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Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

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Tables in Research Paper

Definition:

In Research Papers , Tables are a way of presenting data and information in a structured format. Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data or to highlight important findings. They are often used in scientific or technical papers to display experimental results, statistical analyses, or other quantitative information.

Importance of Tables in Research Paper

Tables are an important component of a research paper as they provide a clear and concise presentation of data, statistics, and other information that support the research findings . Here are some reasons why tables are important in a research paper:

• Visual Representation : Tables provide a visual representation of data that is easy to understand and interpret. They help readers to quickly grasp the main points of the research findings and draw their own conclusions.
• Organize Data : Tables help to organize large amounts of data in a systematic and structured manner. This makes it easier for readers to identify patterns and trends in the data.
• Clarity and Accuracy : Tables allow researchers to present data in a clear and accurate manner. They can include precise numbers, percentages, and other information that may be difficult to convey in written form.
• Comparison: Tables allow for easy comparison between different data sets or groups. This makes it easier to identify similarities and differences, and to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Efficiency: Tables allow for a more efficient use of space in the research paper. They can convey a large amount of information in a compact and concise format, which saves space and makes the research paper more readable.

Types of Tables in Research Paper

Most common Types of Tables in Research Paper are as follows:

• Descriptive tables : These tables provide a summary of the data collected in the study. They are usually used to present basic descriptive statistics such as means, medians, standard deviations, and frequencies.
• Comparative tables : These tables are used to compare the results of different groups or variables. They may be used to show the differences between two or more groups or to compare the results of different variables.
• Correlation tables: These tables are used to show the relationships between variables. They may show the correlation coefficients between variables, or they may show the results of regression analyses.
• Longitudinal tables : These tables are used to show changes in variables over time. They may show the results of repeated measures analyses or longitudinal regression analyses.
• Qualitative tables: These tables are used to summarize qualitative data such as interview transcripts or open-ended survey responses. They may present themes or categories that emerged from the data.

How to Create Tables in Research Paper

Here are the steps to create tables in a research paper:

• Plan your table: Determine the purpose of the table and the type of information you want to include. Consider the layout and format that will best convey your information.
• Choose a table format : Decide on the type of table you want to create. Common table formats include basic tables, summary tables, comparison tables, and correlation tables.
• Choose a software program : Use a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets to create your table. These programs allow you to easily enter and manipulate data, format the table, and export it for use in your research paper.
• Input data: Enter your data into the spreadsheet program. Make sure to label each row and column clearly.
• Format the table : Apply formatting options such as font, font size, font color, cell borders, and shading to make your table more visually appealing and easier to read.
• Insert the table into your paper: Copy and paste the table into your research paper. Make sure to place the table in the appropriate location and refer to it in the text of your paper.
• Label the table: Give the table a descriptive title that clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of the table. Also, include a number and a caption that explains the table in more detail.
• Check for accuracy: Review the table for accuracy and make any necessary changes before submitting your research paper.

Examples of Tables in Research Paper

Examples of Tables in the Research Paper are as follows:

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants

This table shows the demographic characteristics of 200 participants in a research study. The table includes information about age, gender, and education level. The mean age of the participants was 35.2 years with a standard deviation of 8.6 years, and the age range was between 21 and 57 years. The table also shows that 46% of the participants were male and 54% were female. In terms of education, 10% of the participants had less than a high school education, 30% were high school graduates, 35% had some college education, and 25% had a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Table 2: Summary of Key Findings

This table summarizes the key findings of a study comparing three different groups on a particular variable. The table shows the mean score, standard deviation, t-value, and p-value for each group. The asterisk next to the t-value for Group 1 indicates that the difference between Group 1 and the other groups was statistically significant at p < 0.01, while the differences between Group 2 and Group 3 were not statistically significant.

Purpose of Tables in Research Paper

The primary purposes of including tables in a research paper are:

• To present data: Tables are an effective way to present large amounts of data in a clear and organized manner. Researchers can use tables to present numerical data, survey results, or other types of data that are difficult to represent in text.
• To summarize data: Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data into a concise and easy-to-read format. Researchers can use tables to summarize the key findings of their research, such as descriptive statistics or the results of regression analyses.
• To compare data : Tables can be used to compare data across different variables or groups. Researchers can use tables to compare the characteristics of different study populations or to compare the results of different studies on the same topic.
• To enhance the readability of the paper: Tables can help to break up long sections of text and make the paper more visually appealing. By presenting data in a table, researchers can help readers to quickly identify the most important information and understand the key findings of the study.

Advantages of Tables in Research Paper

Some of the advantages of using tables in research papers include:

• Clarity : Tables can present data in a way that is easy to read and understand. They can help readers to quickly and easily identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data.
• Efficiency: Tables can save space and reduce the need for lengthy explanations or descriptions of the data in the main body of the paper. This can make the paper more concise and easier to read.
• Organization: Tables can help to organize large amounts of data in a logical and meaningful way. This can help to reduce confusion and make it easier for readers to navigate the data.
• Comparison : Tables can be useful for comparing data across different groups, variables, or time periods. This can help to highlight similarities, differences, and changes over time.
• Visualization : Tables can also be used to visually represent data, making it easier for readers to see patterns and trends. This can be particularly useful when the data is complex or difficult to understand.

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How to Write the List of Figures for a Thesis or Dissertation

• By DiscoverPhDs
• September 20, 2020

A list of figures for your thesis or dissertation is exactly that: it’s a list of the names of all figures you’ve used in your thesis or dissertation, together with the page number that they’re on.

The list of figures is especially useful for a reader to refer to as it (1) gives the reader an overview of the types of figures you’ve included in your document and (2) helps them easily find a particular figure that they’re interested in.

Where Does the List of Figures go?

Write your list of figures and list of tables immediately after your list of contents. Unless specifically asked by a journal, you should not include a separate list of figures in a manuscript for peer-review.

Important Points to Remember

Ensure that the figure title in your list of figures are exactly the same as actually used in the main document. Double check that the page numbering is correct and the font size, margins and all other formatting is correct.

Formatting the List of Figures

Starting off, use Roman Numbers (e.g. iv and viii) to number the sections of the Table of Contents, List of Figures and List of Tables (the title page does not have a number written on it). Arabic numbering (e.g. 1, 2, 3) should start from the Introduction onwards.

Keep your margins consistent with those of the rest of the document, as required by your university. Usually this will be a margin of 4cm on the side of the paper that will be bound and 2cm on the opposing side (e.g. the pages printed that will be on the right hand side of the thesis will have a left margin of 4cm).

While the font size of your figure legends will be slightly smaller than the main text, keep the font style of the list of figures the same as the main text (usually 12 pt).

Title this section in all capital letters as “LIST OF FIGURES”.

List each new figure caption on a new line and capitalise the start of each word. Write the figure number on the left, then caption label and finally the page number the figure corresponds to on the right-hand side.

Apply the same formatting principle to the List of Tables in your thesis of dissertation. That is to insert each table numberon a new line, followed by the table title.

Example of the List of Figures

The example below was created in Microsoft Word. You could also consider incorporating other tools such as Endnote to help automate some of the work of entering a new caption for a figure or table. Be mindful of the Figure labelling convention required by your university. For example, you may need to align the Figure numbers with each chapter (e.g. Figure 1.1, 1.2, 1.3…. for Chapter 1 and Figure 2.1, 2.2, 2.3…. for Chapter 2).

Multistage sampling is a more complex form of cluster sampling for obtaining sample populations. Learn their pros and cons and how to undertake them.

An abstract and introduction are the first two sections of your paper or thesis. This guide explains the differences between them and how to write them.

The unit of analysis refers to the main parameter that you’re investigating in your research project or study.

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Dr Pujada obtained her PhD in Molecular Cell Biology at Georgia State University in 2019. She is now a biomedical faculty member, mentor, and science communicator with a particular interest in promoting STEM education.

Prof Cotton gained her DPhil in the school of education at Oxford University. She is now the Director of Academic Practice and Professor of Higher Education at Plymouth Marjon University.

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10.5 List of figures and tables

If your document has more than two figures or tables create a separate list of figures. The list of figures has many of the same design considerations as the table of contents. Readers use the list of figures to quickly find the illustrations, diagrams, tables, and charts in your report.

Complications arise when you have both tables and figures. Strictly speaking, figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts. Tables are rows and columns of words and numbers; they are not considered figures.

For longer reports that contain dozens of figures and tables each, create separate lists of figures and tables. Put them together on the same page if they fit, as shown in the illustration below. You can combine the two lists under the heading, “List of Figures and Tables,” and identify the items as figure or table as is done in the illustration below.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon Community College, from  Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

Technical Writing Copyright © 2017 by Allison Gross, Annemarie Hamlin, Billy Merck, Chris Rubio, Jodi Naas, Megan Savage, and Michele DeSilva is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Use Tables and Figures effectively in Research Papers

• 3 minute read
• 53.6K views

Table of Contents

Data is the most important component of any research. It needs to be presented effectively in a paper to ensure that readers understand the key message in the paper. Figures and tables act as concise tools for clear presentation . Tables display information arranged in rows and columns in a grid-like format, while figures convey information visually, and take the form of a graph, diagram, chart, or image. Be it to compare the rise and fall of GDPs among countries over the years or to understand how COVID-19 has impacted incomes all over the world, tables and figures are imperative to convey vital findings accurately.

So, what are some of the best practices to follow when creating meaningful and attractive tables and figures? Here are some tips on how best to present tables and figures in a research paper.

Guidelines for including tables and figures meaningfully in a paper:

• Self-explanatory display items: Sometimes, readers, reviewers and journal editors directly go to the tables and figures before reading the entire text. So, the tables need to be well organized and self-explanatory.
• Avoidance of repetition: Tables and figures add clarity to the research. They complement the research text and draw attention to key points. They can be used to highlight the main points of the paper, but values should not be repeated as it defeats the very purpose of these elements.
• Consistency: There should be consistency in the values and figures in the tables and figures and the main text of the research paper.
• Informative titles: Titles should be concise and describe the purpose and content of the table. It should draw the reader’s attention towards the key findings of the research. Column heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., should also be appropriately labelled.
• Adherence to journal guidelines: It is important to follow the instructions given in the target journal regarding the preparation and presentation of figures and tables, style of numbering, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc.

Now that we know how to go about including tables and figures in the manuscript, let’s take a look at what makes tables and figures stand out and create impact.

How to present data in a table?

For effective and concise presentation of data in a table, make sure to:

• Combine repetitive tables: If the tables have similar content, they should be organized into one.
• Divide the data: If there are large amounts of information, the data should be divided into categories for more clarity and better presentation. It is necessary to clearly demarcate the categories into well-structured columns and sub-columns.
• Keep only relevant data: The tables should not look cluttered. Ensure enough spacing.

Example of table presentation in a research paper

For comprehensible and engaging presentation of figures:

• Ensure clarity: All the parts of the figure should be clear. Ensure the use of a standard font, legible labels, and sharp images.
• Use appropriate legends: They make figures effective and draw attention towards the key message.
• Make it precise: There should be correct use of scale bars in images and maps, appropriate units wherever required, and adequate labels and legends.

It is important to get tables and figures correct and precise for your research paper to convey your findings accurately and clearly. If you are confused about how to suitably present your data through tables and figures, do not worry. Elsevier Author Services are well-equipped to guide you through every step to ensure that your manuscript is of top-notch quality.

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Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are often based on copious amounts of data that can be summarized and easily read through tables and graphs. When writing a research paper , it is important for data to be presented to the reader in a visually appealing way. The data in figures and tables, however, should not be a repetition of the data found in the text. There are many ways of presenting data in tables and figures, governed by a few simple rules. An APA research paper and MLA research paper both require tables and figures, but the rules around them are different. When writing a research paper, the importance of tables and figures cannot be underestimated. How do you know if you need a table or figure? The rule of thumb is that if you cannot present your data in one or two sentences, then you need a table .

Using Tables

Tables are easily created using programs such as Excel. Tables and figures in scientific papers are wonderful ways of presenting data. Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding your reader and the elements that comprise a table. Tables have several elements, including the legend, column titles, and body. As with academic writing, it is also just as important to structure tables so that readers can easily understand them. Tables that are disorganized or otherwise confusing will make the reader lose interest in your work.

• Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic sentence” of the table. The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.
• Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table. The reader’s attention moves from the title to the column title sequentially. A good set of column titles will allow the reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.
• Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is located. Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.

Related: Done organizing your research data effectively in tables? Check out this post on tips for citing tables in your manuscript now!

The placement of figures and tables should be at the center of the page. It should be properly referenced and ordered in the number that it appears in the text. In addition, tables should be set apart from the text. Text wrapping should not be used. Sometimes, tables and figures are presented after the references in selected journals.

Using Figures

Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots, drawings, maps, etc. When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader. What is the easiest figure for your reader to understand? How can you present the data in the simplest and most effective way? For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you want your reader to understand spatial relationships.

• Figure Captions: Figures should be numbered and have descriptive titles or captions. The captions should be succinct enough to understand at the first glance. Captions are placed under the figure and are left justified.
• Image: Choose an image that is simple and easily understandable. Consider the size, resolution, and the image’s overall visual attractiveness.
• Additional Information: Illustrations in manuscripts are numbered separately from tables. Include any information that the reader needs to understand your figure, such as legends.

Common Errors in Research Papers

Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding the common errors that make data presentation ineffective. These common mistakes include using the wrong type of figure for the data. For instance, using a scatterplot instead of a bar graph for showing levels of hydration is a mistake. Another common mistake is that some authors tend to italicize the table number. Remember, only the table title should be italicized .  Another common mistake is failing to attribute the table. If the table/figure is from another source, simply put “ Note. Adapted from…” underneath the table. This should help avoid any issues with plagiarism.

Using tables and figures in research papers is essential for the paper’s readability. The reader is given a chance to understand data through visual content. When writing a research paper, these elements should be considered as part of good research writing. APA research papers, MLA research papers, and other manuscripts require visual content if the data is too complex or voluminous. The importance of tables and graphs is underscored by the main purpose of writing, and that is to be understood.

Frequently Asked Questions

"Consider the following points when creating figures for research papers: Determine purpose: Clarify the message or information to be conveyed. Choose figure type: Select the appropriate type for data representation. Prepare and organize data: Collect and arrange accurate and relevant data. Select software: Use suitable software for figure creation and editing. Design figure: Focus on clarity, labeling, and visual elements. Create the figure: Plot data or generate the figure using the chosen software. Label and annotate: Clearly identify and explain all elements in the figure. Review and revise: Verify accuracy, coherence, and alignment with the paper. Format and export: Adjust format to meet publication guidelines and export as suitable file."

"To create tables for a research paper, follow these steps: 1) Determine the purpose and information to be conveyed. 2) Plan the layout, including rows, columns, and headings. 3) Use spreadsheet software like Excel to design and format the table. 4) Input accurate data into cells, aligning it logically. 5) Include column and row headers for context. 6) Format the table for readability using consistent styles. 7) Add a descriptive title and caption to summarize and provide context. 8) Number and reference the table in the paper. 9) Review and revise for accuracy and clarity before finalizing."

"Including figures in a research paper enhances clarity and visual appeal. Follow these steps: Determine the need for figures based on data trends or to explain complex processes. Choose the right type of figure, such as graphs, charts, or images, to convey your message effectively. Create or obtain the figure, properly citing the source if needed. Number and caption each figure, providing concise and informative descriptions. Place figures logically in the paper and reference them in the text. Format and label figures clearly for better understanding. Provide detailed figure captions to aid comprehension. Cite the source for non-original figures or images. Review and revise figures for accuracy and consistency."

"Research papers use various types of tables to present data: Descriptive tables: Summarize main data characteristics, often presenting demographic information. Frequency tables: Display distribution of categorical variables, showing counts or percentages in different categories. Cross-tabulation tables: Explore relationships between categorical variables by presenting joint frequencies or percentages. Summary statistics tables: Present key statistics (mean, standard deviation, etc.) for numerical variables. Comparative tables: Compare different groups or conditions, displaying key statistics side by side. Correlation or regression tables: Display results of statistical analyses, such as coefficients and p-values. Longitudinal or time-series tables: Show data collected over multiple time points with columns for periods and rows for variables/subjects. Data matrix tables: Present raw data or matrices, common in experimental psychology or biology. Label tables clearly, include titles, and use footnotes or captions for explanations."

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List of Figures and Tables in a Dissertation – Examples in Word

Published by Owen Ingram at August 13th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

“List of tables and figures is a list containing all the tables and figures that you have used in your dissertation paper. Typically, dissertations don’t have many tables and figures unless the research involved is too deep and lengthy.”

Another reason to have an independent list of figures and tables in the dissertation and corresponding page numbers is the research’s nature. For example, research on a topic from physical sciences or engineering could include many figures and tables. Ideally, quantitative research studies tend to contain more tables and/or figures than qualitative ones.

The purpose of presenting the list of figures and tables in the dissertation on a separate page is to help the readers find tables and figures of their interest without looking through the whole dissertation document.

First of all, we need to decide whether we require the figure and table list in the dissertation to begin with.

If your dissertation includes many tables and figures, this list will prove to be helpful for the readers, because the figures will have relative page numbers mentioned with them so they can navigate to the figure or table of their choice with just one click.

A list of table or figures in a dissertation typically follows this simple format:

Also Read: How to Best Use References in a Dissertation

Referencing List of Figures and Tables in the Dissertation

When mentioning tables and figures in the list, one must be sure that they have been clearly numbered and titled. If a figure has been obtained from an external source, that source should be clearly referenced in the text and the references section.

Regardless of the  referencing style , you are using, it is mandatory to provide a reference along with the title. This will help the readers to track the origin of the figure.

Adding Titles and Numbers to Figures and Tables

Adding titles and page numbers in your list of figures and tables within Microsoft Word is very quick and straightforward. Follow the steps mentioned below to generate a Microsoft Word-supported   list of figures and tables in the dissertation with their captions and corresponding page numbers.

• Highlight the table or the figure you want to add title and number to, right-click and click Insert Caption .
• Next, select the Above selected item if you are working with tables. Similarly, choose Below selected items if you want to add the title and page number to a figure.

Also read: How to Write the Abstract for the Dissertation.

Does your Dissertation Have the Following?

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Generating List of Figures and Tables Automatically

After adding all your captions, MS Word will automatically generate the figures and tables list for you. Remember, the list will only contain those you already marked using the Insert Caption … tool.

To generate a list of tables and figures in MS Word automatically:

Step #1 – Decide where to Insert the List

Place your cursor at the point where you wish to insert the tables and figures list. The most suitable spot is always right below the table of contents in your dissertation paper.

Step #2 – Insert the List of Figures and Tables in the Dissertation

• In the Word menu bar, click on References .
• In the dialogue box that appears, click on Insert: Table of figures .
• In the dialogue box caption label, you can choose between a Figure or a Table , as appropriate. Moreover, you will be able to choose a design that appears most suitable for you. The reference provides all information that is required to find the source, e.g., Vinz, S.

Example of list of tables and figures

Other Useful Lists you can add to your Dissertation Paper

Although tables and figures lists can be beneficial, we might need a few more lists, including abbreviations and a glossary in dissertations. We can have a sequence for this which is as follows:

• Table of contents (ToC)
• List of tables and figures
• Abbreviations list

ResearchProspect has helped students with their dissertations and essays for several years, regardless of how urgent and complexes their requirements might be. We have dissertation experts in all academic subjects, so you can be confident of having each of your module requirements met. Learn more about our dissertation writing services and essay writing services .

FAQs About List of Tables and Figures in a Dissertation

Which comes first a list of figures or a list of tables.

Simply put, a list of tables comes first—right after the table of contents page, beginning from a new page—in a dissertation.

Are tables also figures?

No; tables have rows and columns in them, whereas figures in a dissertation can comprise any form of visual element, mostly images, graphs, charts, diagrams, flowcharts, etc. furthermore, tables generally summarise and represent raw data, such as the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Do I need to create a list of tables/figures even if I have only one table or figure in my dissertation?

Typically, yes; dissertation writing guidelines stipulate that we create a list even if we have used only one table and/or figure within our dissertation.

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Formatting Your Thesis or Dissertation with Microsoft Word

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• Page Numbers
• Tables and Figures
• Rotated (Landscape) Pages
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• List of Abbreviations
• Some Things to Watch For
• PDF with Embedded Fonts

Lists of tables and figures

Just like the table of contents, Microsoft Word can be used to automatically generate both a list of tables and a list of figures. Automatic generation of these lists has the same advantages as automatically generating the table of contents:

• You don't have to manually type the list of tables or the list of figures
• You don't have to go back and edit the lists if any of the figures or tables changes pages. A couple of clicks and Word will automatically update the list of tables or the list of figures for you.

Below is a tutorial demonstrating how to create the list of tables and the list of figures.

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How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper?

The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and figures.

Introduction

Medical articles consist of review articles, case reports, and letters to the editor which are prepared with the intention of publishing in journals related to the medical discipline of the author. For an academician to be able to progress in carreer, and make his/her activities known in the academic environment, require preparation of the protocol of his/her academic research article, and acquiring sufficient information, and experience related to the composition of this article. In this review article, the information related to the writing of the ‘Results’ section, and use of tables, and figures will be presented to the attention of the readers.

Writing the ‘Results’ section

The ‘Results’ section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers. Renown British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) indicated his feelings as “The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.” which emphasizes the importance of accurately, and impressively written results.

In essence results provide a response for the question” What is found in the research performed?”. Therefore, it is the most vital part of the article. As a priority, while drafting the ‘Results’ section of a manuscript one should not firstly write down methods in the ‘Material and Method’ section. The first sentence should give information about the number of patients who met the inclusion criteria, and thus enrolled in the study. [ 1 ] Besides information about the number of patients excluded from the study, and the reasons for exclusion is very important in that they will enlighten the readers, and reviewers who critically evaluate the manuscript, and also reflect the seriousness of the study. On the other hand, the results obtained should be recorded in chronological order, and without any comments. [ 2 ] In this section use of simple present tense is more appropriate. The findings should be expressed in brief, lucid, and explicable words. The writing style should not be boring for the reader. During writing process of a research article, a generally ill-conceived point is that positive, and significant findings are more important, attractive, and valuable, while negative, and insignificant findings are worthless, and less attractive. A scientific research is not performed to confirm a hypothesis, rather to test it. Not only positive, and significant results are worth writing, on the other hand negative or statistically insignificant result which support fallacy of a widely accepted opinion might be valuable. Therefore, all findings obtained during research should be inclıuded in the ‘Results’ section. [ 1 ]

While writing the ‘Results’ section, the sequence of results, tabulated data, and information which will be illustrated as figures should be definitively indicated. In indicating insignificant changes, do not use expressions as “decreased” or “increased”, these words should be reserved for significant changes. If results related to more than one parameter would be reported, it is appropriate to write the results under the subheading of its related parameter so as to facilitate reading, and comprehension of information. [ 2 ] Only data, and information concerning the study in question should be included in the ‘Results’ section. Results not mentioned in this section should not be included in the ‘Discussion’ and ‘Summary’ sections. Since the results obtained by the authors are cited in the ‘Results’ section, any reference should not be indicated in this section. [ 3 ]

In the ‘Results’ section, numerical expressions should be written in technically appropriate terms. The number of digits (1, 2 or 3 digits) to be written after a comma (in Turkish) or a point (in especially American English) should be determined The number of digits written after the punctuation marks should not be changed all throughout the text. Data should be expressed as mean/median ± standard deviation. Data as age, and scale scores should be indicated together with ranges of values. Absolute numerical value corresponding to a percentage must be also indicated. P values calculated in statistical analysis should be expressed in their absolute values. While writing p values of statistically significant data, instead of p<0.05 the actual level of significance should be recorded. If p value is smaller than 0.001, then it can be written as p <0.01. [ 2 ] While writing the ‘Results’ section, significant data which should be recalled by the readers must be indicated in the main text. It will be appropriate to indicate other demographic numerical details in tables or figures.

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23) is presented below:

“A total of 9 (56.2%) female, and 7 (43.8%) male patients with were included in this study. Mean age of all the patients was 44.3±13.8 (17–65) years, and mean dimensions of the adrenal mass was 4.5±3.4 (1–14) cm. Mean ages of the male, and female patients were 44.1 (30–65), and 42.4 (17–64) years, while mean diameters of adrenal masses were 3.2 (1–5), and 4.5 (1–14) cm (p age =0.963, p mass size =0.206). Surgical procedures were realized using transperitoneal approach through Chevron incision in 1 (6.2%), and retroperitoneal approach using flank incision with removal of the 11. rib in 15 (93.7%) patients. Right (n=6; 37.5%), and left (n=2; 12.5%) adrenalectomies were performed. Two (12.5%) patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomy in the same session because of clinical Cushing’s syndrome persisted despite transsphenoidal hipophysectomy. Mean operative time, and length of the hospital stay were 135 (65–190) min, and 3 (2–6) days, respectively. While resecting 11. rib during retroperitoneal adrenalectomy performed in 1 patient, pleura was perforated for nearly 1.5 cm. The perforated region was drained, and closed intraoperatively with 4/0 polyglyctan sutures. The patient did not develop postoperative pneumothorax. In none of the patients postoperative complications as pneumothorax, bleeding, prolonged drainage were seen. Results of histopathological analysis of the specimens retrieved at the end of the operation were summarized in Table 1 .” Table 1. Histopathological examination results of the patients Histopathological diagnosis Men n (%) Women n (%) Total n (%) Adrenal cortical adenoma 5 (31.3) 6 (37.6) 11 (68.8) Pheochromocytoma 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) 2 (12.6) Ganglioneuroma 1 (6.2) - 1 (6.2) Myelolipoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Adrenal carcinoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Total 7 (43.7) 9 (56.2) 16 (100) Open in a separate window

Use of tables, and figures

To prevent the audience from getting bored while reading a scientific article, some of the data should be expressed in a visual format in graphics, and figures rather than crowded numerical values in the text. Peer-reviewers frequently look at tables, and figures. High quality tables, and figures increase the chance of acceptance of the manuscript for publication.

Number of tables in the manuscript should not exceed the number recommended by the editorial board of the journal. Data in the main text, and tables should not be repeated many times. Tables should be comprehensible, and a reader should be able to express an opinion about the results just at looking at the tables without reading the main text. Data included in tables should comply with those mentioned in the main text, and percentages in rows, and columns should be summed up accurately. Unit of each variable should be absolutely defined. Sampling size of each group should be absolutely indicated. Values should be expressed as values±standard error, range or 95% confidence interval. Tables should include precise p values, and level of significance as assessed with statistical analysis should be indicated in footnotes. [ 2 ] Use of abbreviations in tables should be avoided, if abbreviations are required they should be defined explicitly in the footnotes or legends of the tables. As a general rule, rows should be arranged as double-spaced Besides do not use pattern coloring for cells of rows, and columns. Values included in tables should be correctly approximated. [ 1 , 2 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23).is shown in Table 1 .

Most of the readers priorly prefer to look at figures, and graphs rather than reading lots of pages. Selection of appropriate types of graphs for demonstration of data is a critical decision which requires artist’s meticulousness. As is the case with tables, graphs, and figures should also disploay information not provided in the text. Bar, line, and pie graphs, scatter plots, and histograms are some examples of graphs. In graphs, independent variables should be represented on the horizontal, and dependent variables on the vertical axis. Number of subjects in every subgroup should be indicated The labels on each axis should be easily understandable. [ 2 ] The label of the Y axis should be written vertically from bottom to top. The fundamental point in writing explanatory notes for graphs, and figures is to help the readers understand the contents of them without referring to the main text. Meanings of abbreviations, and acronyms used in the graphs, and figures should be provided in explanatory notes. In the explanatory notes striking data should be emphasized. Statistical tests used, levels of significance, sampling size, stains used for analyses, and magnification rate should be written in order to facilitate comprehension of the study procedures. [ 1 , 2 ]

Flow diagram can be utilized in the ‘Results’ section. This diagram facilitates comprehension of the results obtained at certain steps of monitorization during the research process. Flow diagram can be used either in the ‘Results’ or ‘Material and Method’ section. [ 2 , 3 ]

Histopathological analyses, surgical technique or radiological images which are considered to be more useful for the comprehension of the text by the readers can be visually displayed. Important findings should be marked on photos, and their definitions should be provided clearly in the explanatory legends. [ 1 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned issues, graphics, and flow diagram in the ‘Results’ section of a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the World Journal of Urology in the year 2010 (World J Urol 2010;28:17–22.) are shown in Figures 1 , and ​ and2 2 .

a The mean SHIM scores of the groups before and after treatment. SHIM sexual health inventory for male. b The mean IPSS scores of the groups before and after treatment. IPSS international prostate symptom score

Flowchart showing patients’ progress during the study. SHIM sexual health inventory for male, IIEF international index of erectile function, IPSS international prostate symptom score, QoL quality of life, Q max maximum urinary flow rate. PRV post voiding residual urine volume

In conclusion, in line with the motto of the famous German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). ‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor .’ results obtained in a scientific research article should be expressed accurately, and with a masterstroke of a tailor in compliance with certain rules which will ensure acceptability of the scientific manuscript by the editorial board of the journal, and also facilitate its intelligibility by the readers.

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

Tables and Figures in Research Papers: What Should you Use?

Researchers often use tables and figures in their research paper as visual representations to convey data in a simple way. Tables and figures in research papers not only enable readers to understand complex data at a glance but they also help create better engagement in one’s research. Instead of having to wade through dense paragraphs of text, readers of your research are able to quickly and easily identify patterns, gather important information, and understand interactions between data points with tables and figures.

While there are many kinds of visual tools that students and researchers can employ to explain the approach, methodology, research process and conclusion of their research, deciding whether to use a table, graph or a visual, and what kind – isn’t always easy. In this article, we will cover the basics of using tables and figures in research papers, so you know when and how to use them to accurately communicate research results.

Table of Contents

How to choose between tables and graphs

When choosing whether to use tables or figures in research papers, it is important to consider what type of information you want to convey with your visuals. This will help determine which format would be best suited for the data. If you are presenting numerical data, a table is often the best choice because tables are a great way to compare values or characteristics among related items and are particularly useful for presenting large sets of data in a systematic manner.

Figures or graphs, on the other hand, can be used to show trends, or relationships. Graphs and charts allow readers to quickly and easily identify patterns in data, and are particularly useful for presenting data over time or when comparing different variables.

So, if you have a lot of numerical data, then a tabular format would be more appropriate. If you have more textual data, then a graphical format would be more suitable.

Choosing the appropriate table to present your data

Once you have decided on the type of data you will be presenting, you need to choose a format that can present your data in an easy to read and understand way. Tables can be overwhelming and difficult to read if they are too complex, and therefore, experts suggest keeping the format simple. It is also important to ensure that tables in research papers are accompanied by titles, labels or captions that are clear, concise, and engaging.

Identifying the right kind of graph to convey information

It is important to choose the right kind of graph or chart to communicate and highlight research findings. For example, if you are presenting data over time, a line graph is often the best choice, while a bar graph may be better for comparing different categories of data. Remember to ensure that the graphs, schematic diagrams, line drawings and data plots are clearly presented, and neatly composed. Using a prudent mix of colors and contrasts is a good way to highlight data without complicating it.

Using text is important too

It is important to keep in mind that using tables and figures in research papers may not always be required. It is okay to use text when you do not have extensive or complex data to share. Text can be used to provide context and explanation of the data being presented. Text can also help to provide a narrative to the data, making it easier for readers to understand its significance and implications. Using text is effective when one is not working towards presenting a large dataset or when one wants to present data marginal to the study.

Important points to keep in mind while using tables and figures in research papers

• Tables and figures in research papers must be clearly and simply presented to better clarity and ease of understanding. Figures that are complex or tables with too much information can dissuade readers from reading further and even dampen their interest.
• Remember to ensure that the data is not repeated in the main text of the research paper. Use only critical and necessary data and information in tables and figures that are pertinent to the research area or question being studied.
• Tables and figures in research papers must be integrated into the text in a way that is easy to understand and is visually appealing. It is important to ensure that the font size, style, and colors used are consistent with the overall design of the research paper. This will help to create a professional and cohesive look to the paper.
• It is crucial for researchers to adhere to uniformity in style and format while using tables and figures in research papers. Care must be taken to ensure that these align with the requirements and guidelines of the target journal or publication.
• When presenting tables and figures in research papers, it is important to ensure that they are clearly labelled and titled. This will help readers to understand what they are looking at and why it is important. It is also important to provide a brief explanation of the data or information being presented and provide context for the reader.
• If researchers use tables and figures that are not their own, it is essential that they correctly cite the sources to avoid being charged with plagiarism.

Keeping the above points in mind will help you in making sure that the tables and figures used in research papers effectively communicate critical aspects of your research with readers.

In conclusion, the choice between tables and figures in research papers is a nuanced decision that hinges on the nature of your data and the story you aim to tell. Tables are ideal for presenting precise numerical values and detailed comparisons, while figures excel at visually illustrating trends, patterns, and complex relationships. Consider your research goals, audience, and the most effective way to convey your findings. A strategic combination of tables and figures can enhance the clarity and impact of your research paper. By thoughtfully selecting these visual aids, you empower your readers to better comprehend and engage with your study’s insights.

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• List of Figures/Tables
• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• Table of Contents
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• Tips & Tricks
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document
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Automatic Lists of Figures and Tables

If you have captioned your figures, tables, and equations using Word’s captioning feature (see the  Captions tab in the left-side navigation of this Guide), you can have Word generate your lists for you automatically.

• In the References tab, click the Insert Table of Figures button  (use this for lists of tables or equations, too).
• In the window that appears, select the label for which you want to make a list from the Caption Label menu (such as "Equation", "Figure", or "Table").
• If you want to change the style of your table of contents (e.g. change the font, or you want more space between each item in the list), click on the Modify button, select the Table of Figures style, then click the Modify button to do so. Click OK when you are done.
• Click OK to insert your table of contents.  

Repeat these steps to insert other lists into your document (Rackham requires separate lists for tables, figures, and any other label you’ve used).  A List of Appendices is handled differently - see the Appendices section of this Guide for more information.

Including Figures and Supplemental Figures in the List of Figures

There are two ways to combine Figures AND Supplemental Figures in your List of Figures -- the easy way, and the complicated way. It comes down to how you want the list to be laid out. This goes for Tables and Supplemental Tables, too, of course.

The Easy Way

Use the Insert Caption tool to apply a Figure caption (just like you've been doing with your regular Figures) to each of your Supplemental Figures. Once you've got the caption in place, then just type the word "Supplemental" before "Figure X".  When you update it, the List of Figures will pull in "Supplemental Figure X" into the List.  The drawback is that the numbering for those Supplemental Figures will follow the numbering for your regular Figures, so you'll have:

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Supplemental Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

If you'd prefer the first Supplemental Figure to be numbered independently of the Figure numbering ("Supplemental Figure 1.1"), then things get a bit more complicated. We cover how to integrate figures and supplemental figures into one List of Figures in the section below.

How do I integrate figures and supplemental figures in the same List of Figures?

A recent email inquiry:

Several of my chapters have supplemental figures at the end that I would like to include in the List of Figures at the beginning of my thesis. Do you know how to include all captions labeled either "Supplemental Figure" or "Figure" in the same List of Figures, using Word styles? I know how to create a label for each type of figure, but not how to integrate those two different labels into one List, based on order of appearance in my dissertation. Right now, I have to create two Lists: Figures go in the first, and Supplemental Figures go in the second. I want to set it up so that Figure 1 is followed by Supplemental Figure 1, which is followed by Figure 2, all in the same List. Any help would be greatly appreciated!

Our response:

The problem you're running into is that a "List of..." can only have captions representing one caption  label . We can have separate labels for "Figures" and "Supplemental Figures", but as you've found, you then have to have each of those two lists in your List of Figures, placed one after the other:

Figure 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Figure 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Supplemental Figure 1.1  . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Supplemental Figure 1.2  . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Supplemental Figure 2.1  . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Supplemental Figure 2.2  . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

To the reader, it wouldn't necessarily be apparent they are two lists, but looking at the page numbers you'll notice that they aren't in page order, as Rackham requires.

If you don't mind the Supplemental Figure numbers NOT starting over at 1, like this:

Figure 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Supplemental Figure 1.3  . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Supplemental Figure 1.4  . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Supplemental Figure 2.3  . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Supplemental Figure 2.4  . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

then you can continue to use the Figure caption label for all of them, then manually type the word "Supplemental" before the word "Figure" in the caption itself. Update your List of Figures, and it will pull in the extra word you added, as above.

The real, but imperfect, solution:

But if you really want to have those supplemental figures interspersed among the other figures in your List of Figures and using their own numbering scheme, there's a way. The solution is tricky, it's a bit of a hack, and may be more trouble than it's worth...but you'll be the best judge of that.  The trick is to go ahead and create the two caption labels, and then we'll create one List that pulls in ALL captions -- which means this List will initially be cluttered with all your Table, Figure, Supplemental Figure, etc... captions -- a messy thing, but we did mention this solution was imperfect, but it gets the job done. Then – most importantly – we'll delete the lines that include captions for things we don't want in that particular List.

Start off by deleting any existing List of Figures you already have. Then:

1. Place your cursor where you want your integrated list of figures to be.

2. In the References tab, click Insert Table of Figures

3. In the window that appears, click Options...

5. Click OK to close the Table of Figures window.

That will create one list that includes ALL of your captions -- tables, figures, equations, supplemental figures -- everything. You now need to delete the things that shouldn't be there. A helpful tip is to hover your cursor in the empty 1" margin just to the left of the lines you want to delete (your cursor will change to a rightward-facing arrow) and click once to select a line. Click and drag down in the margin to select multiple lines. This can make it much easier to select things to delete.

This is something you should wait to do until just before you save it as a PDF or send it to a reviewer, because anytime you update that all-in-one List of Figures field, it'll pull EVERYTHING back in again ...and you'll have to delete the unwanted items again.

Obviously, this is a hack and could be a big job if there are a lot of captions to find and delete. There may be a more elegant way to do it, but we haven't found anything better yet, unfortunately. Perhaps you could create a brand new caption style, apply it to all your Figure and Supplemental Figure captions, and use this same trick to "Build table of figures from:" that new style -- but we haven't dug into that yet. Still pretty "hacky", but perhaps worth exploring if you're feeling adventurous.

We don't claim to know everything, so if you come across a simpler solution please let us know with an email to [email protected] .

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Figures and Tables in Research Papers – Tips and Examples

In this blog, we will look at best practices for presenting tables and figures in your research paper. You must try to present your results in figures and tables wherever possible. This is a fantastic way to summarize large amounts of data in a visually pleasing way.

1. When to use Figures and Tables in a Research Paper?

One of the common questions asked by students is when should they present the data in figures and tables instead of putting it directly in the text. The best way to answer this question is if you cannot present your data in your text in one or two lines, then you should consider putting it in a figure or a table.

Tip: If you cannot present your data in your text in one or two lines then use a Table or Figure.

Another common question that comes up is how to choose between a figure and a table for presenting the data. The best way to answer this question is if you want to illustrate the trends and patterns in the data, then a figure is the best option. If you want to show the actual values or present a lot of numerical information in your paper. Then, a table might be the best way to go.

2. An Example of Table and Figure Usage

Here is an example. Look at the way the authors have used tables and figures to describe their results.

✔ The author explains the trend using a figure and points the reader to the table for full data In Figure 1.1, the values are plotted as a function of time. The two peaks in the plot correspond to the maximum and minimum temperature values. The specific values obtained for each experiment are given in Table 2.

In the first couple of lines, they are talking about a trend in their data that relates to the change in temperature over time. They are constantly referring to the figure to get their point across to the readers. And finally, in the last sentence, they are telling the readers that the actual numerical data is provided in the table, and they can refer to it if they want. This is a standard way to use figures and tables in your research paper.

3. Best Practices for Using Tables & Figures

When you are using figures and tables in your paper, you must reference them in your text.  You cannot have a figure in your paper and not talk about it in your text.

Best practices All Figures/Tables should be referenced in the text Every Figure/Table should have a caption Caption should be concise and self-explanatory

Another important thing is that your figure should have a caption that clearly explains what is it about. Most people skim through the paper just going through figures and tables without reading any text in the paper. So, captions should be as short as possible but detailed enough for the readers to understand the figure or table without having to read the text.

4. Common Mistakes to Avoid

A common mistake made by both beginner writers and experienced writers is repeating the figure caption in the text when referring to the figure in the paper. Look at the following example, the author repeats exactly what it says in the figure caption in the text. The author is saying that the figure shows the change in temperature over time. This is already mentioned in the figure caption, there is nothing new here.

✖ Bad example – Repetition of figure title in the text when referring to it Figure 1 shows the change in temperature over time.

Now, look at the example below. While referring to the figure, the author provides some additional information to the readers by talking about an interesting trend in the figure instead of just repeating the figure caption.

✔ Good example – Interesting fact provided about the figure when referring to it The temperature fluctuation over time follows a sine wave pattern peaking at 30 degrees (Fig 1).

Tables and figures are important parts of your research work. They are your secret weapon for clearly presenting your data to your readers. We strongly recommend that you prepare the list of figures and tables that you want to include in your work before you start writing the text. Please follow the instructions provided in this blog while adding figures and tables to your research paper. If you have any questions, please drop a comment below, and we will answer as soon as possible. We also recommend you to refer to our other blogs on  academic writing tools ,   academic writing resources , and  academic phrase-bank , which are relevant to the topic discussed in this blog. 

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• Figure & Table Lists | Word Instructions, Template & Examples

Figure & Table Lists | Word Instructions, Template & Examples

Published on 24 May 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 25 October 2022.

A list of figures and tables compiles all of the figures and tables that you used in your thesis or dissertation, along with their corresponding page numbers. These lists give your reader an overview of how you have used figures and tables in your document.

While these lists are often not required, you may want to include one as a way to stay organised if you are using several figures and tables in your paper. Your educational institution may require one, so be sure to check their guidelines. Ultimately, if you do choose to add one, it should go directly after your table of contents .

You can download our Microsoft Word template below to help you get started.

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• Table of contents

How to create a list of figures and tables in Word

Example of a list of tables and figures, additional lists to consider, frequently asked questions.

The first step to creating your list of figures and tables is to ensure that each of your figures and tables has a caption . This way, Microsoft Word will be able to find each one and compile them in your list automatically.

To do this, follow these steps:

• Navigate to the References tab, and click ‘Insert Caption’, which you can find in the Captions group.
• Give your caption a name. In the Label list, you can select the label that best describes your figure or table, or make your own by selecting ‘New Label’.

Next, you can insert the list of tables and figures directly by clicking ‘Insert Table of Figures’, which can be found to the right of the ‘Insert Caption’ button. Be careful here – the list will only include items that you have marked using the ‘Insert Caption’ tool!

You can choose the formatting and layout within this menu as well, as you can see below.

There are a few things to remember as you go:

• Figures and tables always need to be numbered, with clear titles.
• If a figure or table is taken from or based on another source, be sure to cite your sources .

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In addition to your list of tables and figures, there are a few other lists to consider for your thesis or dissertation. They can be placed in the following order:

• title=”Abbreviations of a dissertation” Abbreviation list

Copyright information can usually be found wherever the table or figure was published. For example, for a diagram in a journal article , look on the journal’s website or the database where you found the article. Images found on sites like Flickr are listed with clear copyright information.

If you find that permission is required to reproduce the material, be sure to contact the author or publisher and ask for it.

Lists of figures and tables are often not required, and they aren’t particularly common. They specifically aren’t required for APA Style, though you should be careful to follow their other guidelines for figures and tables .

If you have many figures and tables in your thesis or dissertation, include one may help you stay organised. Your educational institution may require them, so be sure to check their guidelines.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

A list of figures and tables compiles all of the figures and tables that you used in your thesis or dissertation and displays them with the page number where they can be found.

Your list of tables and figures should go directly after your table of contents in your thesis or dissertation.

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Thesis/Dissertation Formatting

• List of Tables

Tables in your document

• Use Times New Roman for text in the tables.  Use size 12 where able, but 10 or 11 size may also be used to fit text within the table.  Line spacing within a table should be single-spaced.
• All tables should be labeled and formatted in APA style with numbering, title, notes, borders, etc.  
• Tables should be placed after the paragraph where they are first mentioned.  If a table continues is very large, it can start on the next page after it is mentioned.  If your charge is longer than one page, type Table 1 (Continued) at the top of the next page and be sure the table headings are repeated.
• References in your text to tables must reference a specific table and number, for example: "As demonstrated in Table 3..." Do not use, "As demonstrated in the following table...."
• You are to reference your table in the paragraph immediately preceding or following the location of the table.
• If your table needs to be rotated because it is too large, rotate just the table with the top of the table at the 1.5" margin side.
• Repeat the headings if your table has to continue on a new page.
• The titles of your tables should be italicized throughout the paper.
• Tables within the appendix need to have the appendix section and table number. For example, Table A.1, refers to the first table in appendix A.

Note:  you only flip your table when it is too wide.  In the event that you do continue your table on a new page, be sure to label the table.  For example, insert "Table 2 (continued)" on the new page.

List of Tables page

• Required if there are two or more tables in your document including the appendices.
• Type List of Tables on the top line. Be sure to label this title as a page title heading to format it properly. See Content/Chapters for more information about headings.
• Leave the next line blank.
• Type Page (#), tab once, type Table 1: Title of Table One.
• If your page number is a single digit, you will need to tab twice so that all table names are aligned.
• List each table on a new line.
• If your title is so long it goes onto another line, indent that line to match where all table names start.
• If you have tables in the appendix, be sure to add them on this list.   Do not bold or italicize.

• Thesis/Dissertation Information
• Introduction & Help
• General Formatting
• Table of Contents
• Certificate of Approval
• Acknowledgments
• List of Figures
• Content/Chapters

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List of Tables, List of Figures

If even one numbered table or figure appears in your manuscript, then a List of Tables and/or a List of Figures must be included in your manuscript following the Table of Contents. If both are used, arrange the List of Tables before the List of Figures.

NOTE: The templates were created using the 2013 version of Microsoft Word. If a template is downloaded in another version of Word or another word processing program, the formatting may be incorrect. Also, if a template is copied and pasted into another document, the settings of that document (margins, page number settings, font style, etc.) may affect the look of the template.

• List of Tables template (DOC)

This Microsoft Word document can be saved to your computer to use as a template. It was created using Microsoft Office 2013 version of Word. Please email [email protected] if you have problems with the download.

• List of Figures template (DOC)

Frequently asked questions

What is a list of figures and tables.

A list of figures and tables compiles all of the figures and tables that you used in your thesis or dissertation and displays them with the page number where they can be found.

Frequently asked questions: Dissertation

Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:

• An undergraduate dissertation is typically 8,000–15,000 words
• A master’s dissertation is typically 12,000–50,000 words
• A PhD thesis is typically book-length: 70,000–100,000 words

However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.

A dissertation prospectus or proposal describes what or who you plan to research for your dissertation. It delves into why, when, where, and how you will do your research, as well as helps you choose a type of research to pursue. You should also determine whether you plan to pursue qualitative or quantitative methods and what your research design will look like.

It should outline all of the decisions you have taken about your project, from your dissertation topic to your hypotheses and research objectives , ready to be approved by your supervisor or committee.

Note that some departments require a defense component, where you present your prospectus to your committee orally.

A thesis is typically written by students finishing up a bachelor’s or Master’s degree. Some educational institutions, particularly in the liberal arts, have mandatory theses, but they are often not mandatory to graduate from bachelor’s degrees. It is more common for a thesis to be a graduation requirement from a Master’s degree.

Even if not mandatory, you may want to consider writing a thesis if you:

• Plan to attend graduate school soon
• Have a particular topic you’d like to study more in-depth
• Are considering a career in research
• Would like a capstone experience to tie up your academic experience

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation should include the following:

• A restatement of your research question
• A summary of your key arguments and/or results
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.

For a stronger dissertation conclusion , avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the discussion section and results section
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion …”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g., “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

While it may be tempting to present new arguments or evidence in your thesis or disseration conclusion , especially if you have a particularly striking argument you’d like to finish your analysis with, you shouldn’t. Theses and dissertations follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the discussion section and results section .) The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a  literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation . As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.

A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same thing and cannot be used interchangeably. While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, a literature review critically evaluates existing research relating to your topic. You’ll likely need both in your dissertation .

While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work based on existing research, a conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions, mapping out the variables you may use in your study and the interplay between them.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review , research methods , avenues for future research, etc.)

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

In most styles, the title page is used purely to provide information and doesn’t include any images. Ask your supervisor if you are allowed to include an image on the title page before doing so. If you do decide to include one, make sure to check whether you need permission from the creator of the image.

Include a note directly beneath the image acknowledging where it comes from, beginning with the word “ Note .” (italicized and followed by a period). Include a citation and copyright attribution . Don’t title, number, or label the image as a figure , since it doesn’t appear in your main text.

Definitional terms often fall into the category of common knowledge , meaning that they don’t necessarily have to be cited. This guidance can apply to your thesis or dissertation glossary as well.

However, if you’d prefer to cite your sources , you can follow guidance for citing dictionary entries in MLA or APA style for your glossary.

A glossary is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. In contrast, an index is a list of the contents of your work organized by page number.

The title page of your thesis or dissertation goes first, before all other content or lists that you may choose to include.

The title page of your thesis or dissertation should include your name, department, institution, degree program, and submission date.

Glossaries are not mandatory, but if you use a lot of technical or field-specific terms, it may improve readability to add one to your thesis or dissertation. Your educational institution may also require them, so be sure to check their specific guidelines.

A glossary or “glossary of terms” is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. Your glossary only needs to include terms that your reader may not be familiar with, and is intended to enhance their understanding of your work.

A glossary is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. In contrast, dictionaries are more general collections of words.

An abbreviation is a shortened version of an existing word, such as Dr. for Doctor. In contrast, an acronym uses the first letter of each word to create a wholly new word, such as UNESCO (an acronym for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

As a rule of thumb, write the explanation in full the first time you use an acronym or abbreviation. You can then proceed with the shortened version. However, if the abbreviation is very common (like PC, USA, or DNA), then you can use the abbreviated version from the get-go.

Be sure to add each abbreviation in your list of abbreviations !

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation , you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

A list of abbreviations is a list of all the abbreviations that you used in your thesis or dissertation. It should appear at the beginning of your document, with items in alphabetical order, just after your table of contents .

Your list of tables and figures should go directly after your table of contents in your thesis or dissertation.

Lists of figures and tables are often not required, and aren’t particularly common. They specifically aren’t required for APA-Style, though you should be careful to follow their other guidelines for figures and tables .

If you have many figures and tables in your thesis or dissertation, include one may help you stay organized. Your educational institution may require them, so be sure to check their guidelines.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction .

You may acknowledge God in your dissertation acknowledgements , but be sure to follow academic convention by also thanking the members of academia, as well as family, colleagues, and friends who helped you.

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

In a thesis or dissertation, the discussion is an in-depth exploration of the results, going into detail about the meaning of your findings and citing relevant sources to put them in context.

The conclusion is more shorter and more general: it concisely answers your main research question and makes recommendations based on your overall findings.

In the discussion , you explore the meaning and relevance of your research results , explaining how they fit with existing research and theory. Discuss:

• Your  interpretations : what do the results tell us?
• The  implications : why do the results matter?
• The  limitation s : what can’t the results tell us?

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter of a thesis or dissertation presents your research results concisely and objectively.

In quantitative research , for each question or hypothesis , state:

• The type of analysis used
• Relevant results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics
• Whether or not the alternative hypothesis was supported

In qualitative research , for each question or theme, describe:

• Recurring patterns
• Significant or representative individual responses
• Relevant quotations from the data

Don’t interpret or speculate in the results chapter.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract in the table of contents.

The abstract appears on its own page in the thesis or dissertation , after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 200–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

In a thesis or dissertation, the acknowledgements should usually be no longer than one page. There is no minimum length.

The acknowledgements are generally included at the very beginning of your thesis , directly after the title page and before the abstract .

Yes, it’s important to thank your supervisor(s) in the acknowledgements section of your thesis or dissertation .

Even if you feel your supervisor did not contribute greatly to the final product, you must acknowledge them, if only for a very brief thank you. If you do not include your supervisor, it may be seen as a snub.

In the acknowledgements of your thesis or dissertation, you should first thank those who helped you academically or professionally, such as your supervisor, funders, and other academics.

Then you can include personal thanks to friends, family members, or anyone else who supported you during the process.

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List Of Figures And Tables For Your Dissertation

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The list of figures and tables in a research paper , thesis, or dissertation provides a structured overview of graphic elements included in the paper. This list guides readers to find specific graphs, images, tables, or charts effortlessly. The process of compiling this list needs more than just listing the captions; it also requires proper formatting and sequencing in line with academic guidelines. This article explores creating a well-structured list of figures and tables with examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 List of Figures and Tables – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: List of figures and tables
• 3 Creating the list of figures and tables in Word
• 4 Example list of figures and tables
• 5 List of figures and tables: Additional lists

List of Figures and Tables – In a Nutshell

The American Psychological Association publishes the APA style guide, which aims to:

• Facilitate concise academic and scholarly communication worldwide.
• Act as a reference for the various components and conventions of scientific and technical writing.
• Improve the readability of documents.

Definition: List of figures and tables

Tables show numerical values or text arranged in rows and columns. In contrast, figures typically consist of graphs, illustrations, or drawings.

The APA style guide defines figures as graphical displays other than tables, including photographs, graphics, charts, and non-textual information.

Suppose a dissertation contains one or more tables or figures. In that case, the APA guide specifies including a list of figures and tables as appropriate.

Every list of figures and tables includes a tabulated, numerical enumeration of the titles of each relevant item. This uniform and consistent approach enables dissertation readers – including examiners – to quickly scan and locate the sources, findings, and key points in long documents.

By following APA recommendations to make a list of figures and tables, college and university students can present their dissertations correctly.

List of Tables

Table 1             Title of Table One ……………………………………………………………………………..2 Table 2             Title of Table Two .…………………………………………………………………………….3 Table 3             Title of Table ‘Three ………………………………………………………………………….3

List of Figures

Figure 1            Title of Figure One …………………………………………………………………………..4 Figure 2            Title of Figure Two …………………………………………………………………………..5 Figure 3            Title of Figure Three ………………………………………………………………………..5

This article will delve into how to include a list of figures and tables in APA style in your dissertation.

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Creating the list of figures and tables in Word

Creating a list of figures and tables is straightforward in most word processing software, such as Microsoft Word.

• Firstly, we must add captions to each figure or table. The figure number goes in bold above the figure (e.g. Figure 1). Then, the figure title appears as one double-spaced line below the figure number in italics in title case, i.e. with the first letter of major words capitalized.
• Next, use the command on the “References” menu to complete the detailed settings you require. On confirming, the software will create the list sorted by page number and include it in your document.

Note: It is essential to eschew plagiarism if you are creating a list of figures and tables based on copying from another document.

Also, remember that the source document settings and format may affect how the table looks in your new paper: font style, page number conventions, margin widths, etc.

• Firstly, we must add captions to each figure or table. The figure number goes in bold above the figure (e.g., Figure 1). Then, the figure title appears as one double-spaced line below the figure number in italics in title case, i.e., with the first letter of major words capitalized.

Further information on formatting standards for a list of figures and tables are on pages 225 to 250 of the APA Publication Manual 7th Edition (2020).

Example list of figures and tables

List of figures and tables: Additional lists

Other lists you might consider including in a dissertation are:

• A list of abbreviations
• A table of contents

After the title, approval signature, and copyright page(s) as applicable, we recommend you arrange the pages of a dissertation in the following order:

• Table of Contents

Occasionally, research results or lengthy analyses may extend to hundreds of rows. Instead of including all the detail, a clickable link or URL (universal resource locator) to an online version may be preferable.

We recommend opting for a data repository or an arXiv location, as privately hosted websites may change or disappear.

Best practice guidelines advocate the long-term availability of datasets for at least five years after publication. 2 Resources such as nature.com publish details of storage options by scientific field.

How do you list tables in a dissertation?

Your list of figures and tables comes after the table of contents. If both lists are present, the list of titles appears before the list of figures.

What are figure keys?

Figure legends (also known as keys) explain uncommon symbols used in the figure image. They should appear within the borders of the figure.

What are figure notes?

Figure notes explain, describe, clarify, or supplement the information in the image. Only some figures include notes, as and when necessary.

Where do I position notes for figures or tables?

According to the APA style guide, notes appear below the figure or table. Use double line spacing and left justification.

Citing sources or paraphrasing passages incorrectly are common causes for point deductions. Take just 10 minutes out of your schedule to run your paper through our online plagiarism checker and submit your paper with confidence.

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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• Sunday 28 July 28 2024, 11:00 – 16:30 (TBC)
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• Published: 08 August 2024

Construction of effective reproduction number of infectious disease individuals based on spatiotemporal discriminant search model: take hand-foot-mouth disease as an example

• Linyi Wang 1 ,
• Yin He 1 &
• Yu Zhang 3  

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume  24 , Article number:  173 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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In order to facilitate the tracing of infectious diseases in a small area and to effectively carry out disease control and epidemiological investigations, this research proposes a novel spatiotemporal model to estimate effective reproduction number(Re)for infectious diseases, based on the fundamental concept of contact tracing.

This study utilizes the incidence of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) among children in Bishan District, Chongqing, China from 2015 to 2019. The study incorporates the epidemiological characteristics of HFMD and aims to construct a Spatiotemporal Correlation Discrimination of HFMD. Utilizing ARC ENGINE and C# programming for the creation of a spatio-temporal database dedicated to HFMD to facilitate data collection and analysis. The scientific validity of the proposed method was verified by comparing the effective reproduction number obtained by the traditional SEIR model.

We have ascertained the optimal search radius for the spatiotemporal search model to be 1.5 km. Upon analyzing the resulting Re values, which range from 1.14 to 4.75, we observe a skewed distribution pattern from 2015 to 2019. The median and quartile Re value recorded is 2.42 (1.98, 2.72). Except for 2018, the similarity coefficient r of the years 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2019 were all close to 1, and p <0.05 in the comparison of the two models, indicating that the Re values obtained by using the search model and the traditional SEIR model are correlated and closely related. The results exhibited similarity between the Re curves of both models and the epidemiological characteristics of HFMD. Finally, we illustrated the regional distribution of Re values obtained by the search model at various time intervals on Geographic Information System (GIS) maps which highlighted variations in the incidence of diseases across different communities, neighborhoods, and even smaller areas.

The model comprehensively considers both temporal variation and spatial heterogeneity in disease transmission and accounts for each individual's distinct time of onset and spatial location. This proposed method differs significantly from existing mathematical models used for estimating Re in that it is founded on reasonable scientific assumptions and computer algorithms programming that take into account real-world spatiotemporal factors. It is particularly well-suited for estimating the Re of infectious diseases in relatively stable mobile populations within small geographical areas.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The effective reproduction number (R e ) is an essential indicator for evaluating the scale and predicting the trend of infectious disease outbreaks [ 1 ]. Researchers use it to characterize the transmission behavior of a disease, while policymakers use it to develop effective mitigation strategies [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Unlike the basic reproduction number (R 0 ), R e is better suited to practical situations as it represents the average number of secondary cases that may be produced by the primary case during its infectious period, and can therefore more accurately quantify a disease’s transmission capabilities [ 5 , 6 ]. Common methods for obtaining the effective reproduction number include contact tracing [ 7 ], infectious disease transmission models and algorithms [ 8 , 9 ], and estimation through exponential growth rates [ 10 ].

In recent years, effective mathematical modeling has become an influential method and scientific basis for the study of infectious disease management [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Such models are instrumental in simulating epidemic spread and predicting development trends. By constructing mathematical models, we can gain a better understanding of the characteristics and rules governing epidemic transmission, and provide a practical basis for scientific prevention and control. Such models also allow for timely formulation of response plans, swift action, and ultimately effective reduction of the harm caused by epidemics to protect public health and safety [ 14 ]. When it comes to obtaining R e in the mathematical modeling of infectious disease dynamics, the most commonly used method is the classical effective reproduction number prediction based on SEIR models [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, in recent years, there have been numerous research findings based on Bayesian inference methods using infectious disease outbreak dynamics [ 18 , 19 ], the construction of infectious disease transmission matrices [ 20 ], and computer simulations to predict R e [ 21 ]. For example, in recent years, there have been many research achievements in obtaining Re through the construction of differential equations and network mathematical models, such as approaches incorporating degree correlation [ 22 , 23 ], weighted network models [ 24 ], and delayed differential equation models [ 25 , 26 ]. However, due to the variability of infectious parameters and the diversity of network topologies, it is challenging to obtain accurate values that match the actual situation. Overall, there are several prevalent issues in the current methodologies for constructing R e . For instance, one common challenge is the uncertainty associated with parameter estimations. The parameters utilized in the effective reproduction number model are derived through estimation procedures, which can be susceptible to uncertainties and errors. Another issue lies in the simplification of model assumptions. Many models rely on simplified assumptions, such as steady contact rates or fixed rates of epidemic spread. These assumptions may deviate from the actual scenario, potentially compromising the accuracy of R e estimations. Moreover, a significant limitation is the inadequate consideration of spatial and temporal dynamics in disease transmission models. The transmission dynamics of actual epidemics are often influenced by spatial factors like geography and population movements, which are not comprehensively integrated into the existing models.

Moreover, the contact tracing method [ 27 ], which is the most basic method used by primary disease control personnel to obtain Re, is suitable for community or regional infectious disease outbreaks. This method involves identifying possible contacts, tracing the possible sources and transmission chains of infection, and interrupting disease transmission as quickly as possible to minimize Re. In this paper, the fundamental principle of contact tracing was incorporated into spatiotemporal mathematical modeling of an infectious disease. Using hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in children as a case study, we explored a spatiotemporal infectious disease model based on computer programming and simulated infectious disease dynamics to calculate the R e . This model was built upon the specific temporal and spatial positioning of each individual case and utilized a search calculation method, thus accommodating temporal variability and spatial imbalance.

Data and methods

Data sources.

The data of HFMD cases in Bishan District of Chongqing from May 2015 to December 2019 were selected that including gender, age, onset time, diagnosis time, residential address, preschool institution address and contact information. The data source was Bishan District Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China Information System for Disease Control and Prevention [ 28 ]).

Study design

Development of a spatial-temporal database.

We utilized ARC ENGINE and C# for the programming and development of HFMD spatio-temporal database and analysis software-PIADS. This system is equipped with a spatio-temporal database feature that can overlay various factors’ properties, enabling advanced analysis and search. The software’s analysis functions provide a solid foundation for detailed examination of the spatio-temporal factors surrounding HFMD.

For now, we mainly included attribute data for basic information, temporal information, and spatial location information in the spatio-temporal database, and will add information for infectious disease R e impact factors in the future.

Algorithm and program implementation for spatiotemporal correlation discrimination of HFMD

In the case of HFMD, we proposed a time-related judgment function for HFMD. To compare the time correlation between two cases, the onset time of the i-th case is denoted as \(\:{t}_{i1}\) , the time of diagnosis as \(\:{t}_{i2}\) the incubation period as \(\:{\:t}_{q}\) and the period of post-onset infection as \(\:{t}_{g}\) . Similarly, for the j-th case, its onset time is denoted as \(\:{t}_{j1}\) . The time correlation discriminant function of the i-th case can be expressed as follows:

further simplification results in

\(\:{\:\:\:er}_{t}\left\{\right\}\)  refers to the time-dependent set of cases, with \(\:t_g=1\;\left(\;\mathrm{week}\;\right)\) under natural conditions where isolation measures are not implemented immediately after diagnosis of HFMD. In cases where isolation measures are taken immediately after diagnosis of HFMD, \(\:{t}_{g}={t}_{2}-{t}_{1}\) , where \(\:{t}_{2}\) is the time of diagnosis and \(\:{t}_{1}\) is the time of onset. Taking into consideration the infectious incubation period of the child, the time window of infectivity for the first generation of cases is \(\:{t}_{g}+{t}_{q}\) . The average incubation period of HFMD is 3–5 days, and patients typically seek medical attention 1–2 days after onset of symptoms. Therefore, the window period for infectivity in the first generation of cases is approximately 1 week.

In addition, a spatial correlation discriminant function is proposed. To compare the spatial correlation between two cases, the one with the earlier onset time is designated as the first-generation case, and the one with the later onset time is considered susceptible. Let \(\:({x}_{i},{y}_{i})\) represent the spatial coordinate of the i first-generation case and ( \(\:{x}_{j},{y}_{j}\) ) represent the spatial coordinate of the susceptible person. \(\:\xi\:\) denotes the distance of influence of infectious dynamics. The discriminant function for assessing spatial correlation between these two cases is as follows:

As shown above, \(\:{er}_{r}\left\{\right\}\) refers to the distance-dependent collection of cases.

When both temporal correlation and spatial correlation criteria are simultaneously met, it is considered that there is a high likelihood of an infection chain between the two. The relationship between the first and second generation cases is thus determined as follows:

\(\mathrm A\left\{B_1,\,B_1\;\cdots\;B_\eta\right\}\)  denotes the collection of second-generation cases derived from case A of the first generation. \(\:{B}_{\:n}\) represents the NTH second-generation case arising from case A of the first generation, and n corresponds to the number of second-generation cases originating from case A of the first generation.

By formulating a spatio-temporal correlation discriminant function and integrating it with the spatio-temporal database and analysis system for HFMD, it is possible to develop a search algorithm and program for analyzing the spatio-temporal correlation of infectious diseases. Essentially, this method entails contact tracing through time-space correlation searches, enabling the identification of both primary and secondary cases and subsequently calculating the average infection period (Re) of the primary cases. These represent pivotal stages in the establishment of a spatio-temporal correlation search model.

Implementation of the SEIR Model R e algorithm and procedure

In order to verify the scientific validity of this method, we introduce the classic SEIR model R e calculation formula for comparison. The formula is shown as follows:

Where r is the growth rate, \(\:{b}_{1},\,{b}_{2}\) are the removal rates of the latent population and the infected population, respectively. The incubation period and the infection period can be respectively referred to as: \(\:{T}_{E}=\frac{1}{{b}_{1}}\) , \(\:{T}_{1}=\frac{1}{{b}_{2}}\) Thus, we can derive the following formula:

Based on the formula above, we programmed and developed on the HFMD spatiotemporal database. Assuming that cases are removed (i.e. recovered) one week after infection, we calculated the SEIR model’s effective reproduction number (Re) by dividing the daily increase in cases by the number of people currently infected (i.e. cumulative infections minus removed cases).

Determining the optimal search radius for a search model

Based on the aforementioned spatiotemporal search model, we selected cases of Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease during its peak season (April to June) and used spatial discriminant values of distances 0.5 km, 1.0 km, 1.5 km, 2.0 km, 2.5 km, 3.0 km, and 3.5 km. Through computer calculations, we obtained specific R e values for each case under the prescribed conditions. Taking the mean of these R e values yields the following:

From Fig.  1 , it can be observed that the data for each year shows the fastest increase around a radius of 1.5 km. As the search radius continues to increase, the growth rate of R e begins to decline. The optimal critical value for the search model is the point at which the search radius reaches the maximum R e while ensuring that the search range for first-generation cases does not overlap. When R e reaches a certain threshold, the search ranges begin to overlap, resulting in a slower increase in R e as the radius goes beyond 1.5 km.

R e values obtained with different search radius during the peak periods from 2015 to 2019

In addition, we can analyze the search model principle and determine that when the search radius is half the average distance between first-generation cases, the search range for first-generation cases can achieve maximum coverage with minimal overlap, in accordance with the optimal search radius for the model. For example, during the peak season from April to June, we can obtain the number of first-generation cases for the i-th infectious day, denoted as ni, and the distances between each pair of them, using computer programming. The average distance for the i-th day can be calculated as:

In the equation, \(\:\stackrel{-}{{D}_{i}}\) represents the mean distance between first-generation cases for day i, \(\:{c}_{ni}^{2}\) represents the sample size of the distances between first-generation cases for day i, \(\:{d}_{j}\) represents the jth distance between first-generation cases for day i, and \(\:ni\) represents the number of first-generation cases for day i.

The average value of the mean distance on peak days is:

Where \(\:\stackrel{-}{\stackrel{-}{{D}_{i}}}\) is the average value of the mean distance between first-generation cases during peak days. m represents the number of days during the peak period.

The average distance between first-generation and secondary cases from 2015 to 2019 during the months of April to June is illustrated in the figure below. (Fig.  2 ). The cumulative distribution function of distance between first-generation and secondary cases from 2015 to 2019 during the same period is represented in the figure below (Fig.  3 ).

Average distance between first-generation and secondary cases during peak periods from 2015 to 2019

Cumulative distribution function of the distance samples between first-generation and secondary cases during peak periods from 2015 to 2019

The optimal search radius is half the mean distance between first-generation cases on a daily basis during the peak period.

Where \(\:{Radius}_{opt}\) is the optimal search radius.

By calculation, We obtained the average distance and optimal search radius for first-generation cases during the peak period from 2015 to 2019 (Fig.  4 ). The optimal search radius is approximately 1.5 km, aligning with the prior conclusion. Therefore, it is advisable to suggest 1.5 km as the optimal search radius for spatiotemporal search models.

Average distance between first-generation cases and optimal search radius during peak periods from 2015 to 2019

The R e value obtained from a spatiotemporal data search model

The figure below (Fig.  5 A) reveals that the fluctuation of the R e value of HFMD in children, ranging between 1.14 and 4.75 from 2015 to 2019. Additionally, Fig.  5 B illustrates a skewed distribution of the R e reconstructed by the search model, with a median of 2.42 and a quartile range of (1.98, 2.72). The figure presents a scatterplot with statistical indicators, where the central line represents the median and the upper and lower quartiles are indicated respectively.

( A ) Monthly bar chart depicting R e values from 2015 to 2019, generated using spatiotemporal data search model ( B ) Scatter plot of monthly R e values based on search model

The R e value obtained through programming calculation based on the SEIR model

Based on the aforementioned SEIR model and programming algorithm, daily R e values can be obtained. By aggregating the daily values within a month, we obtain the monthly Re value. The specific results are as follows (Fig.  6 A):

( A ) Bar chart of monthly R e values from 2015 to 2019 based on SEIR model and programming algorithm ( B ) Scatter plot of monthly Re values based on SEIR model

The scatterplot with statistics was utilized to demonstrate (Fig.  6 B). It can be observed that the SEIR model for HFMD in children had Re values fluctuating between 1.48 and 4.34 from 2015 to 2019, indicating a normal distribution with a mean and standard deviation of 2.88 ± 0.56.

Comparison of R e values between search model and SEIR model

The two sets of curves in the following figure respectively represent the R e values of spatiotemporal Search models and SEIR model (Fig.  7 ).

Trend graph of R e values of spatial-temporal search model and Re calculation based on SEIR model through computer programming from 2015 to 2019

As shown in the figure, during the period from 2015 to 2019, the two sets of curves exhibited similar trends and roughly matched the “bimodal” trend of HFMD incidence, with the first peak occurring from April to June and the second peak appearing later, from October to December, with the second peak lower than the first peak. Except for 2018, the curve changes in other years showed a trend of simultaneous increase and decrease.

We set the R e values obtained by the two methods at the same point in time on a monthly basis as the data for correlation analysis (Fig.  8 ). The results showed that the 2015 search model did not follow a normal distribution and Spearman correlation coefficient was used, while Pearson correlation coefficient was used for other data that followed a normal distribution. Except for 2018, the similarity coefficient r of the years 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2019 were all close to 1, and p  < 0.05, indicating that the R e values obtained by using the search model and the traditional SEIR model are correlated and closely related (Table  1 ).

Linear regression analysis graph of the correlation between R e values of search model and SEIR model from 2015 to 2017

Differential expression of R e of search models on GIS map

To illustrate the differential expression of R e obtained by search models on the time and spatial axes, we randomly selected spatial-temporal data of cases from the community of Bicheng and Biquan during the period of May 14, 2016 to July 14, 2016, which includes the spatial location and R e value of each case. Using a period of two weeks as a unit, we plotted the kernel density map of R e . The specific results are as follows (Fig.  9 ):

The spatial distribution and regional variances of R e values as acquired through search model

As time passes, the distribution range and color depth of the regional R e values shift, indicating an increasing, decreasing and then increasing trend in disease transmission during the period. The color depth represents the magnitude of R e values, and the search model is capable of demonstrating the variability in the spread of the epidemic during the same time period within the region. The black cross symbol denotes the distribution of cases, and it can be seen that the number of cases in a given area does not necessarily correspond to the magnitude of R e values.

As such, it is not appropriate to solely use the mean of R e values to represent the development of regional epidemics. The reality is that there are variances in the prevalence of diseases in different communities, neighborhoods, and even smaller areas. Similarly, the number of local cases cannot represent the trend of the development and spread of the disease.

We base our evaluation of the severity of infectious diseases mainly on R 0 and case fatality rate [ 29 , 30 ] However, in practice, we have tools such as vaccination and quarantine to intervene in the progression of the disease. As a result, R e is a more accurate representation of the actual situation than R0. Additionally, the search model’s setting of isolating first-generation cases at home after diagnosis and rendering them non-infectious is also in alignment with this.

In epidemiological investigations of infectious diseases, R 0 and R e are commonly acquired using various methods such as contact tracing, infectious disease dynamic model calculations, and estimation of exponential growth rates. Contact tracing is based on real case tracking data, but is only applicable to the early stages of infectious disease transmission. As the transmission chain expands, it becomes difficult to establish a comprehensive data collection system to complete this work. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, we can observe China collecting individuals’ health information and travel trajectories through mobile applications to screen and monitor individuals who may potentially be infected with the coronavirus. This approach requires the mobilization of significant social resources and is typically suitable for nationwide or large-scale infectious disease outbreaks. Additionally, the different socioeconomic status, demographics, healthcare resources, and lifestyles across regions lead to variations in the intensity and characteristics of disease transmission, resulting in regional differences in Re [ 31 ]. The Re obtained through traditional mathematical modeling mostly pertains to the overall situation of larger regions (provinces, cities, counties) [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. However, it is equally essential to understand the transmission dynamics of smaller geographic levels, especially at the local level (communities, streets), to formulate targeted prevention and control strategies.

From the perspective of research methodology, the fundamental premise of this study is rooted in contact tracing, using HFMD as a case study. Combining the fact that HFMD outbreaks mostly occur in childcare facilities or communities, susceptible children are mainly active within the community or within the community-to-childcare facility range during the latent and infectious periods. It is assumed that confirmed cases are searched within a reasonable activity radius around the residence of the primary case, and individuals who meet the conditions for transmission chain formation in terms of time and space are considered as secondary cases. This setting is a scientific assumption based on actual situations and real data. The advantage of this study lies in the stable model, straightforward computation, and easy implementation. It is suitable for assessing and predicting legally notifiable infectious disease outbreaks among scattered children and preschool children, whose activity ranges are relatively fixed. Local public health departments can all achieve this goal. Furthermore, as it is based on scientific assumptions and calculations conducted on the basis of real data for each actual case, the resulting Re value can not only reflect the overall situation, but also can be the Re value of a community or a housing estate, which can reflect the regional differences in the epidemic at the same time period and make differential judgments on the epidemic trend of different communities.

From the perspective of model construction, this study extracts individual time and space factors from a large amount of actual case data from the disease control center. By utilizing GPS coordinates and computer programming calculations, the model is constructed based on two key factors: time nodes and spatial radius. The selection of time nodes takes into account the average incubation period and infectious period of HFMD, with the transmission interval between primary and secondary cases set at 2 weeks. The spatial radius is determined by setting the model’s optimal critical value as the search radius that simultaneously meets two conditions: reaching the maximum Re as the search radius continues to increase and ensuring that the search ranges of the first-generation cases do not overlap. Through comparison of the computational results, a spatial radius of 1.5 km was ultimately chosen as the optimal value, aligning with the characteristics of the daily activity range of local scattered children and preschool children. The Re values obtained from the 2015 to 2019 search models are all greater than 1, indicating a continuous transmission and epidemic trend of HFMD, which is also consistent with the actual situation. By plotting the Re kernel density maps, the regional differences in Re obtained by the search model can be reflected. Disease control and prevention departments can obtain the specific situation of the epidemic in different neighborhoods and different blocks, which facilitates fine-tuning epidemic control and prediction. In addition, we can see that the magnitude and trend of R e obtained with the spatio-temporal search mode and R e obtained with the classical SEIR model are in good agreement except for 2018. Similarly, in the similarity analysis, apart from 2018, the similarity coefficient r for the remaining four years is close to 1 ( p  < 0.05). Given that there is a strong correlation and a relatively close relationship between them, this provides further verification of the scientific validity of the model. The discrepancy in 2018 may be related to the following reasons: the number of HFMD cases throughout 2018 showed a significant increase compared to 2015 (1557), 2016 (2701), and 2017 (1395), reaching a total of 3507 cases for the year. The distribution throughout the year was uneven, with only around 20 cases per month in January to March, while peak periods in June-July and November reached 500–650 cases per month. This uneven distribution may be the fundamental reason for the large difference in obtaining Re values, especially during January to March in 2018. Therefore, we can speculate that the mechanisms for obtaining Re in the two models lead to differences when the case distribution is extremely uneven. However, this highlights the necessity of exploring the search model, as it can reflect the differences in temporal and spatial distribution as well as local and overall differences. Its limitations are as follows: like most models of infectious disease, it cannot distinguish between invisible infection or transmission caused by a carrier; Second, the data comes from data reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Underreporting or unnormalized treatment cases can lead to increased errors in the model calculation results.

Availability of data and materials

The data of HFMD cases in Bishan District of Chongqing from May 2015 to December 2019 were selected that including gender, age, onset time, diagnosis time, residential address, etc. The data source was Bishan District Center for Disease Control and Prevention. We assure the accuracy and reliability of the data used and are willing to provide any further information or evidence to support the legality and compliance of our data usage.

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Acknowledgements

Thank you to the Chongqing Bishan District Center for Disease Control and Prevention for providing control data on hand, foot, and mouth disease in children, and we extend our gratitude to Chongqing Medical University Affiliated University City Hospital for their financial support of the Qingmiao Plan.

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Wang completed the study design, theoretical research and statistical analysis of the data and wrote the paper. Wu completed the data processing and computer programming. He assisted in the data analysis. Zhang collected and provided the CDC data. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Wang, L., Wu, Y., He, Y. et al. Construction of effective reproduction number of infectious disease individuals based on spatiotemporal discriminant search model: take hand-foot-mouth disease as an example. BMC Med Res Methodol 24 , 173 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02282-7

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The impact of eating alone on food intake and everyday eating routines: A cross-sectional study of community-living 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden

• Amanda Björnwall   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5830-7628 1 ,
• Patricia Eustachio Colombo 2 , 3 ,
• Ylva Mattsson Sydner 1 &
• Nicklas Neuman 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2214 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Eating is fundamental not only to survival and health, but also to how humans organise their social lives. Eating together with others is often seen as the healthy ideal, while eating alone is highlighted as a risk factor for negative health outcomes, especially among older adults. This paper, therefore, investigates the relationship between the frequency and subjective experience of eating alone and food-related outcomes among 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden.

A survey was distributed to a nationally representative random sample of 1500 community-living in Sweden, aged 70–75 years. Two different constructs of eating alone (objective and subjective) were measured, along with the following food-related outcomes: a food index, intake of food groups, consumption of ready-made meals, number of main meals per day, and body mass index (BMI).

In total, 695 respondents were included in the final sample. A quarter of the respondents were categorised as eating alone, of which a small proportion reported that doing so bothered them. There were no associations between eating alone and food index scores, BMI, or intake frequencies of fruits and berries, or fish and shellfish. However, people eating alone were less likely to report eating three meals per day (OR: 0.53, CI: 0.37–0.76, p  = 0.006), less likely to report higher intake frequencies of vegetables and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks (adjusted OR: 0.68, CI: 0.48–0.95, p  = 0.023 resp. OR: 0.59, CI: 0.43–0.81, p  = 0.001), and more likely to report higher intake frequencies of ready-made meals (adjusted OR: 3.71, CI: 2.02–6.84, p  < 0.001) compared to those eating together with others. The subjective experience of eating alone did not have an impact on food-related outcomes.

Eating alone or with others played a role in participants’ food intake, and seemed to influence aspects of the organisation of everyday eating routines rather than overall dietary healthiness or weight status. Our findings add to the previous body of research on commensality, eating alone, and health among the older population, providing insights into the development of future health policies and research.

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Introduction

Eating is fundamental not only to survival and health, but also to how humans organise their social lives. As a consequence, eating in the company of others or in solitude can matter [ 1 ]. Some countries actively promote sharing meals as part of their public health advice [ 2 , 3 , 4 ], and the scientific data provide some support for this. The scientific concept used for the practice of eating together is commensality, a practice that is seen as a healthy ideal [ 1 , 5 , 6 ] with a variety of proposed benefits, both social [ 7 ] and nutritional [ 8 , 9 ]. Studies directed at older people eating alone largely confirm this, demonstrating associations with several negative health- and food-related outcomes, which seem to be particularly prominent among this group [ 7 , 10 ]. Apart from psychosocial aspects, such as an increased risk of depression [ 11 ] and cognitive decline [ 12 ], eating alone is also associated with lower food diversity [ 13 , 14 ], lower intake of fruit and vegetables [ 15 ], lower caloric intake [ 16 ], meal skipping, and both under- and overweight [ 15 ]. Research highlighting the negative impacts of eating alone among older people generally covers a wide age interval, where individuals 60 years and above are included in the same study, thereby encapsulating a large variety of health statuses, abilities, and needs [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. However, the links between eating alone and food-related outcomes may vary within the population group classified as older [ 10 ], and the needs of this group may also vary. Nevertheless, studies on eating alone and food-related outcomes that particularly target the earlier stages of retirement and old age are scarce [ 10 ].

In this paper, we address a potential issue that has been identified which concerns how eating alone is operationalised, that is when eating alone as an abstract concept is transformed into measurable observations. So far in research on commensality, ‘eating alone’ has been treated in a unidimensional and objective way, that is simply assessing whether or not a person eats alone (in solitude) or together with someone [ 10 ]. This approach has important empirical and theoretical drawbacks. Empirically, qualitative studies demonstrate that older people’s experiences of eating alone differ markedly. Some report how it makes them feel lonely, miss a partner, and lose interest in both cooking and eating [ 17 , 18 ]. This can result in simplifications of everyday cooking and the reorganisation of mealtimes, sometimes described as leading to food of lower perceived quality (e.g., convenience foods) [ 19 , 20 ]. For others, it is an unproblematic routine and natural part of the day, with ready-made meals and other convenience foods being considered positive [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. The theoretical drawbacks are evidenced if we turn to the research on social relations, where the literature demonstrates the importance of distinguishing between being alone in an objective manner and the subjective feelings of loneliness [ 23 ]. These two separate constructs can have different health implications [ 24 , 25 ], yet the commensality literature currently lacks such a distinction. Levels of loneliness (as a subjective experience) are relatively low in Sweden compared to other European countries [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. At the same time, almost one third of Swedish older adults live in single households and it is the second most common living arrangement [ 29 ]. As such, this study is located in a national context in which many people live alone (objectively) yet a comparatively small group of people feel lonely. However, according to a Nordic study, most Swedes over the age of 60 years eat most of their meals with someone [ 30 ]. This seemed to be related to other aspects of the organisation of daily routines, such as the duration of meals, and if they are eaten in front of the TV, or sitting down at the kitchen table.

To summarise, we have theoretical reasons to anticipate that people can eat alone quite often without being bothered by it, an anticipation that is deduced in the literature on loneliness and social isolation yet unacknowledged in the commensality literature. The subjective experience of eating alone may, therefore, play a role in understanding the relationship between eating alone and previously identified food-related outcomes, such as the intake of different food groups, ready-made meals, weight status, and everyday eating routines. This is once again, similar to the way the subjective experience of loneliness is of importance for the effects of being alone. Against this backdrop, we aimed to investigate the relationship between eating alone (measured both objectively and subjectively) among 70- to 75-year old, community-living people in Sweden, and food-related outcomes (food index score, intake of food groups, consumption of ready-made meals, number of main meals per day, and body mass index [BMI]).

This study was based on a cross-sectional, self-reported survey from a random and nationally representative sample of 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden. In total, 1500 people were invited to participate and given the opportunity to respond to the survey either digitally or with pen and paper.

Data collection and Respondents

The survey was distributed nationally by post to randomly selected individuals retrieved from the Swedish state personal address register. An invitation letter with information about the study, a QR-code, and a link to reach the web-based survey was sent out in November 2021. Two reminders (December 2021 and January 2022) were sent to those who had not replied and not actively declined participation. The second and final reminder included a paper copy of the survey and a stamped self-addressed envelope. Data were collected and managed in REDCap - a secure, web-based software platform, designed to support data capture for research studies [ 31 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic was ongoing during the data collection phase, although, by that time, restrictions had been lifted and the majority of those in Sweden over 70 years of age had been vaccinated. However, around the time of the second reminder, new restrictions on physical contacts were temporarily in place due to a new disease wave [ 32 ].

The age category of 70–75 years was chosen for mainly two reasons. First, a majority of older people in Sweden (and Europe) are healthy, active, and independent [ 33 , 34 ]. In line with this, retirement ages are increasing, and people are working beyond retirement age; the standard Swedish cut-off of 65 years or older therefore seemed too young for our purposes. Furthermore, this study targets an early phase of retirement, a time of finding or having found new routines after working life. It is, therefore, of interest to investigate whether the possible disadvantages of eating alone are evident at this rather early stage of later life. Even though there are people older than 75 years who are still working, an older target group did not seem relevant for this purpose.

Second, including a restricted age category was decided upon based on power calculations that showed that a larger sample size would have been needed to be able to perform age-specific analyses. A power calculation with 95 per cent confidence interval and unknown proportion of people eating alone in the particular age category resulted in a preferred sample size of at least 385 respondents [ 35 ]. Considering the decrease in response rates to national surveys over the past years [ 36 ], the survey group invited to participate was more than three times larger than needed ( n  = 1500). Exclusion criteria were individuals diagnosed with or under medical investigation for dementia and those living in a long-term care facility; these were determined through self-reported screening questions. The survey was only distributed in Swedish and informed consent was needed for responses to be included. This resulted in a final study sample of 695 respondents (Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart of study participants.

Survey development

The survey was developed in an iterative process. The majority of questions included were re-used (either literally or with minor modifications) from large national studies [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Senior researchers with experiences of research in older peoples’ health and nutrition reviewed the survey at an initial stage and provided feedback on its content and questions. The survey was then further developed by holding cognitive interviews [ 40 ] with five individuals belonging to the target population, resulting in changed linguistic formulations and descriptions of questions. The questions regarding eating alone or together, that were created from scratch for this survey, were tested in a bachelor thesis in order to evaluate the data collection process, such as subjects’ willingness to participate, data entry, and feedback from respondents (provided as additional free-text responses at the end of the survey). Finally, a pilot study of the survey in its entirety, including people from the target population ( n  = 177), was performed. The pilot did not result in any changes to the survey, but it did provide us with a relevant dataset for testing the statistical models. A version of the survey translated into English can be accessed in Supplementary File A . This is attached for reasons of transparency, so that readers can see the questions asked. However, it has not been tested or validated for use in an English-speaking population.

Data and variables

• Eating alone

The frequency of eating alone or together with someone was assessed using the question “How often do you eat together with someone?”, for which the responses were “Daily”, “Several days per week”, “One or two days per week”, “One or two days per month”, “Less often or never”. The responses to these questions were then transformed into a binary variable, with those reporting eating together with someone daily categorised as eating together and those reporting eating together with someone less often than that categorised as eating alone . The reason for this was that eating together with someone several days per week or less often means that a substantial proportion of meals are eaten alone.

The subjective experience of eating alone was assessed by asking “When you eat alone, does this ever bother you?”, for which the responses were “Always”, “Often”, “Rarely”, “Never”, or “I never eat alone”. Here too, a binary variable was constructed. Those responding “Rarely” or “Never” were categorised as not bothered . Those who reported that they never ate alone were also categorised as not bothered , since they could not be bothered by something they never did (i.e., they were not exposed to the phenomenon that could possibly influence the dependent variable). The remaining responses were categorised as bothered . Eating alone was not defined or specified in a particular way, e.g., as being alone in the room, at the table, or being the only one eating. Instead, it was up to the respondents to interpret what eating alone meant to them.

• Food-related outcomes

The food-related outcomes consisted of a food index, intake of specific food groups, consumption of ready-made meals, number of main meals per day, and BMI. The food index, developed by the Swedish Food Agency and the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, intends to capture food intake relevant from a public health perspective with questions that are easy to answer [ 41 ]. The index was constructed using a robust process for the purpose of finding accurate indicators of a diet more or less concordant with the Swedish Food Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs), which are consistent with the WHO recommendations [ 42 ]. The food index contains questions about the intake frequencies of four food groups (vegetables, fruits and berries, fish and shellfish, and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks). Every question has four response categories which provide points from 0 to 3 (higher points for higher frequency of consumption, except for snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks which is scored in the opposite direction), adding up to a total of 12 points. For vegetables, fruits and berries, and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks the response categories are “Two or more times per day”, “Once per day”, “A few times per week”, or “Once per week or less often”. The response categories for fish and shellfish are “Three or more times per week”, “Twice per week”, “Once per week”, or “A few times per month or more rarely”. So, for example, if a respondent reported consuming fruits and berries two or more times per day, they would receive 3 points for their response. A higher score indicates a diet better aligned with Swedish FBDGs. Respondents needed to have reported their frequency of consumption for the four food groups included in the food index to be able to calculate a score. The food index (sum score) was categorised into three groups based on the criteria set by the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare: (1) not eating according to recommendations (score: 0–4), (2) somewhere in-between (score: 5–8), and; (3) eating approximately according to recommendations (score: 9–12). Intake frequencies of the four food groups were also analysed separately, using the response categories stated above, but not the scoring system.

Intakes of ready-made meals and main meals were assessed by asking “How often do you eat the following: Ready-made meals, Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner?”, for which the responses were “Daily”, “Several days per week”, “One or two days per week”, “One or two days per month”, “Less often or never”. The responses for ready-made meals were categorised as often (“Daily”, “Several days per week”), sometimes (“One or two days per week”), and rarely or never (“One or two days per month”, “Less often or never”). To generate a total number of main meals per day, respondents needed to have responded to each of the three questions regarding main meals. Eating one main meal per day gave one point, making it possible to have a total of 0–3 main meals per day. Eating three main meals per day is the conventional meal pattern in Nordic (and other European) countries [ 30 , 43 ], which the majority of respondents in this study also did. This variable was therefore categorised as binary, divided into eating three [ 3 ], or two or fewer meals per day (≤ 2). We treated these two variables as factors related to the organisation of everyday eating routines, both of which influence food and eating activities [ 44 ]. Lastly, BMI was estimated using information on self-reported height in centimetres and self-reported weight in kilograms. Respondents were not given specific instructions on how to measure their height or weight.

Other variables

Year of birth, sex (female or male), living situation (cohabiting or living alone), marital status (not married, married/cohabiting, divorced, or widowed), and country of birth (Sweden, Nordic, European, or other) were included in the survey. Educational level was categorised into primary (< 10 years), secondary (10–12 years) and post-secondary (≥ 13 years) education. Respondents were also asked to rate their general health status on a five-point scale, ranging from “Very good” to “Very poor”.

Statistical analysis

For all statistical computations, the software R version 4.3.0 was used [ 45 ], with embedded functions as well as the R packages ‘tidyverse’ [ 46 ], ‘ggplot’ [ 47 ], ‘jtools’ [ 48 ], ‘car’ [ 49 ], ‘ordinal’ [ 50 ], and ‘rcompanion’ [ 51 ]. Descriptive statistics were computed with proportions, means, and standard deviation (if continuous variable). Simple and multiple logistic regressions were used to examine associations between the frequency of eating alone (eating alone vs. eating together) and number of main meals per day (binary variable), and simple and multiple ordinal regressions were used to examine the associations between the frequency of eating alone and food index scores, intake of food groups, consumption of ready-made meals (ordinal variables). The association between the frequency of eating alone and BMI (continuous variable) was assessed with simple and multiple linear regression.

In the multiple regression models, we included the subjective experience of eating alone (bothered vs. not bothered) as an independent variable to explore its independent effect on outcomes. Including this variable also meant that we were able to control that the variation explained by the frequency of eating alone (i.e., objective measure) was independent. Adjustments were initially made for the following covariates: sex, living situation, and educational level. Multicollinearity between independent variables was considered by computing variance inflation factors (VIF). Multicollinearity (VIF > 2) was found between the main predictor eating alone or together, and the independent variable living situation. Living situation was, therefore, not included as an independent variable in the adjusted models and the models were only adjusted by sex and educational level. The reason for choosing education as the measure of socioeconomic status is that educational level has become an increasingly important social stratifier in post-industrial European welfare states, and is insensitive to reverse causation (i.e., your completed education at timepoint 1 cannot be affected by your health at timepoint 2) [ 52 ]. The significance level for all statistical analyses was set at p-value < 0.05. Model outputs were presented with p-values and 95 per cent confidence intervals (CI).

Ethical considerations

Approval for this study was sought from and approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr 2021 − 01988). Informed consent was obtained from all respondents.

Study population

A description of the study population is presented in Table  1 . There was a fairly equal distribution of male and female respondents in the study population, however with more women eating alone. More than two thirds of the study population had secondary or post-secondary education (≥ 10 years), and over 90 per cent of the respondents were born in Sweden. Three quarters rated their general health status as good or very good, one quarter as moderate, and very few rated their health status as poor or very poor. These characteristics were equally distributed among the two groups (eating alone and eating together). Age was also equally distributed in the total sample, as well as between the two groups, and was further treated as one age category. The majority of the respondents, about three quarters, were cohabiting and one quarter were living alone. This coincided with eating alone or together, meaning that most people who were cohabiting were eating together and most people living alone were eating alone.

Objective and subjective constructs of eating alone

The majority of the respondents reported eating together with someone daily ( n  = 503, 72%) and almost 16 per cent ( n  = 109) of the total sample reported that they never ate alone. Over one quarter of the sample reported eating alone most of the time ( n  = 192, 28%), and four per cent ( n  = 30) of the total sample reported eating together with someone less often than once per month. Of those eating alone, the majority rarely or never felt bothered by it, while a small proportion often or always did. Further details of the combination of the objective and subjective constructs of eating alone are presented in Table  2 .

Eating alone and food intake

Table  3 shows odds ratios, 95 per cent confidence intervals, and p-values from adjusted ordinal regression analyses of food index scores, food groups (separated), and intake of ready-made meals. The unadjusted ordinal regression model revealed no association between food index scores and eating alone or together ( p  = 0.288, data not shown). The adjusted model confirmed that there was no statistically significant difference in food index categorisation between those eating alone vs. together (OR: 1.03, CI: 0.72–1.47, p  = 0.870). The distribution of the food index scores for the two groups (eating alone vs. eating together) is presented in Supplementary Fig.  1 .

No differences between the intake frequencies of fruits and berries (OR: 0.92, CI: 0.67–1.27, p  = 0.608) or fish and shellfish (OR: 0.79, CI: 0.57–1.10, p  = 0.160) were found between those eating alone and those eating together. However, there was a significant difference showing that respondents eating alone were less likely to report higher intake frequencies of vegetables (OR: 0.68, CI: 0.48–0.95, p  = 0.023) and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks (OR: 0.59, CI: 0.43–0.81, p  = 0.001). Respondents eating alone were more likely to report a more frequent intake of ready-made meals (OR: 3.71, CI: 2.02–6.84, p  < 0.001).

Eating alone and the number of main meals per day

Table  3 shows the number and proportion of respondents eating three vs. two or fewer main meals per day in the two groups (eating alone vs. eating together), along with odds ratio, 95 per cent confidence interval, and p-value from the adjusted logistic regression model. The majority of respondents eating alone reported eating two or fewer meals per day (56%). In comparison, a majority of those eating together with someone were eating three meals per day (59%). The unadjusted model showed a statistically significant association between number of main meals per day and eating alone or together ( p  < 0.001, data not shown). The adjusted model confirmed this, showing that respondents eating alone were less likely to report eating three meals per day compared to those eating together with someone (OR: 0.53, CI: 0.37–0.76, p  = 0.006).

Eating alone and BMI

The distribution of BMIs among the two groups (eating alone vs. eating together) is presented in Supplementary Fig.  2 . Table  3 shows the mean and standard deviation of BMI, coefficient, and p-value from the adjusted linear regression model. The simple linear regression model showed no significant association between BMI and eating alone or together ( p  = 0.27, data not shown). The adjusted model confirmed that there was no significant difference in BMI among respondents eating alone or together (B: 0.55, CI: -0.19-1.29, p  = 0.14).

Subjective experience of eating alone and food-related outcomes

There were no associations found between the subjective experience of eating alone (being bothered vs. not being bothered) and any of the food-related outcomes, except for the intake frequency of fish and shellfish. Here, those bothered by eating alone were less likely to report higher intake frequencies of fish and shellfish (OR: 0.36, CI: 0.16–0.80, p  = 0.012, data not shown).

This study investigated the subjective and objective constructs of eating alone, and its relationship with food-related outcomes. Our results show that over a quarter of the sample of 70- to 75-year-olds living in Sweden are eating alone most of the time, and a small group of individuals reported being bothered by it. There were no differences identified in food index scores, intake frequencies of fruits and berries, fish and shellfish, or BMI between those categorised as eating alone or eating together with someone. However, participants eating alone reported a less frequent intake of vegetables and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks, a more frequent intake of ready-made meals, and consuming fewer main meals per day than those eating together with someone. Additionally, the subjective experience of eating alone did not influence food-related outcomes, except for intake frequency of fish and shellfish, which was significantly lower among those being bothered by eating alone. Thus, it appears that, in this sample, eating alone is a better predictor of aspects related to the organisation of everyday eating routines rather than the overall healthiness of diet or the participants’ weight status.

Previous research has shown multiple negative food-related effects of eating alone among older adults [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ], and there may be several reasons for why our study, in contrast, found no associations between eating alone and most food-related outcomes. Firstly, the study sample consists of independent and rather healthy older individuals in an early phase of retirement. It could be that the negative effects of eating alone become more prevalent and more severe in higher age brackets, since previous studies with wider age intervals (60 years and above) have identified such effects [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Secondly, the results may also be explained by cultural factors. Cultural individualism has been identified to modify the relationship between loneliness and health outcomes [ 53 ], something that may also be applied to the phenomenon of eating alone. Sweden is a country where the majority culture is considered individualistic [ 54 ] and single households are common in all adult age groups [ 29 ]. Our data, and that of others’, [ 30 ] show that commensality is the most common form of eating in Sweden, and qualitative studies of several age groups indeed suggest that commensality remains idealised, appreciated, and desired [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. However, as we have shown in a qualitative interview study of Swedes aged 70 years and older, experiences and perceptions of eating alone differ widely [ 20 ]. Thus, it could simply be the case that for many people in Sweden, eating in solitude is not such a big deal, even if company would be preferred.

One aspect in which our findings agree with previous studies is the association between eating alone and the pattern of consuming fewer main meals per day or meal skipping [ 15 ], less frequent intake of vegetables [ 13 , 15 ], and with descriptions of more frequent intake of ready-made meals [ 20 ]. In our study, those eating alone also reported less frequent intake of snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks. Even though these food-related outcomes can be related to health, we cannot draw any clear health-related conclusions from our data since they are only based on frequencies. Nevertheless, we do not reject the possibility that these outcomes could be problematic for older people at risk of malnutrition or other health-related issues where intake frequency is relevant. The motivation for consuming ready-made meals may vary for older adults, with factors such as cooking skills (especially among widowed men) and physical limitations affecting the preparation of food potentially impacting the demand for such meals [ 19 , 22 , 59 ]. The pattern of consuming fewer main meals and more ready-made meals seems therefore, first and foremost, to reflect the daily organisation of eating routines, for example indicating a simplification of everyday eating and less time spent cooking. As such, our results are more in line with sociological studies on how social factors are related to the eating routines of everyday life [ 44 , 60 ] than studies on food intake and meal frequency and health. One particular hypothesis derived from our findings could be that eating alone influences the organisation of everyday eating, for example through eating fewer main meals and more ready-made meals, and that this triggers health implications later in life. Future research will have to test this hypothesis.

It is well documented that people tend to eat more in the company of others, referred to as the social facilitation of eating [ 61 ], while eating alone can have the opposite effect [ 16 ]. Hypothetically, weight loss could be an effect of eating alone since it is associated with meal skipping [ 15 ] and, in the present study, with eating fewer main meals. However, it is currently unclear whether eating alone and weight status are related. Previous research from Japan indicates an increased risk of self-perceived weight loss [ 62 ], and an increased risk of both under- and overweight among men eating alone, although not women [ 15 ]. As such, our findings add to the uncertainty of these mixed results, with no associations identified between eating alone and BMI.

The subjective experience of eating alone (bothered vs. not bothered) did not have an independent effect on food-related outcomes. This could be explained by the fact that few (only four per cent) in our sample report being bothered by eating alone. Since power calculations were based on the objective measure of eating alone, a larger sample size might have been able to detect a significant effect of the subjective experience of eating alone on food-related outcomes. Consideration of the subjective experience of eating alone in future research is likely to be important for capturing the full extent of links between eating alone and food-related outcomes.

Strengths and limitations

This study is, to our knowledge, the first to consider both the objective and subjective constructs of eating alone. This was conducted through a rigorous and systematic procedure of questionnaire development, where questions were carefully chosen from, or based on, established surveys. To increase validity and reliability, the survey was further evaluated using pre-testing of eating-alone questions, a pilot study of its entirety, and cognitive interviews. Data collection was meticulously planned and structured to enable a high response rate, and we consider a response rate of almost half of the sample to be decent, albeit lower than optimal. However, a low response rate among lower educational groups, those with lower self-perceived health status, and a very small representation of non-European immigrants complicates the representativeness and thus generalisation of our findings. There is also the possibility that our sample is biased by the overrepresentation of individuals particularly interested in food and meals, since information about the topic of the study was given prior to participation.

The survey was distributed during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have further impacted the generalisation of our results. Additionally, restrictions on physical contacts changed during the later data collection phase, meaning that the frequency of eating together or alone might have temporarily changed for some participants. Since people aged 70 years or older had been recommended to stay at home and minimise physical contacts with others during the pandemic, patterns of meal company could have been different compared to normal (non-pandemic) circumstances. This situation could also have affected food choice and food intake, for example due to changes in food shopping and access to food. As demonstrated by a recently published scoping review, such effects on older adults in different countries differ markedly [ 63 ]. For example, whereas an increased intake of several food groups (e.g. vegetables, sugary foods and snacks) during the pandemic was reported in some studies, others identified higher levels of food insecurity and hence a reduction in food intake.

In this study, BMI is used as an indicator of weight status. BMI has been criticised for not being a fully appropriate metric for evaluating the weight status of a given older patient, yet it has good predictive value at a population level [ 64 ] as long as the same cut-offs as for younger adults are not considered appropriate to apply [ 65 ]. Moreover, this study is based on self-reported data, which can be particularly problematic regarding height, weight, and food intake [ 66 , 67 ]. No instructions were given for how height and weight should be measured, which adds another layer of uncertainty to the data. One possibility for handling self-reported BMI data is to use standardised factors for corrections [ 66 , 68 ]. Such factors are of great value for improving precision in prevalence numbers based on self-reports. However, prevalence numbers as such were not the aim of this study, but rather associations with eating alone (or not). Food intake was also based on frequencies of food groups, which means that we cannot comment on absolute quantities or fine-grained dietary details (e.g., exactly which fruits and vegetables or which types of fish or shellfish). Further research is, therefore, warranted in order to test differentiated constructs of eating alone in relation to the food-related outcomes that are of particular clinical or public health interest.

The present study consideres the differentiation between objective and subjective constructs when studying eating alone and its relationship with food-related outcomes among 70- to 75-year-old people in Sweden. In this sample of independent healthy individuals in an early phase of retirement, over a quarter of the respondents were eating alone, but few were bothered by this. There were no associations between the frequency of eating alone and level of healthiness of diet (food index scores), BMI, or intake frequency of fruits and berries, or fish and shellfish. However, people eating alone reported eating vegetables and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks less often, consuming ready-made meals more often, and eating fewer main meals per day than those eating together. Eating alone, therefore, first and foremost seemed to be a predictor of outcomes related to the organisation of everyday eating routines, and indicating a simplification of cooking and eating. The subjective experience of eating alone had largely no impact on food-related outcomes. However, individuals bothered by eating alone are likely to be statistically underrepresented in our sample, which hinders our possibilities to draw conclusions in this regard. Despite the uncertainties raised, our findings add to the previous body of research on commensality, eating alone, and health among the older population, and provide insights into the development of future health policies and research.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We are deeply grateful to all respondents for taking the time and effort to answer the survey. Thanks to Professor Agneta Yngve for contributions at the beginning of the research project, to Associate Professor Afsaneh Koochek for contributions at the beginning of this particular study, and to colleagues at the Department of Food Studies, Nutrition and Dietetics for constructive feedback, and valuable suggestions to improve this paper.

This research was supported by Stiftelsen Kronprinsessan Margarets Minne.

Open access funding provided by Uppsala University.

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Department of Food Studies, Nutrition and Dietetics, Uppsala University, Box 560, Uppsala, 751 22, Sweden

Amanda Björnwall, Ylva Mattsson Sydner & Nicklas Neuman

Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 77, Sweden

Patricia Eustachio Colombo

Centre on Climate Change and Planetary Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, WC1E 7HT, UK

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AB and NN conceptualized the study. AB performed data collection, and AB and PEC performed data analyses. The first draft of the manuscript was written by AB. AB, PEC, YMS, and NN read, revised and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Amanda Björnwall .

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Björnwall, A., Colombo, P.E., Sydner, Y.M. et al. The impact of eating alone on food intake and everyday eating routines: A cross-sectional study of community-living 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden. BMC Public Health 24 , 2214 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19560-0

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Received : 15 March 2024

Accepted : 23 July 2024

Published : 14 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19560-0

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