essay on development geography

Sustainable Development Essay

500+ words essay on sustainable development.

Sustainable development is a central concept. It is a way of understanding the world and a method for solving global problems. The world population continues to rise rapidly. This increasing population needs basic essential things for their survival such as food, safe water, health care and shelter. This is where the concept of sustainable development comes into play. Sustainable development means meeting the needs of people without compromising the ability of future generations. In this essay on sustainable development, students will understand what sustainable development means and how we can practise sustainable development. Students can also access the list of CBSE essay topics to practise more essays.

What Does Sustainable Development Means?

The term “Sustainable Development” is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present generation without excessive use or abuse of natural resources so that they can be preserved for the next generation. There are three aims of sustainable development; first, the “Economic” which will help to attain balanced growth, second, the “Environment”, to preserve the ecosystem, and third, “Society” which will guarantee equal access to resources to all human beings. The key principle of sustainable development is the integration of environmental, social, and economic concerns into all aspects of decision-making.

Need for Sustainable Development?

There are several challenges that need attention in the arena of economic development and environmental depletion. Hence the idea of sustainable development is essential to address these issues. The need for sustainable development arises to curb or prevent environmental degradation. It will check the overexploitation and wastage of natural resources. It will help in finding alternative sources to regenerate renewable energy resources. It ensures a safer human life and a safer future for the next generation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the need to keep sustainable development at the very core of any development strategy. The pandemic has challenged the health infrastructure, adversely impacted livelihoods and exacerbated the inequality in the food and nutritional availability in the country. The immediate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic enabled the country to focus on sustainable development. In these difficult times, several reform measures have been taken by the Government. The State Governments also responded with several measures to support those affected by the pandemic through various initiatives and reliefs to fight against this pandemic.

How to Practise Sustainable Development?

The concept of sustainable development was born to address the growing and changing environmental challenges that our planet is facing. In order to do this, awareness must be spread among the people with the help of many campaigns and social activities. People can adopt a sustainable lifestyle by taking care of a few things such as switching off the lights when not in use; thus, they save electricity. People must use public transport as it will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. They should save water and not waste food. They build a habit of using eco-friendly products. They should minimise waste generation by adapting to the principle of the 4 R’s which stands for refuse, reduce, reuse and recycle.

The concept of sustainable development must be included in the education system so that students get aware of it and start practising a sustainable lifestyle. With the help of empowered youth and local communities, many educational institutions should be opened to educate people about sustainable development. Thus, adapting to a sustainable lifestyle will help to save our Earth for future generations. Moreover, the Government of India has taken a number of initiatives on both mitigation and adaptation strategies with an emphasis on clean and efficient energy systems; resilient urban infrastructure; water conservation & preservation; safe, smart & sustainable green transportation networks; planned afforestation etc. The Government has also supported various sectors such as agriculture, forestry, coastal and low-lying systems and disaster management.

Students must have found this essay on sustainable development useful for practising their essay writing skills. They can get the study material and the latest updates on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams, at BYJU’S.

Frequently Asked Questions on Sustainable development Essay

Why is sustainable development a hot topic for discussion.

Environment change and constant usage of renewable energy have become a concern for all of us around the globe. Sustainable development must be inculcated in young adults so that they make the Earth a better place.

What will happen if we do not practise sustainable development?

Landfills with waste products will increase and thereby there will be no space and land for humans and other species/organisms to thrive on.

What are the advantages of sustainable development?

Sustainable development helps secure a proper lifestyle for future generations. It reduces various kinds of pollution on Earth and ensures economic growth and development.

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How to Write Geography Essay: Topics and Examples

Table of contents

1 What Is Geography Essay
2 Choosing a Topic
3 Research and Data Collection
4 Planning the Essay
5 Writing the Essay
6 Examples of Geography Essays
7 Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

Welcome to the dynamic world of geography essays, where understanding the Earth’s surface becomes an enlightening journey. This article serves as a comprehensive guide to writing a geography essay, starting with the crucial step of selecting a captivating topic. We’ll navigate through various popular topics, emphasizing the importance of effective research and data collection.

In this article, we’ll cover:

How to select engaging and relevant geography essay topics.
The importance of thorough research and effective data collection methods.
Strategies for planning and organizing your geography essay for clarity and impact.
Tips for writing a compelling geography essay, including structuring and presenting arguments.
Analyzing examples of successful geography essays to guide and inspire your work.

As we transition into the details, prepare to enhance your understanding and skills in geography essay writing.

What Is Geography Essay

As we delve into the essence of a geography essay, it’s important to understand that it meticulously examines Earth’s landscapes and human activities. Furthermore, it aims to analyze how these two aspects interact, focusing on spatial relationships and patterns. Transitioning into the specifics, such essays often delve into particular geographic issues, aiming to broaden our comprehension of the world.

Moreover, when writing a geography essay, one must include accurate geographical data. This data, encompassing maps, statistics, and case studies, is crucial for a well-grounded analysis. Consequently, the essay should present facts and interpret them, offering fresh insights into the discussed topic.

Additionally, it’s noteworthy that an essay on geography stands out from others due to its unique subject matter approach. It demands a keen eye for detail and a profound understanding of the world’s physical and human dimensions. This requirement makes crafting such an essay a challenging yet fulfilling endeavor.

Lastly, the primary goal of a geography essay is to enlighten and inform. It persuades readers to view the world through a geographical lens, grasping the complex interplay between humans and their environment. This type of essay transcends mere academic exercise, serving as a means to foster a deeper appreciation for our world and its complex dynamics.

Choosing a Topic

The crucial point for a successful geography essay is selecting an engaging and appropriate topic. To choose a topic that resonates, consider current events, your interests, and the scope of your assignment. A good topic should captivate your interest and offer sufficient scope for in-depth study and analysis.

Popular geography essay topics often revolve around climate change , urban development, and cultural landscapes. These topics provide a rich ground for exploration and allow for diverse perspectives and interpretations. For example, a thematic essay on geography could focus on how urbanization affects local ecosystems or how cultural practices shape landscape use.

Analyzing the Direct Impact of Climate Change on the Amazon Rainforest’s Biodiversity
Urbanization in Mega Cities: Environmental Consequences and Sustainable Solutions
Wind and Solar Power: Pioneers of Sustainable Energy Landscape
Managing Water Scarcity in the Middle East: Strategies and Challenges
The Amazon Deforestation Crisis: Causes, Impacts, and Global Responses
Spatial Inequality: A Detailed Look at Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa
The Dynamics of Population Growth and Overconsumption in Asia
Cultural Preservation of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon Basin
Earthquakes in Japan: Analyzing Causes, Effects, and Preparedness Strategies
Geography’s Role in the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
Implementing Sustainable Agricultural Practices in India for Food Security
The Kashmir Conflict: A Geopolitical Analysis of Border Disputes
The Growing Crisis of Climate Refugees in the Pacific Islands
The Importance of Urban Green Spaces in New York City’s Environmental Health
The Impact of Globalization on Maori Culture in New Zealand
Ecotourism in Costa Rica: Balancing Economic Benefits and Environmental Preservation
Addressing Ocean Plastic Pollution: Case Studies from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
The Nile River Conflict: Water Politics in a Changing Climate
Preventing Desertification in the Sahel: Strategies and International Cooperation
GIS in Disaster Management: Case Studies of Earthquake Response and Recovery
Measuring the Effects of Glacial Melting on Greenland’s Coastal Communities
Tracing the Economic Geography of the Silk Road in the 21st Century
The Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Beijing: Urban Policies and Challenges
Vulnerable Communities: Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change in Bangladesh
The New Face of Migration: Syrian Refugees and European Response
The Critical Role of Metropolitan Areas in Combating Global Warming
Saving Madagascar’s Rainforest: Conservation Strategies and Challenges
The Transition to Renewable Energy in Germany: A Model for the World?
Satellite Imagery in Land Use Changes: A Study of the Brazilian Amazon
Arctic Sovereignty: The Geopolitical Implications of Melting Ice Caps for Global Powers

To guide and inspire your topic selection, you can use geography essay examples. These examples showcase a range of topics and approaches, helping you understand what makes a topic both engaging and feasible for study. Remember, a well-chosen topic is the first step toward a compelling and insightful geography essay.

Research and Data Collection

To talk about thorough research, it is the backbone of any geography study, providing the factual and theoretical foundation to understand complex geographical phenomena. To explain why the study of geography is important, one must delve into diverse and reliable sources that offer insights into how geographical factors shape our world and affect our lives. This research underpins the type of geography being studied, whether physical, human, or environmental.

Collecting geographical data can be done through various methods. Firstly, fieldwork is essential, especially for physical geography, as it allows for the direct observation and measurement of geographical features and processes. For human geography, surveys and interviews can yield valuable data on human behaviors and social patterns. Moreover, a thorough literature review also helps understand existing research and theories, providing a critical context for new findings.

Furthermore, evaluating sources for their credibility and relevance is vital. This involves checking the qualifications of the authors, the rigor of their methodologies, and the recency of their findings. Reliable sources are peer-reviewed and come from reputable academic or scientific institutions. What is more, ensuring the credibility of sources strengthens the arguments made in a geography essay and enhances the overall understanding of the topic.

In summary, comprehensive research and careful data collection are fundamental in geography. They enable a deeper understanding of how geographical aspects shape our environment and lives, which is central to the discipline.

Planning the Essay

When you start planning a geography essay, it begins with creating an outline to organize thoughts and research. This step is crucial as it helps structure the essay logically, ensuring a smooth flow of ideas. Start by listing major points and supporting evidence. This framework guides the writing process and maintains focus on the chosen topic. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. This process ensures the essay remains focused and coherent, addressing the chosen geography topic. By establishing a clear roadmap for the essay, writers can navigate their arguments and evidence with precision, avoiding common pitfalls such as digression or ambiguity. Now, with our plan in place, let’s transition to examining the structure more closely, exploring how to effectively organize our thoughts and research into a well-structured essay that engages and informs the reader.

Writing the Essay

When you finally start writing, a geographical essay involves several key steps, each demanding attention to detail and a balance between descriptive and analytical writing. This balance is crucial in creating an essay about geography that informs, engages, and persuades.

The introduction sets the stage. Start with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention, followed by background information that provides context to the topic. This section should conclude with a clear and concise thesis statement that guides the rest of the essay.

In the body, organize paragraphs thematically or chronologically , depending on the essay’s focus. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Following this, present your arguments and support them with geographical theories and data. This is where you incorporate detailed information from your research, including statistics, case studies, and examples. Make sure to explain how this data supports your arguments. A geography research paper demands precision in presenting data and clarity in its interpretation.

When discussing geographical theories, link them directly to your topic. This shows your understanding of the subject and how these theories apply to real-world scenarios. Remember, each paragraph should have a smooth transition to the next, maintaining a coherent flow of ideas.

In the conclusion, summarize the key points of your essay. Restate the thesis in light of the arguments and evidence presented. The conclusion should not introduce new information but encapsulate what the essay has covered. It’s also an opportunity to emphasize the importance of the topic, suggesting potential areas for future research or implications of your findings.

Throughout the essay, maintain a balance between descriptive and analytical writing . Descriptive writing helps paint a picture for the reader, making the data and theories more relatable. Analytical writing, on the other hand, demonstrates your ability to think critically about the topic, evaluating and interpreting the information in a meaningful way.

Examples of Geography Essays

Diversity in style and approach marks the essence of geography writing. A popular method is the comparative approach, contrasting different geographical phenomena. This method often appears in works comparing landscapes or urban vs. rural areas. Another common technique is the case study, focusing on a specific location or event for in-depth analysis of a particular issue.

Thematic approaches cover broader topics like climate change, globalization, or human migration, weaving together various theories and data for a comprehensive view. Additionally, argumentative compositions present a thesis supported by geographical evidence, frequently seen in discussions about environmental policies or land use conflicts.

Each style offers unique insights, providing varied ways to explore and understand geographical concepts and issues. For an in-depth exploration and diverse perspectives on these topics, consider reviewing geography essay examples. This resource can enrich your understanding and offer a broad spectrum of approaches to geographical analysis, from case studies on environmental conservation to essays on urban development and spatial inequalities.

Geography Unveiled: Costa Rica’s Absolute Location Revealed
Geography Unveiled: Navigating Earth’s Spatial Tapestry through Five Themes
The Ever-Changing Canvas of New England Weather
The Mystique and Marvels of the Desert Biome
The Impact of Geography on the Development of Egypt

Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

This journey through the realm of geography reveals the field’s depth and complexity. From initial planning to diverse writing methods, the main insight stands out: geography compositions are more than maps and data; they are about comprehending our world’s rich tapestry. They balance descriptive narrative and critical analysis, backed by meticulous research and credible sources.

Whether exploring climate change impacts, urban developments, or cultural landscapes, these works offer a lens to see and understand the world anew. They prompt critical thinking about our environment and our place in it. Navigating various geographic topics brings not just academic insights but also life lessons in appreciating our world’s complexity and beauty.

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Why don’t women use artificial intelligence?

Even when in the same jobs, men are much more likely to turn to the tech

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B e more productive . That is how Chat GPT , a generative-artificial-intelligence tool from Open AI , sells itself to workers . But despite industry hopes that the technology will boost productivity across the workforce, not everyone is on board. According to two recent studies, women use Chat GPT between 16 and 20 percentage points less than their male peers, even when they are employed in the same jobs or read the same subject.

The first study, published as a working paper in June, explores Chat GPT at work. Anders Humlum of the University of Chicago and Emilie Vestergaard of the University of Copenhagen surveyed 100,000 Danes across 11 professions in which the technology could save workers time, including journalism, software-developing and teaching. The researchers asked respondents how often they turned to Chat GPT and what might keep them from adopting it. By exploiting Denmark’s extensive, hooked-up record-keeping, they were able to connect the answers with personal information, including income, wealth and education level.

Across all professions, women were less likely to use Chat GPT than men who worked in the same industry (see chart 1). For example, only a third of female teachers used it for work, compared with half of male teachers. Among software developers, almost two-thirds of men used it while less than half of women did. The gap shrank only slightly, to 16 percentage points, when directly comparing people in the same firms working on similar tasks. As such, the study concludes that a lack of female confidence may be in part to blame: women who did not use AI were more likely than men to highlight that they needed training to use the technology.

Another potential explanation for the gender imbalance comes from a survey of 486 students by Daniel Carvajal at Aalto University and Catalina Franco and Siri Isaksson at the Norwegian School of Economics ( NHH ). It also found a gender gap: female students enrolled in the NHH ’s only undergraduate programme were 18 percentage points less likely to use Chat GPT often. When the researchers separated students by admission grades, it became clear that the gap reflected the behaviour of mid- and high-performing women (see chart 2). Low performers were almost as likely as men to use the technology.

Why might this be? The researchers probed what was going on with some clever follow-up questions. They asked students whether they would use Chat GPT if their professor forbade it, and received a similar distribution of answers. However, in the context of explicit approval, everyone, including the better-performing women, reported that they would make use of the technology. In other words, the high-achieving women appeared to impose a ban on themselves. “It’s the ‘good girl’ thing,” reckons Ms Isaksson. “It’s this idea that ‘I have to go through this pain, I have to do it on my own and I shouldn’t cheat and take short-cuts’.”

A lack of experience with AI could carry a cost when students enter the labour market. In August the researchers added a survey of 1,143 hiring managers to their study, revealing that managers value high-performing women with AI expertise 8% more than those without. This sort of premium does not exist for men, suggesting that there are rewards for women who are willing to relax their self-imposed ban.

Tera Allas of McKinsey, a consultancy, worries that by the time AI is firmly embedded into modern working life, it might be designed to appeal more to men, who are its main users—potentially shutting women out in the long term. But not everyone is as concerned. Despite the fact that the early internet was dominated by men, for example, young American women were more online than their male counterparts by 2005. On top of this, Danielle Li of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology notes that the studies do not actually show whether men’s current Chat GPT use translates into better or more productive work. At the moment, the technology may be more of a digital toy, she says. Perhaps, then, high-achieving women are simply better at avoiding distraction. ■

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This article appeared in the Finance & economics section of the print edition under the headline “A new gender gap”

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Development Geography

Filed Under: Essays Tagged With: geography , pollution

In many developing countries, poverty forces farmers to overgraze land and also to deforest vast areas for fuel wood. Also, poverty spreads disease by depriving communities of clean water and adequate sanitation. Even where poverty is less extreme, lack of technology for disposing of industrial pollution or improving energy efficiency results in wasted resources and generates environmental damage. Pakistan has about 25 million ha of arable land. About 0.4 million ha is lost every year due to salinity and water logging. If these rates continue then by 2050 there will be no farmland left in Pakistan and Pakistans population will have doubled to 180 million people.

The Term Paper on Poverty Alleviation in Pakistan

Title of the book, Poverty Alleviation in Pakistan, Present Scenario and Future Strategies By, Dr. Mohibul Haq Introduction This book is a collection of sixteen papers presented at a seminar on poverty alleviation organised by the Institute of Policy Studies, Islamabad in December 1995. The objectives of this seminar was to highlight the issues of poverty; to critically evaluate the public ...

In developed countries however, technology is so much more accessible and it provides us with an immense amount of material goods and comforts yet fouls our air with pollutants, generates hazardous wastes and creates enormous demands for energy. The United States, with one of the highest GNPs (Gross National Product) in the world, spends a very small part of its GNP on the environment. The quality of life of the population is affected as a result; for example, 30 000 people are thought to die each year in the US as a result of the pollution emitted from vehicle exhausts. Therefore, environmental quality affects both LDCs and Developed nations in terms of their development. Throughout the world changes are occurring to the social and political systems of many countries. Arguably some of these changes have been beneficial to the development of countries and to their people in general. For instance, 630 million more people now enjoy democracy than in 1986. Although democracy is often considered a must for the development of a nation, it alone is no guarantee of human rights. India, the worlds biggest democracy, has an atrocious human-rights record, mostly because of its inability to escape traditional customs and conflicts.

On the other hand, the UN has placed freedom high on its list of conditions necessary for human and social development, and many of the richer nations are increasingly making money off recipient governments improving their human rights records. For the continued development of a nation, changes in social and political powers will have to occur by removing political and economic obstacles that deny people their basic freedoms and by creating a fairer global economic system. A development issue that is becoming increasingly worse, especially in less developed countries is peoples access to housing and employment. As the trend for rural to urban migration increases, so does the need for people to find shelter and employment within the city. The city of Addis Ababa has experienced growth rates in excess of 7 per cent per year. Such rapid urban growth has placed an almost impossible burden on existing infrastructure and services and now nearly 70 per cent off Addis Ababas 1.2 million residents live in congested slums. Another less developed city with the same problem is Kuala Lumpur, with about a quarter of its residents living in squatter settlements and only 7 per cent of the population having access to potable water and sewerage facilities.

The Essay on Economic Development for Developing Countries

... economic relations. Moreover, developing countries are dependent on the developed world for environmental preservation (on which hopes for sustainable development depend). This is called ... GDP People in low-income countries have lower level real per capita income than the developed ones in the 19th centuries. Meanwhile, today’s developed nations ...

Going hand in hand with housing is peoples access to employment. Transnational corporations (TNCs) now number nearly 37 000 firms, most of which are based in the developed countries and control more than 200 000 overseas subsidiaries. TNCs also control over two-thirds of the worlds trade and in developing countries alone, employ an estimated 12 million people. However, the bulk of employment that TNCs create in developing countries is limited and most of the profits flow back to shareholders in the developed world. Although TNCs generate a lot of good to the world in all, they are contributing greatly to the ever-widening gap of poverty and wealth. By being able to lower prices and use other tactics to run others out of business, especially those businesses in LDCs they now have a monopoly over the market, which no other business can compete with. It is for all the geographic issues stated above and more that determines the development of a nation.

Any change to the social and political power within a nation can have either good effects or hinder the development of that nation, the quality of the environment surrounding a nation determines its development and this can bee seen in both LDCs and in the developed world, peoples access to housing is influenced by trends in urbanisation which can then have disastrous results on the development of that country, and TNCs are having an effect on the gap between wealth and poverty in the world and are therefore controlling the development of most nations.

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development geography 4 Pages 879 Words

Using a variety of contemporary geographic issues, discuss how they are related to the levels of development in nations that you have studied. The reasons for high or low development within any nation directly relates to an assortment of geographic issues. These can include things such as the changes to social and political power within a nation, people's access to housing and employment, and the environmental quality in which the nation is surrounded. Environmental quality refers to the condition of a country's environment and it's ability to continue to support the population. It is for this reason that we regard environmental quality as an indicator of the development of a country, i.e. the more polluted the environment, the less developed the nation. In many developing countries, poverty forces farmers to overgraze land and also to deforest vast areas for fuel wood. Also, poverty spreads disease by depriving communities of clean water and adequate sanitation. Even where poverty is less extreme, lack of technology for disposing of industrial pollution or improving energy efficiency results in wasted resources and generates environmental damage. Pakistan has about 25 million ha of arable land. About 0.4 million ha is lost every year due to salinity and water logging. If these rates continue then by 2050 there will be no farmland left in Pakistan and Pakistan's population will have doubled to 180 million people. In developed countries however, technology is so much more accessible and it provides us with an immense amount of material goods and comforts yet fouls our air with pollutants, generates hazardous wastes and creates enormous demands for energy. The United States, with one of the highest GNPs (Gross National Product) in the world, spends a very small part of its GNP on the environment. The quality of life of the population is affected as a result; for example, 30 000 people are thought t...

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Human Geography: Urbanization Essay

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Urbanization refers to the development of urban areas. It involves population growth as well as physical development in such areas. Many global south countries like India, Brazil and Nigeria have high rates of urbanization than northern countries like England, Canada and Japan.

This can be attributed to the natural increase in population of these areas through birth or migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. Most of these countries are developing countries. They have potential for industrialization and people migrate from rural areas to urban areas to offer labor to the growing industries.

There is also rapid development of rural areas in these areas that transforms them into urban centers. On the other hand, in developed countries, there is little migration to urban areas due to decentralization of the countries’ economies. This gives the rural people favorable conditions to stay there. There is also reduced natural population increase through birth than in most of the southern countries.

People move to cities for various reasons. Cities provide employment opportunities to people because of the growth of industries that takes place in them. Most cities also offer people better social facilities and services like entertainment and health care. There are also better economic and market opportunities in cities than can be found in most rural areas of most countries.

People therefore migrate to cities so as to come closer to these opportunities and exploit them for improving their economic status and living standards (Knox, Marston & Nash, 2007). Most rural family farms also produce hardly enough to support their family members with the required food and other basic needs. As a result, some members of such families move to cities and work hard to earn extra income which they send back home to support the needs of their family members.

Most of the rural population in most countries depends on agricultural production in order to survive. Therefore, the importation of similar low priced food materials as those produced in these countries lead to general reduction in the crops’ prices. This leads to low benefit for the farmers. Such farmers in most cases abandon their farms and move to urban areas where they look for jobs mostly in the industrial areas. Population increase in rural areas is another factor that leads to rural- urban migrations.

Increasing population in most cities of the world comes with many problems associated with settlement, infrastructure, environmental issues and service delivery. The urban poor stay in slums where there are poor infrastructure especially housing and other associated services like electricity, running water, sewage system, and roads. To make these cities livable, some of these situations and services have to be improved. The cities of the world should address issues of urban planning, urban development and urban governance.

If these three aspects are well addressed in the cities, then they will be comfortable places to stay in. Urban planning should involve proper laying out of water distribution patterns and networks in the cities, planning sanitation systems and methods of waste management, transport network as well as health systems. Each city should also develop urban development strategies that adequately address the circumstances surrounding its regions.

Urban governance is also important as it directs the way the city is administered and directs the service delivery within the city. The city governance is responsible for urban development and planning and ensures that the residents live in a sound environment by providing them with essential services like rubbish collection and disposal. The city governance should be able to transform the city slums into legitimate residential areas and improve the living standards of its urban poor.

There is lack of food security in most countries of the world. Despite enough production of foodstuffs in many parts of the world, still there are high levels of food insecurity even in countries that produce more than they need. According to UN’s FAO and USDA, a country is food secure when all its citizens have physical and economic access to enough, safe and nutritious food at all times to meet their needs and provide them with a healthy life.

Through this, we understand that in order for a country or a region to be food secure, there must be enough quantity of food, high quality of food, food access for all people and food use by the people. Over 920 million in the world are starving while a good percentage of people in some countries like the United States, United Kingdom and Australia are facing obesity epidemics.

Various stakeholders in food issues react differently and contribute to this problem either positively or negatively. These stakeholders include food producers, markets and trade unions and blocks, governments, non-governmental organizations, various policy makers and food users.

Food producers ensure that there is enough production of food to feed the population of a country and there is surplus for export. Agricultural mechanization in many countries has made it possible to produce large volumes of food substances with little labor requirements. However, cheap foreign imports of food lead to low prices of food products in the local markets making farmers in some countries to put their land to other uses like cash crop production.

This leads to reduction in local production, which can lead to high levels of starvation in these countries. The low farm produce prices discourage some people; consequently, they abandon their farms and move to urban areas to look for other jobs. Even though this is the case, there is generally high food production in the world enough to feed its population.

Individual consumers also play an important role in this scenario. The economic status of individuals determines whether they access food when it is available. Those individuals with enough money are able to buy food in the quantity and quality they desire while those who are limited financially are unable to buy what they need and end up depending on relief food. The high prices of food in some regions of the world make most of the people to starve.

Most of the people in developed countries like in US, UK, Canada and Australia are well endowed financially and get access to food in high quantities. Their high consumption rate leads to many cases of obesity. High rates of food wastage by individuals also contribute to food scarcity, which in the end lead to starvation of some people.

Individual countries’ governments also play an important role in distributing food to their citizens. They also set important policies that govern imports and exports of food. Importation of low price food commodities may lead to reduction of local food production. The governments are also responsible for food distribution to its citizens. If there is poor food distribution, then there is a likelihood of increased starvation in the country.

The governments also offer services of educating its people on the appropriate use of food so as to avoid wastage and disorders associated with food misuse. Various Non-governmental organizations and international organizations such as the UN, FAO, World Bank, and WHO also help in educating people on appropriate food use as well as aiding in their distribution to the needy. In addition, they give financial assistance to other organizations to distribute food to people.

In conclusion, people generally move to urban centers where they seek for better living conditions and increased economic and social gain. This migration may constrain the infrastructure and facilities available in the towns. The migration also deprives the rural areas of farm labor, which is important for food production. Low food productivity and distribution to all parts of the world lead to starvation of a number of people. Food wastage and misuse also aggravates this problem and creates other problems such as the rising cases of obesity in the world.

Reference List

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A. & Nash, A. E. (2007). Human Geography: places and regions in global context . Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Spain’s Geography and Culture
The Midwest Flood of April to October 1993
Geography, its Evolution and Future
Urbanization and Environment
How do Migration and Urbanization Bring About Urban Poverty in Developing Countries?
Physical Geography: Climatology and Geomorphology
Urban-Rural Variations in Health: Living in Greener Areas
Physical, Human, and Economic Geography of Italians
Germany; History, Geography, Legal and Politics
GIS Project: Environmental Hazards in the USA
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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1. IvyPanda . "Human Geography: Urbanization ." July 27, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/.

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Geography and Development Essay

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There are many meanings to what “developed” and “underdeveloped” are understood to be by different people from different perspectives. Development has evolved and changed over time and what we perceive as developed, underdeveloped, development, and so on is highly influenced by the media and people in high political and economic positions. The means in which we give and mainly receive information has a big impact on how the notion of development evolves in our minds and generations throughout time. Although we see a transformation of development over time, there is no doubt that development is inevitable for each society. To understand development, we first must look at what it means to be underdeveloped, as stated by Gustavo Esteva and William Easterly. They emphasize the “need” for development in underdeveloped societies and how growing political, economic, and technological influence ultimately has the effect on how we perceive development and under development. Understanding the past perceptions of developments critically will enlighten society on how the further positive development for generations to come.

Gustavo Esteva claims that the view of development has been mentally corrupted and obscured throughout time. This started by Truman giving a face to what it is to be “underdeveloped”. Truman gave meaning to underdeveloped people so the mass majority would want to make the strive to be developed: “ By using for the first time the word ‘underdeveloped’ in a [high politically influential context], Truman changed the meaning of development and created the emblem… to allude to… the era of American hegemony” (Esteva 1992, 2). This idea of development that Truman was giving to America was plausible because it gave the people a sense of unity and superiority in a time where there was much internal expansion and economic production, post World War 2. Esteva states the era of development was started with Truman. Esteva states that development has connoted one main thing over the years of misinterpretation: “ to escape from the undignified condition called underdeveloped” (Esteva 1992, 2). To really understand what underdevelopment is and to conceive possibility of escaping, there must be an illusion that one has fallen into a state of being underdeveloped. This thought of being underdeveloped ultimately carries a connotation that there needs to be a strive for development, as stated by Esteva.

In accordance to Truman’s strive for a superior state by helping those undeveloped societies with technology and resources, William Easterly describes two main tragedies around the world that underdeveloped societies face. The first is the global poverty and the second is the inadequate response of missionaries, governments, celebrities, and many other “admirable” people to fix these situations. These visionaries can be divided into searchers and planners. Planners bring up the plan and searchers bring it into action (Easterly 2006, 6). There has been some disparity with the searchers and the planners and this has been an issue is bringing forth the plan to help the poor like Truman initially stated. Easterly states, “A planner believes outsiders know enough to impost solutions, A searcher believes only the insiders have enough knowledge to find solutions, and that the solutions must be homegrown” (Easterly 2006, 6). This difference in the way information, medicine, and resources are given and received causes the issues with solving the world’s problems. Planners put forth their efforts to help the world with ides and promises of great things which will make them look good to society. Easterly also suggest that planners tend to be people with more money with high political and economic standing. One problem the government has when taking care of problems is that they make big plans to spend all their time and money, but little effort goes into taking productive action (Esterly 2009, 12). This difference with the planners and searchers contributes to what it mean to be “developed” and “underdeveloped” in the sense that people in power have the means to control the perception of development. This perception of what development is is exemplified by Esteva when he states how Truman’s speech of development and underdeveloped resonated in history by defining it and giving people something to strive for to be better than opposing countries.

Esteva bring forth the definition of development being derived from scientist Darwin and Wolff saying that “ development evolved from a conception of transformation that moves toward the appropriate form of being to a conception of transformation that moves toward an ever more perfect form” (Esteva 1992, 4). This use of development in the biological sphere influenced social life throughout western history. Truman took over this Marxist perception that “development is possible after envelopment “ (Esteva 1992, 5) and transformed the communist views into those of a capital and professional experts ( primum movens). Colonialism has polar views depending on your situation and events. In the Europeans eyes, colonization was deemed good for everyone because living life a European was the “right way” to live. “With the appropriate mix of tutelate and discipline, they could advance toward civilization” (Shephard 2009, 63). Colonizers found non-European societies inferior without even knowing about their cultural or societal structure. It is this ignorance, love for difference and traditional thinking that Truman was trying to mend by his influence. The British view of colonialism can be described as “the conqueror should be capable of economically developing the conquered region and at the same time accepting the responsibility of caring for the wellbeing of natives” (Esteva 1992, 6). The economic and societal sphere unity was exemplified by Truman and his idea to drive away negative connotations that have been associated with colonialism. His states that establishing economic value was pivotal in the development of a successful society. This makes people dependent on such things that happen within the economy to ensure control with fear that something will eventually go wrong with the money (Esteva 1992, 18). This dependence on the market pushed people from the negative views of colonization and brought them into another skewed by “developed” view of how society should be. It has been seen through the studies that there is no one framework for development and in order to ultimately develop an underdevelopment society, we must have the mindset of the searchers, as stated by Easterly. This entails that the underdeveloped society must strive and have the will to want to make those internal developments due to their societal and cultural knowledge. Easterly agrees with this statement with his notion of searchers giving those in need the means to develop instead of giving out a framework for development.

There are efforts to help those in impoverished countries. As said by Easterly, many people each day give to the less fortunate in other countries where 4 dollars can be used to fight malaria and Harry Potter books are a valuable donations (Easterly 2006, 4). With all of these planners finding solutions (criticized by Easterly), he states that there is no real way to end poverty, but institutions can be established to help give them more opportunities to develop. For example, “instead of trying to ‘develop’ Ethiopia, aid agencies could devise a program to give cash subsidies to parents to keep their kids in school” (Easterly 11). This in turn will give the next generation of citizens the resources to continue their own personal development which will help the state become more abundant and prosperous. Contrary to the theories of general development in societies, there is not one framework that a country should follow for development because each place has its own ruling form of culture, society, and economics. Each of these components impact the route in which a society develops into its full potential.

Easterly and Esteva both agree that development has been corrupted and transformed over time to fit the needs of the one giving that view to the masses. Easteva exemplifies the notion of development as proposed by Truman and how he changed the general perception of it to society. Development can have and different definitions depending on where you are in time, life, and culture. By giving explanations and history of development through the origin of defining development by Truman, Esteva hits notes about various spheres of influence that impact the definition of development. There are similarities in the way Easterly and Esteva view development and its changes throughout time. They agree on how there are skewed viewpoints and history has done its part in forming a distorted perception in society. Easterly suggests that planners and searchers are pivotal parts of the society; however, current society is all about big ideas and not taking adequate action (Easterly 2006, 29) . That is not saying there is no action being taken toward world problems of poverty. Easterly states that the majority of governments are all about looking good and proposing plans, that may or may not be taken out. However, Esteva suggests that with this growing awareness of the corruption of perception imposed on society through “development”, economics, and media, that the “common man” can grow to realize that he can develop further than what has been previously stated.

Both these authors have shined more light upon what it means to be developed and underdeveloped. Their points of critique toward economic and government systems defining development suggest a new way of thinking and individual frameworks of development. By seeing the roots of definition for development and underdevelopment, our society can effectively prepare to help those in need help themselves without creating a dependency. Each society should ultimately be in charge of their own development and civil unrest will ensue if there is a sense of control and power imposed by another “developed” society.

Bibliography

Easterly, William. The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have

Done so Much Ill and so Little Good . New York: Penguin Press, 2006.

Esteva, Gustavo. Development: In The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge

as Power. London: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.

Sheppard, Eric S. A World of Difference: Encountering and Contesting Development .

New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Year 9 / KS4 Geography, essay assessment sheet. Topic: development.

Subject: Geography

Age range: 11-14

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

21 October 2022

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Essay guidance sheet for 12-mark question: Explain why some countries are more developed than others.

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GCSE results day 2024: Everything you need to know including the number grading system

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When is GCSE results day 2024?

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Development in Composition: Building an Essay

Learning to support your main ideas with pertinent details

Lisbeth Hjort/Getty Images

An Introduction to Punctuation
Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

In composition , development (also known as elaboration ) is the process of adding informative and illustrative details to support the main idea in a paragraph or essay . Paragraphs and essays can be developed in many different ways. In conventional composition courses, the following patterns of exposition are often presented as the standard methods of development in expository writing :

Observations on Development

"[The] methods of development aren't empty jugs to pour full of any old, dull words. Neither are they straitjackets woven by fiendish English teachers to pin your writing arm to your side and keep you from expressing yourself naturally. The methods are tools for achieving your purpose in writing, whatever that purpose may be. They can help you discover what you know, what you need to know, how to think critically about your subject, and how to shape your writing." —From "The Bedford Reader" by X.J. and Dorothy M. Kennedy

The Importance of Providing Supporting Details

"Possibly the most serious—and most common—weakness of all essays by novice writers is the lack of effectively developed body paragraphs . The information in each paragraph must adequately explain, exemplify, define, or in some other way support your topic sentence . Therefore, you must include enough supporting information or evidence in each paragraph to make your readers understand your topic sentence. Moreover, you must make the information in the paragraph clear and specific enough for the readers to accept your ideas." —From "Steps to Writing Well" by Jean Wyrick

Body-Building

"What the opening of an essay promises, the body of the essay must deliver. This is known as 'developing your ideas,' but I like to use a body-building metaphor because it implies adding not just bulk to a framework, but musculature. In other words, good essay development strengthens , not merely fills out. . . .

"What is the best way to reinforce the main idea of your essay? You can do some by making good use of any combination of the following six methods of development:

Classification and Division
Example, case-in-point
Characterization , dialogue

"By using these bodybuilding elements, you are telling your readers, 'I don't expect you to take my word for these claims ; I want you to see for yourself!" —From "LifeWriting: Drawing from Personal Experience to Create Features You Can Publish" by Fred D. White

Multiple Patterns of Development

"Although most short papers may employ one primary pattern with other patterns woven throughout, longer papers may have two or more primary patterns of development . For example, if you are writing a paper on the causes and effects of child abuse in the foster care system, you might, after the causal analysis, shift the primary focus of the essay to prevention, thus continuing the essay with a process analysis of what the state might do to prevent child abuse. Then you might end the essay by addressing the objections from those defending the system, shifting the focus of the essay to argumentation .

"Your decision to include other primary patterns depends on your purpose and audience . Your thesis makes your purpose clear to your reader. Then as you develop your essay, you may integrate other patterns into your paragraphs." —From "Bridges to Better Writing" by Luis Nazario, Deborah Borchers, and William Lewis

Further Resources

Cause and Effect
Comparison and Contrast
Current-Traditional Rhetoric
Extended Definition
Models of Composition
Process Analysis
Kennedy, X.J.; Kennedy, Dorothy M. "The Bedford Reader," Seventh Edition. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000
White, Fred D. "LifeWriting: Drawing from Personal Experience to Create Features You Can Publish." Quill Driver Books, 2004
Nazario, Luis; Borchers, Deborah; Lewis, William; "Bridges to Better Writing. Wadsworth." 2010
Definition and Examples of Paragraphing in Essays
Definition and Examples of Body Paragraphs in Composition
Best Practices for the Most Effective Use of Paragraphs
Definition and Examples of Transitional Paragraphs
Learn How to Use Extended Definitions in Essays and Speeches
Conclusion in Compositions
Understanding General-to-Specific Order in Composition
Topic In Composition and Speech
Understanding Organization in Composition and Speech
Thesis: Definition and Examples in Composition
Cause and Effect in Composition
Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
30 Writing Topics: Analogy
What is Classification in Grammar?
What Is a Compelling Introduction?

Geography Notes

Essay on indian geography.

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Here is an essay on ‘Indian Geography’ for class 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essay on ‘Indian Geography’ especially written for school and college students.

The natural resources of a country are of primary importance for the economic development. As a matter of fact, natural resources determine the economic life of a nation. England, for example, is an industrial country but she owes her precept position to her coastline, rivers, the proximity of rich coal mines and iron fields, and the temperate climate.

The U. S. A. is both an agricultural as well as industrial country. It possesses the requisites of industrialisation and at the same time its soil at some places is very fertile. Japan, too, is an industrial country because there is no scope for agriculture, and also the nature of the soil is not favourable for agriculture.

Man may grow rich in knowledge and intelligence, however much he may have overcome nature but ultimately he will have to depend on the materials supplied by Mother Nature for the development of his economic life.

The physical factors like topography, soils, geologic formation, climate and the available flora and fauna, are the basic influences which lead to differences in land-use, cropping pattern, settlement and density of population and occurrence of minerals, water and power resources in different parts of the country. In the case of India, a study of agricultural problems should start with an investigation of the physical, edaphic and climatic factors.

In the north lies Himalaya which separates it from China, in north-west lies Pakistan and in the east it is flanked by Myanmar, separated from it by Assam hills. In the south it is bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west and by Bay of Bengal in the east. Sri Lanka lies on its south-eastern tip. In the Arabian Sea stand the Lakshadweep (Laccadive, Amindivi and Minicoy) and in the Bay of Bengal are the Andaman Nicobar Islands.

Essay # 1. Geographical Situation of India :

The Republic of India is a vast country. It lies entirely in the northern hemisphere. The mainland of the country extends between latitudes 8°4′ and 37°6′ north, longitude 68°7′ and 97°25′ east.

It is one of the central and the largest of the three irregular peninsulas of Southern Asia possessing a highly favourable position as regards the rest of the world for purposes of international trade. It measures 3,214 km from north to south and 2,933 km. from east to west. It has land frontier of 15,200 km. and a coastline of about 6,100 km. The total length of the coastline of main land, Lakshadweep Island and Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 7516.6 km. Tropic of Cancer divides it into two unequal halves, the northern half lying in the temperate zone and the southern half in the Torrid Zone.

India has an area of 328.7 million sq. hectares from the snow covered Himalayan heights to tropical rain forest of the south. India’s population as on 1 March, 1991 stood at 846.3 million as against 84.6 million in 1981. Out of the total population, the proportion of rural population was 74.3 per cent as against 82.7 per cent in 1951. India comprises 26 states and 6 union territories.

While India accounts for 16 per cent of the world’s population, it has only a 2.4 per cent share in the land surface of the world. In a relative sense, India’s position in this respect is distinctly unfavourable. In the terms of geographical area, India ranks seventh among the countries of the world after Russia, U. S. A., Canada, China, Brazil and Australia in that order.

India’s area is one-seventh of that of Russia and one-third of that of the U. S. A., Canada or China. But no less important is the fact that, in absolute terms, the geographical area of India is quite large 328.7 million sq. hectare. This is equivalent to two-thirds of the geographical area of Europe, exclusive of Russia. An important feature of the Indian area is that most of it is in the service of man.

In Russia and Canada, on the other hand, vast areas remain buried under perpetual snow. In Australia, there are large areas of desert useless for man. In Brazil, there are vast areas under tropical forests. Even in the U. S. A. more than 2.8 million sq. kms. are included in the western states which are mostly a desert. -This consideration naturally places India in the forefront among the countries of the world.

India’s-large size carries a few advantages. Firstly, in a country of so large dimensions, a variety of mineral resources are found. Secondly, the large size is associated with a variety of climates, and with this variety of climate goes the variety of crops, viz., she grows from tea to pepper and from saffron to cashewnut. Besides, India’s long coastline has its own economic advantages. In fact, its geographical area is one of its greatest assets.

Essay # 2. Physical Features of India:

Topography of the Land :

Of the total land area of 328.7 million hectares about 35.5 million hectares or 10.7 per cent lies in mountains. Nearly two-third of such mountainous tracts, 22.3 million hectares are found in Jammu and Kashmir. The remaining one-third is distributed in Eastern India i.e. 5.9 million hectares, North-West India i.e. 3.9 million hectares and in North India about 3.2 million hectares. In these mountainous areas, nearly 95% of the land is unsuitable for agriculture.

Hilly tracts comprise of 61 million hectares or 18.6 per cent of all land in India. Of this 21.1 million hectares lie in East India; 13.5 million hectares in Central India, 11.3 million hectares in South India., and 8.0 million hectares in West India.

Plateaus measure 103 million hectares or 27.7 per cent of all land in India. Almost half of the plateaus are found in Central India and the rest is distributed as 12.1 million hectares in North-West India, 11.5 million hectares in South India and 8.3 million hectares in East India.

Plains cover 141.6 million hectares or 43 per cent of the total land in India. These are distributed all over the country and are most suitable for cultivation. However, in these plain areas are also found unsuitable land such as the salt marshes of the Rann of Kutch and the sandy deserts of Western Rajasthan which are not suitable for cultivation.

The mainland comprises three well defined regions:

(1) The great mountain zone of the Himalaya;

(2) The Indo-Gangetic Plain and

(3) The Southern tableland.

(1) The Great Mountain Zone of the Himalaya:

The Himalaya runs for about 2,400 km. from the Pamir knot in the north-west to the border of Assam—with a breadth varying from 240 to 320 km. and covers about 500,000 sq. km. They comprise three parallel ranges interspersed with large plateaus and valleys like those of Kashmir and Kulu which are fertile, extensive and of great scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges i.e. Mt. Everest 8,848 metres and Kanchenjunga 8,598metres.

The high altitudes limit travel only to a few passes notably the Jelep La, Natu La and Shipki La. In the east, these ranges are much lower and are known by different names in different parts such as the Patkoi and the Naga Hills North-East and the Jaintia. Khasi and Garo hills in the South West of Assam. These running almost East-West join the chain of Lushai and Arakan hills running North-South.

(2) The Indo-Gangetic Plain:

Between the folded mountains of the north and the stable tableland of the peninsula lies the vast plain drained by three river systems. In the far west are the Bias and Sutlej draining into Arabian Sea; in the east, Ganges and its tributaries (which flow into the Bay of Bengal) and Brahmaputra in the farther east.

The Delhi Ridge divides it into two parts, viz., the Western plain and the Eastern plain. The plain is a part of a great depression which is traceable across Northern Africa, Southern Europe, and Southern Asia. It occupies an area of more than a million sq. km. and covers more than 2,400 km. from East to West with a width of 240 to 320 km.

It is wholly composed of the sediment deposited by the three rivers of northern India and is literally “the dust of mountains.” No rock-bed is disclosed by borings of 165 to 333metres. It is the region of the deepest soil in India with great thickness of clay, loam, silt etc. There is hardly any variation in relief. It is one of the greatest stretches of the flat alluvium and also one of the most densely populated areas on earth.

(3) The Southern Plateau:

This is an elevated plateau separated from the Indo-Gangetic plain by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges, ranging from 500 to 1335metres covering about 16,00,000 sq. km. It is the part of the earth’s outer shell that is composed in great part of generally horizontal rock beds that stand upon a firm and immovable foundation and that have for immense number of years remained so impassive amidst all the cataclysm and revolutions that have again and again changed the face of the earth.

The rocks composing this plateau are the various gneisses and other crystalline rocks and there is a great richness of mineral wealth associated with them. Overlying these rocks is a great thickness of unfossiliferous rocks. The rift valley in which river Narmada flows divides the whole plateau into two irregular parts. The northern is known as the Malwa plateau and the southern as the Deccan tableland.

On the Malwa plateau are to be found large areas of ravines (formed by Chambal and its tributaries) which are quite unfit for cultivation. The soil which this trap yields is reddish to brownish soil, known as the black cotton soil, which represents one of the most fertile soils of India.

The peninsula is flanked by Coast Ranges known as the Western and the Eastern Ghats. The former are much more considerable and form a gigantic and continuous seawall rising over 2440 metres above the sea level. The latter are much less formidable (only 610 metres high) and are broken and discontinuous and interrupted by many broad valleys of the rivers such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery all of which flow into the Bay of Bengal.

The rivers of the peninsula are rain-fed and hence they dry up during the summer. Their courses are rapid and abruptly descend from a higher to a lower level and are, therefore, of little use for irrigation. Irrigation is practiced by tanks and reservoirs.

Between the Ghats and the sea are the narrow strips of land on both the sides of the plateau. These have been formed by the wearing down of the oldest tableland into coastal plains. The Western Coastal Plains are very narrow and are 64 km. wide in some places. On this coast the monsoon floods bring enormous silt, and help the growth of large forests and plantation crops.

Coconut, palms, bananas, arecanuts, cashewnuts, mango, pineapples, rubber, rice, spices and cardamoms are largely grown. The shores of these plains have few creeks (i.e. lagoons) and inlets are joined by canals. They serve for good coastal traffic by boats and rafts, and in these fishes are caught.

The Eastern Coastal Plain:

It is wider and the beach is surf-beaten and is intersected by numerous swift-flowing rivers. The lower section of the plain consists of the Deltas of the rivers and is entirely alluvial, while the upper section consists of plains in the courses of the rivers and hence is partly alluvial and partly pene-plain. These plains produce good crops of rice, sugarcane, jute, coconut, mangoes, bananas, spices (like pepper and ginger), cardamom, arecanut, and sago palms.

Essay # 3. Climate of India:

Owing to the great size, position and the diversities of relief there are greater striking contrast of meteorological conditions in different parts of the country than are probably found in any other part of the world. One part of the country lies north of the tropic and the other within it. In the north-west lies the great Thar Desert with an average annual rainfall of less than 12.5 cm.

In the north-east are the Khasi hills with an average of 1150 at Cherapunji. Dras in Kashmir has recorded a minimum temperature of 9°C, while Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan has several times recorded a maximum temperature of over 50°C. Hill stations in the Himalaya, such as Shimla or Nainital may be shrouded in cloud for days together in August with humidity of 100 per cent; while in December they may be overrun by air of nearly 0 per cent humidity.

The mean maximum temperature at Cochin does not go above 89°F in any month nor the mean minimum below 15°C, while at Ganganagar the mean maximum temperature goes up to 48°C in May and the mean minimum to 8°C in January.

The climate of India is influenced from outside by two adjoining areas. On the north the Himalayan ranges shut it off from the cold climate of Central Asia and give it a ‘continental climate’, the characteristic of which are “the prevalence of land winds, great dryness of air, large diurnal range of temperature and little or no precipitation.” On the south the ocean gives it a ‘hot monsoon climate’ more typical of the tropical than of the temperate zone.

“We always think of India as essentially a tropical country. And rightly so, for the whole area within mountain-wall must, be considered as a unit, with a common type of climate throughout, that of tropical monsoon, the chief features of which are “great uniformity” of temperature and hence small diurnal range of temperature, great dampness of the air and more or less frequent rains during the south-west monsoon period.”

Temperature :

For purposes of climatological studies India may be divided into two parts- Peninsular India and Northern India. The whole of Peninsular India lies within the tropics and has a tropical climate the variations of temperature between summer and winter being small. In winter the temperatures are controlled by the proximity of the Equator and the oceanic influences and it is between 18°C and 22°C.

But in summer the temperature rises over 14°C near the tropics. In the neighbourhood of the oceans the climate is equable and the atmosphere is generally cloudy. In Malabar, the range of temperature is about 15°C and in South-Eastern Tamil Nadu about 3°C. These features are especially observable on the windward coasts and they diminish with increasing distance from the sea.

Although the whole of Northern India lies beyond the tropic of Cancer, here the climate conditions are more complex. The severity of heat or cold and the amount of moisture in the air, however, differ greatly in the different states and during different seasons. Punjab and Western Rajasthan are very cold in winter and extremely hot in summer and air is generally devoid of moisture.

But in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, and U.P. winter is cold and summer is moderately hot with plenty of moisture in the air. In winter the temperature in Northern India is controlled apart from the slanting rays of the sun in winter, by the anticyclone that covers this area then. The temperatures vary between 12°C and 18°C.

The summer temperatures are largely the effect of (i) direct rays of the sun, (ii) continentally emphasizing land influences far the sea, (iii) anticyclone, which maintains steadily rising temperatures, and (iv) modification by the south-west monsoons. The highest temperatures are to be found in the neighbourhood of M.P., Rajasthan South-West Punjab and Western U.P. Altitude tempers, the heat of low latitudes. Upon the hills it is delightfully cool and refreshing even in mid-summer, but beyond a certain point the excess of cold forbids human habitation.

The climate of India may be broadly described as a tropical monsoon type, India enjoys three well-marked seasons:

(i) A cool dry season, from October to the end of February, when northerly dry trade winds prevail over the greater part of India, the skies are clear, the weather fine and the humidity low so that there is little or no rainfall except in the northern parts where moderate cyclonic storms occasionally occur;

(ii) A hot dry season, from, the beginning of March to middle of June, usually comes suddenly with heavy thunder-storms and dry scorching westerly winds (known as loo); and

(iii) A hot season, from middle of June to end of September, with winds of oceanic origin, high humidity, much cloud and frequent rain.

Monsoon and Rainfall:

The most important feature in meteorology of India is the alternation of seasons known as ‘monsoon’. During winter, the general flow of surface air over the country is from north to south, north-westerly in the Northern plains, northerly in the central parts and north-easterly in the South of the Peninsula and the neighbouring seas. In this season, the air over the country mainly of continental origin and hence, of low humidity and the season is known as the north east monsoon season or winter season.

In the summer months, the general flow of winds is from the opposite direction i.e. from sea to land and the season is one of much humidity, cloud and rain. The direction of winds in the major parts of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal being south-westerly, the season is named the south-west monsoon seasons or wet summer season.

(i) South-West Monsoon Season (1st June to 30th Sept.):

During this period 74 per cent of the total rainfall is recorded. The monsoon sets in June, spreads almost all over the country by July and August and gradually gets weakened in September. During the period rains are very important because they provide necessary moisture for agricultural operations for sowing of kharif crops which account for more than 80 per cent of the total area sown to crops.

Thus, the setting in of the south-west monsoon marks the beginning of the agricultural operations over a wide area viz., the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. The former brings rainfall to the southern and western parts of the country, but, as the monsoon advances, it penetrates further into the central and North-West India. The second branch comes slightly later and confines itself to Assam, West Bengal and North-Eastern India.

(ii) The Post-Monsoon Season (1st October to 15th Dec.):

The post- monsoon season begins with October, and extends up to December. It provides only 13 per cent of the annual rainfall. Normally good post-monsoon showers are received in three months in the eastern region comprising Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Kerala and Maharashtra.

In other parts of the country only light occasional showers are received and the intensity of these showers decreases from east to west. But these light showers are very important for the growing of the late-sown kharif crops, especially in Southern India as well as for the sowing of rabi crops. The rains during this period are of considerable local importance.

(iii) Winter Monsoon Season (15th December to 15th March):

Winter monsoon commences in January and lasts up to the end of February. Though this provides only 3 per cent of the annual rainfall, this is important for the proper growth of Rabi crops in Northern India, especially wheat, barley, gram and pulses in the Punjab, Haryana, U. P., Bihar, M. P., Rajasthan and parts of Assam.

(iv) Pre-Monsoon Season:

Pre-monsoon showers during March to May amount roughly to 10 per cent of the annual rainfall. This period of the year is generally dry over the land mass of northern and Peninsular India where rabi crops are harvested and the irrigated crops are grown.

But the stronger winds near the sea-coast, which increase in strength as the monsoon advances, brings rain to the north-eastern part of the country consisting of Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and the North-West Coast of Karnataka and Kerala, and South-East Tamil Nadu. In the North-East region they help the sowing of autumn paddy and maize, while in the southern areas, these rains are beneficial for the sowing of kharif crops like paddy, coffee, sugarcane and some vegetables on land where irrigation facilities are available.

Importance of Rainfall :

The annual average rainfall of India is 120cms. which yields an annual precipitation of 400 million hectare metre, and variations from this normal—as great as + 30cms. and -20cms.—-occurred in 1971 and 1989 respectively. A feature of considerable importance is the variability of monsoon rainfall. The variation ranges from 12.5cms, in the desert areas of Rajasthan to nearly 1100cms. in the hills of Meghalaya.

Generally the variability decreases with increasing rainfall, the variability being largest in the driest parts of the country and least in the wettest regions. The high variability in areas of low rainfall is, however, not such a serious menace to agriculture as the comparatively low variability in areas which have just enough rainfall for agricultural purposes. Any decrease in rainfall in such areas makes it impossible for agricultural operations to be carried on and a famine is the result, as average rainfall diminishes from place to place and as it becomes more concentrated in one season, variations from year to year increases.

When the normal total is under 50 cms., no agriculture is attempted without irrigation, and rainfall fluctuations are expected and planned for. Where the total exceeds 200 cms., there is almost always a surplus of moisture available for growing of crops. 100 cms. of rain is normally adequate but when it fails, famine is threatened. Thus, the most seriously affected, areas are those where the rainfall is between 75 and 125 cms. and this is the famine zone of India. In Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Central India and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu where some rain usually comes but the variation is great, famine descends frequently.

In this area there is enough rain for crops during normal years so that adequate provision of irrigation facilities does not exist. This fact is the source of considerable suffering in times of drought. Long experience with rainfall fluctuations has brought population distribution into close agreement with climatic possibilities but so great is the pressure of people that may have occupied the marginal lands where drought is certain to occur.

In certain areas, notably Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Western U. P., Haryana and Northern Rajasthan irrigation has made the settlers somewhat independent of rainfall changes, but a prolonged failure of monsoon causes rivers and wells (the source of irrigation) to have less water than usual and thus to be less adequate for irrigation.

Characteristic Features of Monsoon Rains :

The monsoon rains in India are often marked by some important variations from the normal, viz.:

(i) The beginning of the rains may be delayed considerably over the whole or a large part of the country,

(ii) It may end much earlier than usual causing damage to kharif crops and also make the sowing of rabi crops difficult or uncertain,

(iii) There may be prolonged breaks of rain lasting over the greater part of July or August, when the summer crops needing plenty of moisture are just growing,

(iv) The rains may persist more than usual in one part of the country and desist from another part,

(v) It is concentrated for a few months—fluctuations in which as regards climate, distribution and timeliness bring misery or prosperity to millions of people. For several months in a year, India is on trial for her life and seldom escapes without a penalty.

(vi) The normal duration of the monsoon varies from two to four months. It begins to withdraw from north-west by mid-September and from south by middle of December.

(vii) Over 80 per cent of India’s annual rainfall is recorded in the monsoon months. The south-west monsoon accounts for 80 per cent of the rainfall of India both seasonally and regionally. Much of the rainfall is caused by the rather fortuitous orientation of mountain barriers, although consecutive phenomena also play an important part.

There is also a small quantity of rain even in other seasons too e.g., south has its ‘mango showers’ in the months of March to May, while ‘spring storms’ bring rain to West Bengal and Assam, then retreating monsoons bring rain to South-East Coast during September to December,

(viii) It is unevenly distributed over the country. The sharp transition from heavy rain to dire scarcity is testified by the old proverb “One horn of cow lies within the rainy zone and one without.”

(ix) It is erratic, sometimes falling in torrents and heavy downpours leading to a considerable run-off. This result in excessive soil leaching and soil erosion.

(x) There are large variations in the amount of rainfall from year to year.

(xi) The variation from the normal is greatest where the rainfall is least. Rajasthan and Gujarat have shown the highest variations while Kerala and West Bengal have shown the least. Droughts frequently occur in the interior districts of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Anantpur in Andhra Pradesh, while at the same time, the adjoining parts of Tamil Nadu may be suffering from deluges and floods,

(xii) The driest tracts of the country have heavy down-pours when compared with the temperate countries, where the average rainfall is less than 0.25 cm. in 24 hours. In India a rainfall of 50 cm. in a day is common; the highest record was round about 86 cm. in a period of 24hrs. in Bihar (at Purnea), and 57 cm. in Andhra Pradesh (at Nellore).

Variability of Rainfall :

A very important aspect of rainfall in India is its variability. Variability from normal, when it is as low as 10 per cent, is serious in areas of modern precipitation where the precipitation is just enough for the crop produced there. It is in such areas that famines occur. In these areas, variability ranges from 20 to 50 per cent (as in the peninsular and north western India).

High variability, over 30 per cent is characteristic of the western section of the continental India where precipitation is moderate to low. Because of this low precipitation land- use is based on irrigation facilities on ‘risk’ basis. Precipitation below the normal in any year, does not take the people unaware; precipitation above the normal is a pleasant surprise.

Low variability below 15 per cent is characteristic of areas of high precipitation as in the North-East and South-West India. Here, precipitation below the normal could be unhelpful because the total quantity increases above the normal and tends to inundate vast areas.

Climatic Regions:

The Census of India-divided India into five clear-cut rainfall regions as given below:

A map of India outlining the areas which have different amounts of rainfall shows that approximately one-third of the total area has a rainfall in excess of 125cms. per year. This quantity is enough for intensive agriculture during the rainy seasons and often leaves a residue in the soil adequate to produce a winter crop such as wheat or grain, sorghum, etc. In addition, the rainfall in this area is more dependable than in areas of lower average precipitation, although there are occasional seasons when the monsoon is feeble even in these moister regions. In such seasons, drought frequently damages crops even though the average rainfall is high.

Moreover, a significant proportion of this area of heavy rainfall is in the Himalayan region where the topography prevents cultivation, except of perennial crops like tea and fruits in certain suitable locations. These regions of heavy to very heavy rainfall also contain some badly eroded areas.

The area having rainfall of 75 cm. to 125 cm. annually covers another one-third of the country. This amount of rainfall is generally adequate for fair to good crops, but less adequate than it would be in the temperate latitudes. Here the monsoon is also somewhat less dependable than in the area with a higher average annual rainfall. Short crops are not infrequent in this area, especially as the lower limit of rainfall is approached. Moreover, in the 75 to 100 cm. portion of this region the soil less frequently retains enough moisture from summer rains to insure a winter crop of any importance.

Another one-third of the country has an annual precipitation of 75 cm. or less. Here the seasonal fluctuations are so frequent that they are more or less regularly expected and when they occur, they causes a great deal of hardship to the people and expense to the government. The yellow belt (having 37.5 cm. or less of rainfall and containing 7 per cent of the land area) has so little rain that a great many people do not live there.

The brown belt (having 37.5 cm. to 75 cm. of rainfall and containing 24 per cent of the land area), where one-fourth of our people living has special hazards, which is a permanent problem for the people and the government. This area of light and highly variable rainfall, although much of it is topographically usable, must remain in an area of relatively low productivity, except where it can be irrigated and not a great deal more of it is irrigable.

On the basis of rainfall, four broad climatic regions may be demarcated:

(a) Practically, the whole of Assam and the West Coast lying at the foot of the Western Ghats and extending from North of Bombay to Trivandrum are areas of heavy rainfall.

(b) The Rajasthan desert extending to Kutch, and the high Ladakh region fall under regions of moderately low rainfall.

(c) A broad belt in the eastern part of the Peninsula merging northward with North India plains and southward with eastern plains falls under regions of moderately high rainfall.

(d) A belt extending from the Punjab plains across the Vindhya Mountains into the western part of the Deccan, widening considerably in the Mysore plateau comes under area of low rainfall.

The normal annual rainfall varies from about 11,680 mm in Assam hills and 7,620—10,160 mm at suitably exposed positions on the crests of the Western Ghats to less than 75 mm in Rajasthan. The following statement shows the areas under assured rainfall region, medium rainfall region and dry region.

Effects of Climate of Agricultural Economy :

Life in India is primarily based on agriculture, which is dependent for its very existence on the monsoons (particularly the south-west monsoons).

This monsoon may be said to be the pivot upon which the whole of Indian economic life swings. In one season, India is deluged with rain and is the scene of most wonderful and rapid growth of vegetation; in another period the same tract becomes dreary, sun-burnt and waste. In fact, if monsoon fails, there is a lockout in agriculture industry, a disaster which calls forth the virtues of patience, fortitude and charitableness.

As winter temperatures are never too low in any parts of the country, the growing period for the crops is prolonged so that two crops are grown. In parts of West Bengal, Assam and the Peninsular Coastal region, owing to availability of sufficient water supply as many as three crops of rice are grown. The summer temperatures are high and rise suddenly hence crops mature earlier. This rapid maturity of crops tends to deteriorate their quality. India is, therefore, not a ‘quality’ producer, but only a ‘quantity’ producer. This applies to winter crops as well as summer crops.

The weather fluctuations and destructive meteorological phenomena which affect crops adversely in India are- floods, droughts, storms, depressions and untimely rains, thunderstorms, hailstorms and dust storms, heat waves, cold waves and frost, excessive or defective insulation, and high winds.

The uniformly high temperatures during monsoon season are of great benefit for the quick growth and maturity of crops like millets, pulses, sesamum, cotton and maize. The hot and moist climate of this period produces an abundant vegetative growth in plants which serve as a fodder for cattle.

As the rainfall is concentrated to only few months, the greater part of the year is dry. This fact discourages the growth of grasslands in India. Whatever grass grows during the rains is scorched during the dry season. Hence, pasturage is poor in India and cattle and other livestock have, therefore, to be stock fed.

The extreme uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall in various parts of the country and its compression into one or two months have necessitated the practice of irrigation more universally and on a large scale in India than in any other part of the world. Further, through centuries of experimentation, Indian farmers have developed crop varieties and agricultural practices which fit in with this pattern of precipitation.

Agricultural Regions :

Dr. Cressy has rightly said. “Nowhere else are so many people, so intimately dependent upon rainfall rhythms, the whole prosperity in India is held up with the eccentricity of its seasonal rainfall.”

In determining agricultural and animal husbandry regions of India, factors like rainfall, temperature, altitude, latitude, natural vegetation, soils, crops and live-stock are taken into consideration. When all these factors are taken into account, what strikes one is their uniformity over wide belts of territory embracing many States. It should, however, be noted that transition from one region to another is gradual and it is only in the central areas that the differences emerge in full contrast.

Many authors have also attempted to divide India in specific agricultural regions such as Stamp, Simkins and Spate took geographical factors like topography, climate and density of population. Dr. Chen Hen Seng divided India into 16 regions on the basis of topographical situation, agricultural water supply, crop system, land tenure system, and general economic development.

The National Sample Survey Organization has divided the country, into 25 main agricultural regions with 66 sub-regions by grouping within each state/unions territory districts or parts of districts having similar population density and crop pattern, and having similar altitude above sea level and also having good transport and communication facilities.

According to Dr. Randhawa, the following regions can be defined:

1. Temperate Himalayan Region:

This region is usually divided into two sub-divisions:

(i) The Eastern Himalayan Region:

This includes Mishmi Hills in Upper Assam, Sikkim and Bhutan. Rainfall is heavier (over 250 cms) in the outer ranges and there are thick forests of sal. This is mainly a tea-growing area. Cultivation of paddy is done in some places.

(ii) Western Himalayan Region:

This includes Kumaon, Garhwal, Simla hills, Kulu and Kangra valleys, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir State. The climate is dry but in northern parts there is more winter rainfall. Horticultural crops—particularly walnuts, almond, apples, cherries, apricots, peaches, pears and plums—occupy a high place. Other cultivated crops are potato, maize and paddy. Goats and sheep are principal domestic animals providing meat and wool. Bee-keeping is also done.

2. Northern Dry (or Wheat) Region:

This comprises the Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, North Gujarat, Western U. P. and parts of West M. P. and Rajasthan. Annual rainfall is less than 75 cms. and in many places even less than 20 cms. The soil is alluvial and sandy. Wheat, barley, gram, maize, jowar, bajra and cotton are the chief crops. Camels are found exclusively in this region. Horses, donkeys, sheep and goats are also common. The cattle in the region are adequately fed as there is comparatively a large area under fodder crops and wheat straw is also available in abundance.

3. Eastern Wet (or Rice) Region:

It includes Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Eastern U. P., Andhra Pradesh, Eastern Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Eastern M. P. Annual rainfall is over 153cms. The soil is mainly alluvial. The crops are rice, jute, sugarcane and tea. The area under fodder crops is the smallest.

Rice being the staple crop, its straw is used as cattle feed. Buffalo is the favorable domestic animal.

4. Western Wet (or Malabar) Region:

It comprises of Kerala, Western Coastal strips, Karnataka and adjoining areas. Annual rainfall is over 253 cms. The soil is lateritic. This region is important from the point of view of plantation crops, but coconut is the predominant crop besides tapioca, cashewnut, arecanut, rubber, spices, black pepper and cardamom. Rice is the main food crop.

5. Southern (Medium Rainfall or Millet) Region:

This comprises of Southern U. P., South Gujarat, M. P., Western Andhra Pradesh, Western Tamil Nadu, Eastern Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka. Rainfall is between 50 cms. and 100 cms. The soil is partly black cotton and partly lateritic. Jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor seed and cotton are the chief crops. There are more sheep in this region than in any other but most of these do not produce good quality wool.

An important classification of the country into 4 macro- agricultural regions, 25 macro-agricultural and 60 micro- agricultural regions has been given by Sengupta and S. Dayuk.

These regions are:

1. The Himalayan Zone:

It covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kumayun Himalaya and its foot hills. Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Himalayan including Arunachal Pradesh. In this zone, the rainfall varies from 125cms. to 250cms. Much of the mountainous tracts are negative areas from cultivation and settlement point of view. Only 7 per cent of the area is available for cultivation. The leading crops are wheat, maize, rice, buck-wheat, marketing, gardening, particularly seed potatoes, and a host of temperate fruits.

2. The West Zone:

It comprises in most part the North-Eastern Peninsular plateau (plateaus of Chota Nagpur, Northern Orissa, Bastar plateau, Central parts of Madhya Pradesh, upper Mahanadi basin and Kaimur hills), Eastern hills and plateau (Manipur, Mizo hill districts, Garo hills, United Mikir and North Cachar hill districts, Nagaland, Kachar valley, United Khasi and Jaintia Hills).

A relatively small part of it is shared by the alluvial plants-consisting of Ganga Delta and Northern Brahmaputra valley, Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal; Bhagirathi Delta; Orissa coast including Mahanadi Delta, west coast stretching from Surat district to Kanyakumari district (including Cambay coast, North and South Karnataka coast, and North and South Malabar district). The rainfall here is from 100 to 125 cm.

Irrigation is normally not necessary and rice is the predominant crop. Other crops grown are tea, jute, oilseeds, gram millets, wheat, sugarcane, spices, arecanut, banana, jack-fruit and coconut.

3. Sub-Humid Zone:

It embraces the upper and middle Ganga plain (Ganga and Jamuna doabs, tarai region, South Ganga plain, eastern district of U. P. and its contiguous Champaran district of Bihar); a vast stretch of land in Peninsular India from Bundelkhand plateau through the heart of the lava plateau down to the East Coast region (including the plateaus of Bundelkhand, Malwa, South Eastern Maharashtra, Northern and Southern Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Wardha basin, upper Tapti valley, Malnad and Maidan tract of Karnataka, Northern and Southern Andhra coast, Krishna-Godavari Deltas, and South Eastern Tamil Nadu coast.

The rainfall varies between 75 to 100cms. The proportion of cultivated region reaches a high figure wherever water is available for irrigation. The most intensively cultivated areas are the Ganga plain and the east coast deltas, where proportion of cultivated land to the total area goes to about 70 per cent. Wheat, sugarcane, rice, gram, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, oilseeds, and tobacco are the main crops.

4. The Dry Zone:

It embraces in the North-West, North and South Punjab plains. Haryana, Western U. P., Rajasthan desert plain and semi-desert plain, Kutch Peninsula of Gujarat, and in the south a long-strip of the peninsular , plateau in the lee of the ghats (including Tapti-Narmada doab area, upper Godawari, Bhima and Krishna basins. Tungabhadra basin and Rayalseema plateau).

The rainfall is about 75cms. a year. Except in the alluvial plains of Punjab and Haryana, the entire dry area suffers from acute shortage of water. Millets, gram, wheat, oilseeds, cotton and groundnut are the main crops.

Essay # 4. Types of Soils in India :

The investigation of Voelcker in 1893 and of Leather in 1898 led to a classification of Indian soils into four major types, viz. – (i) Indo-Gangetic alluvium, (ii) black cotton soils (iii) red soils; and (iv) laterite soils. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research set up an All-India Soil Survey Committee, which reported in 1963. It divided Indian soils in 8 different categories.

Some of which are quite inclusive of a rather wide variety of soil conditions while others have quite uniform and consistent soil characteristic throughout. These eight soil groups are- alluvial, desert, soil saline and alkaline soils, patty and marshy soils, black soils, red soils, laterite soils, and mountain and hill soils.

The soil map prepared by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, shows 27 broad soil classes in India, according to it, the approximate areas of these classes of soils are:

1. Alluvial Soils:

These soils occupy extensive tracts of land in about 15 lakh sq. km. in northern, North-Western and North-Eastern parts of India and include greater parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, North Western parts of Delhi, Bihar, parts of Assam (central Areas of Lakhimpur, Darang, Sibsagar, Kamrup, Goalpara), parts of Garo Hills.

West Bengal; Orissa; the valley of Narbada and Tapi and in the Mahanadi basin in Balaghat, Durg, Bastar, Raipur and Bilaspur districts in M. P. deltaic areas of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery in Southern India, and the strips extending along the Eastern and Western coasts of the peninsula (in the river deltas and the Malabar coast respectively). They also occur in Ahmedabad, Vadodara and Kheda districts of Gujarat.

The depth of this soil exceeds 600metres below the ground surface. In North India, these soils are derived mainly from the debris brought down from the Himalaya or from the silt left by the old sea which has now retreated.

Geologically, the alluvium is divided into newer and older alluvium. The former (known as khadir) vary mostly from clayey to sandy loam in texture and are generally acidic in reaction. They are light coloured and of less kankary composition. These soils are deficit in lime, phosphoric acid and humus. The latter (known as Bangar) are more clayey in composition, generally of dark colour and fully kankary.

These soils are red coloured and differ in consistency from drift sand to loam in texture and are generally acidic in reaction. In other places they vary from fine silt to stiff clay. A few occasional pebbles are also present. These soils differ in different parts of the country in physical texture and chemical composition. In north and North-West India it is dry, porous and in some places sandy giving rise to crops not requiring the retention of a great deal of moisture about their roots.

In West Bengal, it becomes more compact, less coarse and moist where rice, sugarcane and jute are largely cultivated; while in the deltas of the peninsular India, it is actually clayey, non-porous and of dark colour. In Assam, these soils are less acidic in reaction, sometimes neutral or slightly alkaline.

Although these soils are rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and organic matter they are deficient in nitrogen and humus contents. These soils are capable of fixing nitrogen very rapidly through leguminous crops. These soils are of marvelous fertility producing under irrigation splendid crops of rice, sugarcane, tobacco, banana, cotton, wheat, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits. The regions of these soils are heavily populated and constitute the “wheat and the rice bowls of India.”

2. The Desert Soil:

They occur under arid and semi-arid conditions and occupy large tracts in Rajasthan, Haryana and South Punjab, lying between the Indus valley and the Aravallis occupying about 1.42 sq. km. The Thar desert alone occupies an area of 1,06,000sq. km. The sands, with which it is covered, are partly derived from the disintegration of adjacent tracts but are largely blown in from the coastal regions of the Rann of Kutch and the Indus valley.

These soils contain high percentage of soluble salts, low loss on ignition, and varying percentage of calcium carbonate and are poor in organic matter, the limiting factor being mainly water. These soils may be reclaimed if proper facilities of irrigation are available.

Very few crops, especially coarse millets, jowar, and bajra are grown for want of water supply and hence population supported by the regions is very small. But Ganganagar district, under the influence of Ganga canal and areas irrigated by Rajasthan canal have now became the leading producers of wheat, gram and cotton.

3. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

These soils occur on about 68,000 sq. km. of area in the drier tracts of north specially of Bihar, U. P., Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan and all over the state of Maharashtra. The soils give rise to saline and alkaline efflorescence. These soils are popularly called Reh, Kallar and Usar.

Large areas, once fertile, have become impregnated with salt with highly deleterious effects on cultivation. The total area of such soils in the country has been estimated to be about 85,000 sq. km. spread along the sea coasts comprising states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Goa.

Texturally, they are sandy to loamy sand. The alkaline soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen and are highly impervious and have very low water holding capacity. On these soils are produced, a wide variety of crops including rice, wheat, cotton, banana, sugarcane, coconut and tobacco.

4. Peaty and Marshy Soils:

Peaty soils originate in the humid regions as a result of an accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soils. These soils cover about 150 sq. km. The soils are generally submerged under water during the monsoon. As soon as the rains cease, the soils are put under paddy cultivation. The soils are black, heavy and highly acidic, and contain 10 to 40 per cent of the organic matter.

On these soils, paddy is grown when water recedes. Marshy soils are found in coastal tracts of Orissa, in the Sundarbans and other places in West Bengal in the central portion of North Bihar, in the Almora district of U. P. and in the South-East coast of Tamilnadu. There are occurrences of muck and very humus soils in low lying situations. They contain about 18 per cent of the organic matter. Both these types of soils are highly saline, rich in organic matter but deficient in phosphate and potash.

5. Foot-Hill or Tarai Soils:

These soils cover about 56,600 sq. km. area in Jammu and Kashmir, U. P. and West Bengal in the submontane tract at the foot of the Himalaya. In U. P., this tract runs as a narrow belt from the district of Dehradun to Deoria. These soils are particularly deficient in phosphate but are inherently rich in nitrogen and organic matter.

In West Bengal, these are mainly sandy, raw humus type and deep black to grey black in colour. The soil is acidic and poor in bases and available plant food material. The soil is generally covered by all grasses and shrubs, under reclaimed conditions good crop of paddy, wheat, soyabean and sugarcane are grown.

6. Mountain and Hill Soils:

These soils cover about 13,300 sq. km. mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, H. P., Punjab, U. P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland, etc. Most of these soils are low in lime and are acidic. In areas of good rainfall, these are rich in humus and very fertile for the cultivation of plantation crops like tea, and temperate fruits. They may also be used for growing paddy.

7. Black Soils:

These soils may be of various kinds such as deep black, medium black, shallow black or chestnut. They cover an area of about 546,000 sq. km. These soils are found in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, M. P. and some parts of Tamil Nadu, Southern Rajasthan and in U. P.

The black soils extend in depth even up to 3metres, and more. Their chief characteristics are their high fertility, highly argillaceous character, and comparative richness in lime, high proportion of magnesium carbonate, ferrous-oxide and aluminium oxide. They contain sufficient quantities of potash and phosphoric acid.

These soils are highly retentive of moisture and extremely compact and tenacious when wet and rich in chemical properties. They are generally rich in iron, lime, calcium and magnesium carbonates, and alumina but are poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. The potash content is available. In general, this soil is clayey and fine textured with dark colour.

Since the content of water soluble salts is high, these soils are unsuitable for heavy irrigation. Because of retentivity of moisture, fineness and chemical matters (especially lime), these soils are endowed with inexhaustible fertility. Both kharif and rabi crops are grown over it. Cotton, wheat, chillies, linseed, jowar, Virginia tobacco, castor, safflower, and millets are the chief crops. Vegetables of different kinds and citrus fruits can also be grown successfully.

8. Red Soils:

Such soils comprise practically the whole of Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, South-East Maharashtra, north-east Andhra Pradesh, Goa and strip of the tract running along the eastern parts of M. P. to Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

In north, its area extends into and includes the greater part of the Santhal Pargana in Bihar, the Birbhum, Bankura districts of West Bengal, Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda and Hamirpur districts of U. P., northern portion of M. P., the Aravallis and the eastern half of Rajasthan; southern part of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Tripura covering in all about 5.18 lakh sq. km. of area.

The red soils differ greatly in consistency, colour, depth and fertility. On the uplands, they are thin, poor and gravelly, sandy, or stony and porous, light coloured soils on which food crops like bajra can be grown. But on the lower plains and valleys they are rich, deep dark coloured fertile loam on which, under irrigation can be produced excellent crops like cotton, wheat, pulses, millets, groundnut, sugarcane, potatoes, and fruits. Since these soils are airy, they need irrigation for cultivation.

9. Laterite and Lateritic Soils:

These occur most extensively and cover an area of about 248,000 sq. km. They are well developed on the summits of the basaltic hills and plateaus of M. P., West Bengal, Eastern Ghat region of Orissa, South Maharashtra, Karnataka and parts of Assam, Meghalaya, and in Santhal Parganas of Bihar. These soils are generally poor in nitrogen, potash and potassium and organic matter but are responsive to nitrogen and phosphate manuring and hence, produce good crops.

10. Red and Yellow Soils:

These soils are spread over 198,000 sq. km. of area in M. P., Rajasthan and Tripura. These soils are poor in phosphorus, humus are somewhat acid. They differ in fertility and produce a number of crops under irrigation, and are suitable for paddy, sugarcane, wheat and cotton.

Conclusion :

It will be observed that the soils of India offer a distinct contrast to those of many other countries, in as much as they are very old, fully matured, and so not in many cases show pedogenic processes and the close relationship between the soil and its rocky substratum. The weathered materials in most cases have been transported to great distances by various agencies. The majority of the soils in India are of ancient alluvial origin.

An examination of these shows that although the nature and composition reflect to some extent the composition of the original rocks from which they are derived, they are the result to a considerable extent of the climate, particularly the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall. Other soils mostly of the Peninsula, are diluvial and these remain in the areas where they are formed and thus there is no mixing of different rock materials. The fertility of these soils depends upon the chemical constituents of the rocks from which they are derived.

In the midst of varying features two characteristics are to be found common to almost all soils. Firstly, their comparative dryness. This absence of moisture in the lands makes the supply of water an absolute necessity in Indian agriculture. Second, a major proportion of soils is deficient in nitrogen and organic matter. The phosphate deficiency is comparatively less marked while potash deficiency is rare.

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Hello learners Well, getting your hands on Geography Grade 10 September Past Exam Papers is like striking gold when it comes to preparing for your septembeer tests and exams. On this page, we have listed all Geography Grade 1o past exam papers for September Term 3: Geography Grade 10 September Past Exam Papers The Geography