventions for creating tables, charts, and graphs and organizing the information they contain. In general, you should use them only when you are sure they will enlighten your readers rather than confuse them. In the accompanying explanation and discussion, always refer to the graphic by number and explain specifically what you are referring to; you can also provide a caption for the graphic. The rule of thumb for presenting a graphic is first to introduce it by name, show it, and then interpret it. The results section is usually written in the past tense.

THE DISCUSSION SECTION

Your discussion section should generalize what you have learned from your research. One way to generalize is to explain the consequences or meaning of your results and then make your points that support and refer back to the statements you made in your introduction. Your discussion should be organized so that it relates directly to your thesis. You want to avoid introducing new ideas here or discussing tangential issues not directly related to the exploration and discovery of your thesis. The discussion section, along with the introduction, is usually written in the present tense.

THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS SECTION

Your conclusion ties your research to your thesis, binding together all the main ideas in your thinking and writing. By presenting the logical outcome of your research and thinking, your conclusion answers your research inquiry for your reader. Your conclusions should relate directly to the ideas presented in your introduction section and should not present any new ideas.

You may be asked to present your recommendations separately in your research assignment. If so, you will want to add some elements to your conclusion section. For example, you may be asked to recommend a course of action, make a prediction, propose a solution to a problem, offer a judgment, or speculate on the implications and consequences of your ideas. The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in the present tense.

Key Takeaways

For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research.
The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

By using our website you agree to our use of cookies. Learn more about how we use cookies by reading our Privacy Policy .

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Int J Appl Basic Med Res
v.5(Suppl 1); 2015 Aug

Blueprinting in assessment: A tool to increase the validity of undergraduate written examinations in pathology

Sunita y patil.

Department of Pathology, J. N. Medical College, KLE University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India

Manasi Gosavi

Hema b bannur, ashwini ratnakar, context/background:.

Written examinations are the most commonly employed method for assessment of cognitive skills in medical education. The few disadvantages of essay questions are less number of questions, limited sampling, unfair distribution of questions over topics, vague questions etc., Blueprinting overcomes these issues, increasing the validity of examinations.

Objectives:

To describe the process of developing a blueprint for undergraduate written examinations in pathology; and to evaluate its effect as a tool to increase the content validity of assessment.

Methodology:

A workshop was conducted in the Department of Pathology to sensitize the faculty about the importance of blueprinting. A blueprint was prepared for written examinations in pathology, question papers were set accordingly and administered in preliminary examinations. Feedback was collected from the students and faculty to know their perceptions about the question papers with reference to blueprinting.

The students and faculty felt that there was appropriate distribution of questions across topics (77% and 89%, respectively), appropriate weightage given to topics of public health importance (65% and 100%), examinations were fair (86% and 89%). All the faculty felt that blueprints aligns assessment with objectives and helps as a guide and to paper construction.

Conclusions:

Students were satisfied as blueprinting helped them to attempt examination better. The faculty who validated the blueprint felt that it helps in distribution of appropriate weightage and questions across the topics and blueprinting should be an integral part of assessment.

I NTRODUCTION

“It is said that ‘assessment is the tail that wags the curriculum dog.’ While this statement amply underscores the importance of assessment in any system of education, it also cautions us about the pitfalls that can occur when assessment is improperly used.[ 1 ]”

When we speak to undergraduate medical students after the examinations, not infrequently we hear them complaining in theory examinations that – Too lengthy paper, time was not enough to write; All questions were from few topics only! No questions from many other topics; Questions were too vague, What to write? What to cut?; Long questions were bouncers! They have not taught these. And in practical examinations we hear them complaining that – I had never seen this case before; Most of the theory questions, long case, short case, and viva questions, all were from one/few systems only [ Figure 1 ]. This happens because, in the traditional assessment system in most medical colleges in India, question paper is set by one teacher/examiner and practical examinations are conducted by some other teacher, without any co-ordination and are not aligned to objectives (most of the times).[ 2 ] Often, the content of what to assess is left to the decision of the examiners. Moreover, the examiner/teacher imparts instruction according to what “she/he thinks is appropriate or important.” The intended learning outcomes are not stated clearly and therefore overlooked.[ 1 ] The assessment needs to be valid. Validity is a requirement of every assessment and implies that candidates for achieving the minimum performance level have acquired the level of competence set out in the learning objectives.[ 3 ] The validity that relates to measurements of academic achievement is content validity. Content of assessment is said to be valid when it is congruent with the objectives and learning experiences, and congruence between these pillars of education can be facilitated by using blueprinting in assessment.[ 3 ]

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJABMR-5-76-g001.jpg

Current scenario of assessment: Students’ response many times after written examinations

In the present study, we describe the process of developing the blueprint for the undergraduate written examinations in pathology and to evaluate its effect as a tool to increase the content validity of assessment.

M ETHODOLOGY

A faculty development program was conducted in the Department of Pathology to sensitize the faculty about the importance of blueprinting in assessment. Ethical Committee approval was obtained. A blueprint was prepared for Phase II/III term (preliminary) written examinations (theory) in pathology with inputs from all the faculty (since this was the preliminary examinations, the complete syllabus was included in preparing a blueprint and assessment. This was then validated with the help of subject experts/department faculty and necessary changes were made accordingly [Tables [Tables1 1 and and2 2 ].

MBBS phase II-preliminary examination: Blueprint for theory paper I (general pathology, hematology and clinical pathology)

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJABMR-5-76-g002.jpg

MBBS phase II-preliminary examination: Blueprint for theory paper II (systemic pathology)

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJABMR-5-76-g003.jpg

The steps followed to prepare a blueprint were: The scope and purpose of assessment was defined; the weightage to be given to content areas, domains of learning and methods of assessment was decided. Two parameters were considered while calculating this weightage: (i) The perceived impact/importance of a topic in terms of its impact on health, and (ii) The frequency of the occurrence of a particular disease or health problem; the total weightage and number of items to be included was decided; the table of test specifications was decided and accordingly a blueprint was prepared; question papers were set accordingly (paper I and II).[ 1 ]

Written examination of a batch of 163 students was conducted. The feedback questionnaire for collecting feedback from faculty and students about blueprinting was prepared with preset questions including few open ended questions. It was validated with the help of members of Department of Medical Education. Informed consent was taken from students to give a feedback and a total of 139 students who voluntarily agreed to give feedback were included. All 11 faculty of the department who were involved in validating the blueprint provided their feedback. The feedback questionnaire were analyzed and presented as qualitative data.

Majority of the students felt that there was proper distribution of questions across the topics (77%), appropriate weightage was given to the topics of public health importance (65%), there was synchrony between multiple choice questions (MCQs) and essay type questions (68%), and that the questions tested the in depth knowledge (87%). They also felt that there were not many too easy or too difficult questions (84%) and no question was out of syllabus (87%). Overall, most of the students were satisfied with writing fair examinations (86%) [ Figure 2 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJABMR-5-76-g004.jpg

Students feedback on question papers

Analysis of the feedback of faculty involved in validation of the blueprint revealed that, there was appropriate distribution of questions across the topics (89%), questions were aligned to objectives (100%), questions were distributed adequately as per must know, desirable to know and nice to know categories (100%), included questions that test in depth knowledge (89%), there was synchrony between MCQs and essay questions (100%) and appropriate weightage was given to topics of public health importance (100%). Faculty also felt that blueprint acts as a guide to test paper construction (100%), increases the validity of the assessment (100%), it makes the assessment “fair” (89%) and that blueprint should be an integral part assessment (100%) [ Figure 3 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJABMR-5-76-g005.jpg

Faculty feedback on blueprinting with reference to question papers

Among the open ended questions, there was suggestion from most of the students and faculty that blueprinting should be prepared for every examination of all phases including summative assessment.

D ISCUSSION

Blueprint is a map and a specification for an assessment program which ensures that all aspects of the curriculum and educational domains are covered by assessment programs over a specified period of time.[ 4 ] The term “blueprint” is derived from the domain of architecture which means “detailed plan of action.[ 1 ]” In simple terms, blueprint links assessment to learning objectives. It also indicates the marks carried by each question. It is useful to prepare a blueprint so that the faculty who sets question paper knows which question will test which objective, which content unit and how many marks it would carry.[ 5 ]

Blueprinting helps to match various competencies with the course content and the appropriate modality of assessment.[ 1 ] In our study, majority of the faculty (100%) felt that the questions were aligned to objectives. Most of the students felt that there were no questions that were out of syllabus (87%). It makes assessment ‘fair’ to the students as they can have a clear idea of what is being examined and can direct their learning efforts in that direction.[ 1 ] In this study, feedback from the students and faculty indicated that students felt the examinations were fair (86% students and 89% faculty). Blueprinting helps the teachers in designing the instructional strategies as per the guidelines expected in the curriculum.[ 1 ] Most of the faculty (100%) involved in the validation of blueprint felt that it acts as a guide in construction of test paper. Blueprinting also ensures that the selected test items give appropriate emphasis on thinking skills and assessment of in-depth knowledge.[ 1 ] In our study, most of the students (87%) and faculty (89%) felt that the questions were included, which could test in-depth knowledge. Blueprint deals with the sampling content, competencies and tools for the assessment in a rational and balanced manner.[ 1 ] The feedback revealed that most of the students and Faculty felt that, there was synchrony between MCQs and essay questions (68% and 100%, respectively).

In general, the aim of the blueprinting is to reduce the two major threats to validity, construct under-representation (CU), and construct irrelevance variance (CIV).[ 5 , 6 ] CU refers to undersampling or biased sampling of the content domain or the course contents. There may be too few items to sample domain adequately.[ 6 ] CIV is a systematic error introduced into assessment data by the unrelated variables. This means inclusion of flawed item formats, too easy or too difficult questions or examiner bias.[ 6 ] For example, tendency to test favorite, or hot or trivial topics. In our study, most of the students and faculty felt that, there was appropriate distribution of questions across the topics (77% and 89%, respectively), appropriate weightage was given to topics of public health importance (65% and 100%, respectively).

To conclude, blueprinting acts as a valid tool to align objectives with assessment, helps in distribution of appropriate weightage and questions across the topics. Blueprint should be an integral part of assessment.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

R EFERENCES

Your browser is not supported

Sorry but it looks as if your browser is out of date. To get the best experience using our site we recommend that you upgrade or switch browsers.

Find a solution

Skip to main content
Skip to navigation

Back to parent navigation item
Primary teacher
Secondary/FE teacher
Early career or student teacher
Higher education
Curriculum support
Literacy in science teaching
Periodic table
Interactive periodic table
Climate change and sustainability
Resources shop
Collections
Remote teaching support
Starters for ten
Screen experiments
Assessment for learning
Microscale chemistry
Faces of chemistry
Classic chemistry experiments
Nuffield practical collection
Anecdotes for chemistry teachers
On this day in chemistry
Global experiments
PhET interactive simulations
Chemistry vignettes
Context and problem based learning
Journal of the month
Chemistry and art
Art analysis
Pigments and colours
Ancient art: today's technology
Psychology and art theory
Art and archaeology
Artists as chemists
The physics of restoration and conservation
Ancient Egyptian art
Ancient Greek art
Ancient Roman art
Classic chemistry demonstrations
In search of solutions
In search of more solutions
Creative problem-solving in chemistry
Solar spark
Chemistry for non-specialists
Health and safety in higher education
Analytical chemistry introductions
Exhibition chemistry
Introductory maths for higher education
Commercial skills for chemists
Kitchen chemistry
Journals how to guides
Chemistry in health
Chemistry in sport
Chemistry in your cupboard
Chocolate chemistry
Adnoddau addysgu cemeg Cymraeg
The chemistry of fireworks
Festive chemistry
Education in Chemistry
Teach Chemistry
On-demand online
Live online
Selected PD articles
PD for primary teachers
PD for secondary teachers
What we offer
Chartered Science Teacher (CSciTeach)
Teacher mentoring
UK Chemistry Olympiad
Who can enter?
How does it work?
Resources and past papers
Top of the Bench
Schools' Analyst
Regional support
Education coordinators
RSC Yusuf Hamied Inspirational Science Programme
RSC Education News
Supporting teacher training
Interest groups

A primary school child raises their hand in a classroom

More navigation items

Making and using blueprint paper

Blueprints use the cyanotype process invented by the astronomer John Herschel in 1842. The paper is coated with a solution of two soluble iron(III) salts. The two iron salts do not react with each other in the dark, but when they are exposed to ultraviolet light the iron(III) ammonium citrate becomes an iron(II) salt. The iron(II) ion reacts with the potassium ferricyanide to form an insoluble blue compound, blue iron(III) ferrocyanide, also known as Prussian blue.

Student Sheet

In this practical I will be:

Carrying out an experiment to produce Blueprint paper.
Producing an image or diagram on my Blueprint paper.
Investigating the process of producing Blueprints and the role UV light plays.

Introduction:

While on a school trip, you saw that some renovation work was being carried out by some builders. On a table were the Blueprints for the building. You realise that the shades of white and blue would be perfect for a piece of art you are currently working on. However, before you can use these shades, you need to understand how they are made. You decide to investigate further…

1 beaker (250 cm 3 )
2 beakers (100 cm 3 )
1 measuring cylinder (100 cm 3 )
1 glass stirring rod
1 plastic tray
1 wash bottle containing distilled water
20 sheets (or access to) plain A4 paper avoid shiny or very absorbent papers
2 weighing boats (or gallipots)
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) – labelled “Substance A – Irritant ” (low hazard)
Ammonium iron(III) citrate – labelled “Substance B” (low hazard)
1 drying line with 2 bulldog clips (or string and pegs)
Digital balance
Drying line (string and pegs)
Paper towelling
Disposable gloves
Newspaper (to cover the work area)

Making the blueprint paper

Wear gloves and goggles.

Get two 100 cm 3 beakers, a measuring cylinder and a stirring rod. Mark one beaker A and the other B.
Weigh 5 g of Substance A into the beaker marked A.
Now weigh 9 g of Substance B into the beaker marked B.

Use the measuring cylinder to measure 50 cm 3 of water and pour the water into beaker A.

Stir carefully until all the crystals have dissolved.
Now measure out another 50 cm 3 of water and pour into beaker B.
Stir carefully with a clean glass rod until all the crystals have dissolved.
Do steps 10–12 in a dark part of the lab.
Mix the two liquids together, and pour them into a tray. Move the tray gently to get the liquid to cover the base of the tray properly.
Put a piece of white A4 paper into the liquid just long enough to get it damp - not wet! Place a piece of A4 paper onto the liquid in the tray, then lift the paper out of the tray by the two corners nearest to you. Allow the excess solution to drip into the tray before placing it wet side up onto some newspaper on a desk.

Your paper will turn greenish blue. Hang it up to dry out in a dark part of the laboratory or store it lying flat in a dark drawer. Hang your paper up using the string line and pegs in a darkened area to dry.

Why do you think you have to wear gloves and goggles?
What does dissolve mean?
Why do you think the mixing has to be carried out in a dark place?
Why do think the experiment will not work if the paper is wet?

Making the blueprints

Wear disposable plastic gloves

When dry place your prepared paper under another piece of paper to keep it away from the sun.
Place the package by the window so the light can fall on it.
Remove the protecting piece of paper and place an object on the surface.
Leave it in the light for about 1–5 minutes. Longer exposure leaves a shadow; shorter exposure times produce a sharper image.
When you think it has gone blue enough, take the object off the paper. The covered parts will still be green.
Wash the paper with water to wash away the green chemicals and leave the blue behind.
Hang your blueprint up to dry out.
Why does your prepared blueprint paper need to be kept in the dark?
Does the paper change colour quickly when it is exposed to the light?
What does the washing do to the paper?
Why do you have to wash your hands at the end?

Going further:

Try a range of different types of paper to see if the paper type makes a difference to exposure time, depth of exposure, etc.

If you can get some old black and white negatives try using those on the blueprint paper. You will have to experiment with exposure times.

Describe how the blueprint paper is similar and how different it is to photographic developing with a film. Research the chemicals used in photography.

Blueprints use the cyanotype process invented by the astronomer John Herschel in 1842. The paper is coated with a solution of two soluble iron(III) salts - potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) (potassium ferricyanide) and iron(III) ammonium citrate.

The two iron salts do not react with each other in the dark, but when they are exposed to ultraviolet light the iron(III) ammonium citrate becomes an iron(II) salt. The iron(II) ion reacts with the potassium ferricyanide to form an insoluble blue compound, blue iron(III) ferrocyanide, also known as Prussian blue.

A blueprint starts out as a black ink sketch on clear plastic or tracing paper. The ink sketch is laid on top of a sheet of blueprint paper and exposed to ultraviolet light or sunlight. Where the light strikes the paper, it turns blue. The black ink prevents the area under the drawing from turning blue. After exposure to UV light, the water-soluble chemicals are washed off the blueprint, leaving a white (or whatever colour the paper is) drawing on a blue background. The resulting blueprint is light-stable and as permanent as the substrate upon which it is printed.

Teacher and Technician Sheet

In this practical students will:

Produce Blueprint paper.
Create an image or diagram on Blueprint paper.
Investigate the process of producing Blueprints and the role UV light plays.

Introduction:

(The topic could start with a group discussion during which teachers introduce the following ideas, especially the words in bold.)

A blueprint is an old term used for a reproduction of a technical drawing of an object such as an architectural or engineering design. They were made by a contact process using light-sensitive sheets. It was important because it allowed the rapid and accurate reproduction of design documents. It was called a blueprint because of the light lines on a blue background, forming a negative of the original.

Paper was frequently used but for more durable prints linen was sometimes used. Sadly, over time the linen prints would shrink slightly, so later imitation vellum and polyester film were used instead. Nowadays drawings are produced on computer, printed, and then photocopied.

These blueprint papers have absorbed certain chemicals that are changed when visible light or ultraviolet (UV) light falls on them. Hence objects put onto the dried blueprinting paper will block visible or UV light from getting to the chemicals and those areas, untouched by the visible or UV light, stay unchanged.

Where the visible or UV light can get to the paper, an intense blue colour develops. The blue colour will not wash out of the paper, but the greenish colour left under the object will. This leaves a white image of the object on a blue background. It is possible to investigate the effects of differing exposure times , screening with certain materials.

(To make the process easier for the students and safer the two solutions can be made up in the dark and stored in dark bottles.)

(This practical can be done with pupils working as individuals or in groups of two. Groups of two allows for good discussion between the pupils. Teachers can use the questions set as the stimulus for discussion and the answers can be used as a group report, article, presentation, poster or talk.)

Curriculum range:

Suitable for middle school or lower secondary students; it links with:

ask questions and develop a line of enquiry based on observations of the real world, alongside prior knowledge and experience;
use appropriate techniques, apparatus, and materials during fieldwork and laboratory work, paying attention to health and safety;
make and record observations and measurements using a range of methods for different investigations; and evaluate the reliability of methods and suggest possible improvements;
present observations and data using appropriate methods, including tables and graphs;
interpret observations and data, including identifying patterns and using observations, measurements and data to draw conclusions;
present reasoned explanations, including explaining data in relation to predictions and hypotheses;
the concept of a pure substance;
mixtures, including dissolving.

Hazard warnings:

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) – Skin/eye irritant, (Cat 2) Respiratory irritant (STOT SE3) Ammonium iron(III) citrate – Skin/eye irritant, (Cat 2)

Good practice would require exposure to be kept to a minimum and suitable gloves be used by the students. Students with impaired respiratory function may incur further disability if excessive concentrations of particulate are inhaled so good ventilation is required.

In addition, contact with strong acids causes the release of highly toxic hydrogen cyanide. This is not likely to be an issue but care should be taken on disposal to ensure that the drain/sink does not have acid already present.

Ammonium iron(III) citrate is slightly hazardous as an irritant through skin or eye contact.

Wear safety glasses. Wear disposable gloves.

For a group of students:

1 beaker (250 cm 3 )
2 glass stirring rods
20 sheets (or access to) plain A4 paper (avoid shiny or very absorbent papers)
10 g potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) – labelled “Substance A – Irritant”
15 g ammonium iron(III) citrate – labelled “Substance B – Irritant”
1 digital balance

Technical notes:

If available use a fume cupboard to hang the string lines up in ready to peg the paper to dry and close any blinds near it.

It is possible to dry the prepared sheets more quickly by using radiators and/or hairdryers if available, but otherwise this practical would have to be carried out over two lessons to allow for drying time.

The amount of pages that can be hung out to dry is limited by the amount of space available.

Laminating sheets can be drawn on and placed onto the prepared sheets before placing in bright light to leave an imprint on the paper.

An alternative is to get pupils to use image editing software to produce a negative of their choice that can then be printed out on transparency film.

The paper may stain yellow and dry yellow, but it will still change colour when exposed to bright light and develop a blueprint when washed with water.

This practical works well in normal daylight with the internal lights switched off.

The amount of space to dry the papers directs how many sheets can be used in a practical.

Good results can be obtained using ordinary A4 paper and using laminating sheets to draw on.

Any shadows will also be processed on the paper so try to place the paper where it is in direct light and is laid flat.

The amount of chemicals used and solution produced could be halved and still cover about 10 sides of A4.

The hazards are minimal assuming the expected level of behaviour from students.

Making and using blueprint paper: student sheet

Making and using blueprint paper: teacher sheet.

11-14 years
Practical experiments
Cross-curriculum
Reactions and synthesis

A diagram and graph showing how a reversible reaction reaches equilibrium

Help learners master equilibrium and reversible reactions

2024-06-24T06:59:00Z By Emma Owens

Use this poster, fact sheet and storyboard activity to ensure your 14–16 students understand dynamic equilibrium

A hand using scissor-handle tweezers to hold a piece of paper that is on fire but not burning

Non-burning paper: investigate the fire triangle and conditions for combustion

2024-06-10T05:00:00Z By Declan Fleming

Use this reworking of the classic non-burning £5 note demonstration to explore combustion with learners aged 11–16 years

A bottle of bromine water next to two test tubes - one contains only clear liquid and the other contains clear liquid sitting on an orange liquid

Everything you need to introduce alkenes

2024-06-04T08:22:00Z By Dan Beech

Help your 14–16 learners to master the fundamentals of the reactions of alkenes with these ideas and activities

More Resources

Example pages from the teacher guidance showing answers, and student worksheets at three levels

Fractional distillation and hydrocarbons | Review my learning worksheets | 14–16 years

By Lyn Nicholls

Identify learning gaps and misconceptions with this set of worksheets offering three levels of support

Previews of the Review my learning: chromatography teacher guidance and scaffolded student sheets

Chromatography | Review my learning worksheets | 14–16 years

2024-05-10T13:33:00Z By Lyn Nicholls

Previews of the Review my learning: solubility teacher guidance and scaffolded student sheets

Solubility | Review my learning worksheets | 14–16 years

Contributors
Email alerts

Site powered by Webvision Cloud

What is a blueprint of a research paper?

A blueprint of a research paper is kind of an outline except less formal and with more information.

Here are some links that I found very helpful....

http://www.teachervision.fen.com/research-papers/writing/2123.html?detoured=1

http://www.suite101.com/content/writing-a-research-paper-a191693

!!! i hope that you found this information helpful!!!

Add your answer:

How do you keep a research paper from being biased?

You can keep a research paper from being biased by presenting the facts. You can also research both sides and present them in your paper.

Is a background paper the same as a research paper?

A "background" paper refers to a person's background and includes the past actions or past dealings. A research paper refers to facts about something that has been chosen as the topic of research.

Is a survey research paper the same as a persuasive research paper?

definitely not. while a survey research paper discusses what the overall people think, that is the research you would be doing, a persuasive research paper is researching something & then telling the reader what they ought to do based on this research you have just presented. for example, if you researched going green, in a survey research paper you might say how most people in x place do x thing. but in a persuasive research paper, you would say people in x place should do z thing instead.

Should you use contractions in a research paper?

Hey, never use contractions in a research paper. It was meant for words.

Are you supposed to use information from outline to do research paper?

Yes, you should use the information from the outline to do the research paper.

Top Categories

Frequently asked questions

What is a research project.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

Researchability
Feasibility and specificity
Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

Focused and researchable
Answerable using credible sources
Complex and arguable
Feasible and specific
Relevant and original

All research questions should be:

Focused on a single problem or issue
Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
Specific enough to answer thoroughly
Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
Use 1 inch margins or larger
Apply double line spacing
Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
Include a title page
Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
Set 1 inch page margins
Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
Center the paper’s title
Use title case capitalization for headings
Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
Apply APA heading styles
Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

A restatement of the research problem
A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
A short discussion of the implications of your research

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

A hook to catch the reader’s interest
Relevant background on the topic
Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

A thesis statement or research question
Sometimes an overview of the paper

Ask our team

Want to contact us directly? No problem. We are always here for you.

Email [email protected]
Start live chat
Call +1 (510) 822-8066
WhatsApp +31 20 261 6040

Our team helps students graduate by offering:

A world-class citation generator
Plagiarism Checker software powered by Turnitin
Innovative Citation Checker software
Professional proofreading services
Over 300 helpful articles about academic writing, citing sources, plagiarism, and more

Scribbr specializes in editing study-related documents . We proofread:

PhD dissertations
Research proposals
Personal statements
Admission essays
Motivation letters
Reflection papers
Journal articles
Capstone projects

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

Jerz's Literacy Weblog (est. 1999)

Revision: Some Attempt to Organize

Examples of thesis statements with a reasoning blueprint:

Use “Thesis Reminders” for Transitions

You Don’t Need Exactly Three Points!

Varieties of Blueprints

Use Good Structure

8 thoughts on “ Blueprinting: Using the Thesis Paragraph to Plan Your Essay ”

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Blueprints for Academic Research Projects

Starting with a blank page can be daunting

Starting with a ‘blueprint’ — tailored to your topic area — is much easier

Build research models on Stormboard

What are the building blocks of the research model?

Phenomenon / Problem

Observations & Arguments

Research Questions / Hypotheses

Theory & Concepts

Methodology / Design / Methods

Sample / Context

Contributions

Philosophical Assumptions / Research Paradigm

Compare two research models to appreciate the diversity of research

Are you interested in trying the Research Model Builder Canvas? Sign up for a free trial now!

How to Track Your Team’s Workflow Remotely

Research Design 101

Overview: Research Design 101

Research Design: Quantitative Studies

Need a helping hand?

Research Design: Qualitative Studies

How To Choose A Research Design

Recap: Key Takeaways

Psst... there’s more!

14 Comments

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Introduction

General Structure and Writing Style

Action Research Design

Case Study Design

Causal Design

Cohort Design

Cross-Sectional Design

Descriptive Design

Experimental Design

Exploratory Design

Field Research Design

Historical Design

Longitudinal Design

Meta-Analysis Design

Mixed-Method Design

Observational Design

Philosophical Design

Sequential Design

Systematic Review

Research Paper Blueprint: A Step-by-Step Guide to Creating Research Paper

Understanding the Research Paper

Choosing a Topic

Conducting In-Depth Research

Creating an Outline

Writing the Introduction

Developing the Literature Review

Formulating the Research Methodology

Collecting and Analyzing Data

Presenting the Results

Discussing the Findings

Creating a Compelling Conclusion

Editing and Proofreading

Formatting and Citations

Reviewing and Revising

Finalizing and Submitting

1. How long should a research paper be?

2. Can I use personal pronouns in a research paper?

3. How many sources should I include in my literature review?

4. What is the importance of citations in a research paper?

5. How can I make my research paper stand out?

Contact Form

Research Design

Cite this chapter

Access this chapter