law essay problem question

IRAC: How to Answer Law Problem Questions

You just got ushered into the examination hall and you take your seat. It’s time for another paper, and you’re hoping that you remember all that you read moments before the exams. After all students have sat down, invigilators share the exam questions and you promptly get yours.

As you look through the questions, you suddenly panic. The exam questions look like passages from a novel. You know what this means — problem questions. You read through the questions but things only seem to get worse, you don’t know what to do. You don’t know how to answer the questions. You don’t know where to start.

Problem questions can be quite problematic, if you don’t know  what to do. Luckily, they are also the easiest questions to answer — if you know your onions. The general technique that you can use to deal with any problem question is the simple formula: IRAC.

If you understand how to use IRAC, dealing with problem questions will seem less problematic. By the time you’re done with this post, you should be able to put any problem question in its place.

What is IRAC?

IRAC is simply an acronym for:

A pplication

C onclusion.

IRAC is a formula that is used throughout the broad sphere of legal writing. IRAC or slight variations is used by judges in delivering judgements, by lawyers in writing their briefs, by lawyers when giving legal opinions, and numerous other areas of law.

In essence, understanding IRAC will not only be useful for your exams, it would help you throughout your career as a lawyer.

How to Use IRAC

Now that we understand what IRAC is, we get to the most important part – actually using it.

Just like we did in the guide to answering law essay questions , I am going to give you a sample question that we will use IRAC for.

This is the question:

Mr Daniel Kiss is a seasoned Fuji musician, he heard of the 10th year wedding anniversary of his long-time friend, Mr Starboy, who wanted to celebrate it in a big way. Mr Daniel Kiss was actually at the ceremony and was delighted to have been called by Mr Starboy to perform at the ceremony. The performance was adjudged by  many people at the ceremony to be superb. After the performance, Mr Owolabi, who was highly impressed, promised to pay Mr Daniel Kiss a sum of 500,000 naira as a reward for his performance.  However, Mr Owolabi didn’t pay this sum and  Mr Daniel Kiss instituted an action to get the money. Advice Mr Daniel Kiss on the chances of success or otherwise of his action.

So, this is how you use IRAC to deal with a problem question:

When you want to determine the issue in a problem question, you have to look for the area of conflict. The conflict in a problem is where the interest of the characters clash and there is a disagreement. Looking at the scenario above, I have emphasized the area of conflict:

After the performance, Mr Owolabi, who was highly impressed, promised to pay Mr Daniel Kiss a sum of 500,000 naira as a reward for his performance. However, Mr Owolabi didn’t pay this sum and  Mr Daniel Kiss instituted an action to get the money. 

From the part I have emphasized here, the conflict involves a promise to pay for an action that has already occurred in the past. In essence, the conflict involves past consideration.

With this in mind, we can formulate the issue in this question as:

Whether or not Mr Daniel  Kiss’ performance was past consideration for Mr Owolabi’s promise?

There are some things you should notice in the structure of the issue. Note that it makes use of “Whether or not”, You can either use this phrase or “whether” when writing an issue. This  is due to the fact that in court cases, issues are usually couched in the form of questions. However, there are some lecturers who don’t want issues couched this way, and they will let you know.

You should also note that the issue relates the facts of the case with the area of law you’re considering. In essence, your issue would be incomplete if you just state something like “whether there was past consideration” or “whether Mr Owolabi owes Daniel Kiss some money”. The perfect issue is a unique combination of facts and law.

The rule is the section of your answer where you resort to authority. This can either be by stating statutory provisions or case law relevant to the issue.

The appeal to authority is something that is important to all law students. It is the provision of case law and statute that separates the writing of a lawyer from a sociologist, political scientist, or any other field of social science.

You should also try to define the legal concept that the question deals with. If the definition is something contained in statute, case law, or any other source of law , you should do well to quote it. If you don’t have any authority to quote, just give a definition to the best of your understanding.

This is an example of the rule for this question:

According to the Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition , past consideration can be defined as “An act done or a promise given by a promisee before making a promise sought to be enforced. Past consideration is not consideration for the new promise because it has not been given in exchange for this promise.” In the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs. Benin Divisional Council (1959) WRNLR 1 , the defendant asked the plaintiff to use his influence to convince the African Timber and Plywood company to release some forest areas to it. The plaintiff was able to successfully prevail on the African Timber and Plywood company to do this. After securing this, the Oba told the council to release part of the land to him for his exclusive use. The Provisional Council agreed to do this. However, it subsequently withdrew its assent. As a result, the Oba sued them to enforce the “contract”. The court held that the Oba’s act was not valid consideration for the Provisional Council’s promise because when the Oba carried out the act, he didn’t do it for a promise. As a result, his consideration is past and there is no valid contract that can be enforced.

Application

In the application part of IRAC, you are going to relate the authority(s) you have used with the facts of the case. This is how you should do it:

In the present scenario, Mr Daniel Kiss performed before the promise of reward by Mr Owolabi. This is similar to Oba Akenzua getting the land before the promise of reward by the Benin Provisional Council in the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs Benin Provisional Council . In this case, the court held that such act was past consideration, and it makes the contract unenforceable. In the same vein, Mr Daniel Kiss’ performance is past consideration for the promise made by Mr Owolabi. As a result, it is not a valid contract that can be enforced  by the court.

Your conclusion is the part where you give advice to the party the question asked you to give advice to. You can glimpse this from the last sentence of this question which reads:

Advice Mr Daniel Kiss on the chances of success or otherwise of his action.

So, this is how you would advice Mr Daniel Kiss in the concluding part of IRAC:

My advice to Mr Daniel Kiss is that he should not go ahead with the suit because his consideration is past consideration, making the contract unenforceable.

The full Answer

To make things clearer, this is what the full answer to the problem question would look like:

The issue here is: Whether or not Mr Daniel  Kiss’ performance was past consideration for Mr Owolabi’s promise. According to the Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition , past consideration can be defined as “An act done or a promise given by a promisee before making a promise sought to be enforced. Past consideration is not consideration for the new promise because it has not been given in exchange for this promise. In the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs. Benin Divisional Council (1959) WRNLR 1 , the defendant asked the plaintiff/Oba to use his influence to convince the African Timber and Plywood company to release some forest areas to it. The Oba was able to successfully prevail on the African Timber and Plywood company to do this. After securing this, the Oba told the council to release part of the land to him for his exclusive use. The Provisional Council agreed to do this. However, it subsequently withdrew its assent. As a result, the Oba sued them to enforce the “contract”. The court held that the Oba’s act was not valid consideration for the Provisional Council’s promise because when the Oba carried out the act, he didn’t do it for a promise. As a result, his consideration is past and there is no valid contract  that can be enforced. In the present scenario, Mr Daniel Kiss performed before the promise of reward by Mr Owolabi. This is similar to Oba Akenzua getting the land before the promise of reward by the Benin Provisional Council in the case of Akenzua II, Oba of Benin vs Benin Provisional Council . In this case, the court held that such act was past consideration, and it makes the contract unenforceable. In the same vein, Mr Daniel Kiss’ performance is past consideration for the promise made by Mr Owolabi. As a result, it is not a valid contract that can be enforced  by the court. My advice to Mr Daniel Kiss is that he should not go ahead with the suit because his consideration is past consideration, making the contract unenforceable.

So, here you have it, how to answer problem questions with IRAC. If you know your way, it’s quite straightforward. If there are areas that aren’t clear to you, you can leave a comment. Also, don’t forget to share this post with any of your friends that might be needing it. You can easily do that with  the share buttons on the screen. To your success!!

P.S: If you are interested in an online course that makes it easy for you to get A’s in your law exams, you can check it out here:  Get Access to Ace LL.B Exams .

128 thoughts on “ IRAC: How to Answer Law Problem Questions ”

Hi Olamide, thanks a lot for this. My question is whether or not there is a way to know how many issues are contained in a problem question?

Yes, you just have to be on the look out for multiple areas of conflict in the question.

So how do I treat them

What if I don’t know the rules to apply and cases to refer in particular scenarios

1.I find it quite difficult to identify the issues in a question.Any solution? 2.How can I differentiate a problem question from an essay question?

To know the issue in a question, you should just look for the area of conflict in the question, just like in the example. About differentiating problem and essay questions, the differentiating factor is that problem questions have a scenario/story and you have to give advice at the end.

Mr olamide thanks so I really appreciate But in the whereby you asked to discuss the concept of Accord and satisfaction with regards to consideration using case law? How would your answer look like?

That’s an essay question.

Thank you so much Sir. You have really inspired me. Sir in a situation where there are two or more issues raised,how will you go about answering the question in such a situation?

Answer the issues separately.

thanks Olamide for your help am sure to be a better student and you will be proud of me. thanks a lot once.

You’re very welcome.

Sir, when stating the rule while applying the irac method, for instance citing a case, do necessarily need to state the fact of the case or can I just present the holding of the case as a rule.

Thanks sir for sharing your knowledge and understanding with us. In the main time, sir i have a question pls. Can someone advice the parties that is involved in the scenario with only one identify legal issue? i.e you only raised one legal issue on the question and use it to advice two or three parties that are involved in the scenario or story.

Thanks sir for sharing your knowledge and understanding with us. In the main time, sir i have a question pls. Can someone advice the parties that are involved in the scenario with only one identified legal issue? i.e you only raised one legal issue on the question and use it to advice two or three parties that are involved in the scenario or story.

Yes. You can do that, if there is only one issue in the scenario, and if the question tells you to advise all parties.

please sir does this formula apply to a legal report. for instance you were made a secretary to a panel set-up to investigate a matter in report will you use the same format

Thanks graciously for this. My question is must definitions to terms in the Rule forumla b from the law dictionary??

2ndly, can we rephrase the issue to be Whether or not is Mr Owolabi’s promise was on past consideration to Mr Daniel’s promise

No. You don’t have to use the Law Dictionary for definitions, It’s just better. Also, on the rephrasing, Mr Owolabi’s promise is not past consideration. Rather it is the performance by Daniel that is past consideration.

Noted. Thank u

THANKS ,I understand it now.

thank you once again sir. Sir, i wanna ask you a question under criminal law sir. if A and B planned to do robbery but agreed that they would not carry any gun along. but on getting there A brought out a gun and B said, but we agreed not to carry any gun along. nevertheless, A went ahead and shoot C the owner of the car and he died instantly. then both A and B made away with the car and later apprehended by the police. Now sir my questions are, with statutory authorities and decided cases sir, (1) who will be liable for the murder of C? (2) both A & B will liable for the murder of C or only A who brought out the gun without the notice of B that will only be liable for the offense of murder? (3) if both of them would be liable, why would they be liable for the murder or if is only A that will be liable of the murder, why would only he be liable for the murder of C sir?

i would be so grateful if my questions could be answered sir. Thank you sir.

your the best solution of our problem as lawyer in making thanks for your lesson

Thanks very much sir I have a question what if the problem has a mutiplmu issues how do you go about it.

I’m currently working on a course that would deal with this in detail. In summary, what you should do is to use IRAC for each issue, separately.

Thank you so much sir. I believe I will be able to answer a problem question now.

Thank you so much sir…God bless you for this

Thank you sir.

May God reward you. We are ever grateful.

Hello Olamide, My question is concerning whether an introduction is necessary when using IRAC: that is, whether the portion that describes the main concept at hand can come before an identification of the legal issues.

In some circumstances, you can briefly highlight the main area of law the scenario deals with. However, the introduction would be very brief, it could just be a sentence. It should not be long and winding like the kind of introduction you’ll need for an essay question.

Thanks for your guide sir… But i wanna as one question please. When we are writing the exam, do we need to even specify the steps of answering the question on the booklet? i.e do we need to specify introduction, definition, body and conclusion?

Thanks for your guide sir… But i wanna ask one question please. When we are writing the exam, do we need to even specify the steps of answering the question on the booklet? i.e do we need to specify introduction, definition, body and conclusion?

Wow… Dear Sir, you definitely explained the IRAC better than my lecturers. Thanks a lot. However, I have a question. Is it possible to get this document in a PDF that I can download. That is, this your explanation on IRAC?

Thanks for the feedback. You can’t currently do that. However, now that you mention it, I’ll definitely work on making it possible.

Introduction is apt, although it comes in form of a concise discuss on the topic the legal issue is based.

Please how do you answer this question using the IRAC method. “Emeka, a cashier to Omenka Co-operative Society defrauded the Society of a huge sum of money. Emeka who was a first offender immediately tendered the money at the police station and begged for forgiveness. The prosecutor who was moved by Emeka’s show of remorse advised the Chairman of the Society who came to report the case to drop the charges. The Chairman however insisted on the prosecution saying that the stolen money belonged to the Society and that the Executive Committee had resolved to press case to a logical conclusion. Advise the parties. ” what rule applies and what’s the issue? I can’t seem to figure it out

It relates to private prosecution of a criminal case. Check out the case of Fawehinmi vs Akilu. If a private individual wants to prosecute a case, he needs to get an endorsement from the governor.

Thanks But what abt problem question that has more than one issue??

Kudos to you man thanks alot for this write-up

You’re welcome

It’s nice ❣️❣️

Yeah… I know 😉

Thank you for this I really appreciate.

Thank you sir am grateful

thank you for your explanation but i want to ask a question, if the question has multiple issues do you have to highlght in your answers that you are using irac i.e issue: indicate the issue rule: indicate the rule etc or you go ahead and answer the question still using irac but in an essay form

You still have to use IRAC for each issue. But it depends on the kind of question though. In most instances, you do.

please how do they use to set problem question base on internal conflicts of law and the best way to answer the questions

Thank you so much. You have explained so nicely and perfectly. It has saved my day.

Thank you Olamide

Comment thank you very much sir. I think I would have probably made more A’s if I asked earlier but not withstanding my subsequent semester would be a better one. But I would have to read it. Time after time

Thanks Sir for your nice article but pls I need a brief on identifying issues in a customary law case

Thank you so much sir i think i am improving already

If murder, rape, and not paying of tax is in a scenario, is that the conflict?

Yeah. Although it mostly depends on how the question is phrased.

Thank you so much Sir I was bad in understanding law but with this information I’m able to answer to law problem questions

I’m happy to have been of help.

Thank you so much! But I have a question.. According to Plato, Justice is giving each one his due, giving an individual that which he’s naturally fitted. However Injustice is leaving one’s fit, or part and meddling with another’s part..

What is the implication of this platonic view of a philosopher. I don’t seem to understand

I haven’t really come across this quote before. It might be better if you tell me your source, Plato might have explained further.

Thank you so much! It’s really helpful I have personal questions to ask

Okay. Would you like to send me a mail then?

That’s a good one Olamide, U can be a good and wonderful friend. Thanks alot for this.

I’m glad to have been of help.

Due to the patronage in free SHS policy introduced in Ghana in 2018/2019 academic year,Esi yaa had the following agreement with her brother who teachers at Madina boys SHS regarding her son. Esi yaa’ s son kwasi Adu is taking his final year exam at Madina boys SHS. Esi Yaa’s brother kojo Bright is Adu’ s economics teacher. At the start of kwasi Adu’s final year, Esi Yaa tell her brother that she will buy him a laptop if her son gets a A’ in economics. When the results came Kwasi Adu had an A in economics, Bright is now asking Esi to buy the laptop as promised. Consider if the agreement Esi Yaa made with Kojo Bright is enforceable by law. Please how do I go about this question.

This is concerned with the intention to enter into legal relations among family members. You can check this out https://djetlawyer.com/intention-enter-legal-relations/

Hi Mr Olamide, the case scenario a above is a very good guide/example on how to identify problem questions and possibly answer Thank you

Thank you so much sir you really helped me.

Thank you very much sir. I need a brief on how to answer this question, whether or not can an infant be in a contract ?

Hello. You can check this out https://djetlawyer.com/capacity-to-contract/

I have a question sir. What if the question ask you to advise the parties and also write a brief judgement, especially in criminal law problem question?

You can use IRAC to write a judgement.

Can one use analysis onthe part of application? Does it have any notable difference if one decides to do so?

The application is the part where you make your analysis

Hello Mr Olanrewaju, the guide for answering our law questions its quite benefit me because i dont even know how to answer because my lect gave me the AIPAC formula and looking forward is quite similar with IPAC and i think this guide its really good and i can sure that i can solve the answer. Thank your sir.

also sir is it different when we use abstract or is it still same with ipac? aipac (abstract, issues, principle. application, conclusion )

If you lecturer wants that format, then you can use it. Although, I haven’t come across it before.

Good work sir, keep doing the good work this really help me when I was undergoing my diploma in law. Okay our articles help me a lot so much so I pass my law questions perfectly. I was very impressed by your work so much so I wanted to be like you and I started researching how will I be like you. I want to have a site as you do after many research and attending lesson finally I am able to learn how to create a website like your own. Thank you very much. Bless the site sir https://www.legalresearch.com.ng/2020/03/the-injunction-on-justice-in-divine.html

Nice site you have there.

I used to be recommended this website via my cousin. I am now not sure whether or not this post is written via him as nobody else recognize such designated about my trouble. You are incredible! Thank you!

I am so lucky to find myself in this site which has helped me a lot about how to answer law essay and problem questions. I must say u are the best sir

Thanks for the compliment. We’re only doing the best we can.

thank God I am here. I just gained admission to study law and my school is about to resume. I was just engaging in researches on how to answer law questions and then I stumbled on this site. you’ve a new fan here sir, pls sir God grant you grace never to quit

Hello. Congratulations. I’m very glad to have been of help to you.

Please when there is more than one issue how do I represent it

If there are multiple issues, you have to highlight each of them. It depends on the question though, as it’s not so straightforward. This is something I addressed in my online course though.

Sir must you define all the elements of a contract when you are given a contract law questions

Sir if you are told to advice all parties in a question Will you do it one place or in a separate place. Sir is there a present consideration? If there’s one give me an example please.

Good day sir, I wanted to ask that, what does one do when he doesn’t know any rule to use in a problem question?

Ah. That is a serious problem O. As a law student, you should always be ready to back up your points with legal authorities. You should probably learn how to easily memorise legal authorities as that would help you remember rules to use in a problem question. This blog post should be of help:

https://djetlawyer.com/how-to-easily-memorise-legal-authorities/

Pls I have four questions If there are multiple legal issues,how do i answer them using irac? Also,when I’m asked to advise both parties, do I present defences to the defendants and remedies to the plaintif, or give my own opinion on what I feel they should do, with reasons? Do I call them by their names when presenting the issues or stick to plaintiff and defendant? Also, when I’m asked to advise the parties in any question,do I first conclude,as per following the irac rule or give my advice in the conclusion? Pls I anticipate your quick reply Thank you?

Please how do I get to know different cases that could be linked to particular problem question..learning the m is a tough one. I NEED HELP!!!

How do I write/answer this question with relevant cases? Agatha and Ben have been investing on the Zimbabwe stock exchange for 20years with the assistance of their Investment advisor Masimba. Masimba has access to Agatha and Ben’s investment account which is worth 5 million dollars. Masimba approached XYZ bank and opened two bank accounts in the name of Agatha and Ben and made himself a signatory to both accounts. Masimba transferred over 3.5million dollars from the investment account into Agatha and Ben personal accounts and eventually withdrew the funds from both accounts.Upon requesting their statement Agatha and Ben observed the anomaly and they are now suing the bank for negligence. Sighting a relevant case does Agatha and Ben have a legal case?

How do I answer a problem question, if it has more than one issue? Will i take the issue one by one and provide solutions to them, or I’m just going to answer it together

Depends on the question. But most likely, you have to address the issues individually.

Thanks a lot..sure this will really help

thank you, sir

Thanks so much for this

Thank you so much for this post, My question is what if you’ve been given a scenario like the one above and instead of question on advice the party’s, a direct question is given. Like they ask as pertaining to your scenario what is past consideration, or explain it in relation with something else. Is IRAC still advisable to be used.

What if the case is based on argument with respect to cult activities in a particular community..what will be the right issue to present in answering such problem?

Thank you, this is very helpful. Please, can you write on how to identify issues in courses, notably criminal law, torts and human rights?

Sir I understand your teaching on how to use IRAC to solve a problem question and am clear about that. But my challenge is how I can differentiate between problem questions and essay please I need ur help dearly.?????? Thanks Sir.

I kindly need help on this

Agatha and Ben have been investing on the Zimbabwe stock exchange for 20years with the assistance of their Investment advisor Masimba. Masimba has access to Agatha and Ben’s investment account which is worth 5 million dollars. Masimba approached XYZ bank and opened two bank accounts in the name of Agatha and Ben and made himself a signatory to both accounts. Masimba transferred over 3.5million dollars from the investment account into Agatha and Ben personal accounts and eventually withdrew the funds from both accounts.Upon requesting their statement Agatha and Ben observed the anomaly and they are now suing the bank for negligence. Sighting a relevant case does Agatha and Ben have a legal case?

I really appreciate your efforts in helping law students solve contending legal issues. Now my question is this scenario or in another where there are exceptions, how then is the best possible way to answer the question?

Thanks for ur properly guidance

Two students, who were in an electoral body, were involved in electoral malpractice and were rusticated. Your chamber has been approached to prove to the school authority that the issue of the student election is purely a student matter and should not be a curricular issue. Is this a problem question?

This not a problem question simply because there’s no conflict between both parties

Please why are you not serving ads here? It’s a really good job you do here!

Thank you so much Mr Olanrewaju,this is so helpful and explicit.God bless you.

I wish to ask some questions Sir🙇‍♀️ 1.what should I do for in case I omitted any party to the case (either the plaintiff’s name or the defendant’s name) or both,but the facts and court holding are known

2.Or if the the principles are clearly understandable but can not be quoted as they are…?

Nice and informative post sir. This gives me clarity on how to approach legal questions. Thanks once again Mr. Olamide!!

Thanks alot

AM sir Olamide please I would be delighted if u can help me with how to go about questions like this Question😎

_The National Assembly has passed a bill on electronic voting system. The bill has successfully passed through all the law making process only remaining the president assent. The president who has being with the bill for over 35days has refused to sign the bill into law. He didn’t give any valid reason for withholding his assent. He only said that the bill can only becomes law if he wish_

_A.With the aid of statutory provisions and judicial authorities, discuss the legal issues arising from the above case scenario._

_B. Can the bill be passed into law even without the president assent? If your answer is in the affirmative, state reasons with statutory provisions and judicial authorities._

Thank you so much sir. This has really helped . I have been using IRAC wrongly

Kindly help me with all the issues. Thanks, After 15 years of trade in the cocoa industry, Madam Echoke decided to expand into 5 different African Countries. She therefore engaged the services of Kwaku Frimpong to trade from Ghana to Nigeria. After three (3) successful trips to Nigeria, Kwaku Frimpong was promoted to handle all 5 African countries. There was a 40-footer container to be shipped to a new client in Rwanda. While the cocoa beans were being transported to Tema Harbour, the truck got stuck for 2 weeks. Finally, the cocoa beans were on board to Rwanda via Maersk Shipping line. The shipping line noticed during the voyage that the cocoa beans were becoming moldy. Discovering that the cocoa beans will greatly devalue before getting to Rwanda, the shipping line got an offer and sold the cocoa beans at Ethopia, after several impossible calls to Kwaku Frimpong. The new buyer paid the agreed price (based on current market value) to Maersk Shipping line’s transactional account which was immediately transferred to Kwaku Frimpong. Kwaku Frimpong under-declared the said payment and paid Madam Echoke. Advice Madam Echoke and Kwaku Frimpong.

Thanks alot Mr. Olamide. I’ve always had a problem with answering problem questions but you’ve just explained it in a more comprehensible manner. Thanks!

Please sir, how do I know the type of question to apply FIRAC?

You mean IRAC? You apply it to problem questions. These are usually questions that have a scenario. Although, not all questions with scenarios are problem questions, most of them are.

I find this piece very helpful.

Thank you very much.

Your words have a way of calming my anxieties and soothing my soul.

I have been seeing IRAC everywhere but no one has broken it down for me to understand it like this article. Thank you so much for sharing this knowledge i know it will be of good help for me and many others.

Please can you use a rule like criminal law or theories of law to give more examples

John,Emeka and Chinedu are students of the faculty of law Godfrey okoye university.John was in first year while Emekawas in second year One particular Friday night,John and Emeka returned from a disco party at about 3am and switch on the light in their room and began a hot argument about events in the faculty since they resumed.John complained about the nature of legal method saying “The course is too dry and technical”.Emeka agreed with John and frankly admitted that he was constrained to cram the course when it was giving him too much problems.He however quickly added it with a sense of pride that he ultimately scored 60% in the course Chinedu who was already fast asleep was awoken by the argument of John and Emeka.Chinedu reminded the Duo of the universities regulations that all rooms light must be switched off by 12 midnight to allow the occupant to sleep in peace.When his advice was ignored, Chinedu angrily called them a “lawless lawyer”.John who was a member of a wrestling club in his secondary school days, pulled Chinedu out of his bed and beat him to a pulp.Chinedu vowed to retaliate . Unknown to john, Chinedu is the leader of campus secret cult called “Aye boys”.Advise the parties using IRAC stating the issues,rules, application and conclusion one by one within the legal method framework and the issues separately with their rules and application

Thanks lawyer for the explanation on the IRAC. I’m reading Business Law this semester but I always find it difficult to understand basic principles and I could do well in midsemester exams. I really need your assist.

Thank you sir I saw exactly this question in my exam Other questions like Lapse of Time and Promisory estoppel too

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Tackling Problem Essay Questions in Law

Info: 1311 words (5 pages) Study Guide Published: 13th May 2020

Reference this

Problem questions are usually presented on law courses and this tutorial relates to law problem questions – but the methods described can easily be adapted to any other type of problem question.

The formula for tackling a law/legal problem question is as follows:

• Offer a brief introduction identifying the relevant area of law and any major legislation or cases that will be relevant
• Identify relevant issues – do not repeat the question or the facts
• Identify relevant legislation and/or case law (use only one or two relevant cases for each point you make and don’t just regurgitate the facts of the precedent case)
• Apply the facts to the legislation/case law
• Conclude (you may not be able to give a definite answer)

Many students lose marks by failing to achieve a proper balance of these tasks e.g. by writing everything they know about the law in that area and concluding very briefly in relation to the facts.

Where there are several issues in the question, you may want to break your answer into sub headings to avoid confusion. Where two issues are dealt with by the same legislation/case law, you can include these in one heading to avoid repetition.

Example of a law problem question

This example applies the formula given above to a problem question. It uses numbers only to identify which part of the above formula is being dealt with.

Question: “John was employed by Stealthjet plc in their factory assembling a new top secret design of high-tech fighter jets for military use. He was killed in an explosion at the factory. His Widow, Jessica, wishes to establish that the defective design of the fighter jets, or the system for making them, caused the explosion, and so to recover damages from Stealthjet plc. Advise Jessica whether she is likely to succeed in a claim against Stealthjet plc”.

SECTION 1 (INTRODUCTION) : The principle area that this question is concerned with, is the doctrine of public interest immunity. This doctrine is intended to ensure that documents are not revealed in the course of litigation if it is not in the public interest to do so. Originally, such a claim could only be made by the Crown and was known as ‘Crown Privilege’. In Duncan v Cammell Laird (1942) AC 624, the House of Lords held that any claim made by the Crown under the doctrine must be accepted; however, this was reversed in Conway v Rimmer (1968) Ac 910, and it is now for the Courts to decide whether or not it is in the public interest for the documents to be disclosed .

This is your introduction. In a problem question this will be very brief, identifying the area of law, and any major cases or statutes that are significant.

SECTION 2 : In this scenario, Jessica will be suing her late husband’s employers, Stealthjet plc, for negligence in failing to provide him with a safe system of work. She will need to obtain the plans of the fighter jets and of their manufacturing system in order to identify the defects that gave rise to the explosion. However, the Ministry of Defence will want to claim that it is against the public interest that these plans be disclosed, despite the fact that the Ministry are not a party to the case. The course of English legal proceedings means that disclosing documents requires them to be revealed to the other parties and their legal representatives, and to the judge. There is ample opportunity for the documents to get into the wrong hands.

Here you are identifying the major issues and facts – you should be looking at any problems that arise out of the scenario. There is no need to repeat the question as this just wastes your word count and suggests you haven’t really understood what is being asked.

SECTION 3. In Conway v Rimmer, the House of Lords held that, in deciding whether documents should be disclosed or not, two aspects of the public interest had to be balanced. The first was a public interest in ensuring no harm was done to national interest by disclosing the documents which should be kept secret. The second related to the public interest in ensuring that the conduct of litigation was not frustrated. In Conway, the Court distinguished between claims based on the contents of the relevant documents, and those based on a class to which the documents belonged – generally, contents claims would be stronger than class claims.As a consequence of the Scott Inquiry into the Matrix Churchill affair, the government announced that it would no longer make class claims, but only claims based on the contents of particular documents. If required, the Courts could inspect the documents to weigh up the value of the arguments for and against disclosure.

This section deals with the relevant legislation and/or case law. There is only one case relevant to this scenario – however, for other areas of law (e.g. contract, tort) you may find there are many, and you need to be selective, using only one or two recent valid cases to support your argument.

SECTION 4. Applying the principles of these cases to the facts of the scenario, it seems probable that the likelihood of Jessica establishing the liability of Stealthjet plc will be almost completely dependent on access to the documents which, if they should reveal design flaws, will prove her case in themselves. The litigation will be frustrated if she is unable to gain access to them.However, against disclosure, the public interest immunity claim will be based on the contents of the documents, and it will be extremely difficult to dispute a claim that it will pose a grave threat to national security if the plans of how to build the new military fighter jet (which are “top secret”) fell into the wrong hands. Inspection of the documents is unlikely to be necessary to convince the Court that these are genuine state secrets.Comparison may be made to Duncan v Cammell Laird (1942) where the Admirality was clearly justified in wishing to keep secret the plans of its latest submarine.

This section applies the relevant legislation and/or case law to the facts of the scenario. It weighs up the strength of each side of the argument but doesn’t yet propose a conclusion (although it may be apparent as to which argument will succeed).

SECTION 5. Whilst there is no doubt that the Courts have the power to order the disclosure of documents in the interests of justice, even where their content is sensitive, it is doubtful that they would do so in this case. Although there is a public interest that the litigation is not frustrated, there is a stronger public interest that the plans to the military jet do not fall into the wrong hands, and this would be a strong possibility if disclosure were ordered. The Court is, therefore, unlikely to order disclosure of the plans that Jessica needs to establish her case and the case would, therefore, fail.

(Adapted from Source: Clements, R & Kay J (2004/5) Constitutional and Administrative Law (3rd Edition) Oxford University Press

The final section is your conclusion. You need to make sure in this section that you have answered the question posed (i.e. in this case, whether Jessica is likely to succeed). The conclusion draws together the various parts of your findings – you may not, however, always be able to give a firm conclusion. If the outcome depends on some factor you do not know, you should say so (and you can give more than one possible outcome in such a case).

Note that our example does not use referencing as we are just looking at the structure of your answer here.

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The Art of Solving Legal Problem Questions

Table of Contents

❌ The Wrong Approach

✅ the successful technique, 4️⃣ the four-step process: irac, 1️⃣ 1. issue, 2️⃣ 2. rule, 3️⃣ 3. application, 4️⃣ 4. conclusion, 🎉 final thoughts.

Legal problem questions are something that trip up many law students. After all these years of writing free-flowing essays, suddenly you have to completely change the way you think about writing and answering questions. Not only will the typical essay approach no longer work when it comes to tackling problem questions, but clear structure is more important than ever. So today I want to help you develop a process for answering problem questions that works every single time. 

I think problem questions are great if you have a system or process for approaching them, so this is how I’m going to break down the article. Firstly, I want to show you the wrong approach most law students take, specifically looking at how they differ from essay questions. Secondly, I want to help you create your own problem solving technique that is equally applicable across all your law modules. So stick around and let’s get into it.

Perhaps the biggest mistake law students make is using their essay skills to answer problem questions.

In my first year of law school, this is something that I did too. After all, why wouldn’t a problem question have an introduction and a conclusion? It seems as though it makes sense to demonstrate your contextual knowledge of the law and to show the examiner your thought process in a coherent arc from start to finish. Unfortunately, this just demonstrate a poor awareness of what a problem question really is. 

With essays, you are supposed to critically analyse the law and associated academic opinion, interjecting your own thoughts into a form of written debate. Whereas with problem questions, you’re not engaging in a verbal battle of opinions, but a structured application of the law to a set of facts. In other words, your goal is not to debate whether or not a law is right or wrong, but to offer advice to a fictitious client about their legal responsibilities.

Think about it like this: if they were a real client would you really sandwich your legal advice with introductions and conclusions? Would they really care about academic opinion or the intricacies of the law? No, that would be absurd! 

Your job is to simply and coherently explain how the law applies to the relevant facts that concern them, and what this could mean for them. Will they go to jail? Will they get a fine? What are the consequences? 

This is what your client cares about in real life and in a problem question.

The key to writing brilliant answers to problem questions then is treating these fictitious clients as real clients and having a structured technique for providing advice to them. 

Your own university has probably given you some advice already on how to structure these questions, but they have probably done little more than chucked an acronym at you and left you to it, without explaining how you can use each element of these acronyms to your advantage. 

So, I will do their job for them by breaking down the technique that actually works.

The IRAC process for answering problem questions is my favourite acronym to use, and it stands for issue, rule, application, and conclusion. So, first you identifying the issue that you are dealing with and advising on; second, you identify the relevant legal rule applies; thirdly, you apply the rule to the issue at hand; before reaching a conclusion that answers the question.

I’m going to talk about each element in turn, but before I do so it’s imperative you NEVER apply the IRAC process to the question as a whole. In other words, you aren’t breaking your answer into four big chunks where you begin by looking at all the issues, then all the rules, then apply the rules, before crafting a huge conclusion on everything. Instead, you are dividing the answer into a number of separate issues and sub-issues that must be explored in turn using the IRAC method. 

For example, let’s say we had a problem question dealing with 3 different people, Tom, Daisy, and Harry and their respective liability for an injury sustained by Emily. We could break down the problem question by structuring our answer as to the liability of each party (e.g. Tom’s liability, Daisy’s liability, and Harry’s liability). Then within each of these ‘issues’ we should be able to identify subissues, which we apply the IRAC method to. For example, you may have to analyse whether Harry owes a duty of care or whether there are any defences available to him, in which case you should make a statement of the law and apply it to the facts before making a conclusion on that subissue.

Warning to one side, let’s wrap our heads around each element of IRAC.

Your job here is to look at the facts in the problem question and analyse them in relation to two key variables: parties and events. So, this is a two stage process.

Firstly, with respect to parties, jot down each of the people that are identified in the problem question and write next to them whether they are someone who has a claim (i.e. something happened to them) or they are someone who faces liability (i.e. they did something wrong).

Once you’ve done that, you want to determine how each of the parties relate to one another. In other words, you need to clearly write down how the ‘victim’ in the problem question relates to the ‘wrongdoer’ and what the specific event that took place to potentially give rise to a claim. 

The purpose of this exercise is to build the structure for your answer setting you up for success. The obvious approach would be to structure your problem question by considering each party one by one (e.g. Tom’s liability), but clearly establishing the issues allows you to see the myriad of possible offences that may need to be analysed as sub-issues. For example, if Tom killed Emily, we will have to analyse the actus reus and mens rea of the offence as sub-issues to help us determine whether or not it was murder.

Now we have a structure for our answer based on the issues within the problem question, it’s time to turn to the law.

I like to open up my textbook, statute books, and relevant websites to simply learn the law around the issues I identified and create some VERY brief notes. There’s no need to go into too much depth because you’re simply looking for supporting authority. For instance, if I was trying to prove mens rea I may look for relevant cases that help explain what is meant by ‘intention’ or with theft I will be looking for its statutory definition.

My top tip here though is to avoid abstract statements of the law. The purpose of finding the relevant ‘rules’ is to simply state the law rather than applying – you don’t need to think too deeply as you’re only making it clear to the reader you are aware of what needs to be proved for there to be liability. What does the statutory law say? What does the case law say? These are the sorts of things you want to write down; the application of this law comes in the next stage.

Application is the crux of a winning answer to any problem question.

Having identified the issue at hand and the relevant law, our focus is on marrying them together to answer the questions. Fortunately, this is a relatively straightforward process as long as we aren’t lazy in our application and don’t just end up critically analysing the law as if we were dealing with an essay.

For example, if we were dealing with the issue of Tom taking Emily’s purse and his liability for theft, we would start by turning to the definition of theft, which is the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with intention to permanently deprive. 

By breaking down the components of this definition we find that the actus reus of theft involves appropriating property belonging to another. We can then apply the law to the facts by asking ourselves whether or not Tom’s actions of picking up the purse and placing it in his rucksack was an exercise of the rights of ownership, and therefore whether or not it makes out the actus reus of the crime. 

You see, a good understanding of the law makes its application to the facts quite straightforward. By doing the groundwork in advance of finding the issues, understanding the facts of the case, and identifying the law, you can approach the problem question with a coherent understanding of what advice you need to give.

For each of the issues and sub-issues you identified at the start you need to form a conclusion. This conclusion must address the overall liability of the parties, including the potential ‘punishment’ that they could face, and ensure that all your conclusions are aligned and consistent with one another. 

Unlike an essay question, where a more authoritative conclusion is usually desired, in a problem question you don’t need to be determinative. The nature of a problem question means there are going to be some grey areas of the law and saying “it depends” could be the ‘correct’ answer. But if you do that, make sure you state what the contingent factors and how liability would differ depending on the approach taken by the court.

The whole approach is extremely methodical, and if you follow these steps in order every time you answer a problem question – regardless of the law module you are taking – then you have a strategy that should lead to some awesome answers. It’s a one-size-fits-all approach where you don’t even have to think to get first class grades.

A methodical approach is possible to many other areas of your law degree. So, if you enjoyed this article, you’d probably also enjoy learning more about my approach to studying:  A Masterclass in Studying Law

Thanks for reading!

IPSA LOQUITUR

How to Write Law Essay Questions

How to write a legal essay question.

A law essay question requires you to make an argument about some aspect of the law. For example, it might ask whether Bloggs vs Smith was correctly decided, how would you reform the law of murder, and so on. This guide provides tips and tricks for improving your legal essay writing skills.

What is the Question Actually Asking You?

The number one rule of answering any law essay question is RTFQ – ATFQ . 

Read the flaming question, answer the flaming question . 

Here is a common complaint by law examiners every year. Many students read the question once, see its on a particular topic, and regurgitate everything they know about that topic. As a result, the student fails to actually provide any kind of answer to what was asked.

If a question asks you to discuss the abolition of life sentences, don’t explain everything you know about murder. Your essay should provide an actual answer: yes, they should be abolished; no they shouldn’t be abolished; or no they shouldn’t be abolished but they should be reformed.  Every piece of information and every line of argument you write should relate to your answer .

Analysing the Question for Greater Depth

Take some time to  analyse the language of the question . You should be asking yourself the following questions:

Are there any  underlying assumptions  the question makes? Should those assumptions be taken for granted, or can you challenge them ? How might this affect your answer to the question?

Are there any  terms in the question that need to be defined , and is there any controversy over the definition of the word or phrase? How might this affect your answer to the question?

Take the following exam essay question taken from an International Law paper. You don’t need to know anything about International law, we are just going to look at the question’s structure and language.

‘The concept of persistent objector is contrary to the entire idea of a general international law common to all states.’ (DUMBERRY referring to CONFORTI) How real is the threat of the persistent objector to general international law? [ Cambridge University, Tripos Part IB Exam Paper May 2012 ]

The quote here raises an immediate issue. What actually is the ‘entire idea of a general international law common to all states’? Unless you establish what the purpose of general international law is, how it is achieved and how it operates, it is impossible to say whether something is a threat to it.

A good answer to this question would explain this. It would then outline the different views on the concept of international law, and argue that one particular view is the best. Only then would the student discuss whether the law relating to persistent objectors is a threat to general international law.

Formulate a Balanced Argument

An essay question requires a balanced analysis of all sides of any academic debate. Do not give an entirely one-sided answer. However, do not do the opposite of this either. A completely neutral, non-committal essay is equally shallow: don’t conclude that both sides have good points without saying one is better.  You need to have an argument .

Start the essay knowing what your argument will be. Work out how you are going to show that you have the correct way of looking at things. Always discuss criticisms that could be made of your points and how you would deal with them. If the other side have strong rebuttals, don’t ignore them: address them and explain why you don’t find them convincing.

The argument should flow and different elements of your argument should be dealt with in different sections. If it helps, use headings to make sure you stick to the point and don’t go off on irrelevant tangents. Every paragraph should start with a statement of what you will argue, and end with you having successfully argued it. If something is not relevant to the flow of your argument, do not put it in.

High-Level Answers and Abstract Thought

Law examiners love an argument where all the sections link together, playing off elements of previous sections and flowing naturally. There is a straightforward way of achieving this. Come up with some underlying, philosophical or policy-based thesis this area of law is based on . Then, think about how you can tie your argument into that.

For example, say you are asked to discuss whether sado-masochism should be an exception to the rule against consenting to ABH . A good answer will first consider: what is the point of criminalising behaviour that only really harms yourself? Is it paternalism? If so, does the law generally take a paternalist approach? Or does it instead generally protect an individual’s liberty to harm themselves as they please? How do the other exceptions to the rule fit into a paternalist or a liberty-based concept of the law?

You might conclude that the law does not follow a coherent principle. If so, you likely need to argue that it needs reform. Or, you might conclude that the law does follow a coherent principle. You might argue that this is a good principle to follow, in which case the law should stay as it is. Alternatively, you could argue that the law should not be based on this principle: it should be based on another. With this done you can answer the question. Sado-masochism should be an exception if it fits the philosophical/policy-based principles that you claim should underpin the criminal law.

This type of thinking helps essay flow. You are linking every stage of your argument to a broader argument about abstract principles. It also means you are evaluating the law deeply, which can greatly enhance your marks.

Using Secondary Commentary

Evidence of wider reading, normally academic articles or specialist books, is necessary for top grades when you are writing a law essay. However, it is important to fully understand the arguments being made, and how they relate to other ideas. You will not get any extra marks for merely saying ‘X argues that Y is true’. You need to be able to explain why X makes this argument and how it might be criticised. Examiners are able to see through this kind of shallow ‘name dropping’.

Once you’ve read an academic article, sit back for a while. Think about how they relate to your own views. Academic arguments should  support  your views, not be a wholesale replacement of them. Don’t do an essay on what X thinks about a subject, do an essay on what  you  think about it. Inform your view with the academic’s analysis, supporting arguments and potential criticisms of your position.

Don’t Hedge Your Bets (and Other Stylistic Tips)

If there’s one thing most law professors hate, its reading a phrase like ‘it seems from the evidence that there might be a possibility of supporting the argument that…’.

Confidence in essay-writing is not something that is stressed enough at school or university. People who aren’t confident are tempted to hedge their bets with language like ‘probably’ and ‘it might be the case’. Resist that urge. If your analysis is correct, the person marking the essay may have doubts as to how firmly you grasp the material if you do not sound confident in your conclusions. If your analysis is not correct, saying ‘probably’ in front of the error won’t help in any case.

Other stylistic tips for writing a professional sounding essay include:

• Avoid contractions (‘don’t’, ‘can’t’), slang phrases and other informal language;
• Avoid the phrase ‘it is submitted that’. This kind of wording is for moots and legal debating, not academic legal essays;
• Try to deal with only one issue per paragraph. This makes the essay less visually intimidating;
• If simple language and short sentences get your point across, use simple language and short sentences. There is a temptation to sound ‘professional’ by using multi-clauses sentences and complex vocabulary. This just makes the essay harder to read.

Cite, Cite and Cite Again

If you are ever making a positive claim about the law, back it up with a citation. What proves your claim? A case? A statutory provision? Cite it. You must assure the marker that you aren’t just making lucky guesses. Many institutions’ grading criteria specify that you can’t achieve anything above a 2:2 with insufficient citation.

Generally there is no need to give the year, report and page number of case-law in exams. However, you should check your university’s best practice guidelines to know for sure.

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You are here, 6 top tips for answering problem questions in law.

As a law student you’re likely to spend a fair bit of time writing answers to problem questions, so it’s best to be prepared. Below Lawyer Monthly’s latest law school & careers feature benefits from expert top tips from  Emma Jones , Lecturer in Law and member of the  Open Justice  team at The Open University.

Problem questions can help you to develop valuable skills around identifying relevant information, applying legal principles to specific scenarios and writing advice in a clear and logical manner. Here are some top tips on how to approach this type of question.

1. Read the question carefully

OK, so this really applies to all types of assignments, but with problem questions there can be a pretty lengthy scenario for you to get to grips with. It can help to highlight or underline, but even better try making a flow chart or chronology of events, or a spider diagram detailing the involvement of each party.

2. Find a way to break down the question.

One common way to approach analysing problem questions is the IRAC method – identify the Issue, explain the Legal Rule, set out its Application and reach a Conclusion based on this. Depending on the scenario you’re given, you might need to work through this process several times, for example, once for each party involved or each potential cause of action

3. Show what you know

When it comes to explaining the legal rules that apply to a scenario, it can be tempting to quote sections of statute or parts of judgments. Although it’s great to reference legislation and cases, setting out their meaning in your own words really demonstrates your understanding. It can be tricky to get the balance between keeping the original meaning and putting it in your own way, but it does get easier with practice.

4. Reason, reason, reason!

The Application part of a problem question is key. It can be very tempting to jump from the legal rule to a conclusion, but you need to take your reader through your thought-process step-by-step. Often, there is no one “right” answer to a scenario, the key is to construct a clear and sound argument using legal authorities and explaining how they apply to the facts.

5. Get the structure and presentation right

This leads neatly onto the next point – structuring your work carefully. Your Law School may have its own rules on this, for example, whether or not to include a brief introduction and when to use headings. It is important to follow these. The general rule is to try and make your structure and writing as easy to follow as possible. Imagine you are writing for an intelligent lay person with no previous knowledge of law. In fact, you can always ask a friend or family member to take a look to see if they can follow what you’re saying.

6. Reaching a conclusion

When you are trying to write a conclusion, you may find that there are parts of the scenario that are a little ambiguous or where there is potential for different outcomes. If that is the case, it is fine to indicate that you can’t reach a final conclusion, but it is important to explain why not. On the other hand, if you can give a conclusion, you should try and do so. It’s usually fairly clear when someone has lacked the confidence to make a decision.

Problem questions can be challenging, but they are a great way of developing key skills which are needed in plenty of careers, not least for working on the legal profession. Just remember, one day you may have a real client in front of you, and be very glad you had the chance to practice first!

This article was originally published in  Lawyer Monthly . Click to read the  original article .

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The Art of Solving Legal Problem Questions

6 Reasons to Consider a Career as A Lawyer

Under the shadow of National Security Law: Concern about academic freedom in Hong Kong

• Tips for Students
• problem questions
• tips for students

Article written by Nemr Chaer, Future Trainee Solicitor at Clifford Chance and finalist Law student at the University of Warwick.

As a law student, it is inevitable that you will be asked to solve a legal problem question (PQ). This is a question whereby you are given a problem scenario that has several legal issues which you will be asked to analyse. Alternatively, you could be asked to advise a fictitious client in the scenario. The purpose of legal PQs is to test whether you can correctly filter your way through complex areas of law in a meaningful way. This short article will provide my top three tips for solving legal PQs.

Tip #1: Knowing the Difference between a Legal Problem Question and Legal Essay

Understanding the difference between a legal PQ and a legal essay is of paramount importance. This is because it allows you to understand where and how you should concentrate your efforts when it comes to answering.

The main difference between answering a legal PQ and an essay is their respective goals. The intention of a legal essay is to critically evaluate the law with reference to academic debates and opinions. As a result, your efforts are concentrated on fleshing out the nuances of the law in a scholarly manner. This means that you are commonly going to write an introductory paragraph contextualising the law and provide several academic arguments. Even the language that you will use in the essay will be a lot more free-flowing and explorative. This differs from legal PQs. For the latter, your intention is to advise a fictitious client. If this client was real, you would not provide an elaborative introduction and flesh out the scholarly debates in the law. Instead, you will be conscious to provide structured, concise, and authoritative advice with the support of case law. In other words, a PQ requires a greater sense of certainty relative to legal essays. Keeping this difference in mind will allow you to make the slight mental adjustment needed to answer a legal PQ.

Tip #2: The IRAC Method

As a law student, it is likely that you would have heard of the IRAC technique for answering legal PQs. What does IRAC stand for and how does it work?

• ISSUE: Identify the issues in the legal problem question.
• RULE: Identify the relevant legal rule(s) for the issue.
• APPLICATION: Apply the legal rules to the issues and facts.
• CONCLUSION: For each of the issues identified, form a conclusion addressing the overall liability of each of the parties including the punishment they could receive.

Adopting the IRAC method is beneficial because it allows you to structure your legal advice in a way that is easy to follow. Here are some extra tips that you should note when using the IRAC method.

• ISSUE: A good tip for any PQ is to identify all of the parties and the event that occurred to them. This allows you to differentiate between the wrongdoer and victim and how the particular event relates to the two. For example, if X used a hammer and killed Y, we would know that the legal issue is whether X is liable for killing Y.
• RULE: Always apply the relevant authority. Whilst this may seem obvious, it is very common for students to cite statutes and cases that do not necessarily relate to the problem question. Avoid this as it does not substantiate your analysis.
• APPLICATION: It will never be the case in a PQ that you are given a scenario with no nuances or uncertainty. When this happens, it is of paramount importance you flesh out the nuance and do so using case law. In our example, ‘X used a hammer and killed Y’ which is obviously murder. However, ask yourself whether there are other facts that could help with your analysis. For example, was X acting in self-defence? What are the elements of self-defence? Are they satisfied? If so, what does this mean legally?
• CONCLUSION: Based on your arguments, what do YOU think is the conclusion?

The IRAC method is definitely the optimum way to solve a legal PQ, but it is also advised that you do not apply it so rigidly. Indeed, there will be instances where the Rule and Application components of IRAC coincide.

Tip #3: Preparing for Legal PQs

If you want to master the art of answering a legal PQ then you must practice it over and over again. This will allow you to find your own technique for answering a PQ whilst also consolidating your revision. The reason it consolidates your revision is that it will eliminate the areas of law that you might have thought were important but are not necessarily so. In other words, practicing answering PQs allows you to work smarter, not harder. The way to practice is to simply refer to previous exam papers, find a question, answer it, and then mark it!

Imaan Fatima

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CLAT PG 2022 Question Paper with Solutions - Download PDF

• Eligibility
• Application
• Exam Pattern
• Accepting Colleges

The Consortium of NLUs held the CLAT on June 19, 2022, for entry into undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Approximately 10,434 candidates registered for CLAT PG , and the exam was conducted in pen-and-paper format. It serves 2 purposes. Firstly, it is a gateway to enter into prestigious national universities of India for the Masters program. Secondly, the top-ranked candidates are directly selected for positions as law officers in public sector undertakings. Many people choose this path because it is entirely based on the law subjects studied during their time in law school.

Latest:  CLAT PG 2025 Registration Direct Link (Official)    | CLAT PG 2025 Full Mock Test with Detailed Solutions Free PDF Suggested: CLAT 2024 college predictor |  CLAT PG Previous Year Question Papers with Solution s Admission Alert: Law Programs at Jindal Global Law School

CLAT PG 2022 Exam Pattern

Clat pg 2022 question papers: subject-wise division, clat pg 2022 question paper and answers.

Download : CLAT PG 2022 Question Paper & Answer Key with Detailed Solutions - Free PDF

You may also check the previous year's question paper with detailed solutions:

• CLAT PG 2024 Question Paper with Detailed Solutions
• CLAT PG 2023 Question Paper with Detailed Solutions
• CLAT PG 2021 Question Paper with Detailed Solutions
• CLAT PG 2020 Question Paper with Detailed Solutions

The CLAT PG 2022 Question Papers included 20 legal passages, making it a considerably difficult test. Each passage had six questions addressing current legal issues. The 2022 CLAT PG Important topics included Company Law, Juvenile Justice, Evidence Act, and Tax Law, which are normally not included in the exam.

Despite the addition of additional areas, the test remained largely concerned with criminal law, jurisprudence, international law, constitutional law, and contracts. The majority of the questions reflected contemporary developments, with only a handful addressing previous landmark cases. Contract law questions were usually simple and focused on real-world settings, whereas criminal law questions were related to recent incidents such as arrests or dowry deaths.

The exam was conceptually created, to assess students' grasp and interpretation of legal topics. It also included unexpected components, such as a paragraph about firm mergers and a few problem-solving problems, which added to the overall difficulty.

• Constitutional and criminal law: There were four passages of constitutional law, of which one was interlinked with property law. Of this one passage was easy, 2 were moderate and 1 was hard. So the overall difficulty of the constitutional law questions can be said to be moderate to difficult. On the criminal law aspect, there was one passage on IPC and one on the Juvenile Justice Act. The Juvenile Justice Act passage was of a hard level, whereas the IPC passage was easy to moderate.
• Jurisprudence: There were a total of two passages on jurisprudence. It was on the moderate side, neither too essay nor too difficult. The questions were direct. There was one passage having an interlinking of jurisprudence and environmental law. An ideal score in this section would be 8, inclusive of the environmental law passage.
• Tort law: There were no questions on tort law in the CLAT PG 2022 Question Paper.
• Family law and contract law: There were two passages on family law in the CLAT PG 2022 Question Paper. The questions ranged from the Hindu Marriage Act , Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act , and Section 125 CrPC, among others. The sections' overall difficulty level might be described as moderate, with an optimal score of 8.
• Contract law: On contract law specifically, there were two passages, and there was one passage with an interlinking of taxation law and contract law. The difficulty of the specific contract law questions was easy to moderate, whereas that of the taxation law was of moderate to difficult level. An ideal combined score for these passages would be 9.
• Miscellaneous topics: Miscellaneous topics include subjects which are less focused and do not have much weightage. There were questions on company law, public international law and environmental law. Almost all the questions about this were of a difficult level.

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SRM University, Delhi NCR LLM 2024

Approved by BCI | Merit Scholarships available across all programs

Both lawmen and laymen often ask, What is the law applitable to a given sef of facts?' The answers to this question differ depending upon the specific jurisdiction to which the given set of lacts is finked. Contrary to this, scholars and students of jurisprudence are likely to ask the general question, viz 'What is Law?'. This question on the philosophy and nature of law supposes that law is a distinctive social-political phenomenon with univergal characteristics that can be perceived through philosophical analysis. In such a study, the assumption is that law possesses some universal characteristics.

An analysis of the philosophy of law can be done for different reasons. Apart from a purely intellectual interest in understanding this complex phenomenon known as law, scholars also study the same as a normative social practice that purports to guide human behaviour, giving rise to reasons for action. The primary challenge of the branch of scholarship known as jurisprudence is based on this 'normative, reason-giving aspect of law'. At the same time, we must understand that law is not the only normative realm in any given society. It is one of the mary normative standards such as morality, religion, customs and usages, etiquette, self-regulatory standards within a family or corporation etc. So, it is also essential that we study law on the diflerences and similarities of the same with these normative standards.

While ciscerring these connections and contractictions, legal theories often study the content of the norm apart from giving importance to the source. Generally, theoretical studies on the content such as natural lawyers emphasize values such as faimess, justice, liberty etc., as qualifications for the norms to be called laws. They have argued that laws must be in turne with certain principles of inner morality, such as that laws be general, public, prospective, coherent, clear, stable, and practicable are indispensable to law-making. Whereas theories that give prominence to the sources of the norm, such as enactmenticommand by political institution/authority, do not ahways emphasize on the content.

Such philosophical analysis of lav comprises both explanatory and justificatory aspects. While the explanatory aspect consists of explaining how laws can give rise to reasons and what kinds of reasons are involved. One example of this would be Dworkin's classification of law as concepts, principles and rules. The aspect of justfication concerns whether people ought to comply with the law's demands. In other words, it is the attempt to explain the moral legtimacy of law and the subjects' reasons for complying with it.

1. Validity of law resides in the political sovereignty of the maker of that law refers to:

(A) Legal Positivism

(B) Natural Law

(C) Historical School

(D) Sociological School

Explanation - Legal positivism asserts that the validity of law is determined by its source, particularly the authority that creates it, such as a government or legislature. According to legal positivism, laws derive their validity from the political sovereignty of the lawmakers. Therefore, the statement aligns with the principles of legal positivism.

2. A norm cannot become legally valid unless its content is fair and just in accordanoe to:

Explanation - Natural law theory argues that for a norm to be considered legally valid, it must align with principles of fairness and justice inherent in natural law. Natural law posits that there are universal moral principles that govern the validity of laws

3. "The falsehood of legal positivism resides in ervisaging that the law consists of only rules. However, this is a serious mistake since legal principles partly determint the law in addatition to rules. The distinction between rules and principles is a logical one. Aules apply in an 'all or nothing fashion. 'W the rule applies fo the circumstances, if defermines a particular legal outcome. If it does not apply, it is simply irrelevant to the outcome....." according to:

(A) Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Serioushy, 1977

(B) John Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights, 1990.

(C) H.L.A.Hart, The Concept of Law, 1961.

(D) Raz, Joseph, Legal Principles and the Limits of Law, 1972.

Explanation - Ronald Dworkin, in his work "Taking Rights Seriously," critiques legal positivism for its narrow focus on rules and argues that legal principles also play a significant role in determining the law. He distinguishes between rules and principles, highlighting that principles contribute to legal decisions alongside rules.

4. Principles requiring that laws be general, public, prospective, coherent, clear, stable, and practicable are indispensable to law-making correspond to:

(A) Inner Morality

(B) Method of logic

(C) Legitimacy and Transparency in law making

(D) Democratic law making

Explanation - These principles align with the concept of inner morality in legal theory, which asserts that laws must adhere to certain moral principles, including fairness, clarity, and stability, to be considered legitimate.

5. I mean simply that history, in illuminating the past, illuminates the present, and in iluminating the present, illuminates the future' opined by:

(A) Roscoe Pound

(B) Benjamin Cardazo

(D) Auguste Comte

Explanation - Roscoe Pound, a legal scholar, expressed this idea, emphasizing the importance of understanding legal history to comprehend current legal issues and anticipate future developments.

6. The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience' is stated by:

(B) Dworkin

(C) Cardgzo

(D) Amartya Sen

Explanation - Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., a renowned American jurist, famously stated, "The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience." This 39 quote reflects his pragmatic approach to law, emphasizing the importance of real-life experiences and consequences over abstract reasoning

The exam included 20 passages, each with six questions. Out of the total, 54 questions were moderate to difficult, slightly challenging, and aimed to assess candidates' conceptual comprehension. Another 54 questions varied from easy to moderate, and 12 were straightforward. Unlike the 2020 and 2021 tests, this year's paper had fewer questions about recent landmark rulings. The emphasis on Constitutional Law was significantly reduced when compared to previous years; whereas past exams included between 48- 50 questions on this subject, this year just 24 questions were on Constitutional Law. There were also queries about unexpected topics, such as the Juvenile Justice Act and the Family Courts Act. Overall, the CLAT PG 2022 question paper was relatively tough.

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

The overall difficulty of the CLAT PG 2022 was moderate. Most of the questions were manageable. The test consisted of 150 questions divided into five obligatory sessions.

The highest UG CLAT 2022 score was 121 out of 150. For LLM, the CLAT winner received 94 points.

The Quantitative Techniques segment, which covers rudimentary mathematics, is regarded as the most difficult part of the CLAT exam.

Yes, the questions on logical reasoning, quantitative aptitude, and legal reasoning are frequently repeated by the Consortium of NLU. I mean that by asking the same question again, the same reasoning is used for the solution. The only variables that are altered are the numbers.

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Questions related to CLAT PG

No, a diploma in mechanical engineering does not qualify you to appear for the CLAT (Common Law Admission Test).

CLAT is an entrance exam primarily for undergraduate law programs in India. The basic eligibility criteria usually require a 10+2 qualification or its equivalent.

To be eligible for CLAT, you typically need to have completed your 12th standard or an equivalent examination.

If you're interested in pursuing law, you might consider alternative entrance exams or law programs that accept diploma holders.

I hope this information helps you.

Hello there, For CLAT PG 2025-26, the exam will primarily focus on current legal principles, including updates and recent developments in the law. This means you should be prepared for both new criminal acts and significant amendments to existing ones. Keeping up-to-date with recent legal changes and judicial decisions will be crucial for your preparation.

I hope this answer helps you. If you have more queries then feel free to share your questions with us we will be happy to assist you.

Thank you and wishing you all the best for your bright future.

Hello there,

Yes, students of final year LLB ( 3years or 5 years integrated course) are also eligible in appearing CLAT PG 2025. Also there is no upper limit for appearing in the exam.

The application forms for CLAT PG 2025 are open till 15 October, 2024. The exam will be held in the month of December, 2025. The tentative result date is yet to be announced.

To know more details, kindly check out the following link.

https://law.careers360.com/exams/clat-pg

All the best.

APSCHE has notified the AP LAWCET 2024 exam date. AP LAWCET 2024 will be conducted on June 9, 2024. APSCHE will issue the detailed AP LAWCET 2024 notification soon on its official website. Interested candidates would be able to apply online and appear for AP LAWCET 2024.

The authorities will conduct Andhra Pradesh Law Common Entrance Test to admit students into 3-year LLB and 5-year LLB programmes of participating colleges in Andhra Pradesh. The AP LAWCET 2024 exam will be held in offline mode in English and Telugu versions.

Candidates desirous of appearing for AP LAWCET 2024 must keep track of the dates. It must be noted that all the dates are tentative and will be updated upon release of official AP LAWCET 2024 notification.

For more details please visit : https://law.careers360.com/articles/ap-lawcet-2024

Hope this helps you.

CONGRATULATIONS ON SUCCESS IN THE EXAMINATION.

CLAT CUT OFF changes every year. For NLU Kolkata BA LLB and LLM programs it will depend on several factors like -

Number of candidates for CLAT 2023

Number of candidates preferring NLU Kolkata during counselling

Number of places offered by the university in BA LLB and LLM programmes

University Reservation Policy

Category of candidates

FOR 2022 THE CUT OFFS WERE :

GENERAL- 579

GENERAL state domiciled- 1423

since general state domiciled is way beyond your state OBC rank so there is high probability of getting into this college under OBC seat.

For more information on the college you can look into following link:

https://www.careers360.com/university/the-west-bengal-national-university-of-juridical-sciences-kolkata/cut-off

thank you!!

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A criminal lawyer is a lawyer who specialises in the field of crimes and punishments. Individuals who have been accused of committing a crime are guided by a criminal lawyer. Bail bond hearings, plea bargains, trials, dismissal hearings, appeals, and post-conviction procedures are all part of his or her work. Criminal law is the body of law that describes criminal acts, governs the arrest, prosecution, and trial of offenders, and defines the sentences and correctional options that are available to criminals.

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Family lawyers are required to assist a client in resolving any family-related problem. In general, family lawyers operate as mediators between family members when conflicts arise. Individuals who opt for a career as Family Lawyer is charged with drafting prenuptial agreements to protect someone's financial interests prior to marriage, consulting on grounds for impeachment or civil union separation, and drafting separation agreements.

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The example law essays below were written by students to help you with your own studies. If you are looking for help with your law essay then we offer a comprehensive writing service provided by fully qualified academics in your field of study.

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Example law essays (page 1), torts of negligence and battery in medical law.

Example essay. Last modified: 17th Feb 2021

Critical analysis of Torts of Negligence and Battery in medical law and how they protect a patient's right to make an autonomous decision....

Analysis of Torts of Negligence and Battery

Critical analyse the protection of a patient's right to make an autonomous decision using the Torts of Negligence and Battery in medical law....

Assess the Influence of Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK

Example essay. Last modified: 9th Feb 2021

Assess the influence of the Human Rights Act 1998 on the protection of individual rights in the UK. Example Human Rights Law Essay...

Legal Analysis of Donald Trump's Leadership Style

Example essay. Last modified: 4th Dec 2020

This essay aims to provide a thorough analysis of Trump as a political leader, based on Professor Greenstein’s framework of presidential leadership that was put forth in his book The Presidential Difference...

Development of Welfare Legislation for Animal Testing

In 1890’s, debates between the public and research scientists grew as a result of public concern for the welfare and treatment of animals used for research in laboratories. ...

Preparation of a Trial Notebook

A trial notebook can be set up to fit the needs of the attorney. Generally, it is an 8 ½ x 11 binder with a folder where photos and documents can be easily kept....

The Lisbon Treaty v The Constitution of Europe

Example essay. Last modified: 3rd Dec 2020

The Lisbon Treaty is in essence the constitution of Europe under a different guise, discuss. An example European law essay....

Analysis of the Supreme Court's Reasoning in Cherry/Miller (No 2)

Example essay. Last modified: 18th Nov 2020

This essay will attempt to demonstrate that the Supreme Court’s reasoning upheld key constitutional principles in line with the Westminster view....

Evaluation of Cotterrell's Views on Sociolegal Studies

Example essay. Last modified: 12th Nov 2020

 In the article, Cotterrell talks mainly about how law connects with the sociolegal network....

Gender Disparity in the British Judicial System

Example essay. Last modified: 10th Nov 2020

 Since the 19th century, women have been striving for greater participation at every level of the political and legal systems. ...

Critically Discuss Mens Rea

Example essay. Last modified: 9th Nov 2020

Critically discuss to what extent, if at all, it is ever justifiable to hold responsible for criminal offences, those who possess no mens rea....

Stages in the Legislative Process

Example essay. Last modified: 3rd Nov 2020

Legislation, a set of laws that each individual is expected to follow and adhere to in order for society to remain a peaceful and crime free place....

Relationship Between Property and Sense of Belonging in the Legal System

Example essay. Last modified: 16th Aug 2019

Many EW legal system histories have underscored the different ways the property rights have been regarded as fundamental to how individual citizens interacted with the legal system. ...

Critically evaluate the development of Legal Personality

Example essay. Last modified: 15th Aug 2019

Define and Critically evaluate the development of the notion of separate corporate legal personality....

Outline and Describe the Scottish Civil Court Structure

Example essay. Last modified: 7th Aug 2019

Scotland's law is seen as a mixed system and not purely the common law system and this due to scot lawyers preferring to take ideas from Roman Law and other continental legal systems rather than the English Law. ...

Legal Liabilities of Defects in Construction

The purpose of this paper is to understand the legal liabilities in construction industry due to defects by studying different claims and defenses used in real cases. ...

Principles Of Fairness Application Example Essay

Example essay. Last modified: 6th Aug 2019

Decisions on principles of fairness and their application by rote or otherwise. Example Administrative Law essay...

Discuss International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg

The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg was lawfully established, and treated the defendants fairly. Discuss...

How Tesco are affected by company law and governance

Critically evaluate the problems at Tesco and what they tell us about modern company law and corporate governance...

Practical Implementation of the Leveson Inquiry

The Practical Implementation of the Findings from the Leveson Inquiry Report. Press Regulation and its Changes...

Judicial Review Principles and Procedures

The Judicial Review relationship between constitutional principles, their procedural requirements and the grounds of challenge...

Petrodel Resources & Ors v Prest & Ors Case Synopsis

Case Synopsis of Petrodel Resources Ltd & Ors v Prest & Ors [2012] EWCA Civ 1395...

Encouraging Business And Protecting Consumers

EU competition law and the balance between encouraging business cooperation and protecting the interests of consumer...

The Coronation Cases - Frustration of Contract

The coronation cases and frustration of contract in Krell v Henry and Herne Bay Steam Boat Company v Hutton...

Critical Assessment of Free Movement of Goods

Critical discussion about how the EU legislation and the case law of the Court of Justice ensures the free movement of goods in the internal market....

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