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Qualitative responsibility analysis of building construction delay: A case study of delayed hostel construction project in India

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K. Pankajakshan , P. S. Joanna , Safeer Ali Abbas Ali , Arun Chandramohan; Qualitative responsibility analysis of building construction delay: A case study of delayed hostel construction project in India. AIP Conf. Proc. 10 December 2021; 2409 (1): 020005. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0068095

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Recent trends on research on construction delays show the need for separate studies on individual construction projects and activities with surgical precision. This research identifies major causes of delay in education building construction projects by qualitative responsibility analysis. A case study was conducted on construction of a student's residential complex located in a premier institute in India. Regular site visits, in-depth analysis of project documents and personnel interviews with the representatives of the client, consultant and contractor were periodically done. The study identified 39 common delay factors. These identified factors were then classified into four categories based on responsibilities viz., client-related, contractor-related, consultant-related, and other natural elements. The various issues and delay factors obtained from the real-time case study were compared with general delay factors analyzed from the literature review to arrive at the most critical factors of the delayed project. The analysis revealed that the percentage responsibility for the delay from contractor, client and consultant are 44, 28 and 18, respectively. The remaining 10 per cent factors were due to unforeseen natural Force Majeure. The delay analysis revealed that all stakeholders of the project are more or less responsible for the project delay.

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What Causes Construction Project Delays: 9 Reasons that Make Work Fall Behind Schedule

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Construction project delays are observed globally. They may happen when things don’t go according to your plan. They spoil reputation and affect the economy of countries. Thus, identifying the causes of delays has the paramount importance for minimizing their consequences.

Some of the reasons are outside of our control while others can be predicted and managed.

According to the PMI survey , 72% of PMP (Project Management Professional) certification holders experience project delays. It’s crucial to timely respond as in many cases, the way you communicate a project delay to stakeholders and customers will determine whether you’ll manage the next project or not.

Let’s highlight the most common reasons for construction project delays diving into this post from the batch of fundamental construction project management articles . 

What causes construction project delays

• Poor project planning.
• Budget conflicts and inaccuracies.
• Economic changes.
• Project complexity and uniqueness.
• Weak communication.
• A poorly defined scope of work.
• The lengthy process of getting necessary approvals.
• Weather, natural disasters, and other external factors.
• Injuries and safety issues.

Any step-by-step guide to manage a construction project teaches us how to avoid and prevent project delays at any stage.

The results of the study (2021) show that all the identified causes for construction project delays are correlated to 4 main factors (which account for 69.18% of the sample variance): 

• Supply management – 21.41%.
• Workforce management – 20.79%.
• Project management – 17.64%.
• Management of climatic conditions – 9.34%.

The number of specific reasons may vary. Below, we suggest considering the most significant ones.

1. Poor project planning

Planning is an essential aspect that affects the outcome of many projects. Therefore, many sets and lists of construction project management tips put the advice on quality planning in one of the first places.

Poor planning may be considered one of the biggest causes of project delays in construction.

According to the research (2022) provided by Buildertrend, construction jobs were delayed over 46 days on average in 2022. This looks like a significant violation of a project plan .

When you plan a project correctly, you identify a construction scope of work that must be performed to obtain the desired outcome in minimum time and cost. Construction projects involve different professionals or work groups, so it is critical to be sure that every aspect of their work is incorporated into the planning process to obtain better results.

Such a plan may include schedules and tasks for various departments, suppliers, equipment, and materials, as well as time and costs required to complete a certain phase of your construction.

However, if the plan looks inadequate, any construction project may easily break and lead to delays. 

A vivid example of a delayed construction project due to poor planning is the Melamchi Drinking Water Supply project (Nepal). It was started in 2000 with the aim of completing it in 2007.

The World Bank withdrew its investment from this project in 2002 because of constant delays. The bank and other authoritative project participants admitted vivid problems with planning that included frequent changes in orders, inability to provide the site, delays in revising and approving design docs, and other factors.

Water was released in the main tunnel only in 2021.

A good schedule should arrange all project activities in a logical, sequential order, providing all involved team members with a roadmap of how the construction project should be run from start to finish.

Luckily, the market offers powerful construction scheduling software solutions to facilitate the visualization and management of construction projects. One of these solutions is GanttPRO.

The digital nature of this Gantt chart maker means that your project plans can be accessible in real time to all the people involved.

A handy Gantt chart offered by GanttPRO assists in scheduling and organizing even the most complex construction projects, avoiding delays. 

The diagram allows for categorizing tasks according to their hierarchy, setting dependencies, milestones, due dates, and deadlines. You can assign responsible people there as well as consider all required resources from staff to heavy equipment.

If your construction team wants to work with other project views, they can also get a board view, where all activities are displayed in columns and cards.

If you turn to GanttPRO already having a row of delayed projects, you’ll find a short learning curve and attractive UX/UI design there. It will be easy for your team to move to the Gantt chart maker and continue their work on projects. This will reduce possible risks related to disrupting project deadlines.

The platform comes with friendly construction project management templates that will simplify the process of managing projects behind schedule .

It’s also possible to import projects in .mpp formats from MS Project or in Excel formats.

Here’s the feedback of George Rossle, a production manager at A+ Construction Pro .

You may use GanttPRO if you deal with residential construction, a home construction management workflow , engineering, commercial construction, heavy industrial objects, etc.

The platform assists in improving communication in the construction industry .

2. Budget conflicts and inaccuracies

Budget issues also cause project delays in construction.

Many construction projects end up going over budget. Employees don’t want to work if they aren’t getting paid. Customers don’t want to pay more than originally arranged if things start to run over the initial plan. 

Wrong estimations do also matter. Some job positions can be shut down for weeks or months due to inaccuracies associated with them. Therefore, professional project managers must always care for accurate estimates that will ensure enough money for materials, wages, and more. 

According to the survey (2021), a significant majority of construction owners (specifically 75%) exceeded their planned budgets for their projects, while 77% experienced delays. On average, projects were delayed by 70 days beyond their original estimated completion date.

Let’s recollect one of the examples of delayed construction projects due to budget issues – the project of New York MTA East Side Access (USA).

This metro scheme was designed to extend the Long Island Rail Road into a new concourse under the Grand Central Station in Manhattan. The project is already considered the most over-budget metro scheme in progress.

In 2006, it was estimated to cost $6.3bn. The authors wanted to complete it by 2013. In 2022, the costs were around $11bn. All the operations are still in progress.

It’s difficult to avoid budget conflicts and inaccuracies. However, you can take some actions to prevent them or reduce their impact. 

One of the great decisions is to have a robust project timeline that will give you a clear picture of all budget affairs in seconds. It’ll be great if you build this visual timeline keeping in mind possible risks and financial changes. 

In GanttPRO, you can calculate the cost of your construction project based on the cost of tasks and resources.

3. Economic changes

Economic changes can also affect your construction project completion. This factor is directly related to the company’s budget.

Surprising changes in costs and prices mean that the project no longer represents the true valued cost per time. It can be a real problem for any construction company.

So, if any country is subjected to a global economic crisis or its currency value is changing, the construction projects will probably be postponed or somehow affected.

If you are looking for examples of delayed construction projects due to global economic changes, recall the famous World Islands in Dubai (United Arab Emirates).

An incredible artificial archipelago of 300+ man-made islands off the Persian Gulf coast is still awaiting its inhabitants.

The idea of World Islands was first mentioned in 2003. By 2008, the construction was almost complete, and over 60% of the islands were sold. However, real estate efforts were stopped with the global economic crisis. The islands were left almost completely undeveloped.

4. Project complexity and uniqueness

Another vivid reason for construction delays is work complexity that is typically related to the scale of the project.

Most large-scale construction projects have a comparatively lengthy execution duration. For example, skyscrapers, dams, motorways, nuclear power stations, stadiums, etc. 

Therefore, they might take longer as a result of lengthy negotiations, increased costs, complex plans, schedules, estimations, and poorly studied innovative technological aspects. All these points may lead to essential delays.

The example of a delayed construction project due to project complexity can be found on one of your vacation pictures.

Sagrada Familia in Barcelona (Spain) is surely one of the world’s most drawn-out construction projects . It is known from 1882 when the architect Antoni Gaudi took over its design.

Since that time, there have been many reasons for delaying the construction of this building, including political battles and destroying wars. However, the undoubted factor in the project delay is the complexity of works and the uniqueness of the entire construction.

The problem with project complexity can also be solved with the help of extensive planning. Calculating every aspect of the complex project, detailed work breakdown structure (WBS), key milestones, the methodology to be adopted – all these factors must be counted.

This is where GanttPRO also comes to the rescue. The platform allows for organizing a WBS as a handy Gantt chart with project milestones and task dependencies. With its help, you can create unlimited complex projects and work with unlimited resources. It makes this tool suitable for advanced resource management in construction industry . That’s why users often consider it robust construction resource management software .

In order to keep complex projects on track, you’ll also need to create a motivated high-performing team with project success interest inside.

5. Lack of effective communication

Poor communication in the construction industry is also a key contributor to project delays. It may have different forms, such as direct collaboration with the wrong person or unclear communication leading to wrong interpretation. This factor is a historical and ongoing problem in the entire construction industry. 

Updates and changes do happen. Therefore everyone involved in the project should be apprised as new updates like redesigns or change orders become available. 

A healthy project schedule is what makes team collaboration better. If you want to keep your project running smoothly, you should care about excellent coordination among all parties. 

Use an appropriate project management tool with advanced collaboration functionality such as GanttPRO and you’ll quickly state real benefits.

GanttPRO helps project teams to communicate in an efficient manner providing them with the advanced collaboration features needed for professional construction project management software.

The Gantt chart generator ensures that each step of any construction process is thoroughly coordinated and communicated.

All employees that have access to the timeline can put their plans to work and track each construction stage, considering labor and machinery usage. They can attach required files, leave comments, and use notifications. Thanks to the convenient mobile apps available for Android and iOs , they can do this both in the office and directly on construction sites.

6. A poorly defined scope of work

The scope of work in construction defines what processes need to be done to complete the project and who is required to do these processes. This approach of defining project works before assigning tasks is an essential first step to avoiding construction project delays.

You can deal with it, using a simple construction project checklist . However, changes are inevitable and projects may become more complex than initially thought.

45% of professionals who work in the construction industry reported spending more time than expected on unscheduled activities. These activities include fixing mistakes, non-productive tasks, managing conflict resolution, etc.

A poorly defined project scope can cause various problems, including project delays, budget overruns, and low customer satisfaction. 

Let’s recall one of the examples of delayed construction projects due to a poorly defined scope of work.

The project of Berlin Brandenburg Airport (Germany) was finally opened in 2020, nine years late and after missing at least six deadlines.

The challenges ranged from frequent scope changes to weak governance by politicians.

7. The lengthy process of getting necessary approvals

The lengthy process of getting approvals can also negatively affect the course of any construction project.

To avoid it, you should care about the rightly structured workflows, approval procedures, and automatic notifications. 

Do you need the example of delayed construction projects due to the lengthy process of getting approvals? Explore the case below.

The construction of Flamanville nuclear power station (France) began in 2007.

From the very beginning of the project , its owners constantly faced recurring technical problems and prolonged approvals. They wanted to finish the station by 2012. However, the commissioning is still expected in 2024.

Having a robust project management tool, you’ll provide reviewers and approvers with clear deadlines and highlight how their approval will influence the overall project timeline.

Advanced construction management software

Create an online Gantt chart and avoid project delays.

8. Weather, natural disasters, and other external factors

Weather is the most obvious factor that can not be controlled. Depending on where you are located, it could be a hurricane, a heat wave, a blizzard, or just a common rainfall. 

Each of these weather conditions can lead to caution levels of various complexity. In any way, all of them will slow down construction processes, interfere with schedules, and delay work, especially on projects in their early phases. Therefore, constructors often purchase the right equipment for the particular environment.

There are more external reasons for project delays that are outside the control of contractors and project teams. For example, the Covid-19 pandemic.

The research conducted in 2022 suggested that nearly 9 out of 10 large construction projects were behind schedule following the pandemic disruption.

One of the vivid historical examples of delayed construction projects due to external interference is the undersea Channel Tunnel connecting the U.K. and France. It was opened in 1994 after a range of delays in the time of construction. There were several fires leading to its temporary shutdown.

9. Injuries and safety issues

Any construction site is a high-risk work area. Building companies often state non-fatal injuries and fatal incidents.

In many countries, the fatality rate for the construction sphere is higher than the average rate for all industries. It happens because there are so many ways to get injured within the construction site. It can be the collapse of scaffolds, falls, electrical shocks, or using of inappropriate equipment.

Poor safety communication is also a common reason for many job site injuries.

When employees get injured, it can result in additional costs, project delays, and loss of team productivity. This can be surely avoided if safety communication gets all team members on the same page.

Consider the common reasons of construction project delays and keep your projects healthy

This list of the reasons for construction delays isn’t exhaustive. You can also add such causes as equipment failures, third-party dependencies, use of obsolete technologies and tools, delays in receiving permissions, shortage of manpower, and so on.

The main thing is to try to avoid any delays and find the right tools to deal with construction projects.

Frequently asked questions about construction project delays

Why are construction projects delayed.

There are many reasons and determining factors for construction project delays. The most common of them include poor project planning, budget conflicts, economic changes, project complexity, weak communication, a poorly defined scope of work, the lengthy process of getting necessary approval, external factors, injuries and safety issues, and more.

Paolo Kukhnavets

Paolo writes about the exciting world of project management, innovative tools, planning strategies, time management, productivity, and more. He has a professional journalism education, over ten years of writing experience, and a vast bag of enthusiasm to comprehend and learn new things every day. In his other life, he is addicted to traveling, gym, and sci-fi movies. He cycles and runs a lot.

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Thanks for providing the above list of reasons

Poor selection of subcontractors and vendors also causes a major delay in a project also, and inadequate strength, skill of the workforce majorly hampers the progress

That’s true. The reasons always depend on a specific case. Thanks for your comment and feel free to read more articles about construction project management .

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, analysing causal relationships between delay factors in construction projects: a case study of iran.

International Journal of Managing Projects in Business

ISSN : 1753-8378

Article publication date: 3 October 2019

Issue publication date: 15 February 2021

Analyzing factors of delays in construction projects and determining their impact on project performance is necessary to better manage and control projects. Identification of root factors which may lead to project delay and increased cost is vital at the early or planning stage. Better identification of delay factors at the early stage can help the practitioners to reduce their impacts over the long run. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to propose an intelligent method to analyze causal relationships between delay factors in construction projects. The proposed approach is further validated by a real case study of the construction projects in West Azerbaijan province in Iran.

Design/methodology/approach

During the first phase, the fuzzy cognitive map (FCM) is drawn to indicate the causal relationships between the delay factors and the evaluation factors. For this purpose, the causal relationships between 20 delay factors and four evaluation factors are considered. Afterward, the effect of each factor on management goals is evaluated by using a hybrid learning algorithm. Delay factors are further prioritized by applying fuzzy data envelopment analysis (FDEA). In the second phase, an interpretive structural modeling (ISM) is employed to determine the root causes of delay factors.

Results of the first phase show that “supervision technical weaknesses for overcoming technical and executive workshop problems” and “Inaccurate estimation of workload, required equipment and project completion time” are the most significant delay factors. In contrary, “non-use of new engineering contracts” has the lowest impact on the management goals. Meanwhile, the results of the second phase conclude that factors like “Inaccurate estimation of workload, required equipment and project completion time” “weakness of laws and regulations related to job responsibilities” and “lack of foreseen of fines and encouragements in the contracts” are the most significant root factors of delay in construction projects.

Originality/value

This paper integrates three methods including FCM method, FDEA and ISM. In the first phase, FCM is drawn according to the experts’ opinions and concerning management goals and delay factors. Later, these factors are prioritized according to the results of running the algorithm and using the FDEA model. The second phase, the seven-step in the ISM methodology, is done to identify the root factors. To ensure that the root factors of the delay are at a lower level of hierarchical structure, delay factors are partitioned by drawing the ISM model.

• Construction projects
• Interpretive structural modelling
• Causal relationships
• Fuzzy data envelopment analysis
• Fuzzy cognitive map
• Delay factors

Jahangoshai Rezaee, M. , Yousefi, S. and Chakrabortty, R.K. (2021), "Analysing causal relationships between delay factors in construction projects: A case study of Iran", International Journal of Managing Projects in Business , Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 412-444. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMPB-01-2019-0020

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

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Delays in construction projects: A review of causes, need & scope for further research

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• VIT Chennai

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A CASE STUDY ON SCHEDULE DELAY ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS IN GWALIOR

https://www.irjet.net/archives/V3/i5/IRJET-V3I5269.pdf

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TJPRC Publication

One of the most important problems in the Construction industry is delay. Delays occur in every construction project and the magnitude of these delays varies considerably from project to project. Some projects are only a few days behind the schedule; some are delayed over a year. So it is essential to define the actual causes of delay in order to minimize and avoid the delays in any construction project. There is a wide range of views for the causes of time delays for engineering and construction projects. Some are attributable to a single party, others can be ascribed to several quarters and many relate more to systemic faults or deficiencies rather than to a group or groups. The successful execution of construction projects and keeping them within estimated cost and prescribed schedules Inadequate or weak preparatory work before starting construction of any structure may cause serious problems during the construction period. Consequently, the cost of construction increases digressively, the construction duration of the project extends and the quality of construction is affected adversely. The necessity of construction schedules in achieving the aim of producing good quality construction work within the specified duration. Monitoring continuously the interactive relation concerning delays in construction schedules and contractor demands is a complicated process.. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the causes of construction schedule delays and the methods of schedule delay analyses. In the present study construction project of forum sujana mall in Hyderabad has been selected as a case study for analyzing project scheduling and time delays. The “Time Impact Analysis Method” (TIA) has been applied to the study, PRIMAVERA® software in used to determine the construction schedule delay and also to measure the impacts of these delays on the project completion duration; and to allocate responsibility amongst the project participants for preventing delay claims.

Tito Sarngadharan

IRJMETS Publication

International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science (IRJMETS)

The building industry's struggle with delays is a worldwide issue. There were seven different types of classifications. This questionnaire was issued to associated enterprises, consultants, and contractors for the purpose of rating the various elements. This data was used to generate the "Frequency index, Severity index, and Importance index" of various delay factors. The criteria were graded on their potential of creating a construction project delay, and the results were tabulated. The top five reasons of delays in any building project, according to the conclusions of this study, are: Material failure (Rank 1), Labour shortages (Rank 2), Delays in subcontractor work (Rank 3), Equipment failure (Rank 4) and Delays in consultation work (Rank 5).

International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT)

IJERT Journal

https://www.ijert.org/study-on-time-delay-analysis-for-construction-project-delay-analysis https://www.ijert.org/research/study-on-time-delay-analysis-for-construction-project-delay-analysis-IJERTV4IS031166.pdf Time delay is one of the biggest problems facing in many construction buildings in India. Completing projects on time is the key factor of the project, but the construction process is subject to many variables and unpredictable factors, which result from many sources such as availability of resources, external factors, performance of parties and type of building. If there is a delay in project it leads to loss of productivity, increased cost, contract termination and disputes between contractor and owner. The aim of this project is to examine the causes and effects of delay on building construction project during construction phase and to provide control measures for time overrun in the project. A study carried out on construction schedule delays and various delay analysis techniques and methods in order to evaluate the causes of delay and their impacts in the construction project. Then a questionnaire survey is done to find the major causes of delay faced by Client, Contractor, Consultant and Project manager. Population sample of 35 was used in which 30 was deployed. From the survey and study identified 67 causes of delay under 9 major groups such as Project team, Owner, Contractor, Consultant, Architect, material, labour, equipment and external factors. Then a ranking method is done based on relative importance index method to find major cause of delay. It is found that the most common factors of delay which is repeated in most of the project are lack of funds to finance the project to completion, labour shortage, material shortage, lack of effective communication, lack of supervision and changes in drawings. The outcome of the project is to provide recommendation to control delay in the project during construction phase. Keywords-Delay analysis technique, causes of delay, tools to evaluate delay in construction, delay control measure

Computers & Industrial Engineering

Dr.Akhil goyal

Delay to projects is one of the foremost concerns of the construction industry in the India. The delays to the projects are affecting the economies throughout the world. Delay to projects mean the slowdown of development in all other related fields. The main aim and objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the various types of delays and the reasons for those delays that are currently affecting the projects in the India. Measures from previous researches to reduce or eliminate these delays by methods of mitigation or acceleration are analyzed for the case studies considered for this research. There are various types of delays which are identified. It is important to identify whether the delay is critical or not as identification of critical delays helps in taking appropriate measures at the correct time. The delay may be non excusable (contractor caused) for which the client and the consultant need to have project management tools to effectively manage the delays or compensable (client caused) delays which are due to the client. The delays may be by either parties and can be concurrent. The reasons for delays are primarily due to an unreasonable project scope, inadequate early planning and the absence of risk management systems. The contractor further contributes to delay due to lack of resources and labor productivity. Over ambitious estimates, incorrect task assessment ,lack of task clarity, design/ approval delays and interference in the decision making process by the client add on to the delay.

IJIRST - International Journal for Innovative Research in Science and Technology

Time overruns has been a noteworthy issue in numerous Indian construction projects. The successful execution of construction activities and keeping them within recommended plan and cost is imperative for compelling time execution and cost execution. This thesis work is done on concentrating on noteworthy factors creating Time overruns in Indian construction industry. A valid questionnaire for the overview was produced taking into account factors for time overruns recognized from writing survey. These factors are assembled into 9 groups for time overruns and disseminated among three parts in particular Real Estate, Infrastructure and Industrial of Indian Construction Industry. The information from the survey was broke down measurably. Relative vital list system was utilized to establish out the most noteworthy variables influencing Time overruns. The result accomplished from the survey revealed that the major cause for time overruns are Clearances on Delay, Drawing Revision and Clearances from Consultant/Client/PMC, Incompetency of Labour, Unrealistic Planning and not using Monitoring and controlling Tools & Technologies, lack of Leadership qualities in Managers, Procurement Planning and Procurement Process. The study discoveries highlight the noteworthy factors and a few recommendations are given to control time overruns in Indian Construction Industry.

International Journal of Modern Trends in Engineering & Research

sushant sathe

IAR Consortium

IARCON Journals

The research aims to know the delays in the construction projects, where this phenomenon was touched to the parties to the project from the owner, contractor and consultant, from the delay in benefiting from the project to an increase in the cost of works. Due to the disputes that occur this delay, and sometimes the poor quality of the work due to the acceleration of work in order to reduce the delay after the end of the project time as a result of the prosecution of the owner and the consultant. This study explored the important factors affecting construction project delay in the context of the construction sector in Iraq. It will be important to enhance training in detailed project planning and scheduling, and during the construction phase to carefully control budget and material orders to ensure business continuity. Within the planning, it will also be interesting to develop and implement integration models between the professionals involved, objectively defining roles and implementing them in the most approximate manner; In addition, it will be useful to implement project modeling techniques that allow the design and construction work of the relevant professionals to be combined and to get an idea of ​​the final result, identifying potential risks. Currency fluctuations, since they cannot be controlled, should be considered as a relevant point within the contingency margin, which again corresponds to good initial planning. Finally, it would be useful to focus efforts on fighting corruption and fraudulent practices in construction projects, which hinder the progress of developing countries

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Extensions of time in construction projects: prospective or retrospective delay analysis?

Contractors' extension of time (EOT) entitlements and associated financial rights are always to be assessed pursuant to the applicable contract mechanism. A recurring question is whether EOT entitlements are to be determined prospectively, or with the benefit of hindsight. Two recent Australian cases highlight the conflicting positions which may arise.

Prospective vs. retrospective delay analysis – why does it matter?

The method of delay analysis used for an EOT claim may be significant, because different results may ensue. For example, if varied work is instructed to a contractor which will clearly cause delay:

• Using a prospective analysis with computer-based CPM modelling and Time-Impact Analysis, the contractor may predict that the variation will cause 30 days of critical delay, and therefore a 30 day EOT will be claimed; however
• Looking at the delay retrospectively , once its impact has been felt in full, it may turn out that the contractor was only delayed by 20 days, as it was able to re-sequence certain activities and otherwise mitigate the possible delay.

Is the contractor entitled to a 20 day or a 30 day EOT? The difference can be significant, particularly if it means the difference between having to pay, and not having to pay, liquidated damages for delay.

The issue becomes more complicated and nuanced when it arises in an after-the-event forum, such as adjudication, arbitration or in court, when the effect of events is known. The argument then becomes: why consider a prediction of a period of delay when we know how long the works were actually delayed?

Case 1: Built Qld Pty Ltd v Pro-Invest Hospitality Opportunity (ST) Pty Ltd [2021] QSC 224

The dispute arose out of a contract between the contractor, Built, and the employer, Pro-Invest, for the design and construction of a hotel in Spring Hill (the " Contract "). In considering Built's claim for an EOT, the Supreme Court of Queensland was required to consider the appropriateness of the different methodologies adopted by the parties.

Clause 34.3 of the Contract provided that:

"The Contractor shall be entitled to such EOT for carrying out WUC (including reaching practical completion) as the Superintendent assesses, if:

(a)     the Contractor is or will be delayed in reaching practical completion by a qualifying cause of delay." (emphasis added)

Built argued that the use of the words, "is or will be delayed", refers to current or ongoing delay that required prospective analysis. It further relied upon clause 34.5 of the contract, which provided that the contract administrator was to assess the contractor's EOT claim within 14 days of receipt; otherwise there would be a deemed assessment of the EOT claimed. On the basis that EOT claims were required to be made within 14 days of the contractor reasonably becoming aware of a qualifying delay, Built submitted that any delay longer than 28 days therefore required a prospective analysis, because there would be a future element to the EOT claim.

Pro-Invest submitted that it was open to the court to use either methodology, but that a retrospective methodology should be preferred. It further argued that the "current exercise", i.e. determining Built's EOT entitlement in court proceedings well after the expiration of both the alleged delay event and practical completion, was "totally different" from the exercise contemplated by Clause 34.5. On this basis, Pro-Invest submitted that Clause 34.5 cannot operate to place the Court in the "shoes of the superintendent at the time of assessment" to now determine the EOT.

The Court agreed with Pro-Invest, holding that the Contract permitted the use of either a prospective or a retrospective methodology to determine an extension of time.

Case 2: John Holland Pty Ltd v The Minister for Works [2021] WASC 312

In a dispute over the design and delivery of a new hospital in Perth, John Holland, the contractor, argued that its entitlement to an EOT should be considered prospectively. The State submitted that the "particulars of the appropriate methodology or methodologies … [would be determined] by way of exchange [of] expert evidence", but fell short of specifying whether prospective or retrospective analysis would be undertaken.

The Supreme Court of Western Australia concluded that the correct methodology is "dictated by and depends on the proper construction of the Contract", and is not a matter for expert evidence. Accordingly, the court held that the State was required to plead its position as to whether the Contract requires a prospective analysis, a retrospective analysis or combination of the two. It considered that the State's failure to do so would pose a "real risk" to John Holland's preparation for trial.

However, the court drew the line at requiring the State to provide particulars as to the methodology by which the extension is to be assessed: the methodology to be employed was considered to be properly an area for expert evidence.

Commercial Implications

Both of these Australian cases indicate that:

• The law is not prescriptive as to the method of delay analysis used in making and reviewing an EOT claim (i.e. prospective, retrospective, or a combination of the two). The contract terms are paramount.
• Expert evidence on delay cannot be used to interpret, let alone override, the EOT provisions of a contract.

There is some variation between the approaches taken by construction contracts to EOT issues:

• Under the NEC form , the philosophy is for EOT claims to be made and addressed at the time, based upon known information and predictions as to the impact of events, and without later revising the EOT assessment based on the actual delay suffered. This suggests that a purely prospective approach should be taken, not only during the project, but in adjudication, arbitration or court. However, there is authority from Northern Ireland indicating that later-acquired information can be relied upon (i.e. a retrospective analysis could be used). 1
• The JCT form takes a two-stage, hybrid approach under which an EOT is to be claimed and assessed based on actual and expected delay to completion, however at the end of the project the Contract Administrator may review its EOT assessments and increase them if it believes more time was fairly due to the contractor based on the events subsequently occurring on the project.
• The FIDIC form also takes a hybrid approach, in that it requires the Engineer to grant an EOT for particular causes if completion "is or will be delayed" – suggesting that a prognostication of delay may be needed. But the EOT clause also permits the Engineer to review previous EOT assessments and to increase them, if appropriate, which contemplates the use of a retrospective analysis.

Where the tension between a prospective delay analysis and a retrospective delay analysis becomes acute, is in after-the-event dispute-resolution forums, such as adjudication, arbitration or in court. A tribunal may, for illustrative purposes, find it artificial to conclude that a contractor was due a 30 day EOT (based on a prospective delay analysis) when it was actually delayed by only 20 days. Yet there may be circumstances in which such a conclusion is justified, i.e. where the contract calls for EOTs to be assessed on a prospective basis, and there is evidence of the contractor mitigating the delay, or even accelerating its works. Ultimately, the issue is contract and fact sensitive.

1 Northern Ireland Housing Executive v Healthy Buildings (Ireland) Limited [2017] NIQB 43.

White & Case means the international legal practice comprising White & Case LLP, a New York State registered limited liability partnership, White & Case LLP, a limited liability partnership incorporated under English law and all other affiliated partnerships, companies and entities.

This article is prepared for the general information of interested persons. It is not, and does not attempt to be, comprehensive in nature. Due to the general nature of its content, it should not be regarded as legal advice.

© 2021 White & Case LLP

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Computer Science > Machine Learning

Title: flight delay prediction using hybrid machine learning approach: a case study of major airlines in the united states.

Abstract: The aviation industry has experienced constant growth in air traffic since the deregulation of the U.S. airline industry in 1978. As a result, flight delays have become a major concern for airlines and passengers, leading to significant research on factors affecting flight delays such as departure, arrival, and total delays. Flight delays result in increased consumption of limited resources such as fuel, labor, and capital, and are expected to increase in the coming decades. To address the flight delay problem, this research proposes a hybrid approach that combines the feature of deep learning and classic machine learning techniques. In addition, several machine learning algorithms are applied on flight data to validate the results of proposed model. To measure the performance of the model, accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score are calculated, and ROC and AUC curves are generated. The study also includes an extensive analysis of the flight data and each model to obtain insightful results for U.S. airlines.

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Refined Construction of Semi-Provincial Hydrogeological Models Using Hierarchical Modeling: A Case Study in Western Shandong, China

79 Pages Posted: 3 Sep 2024

Guangjun Ji

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences - Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology

Chuanqi Wang

The development of accurate and detailed regional-scale hydrogeological models remains a significant challenge, with limited scientific and effective solutions available. This paper presents a case study in Western Shandong, China, encompassing an area of 83,700 km2, and proposes a refined construction methodology for large-scale hydrogeological models. The approach is based on practical hydrogeological investigations and leverages the following key principles: Firstly, appropriate expression modes are selected for different types of strata, taking into account their spatial distribution characteristics and governing laws. Subsequently, the horizontal and vertical resolutions of structural and attribute models are determined, respectively, based on the spatial distribution of available data. Secondly, multi-source data fusion and multi-modeling techniques are employed to facilitate the construction of structural models, enabling a step-by-step development of regional geological frameworks and hydrogeological structure models. Thirdly, lithological models and other attribute models are built, constrained by the established structural model. Finally, aquifer storage coefficients and potential water inflow from individual wells are predicted based on attribute models, and the reliability of these results is verified. The results demonstrate that this methodology enables the construction of more robust hydrogeological models, with enhanced reliability in quantitative calculations. This study aims to provide a valuable reference framework for the efficient and accurate construction of large-scale hydrogeological models, ultimately facilitating the development of provincial or even national-level models.

Keywords: hydrogeology, three dimensional (3D) geological modeling, structural model, attribute model, modeling design

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Guangjun Ji (Contact Author)

Affiliation not provided to ssrn ( email ).

No Address Available

Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences - Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology ( email )

Shijiazhuang, 050061 China

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Research on the flipped classroom + learning community approach and its effectiveness evaluation—taking college german teaching as a case study, 1. introduction, 2. literature review.

• How can a learning community be constructed within a flipped classroom?
• What is the impact of the flipped classroom combined with a learning community model on learners’ academic performance, compared to the flipped classroom model alone?
• How does the flipped classroom combined with a learning community model influence learners’ perceptions, compared to the flipped classroom model alone?

3. The Construction of Flipped Classroom + Learning Community Model

• The Seamless Merger of Personalized and Collaborative Learning Environments. The model conceptualizes the autonomous learning milieu in flipped classrooms and the collaborative learning setting within learning communities as analogous to the complementary polarities in Tai Chi, where they maintain their autonomy while interweaving seamlessly. Embedded within the personalized learning milieu, there exists the potential for collaboration through discussions, negotiations, and reciprocal learning frameworks within communities, accelerating learners’ cognitive progression. After independently engaging with learning materials, such as watching micro-lectures or completing tasks, learners can immediately share their insights and receive feedback from their community, significantly enhancing knowledge retention. Additionally, these knowledge-focused discussions contribute to the vitality of learning communities by providing a continuous flow of topics, fostering camaraderie among members, and gradually shaping a strong sense of collective identity and cohesion. In the collaborative setting of a learning community, individual development is not only tolerated but actively promoted, where differences in interests and strengths are embraced as strengths. This heterogeneity among members fosters a unique dynamic where each member can observe and learn from others, leading to the expansion of individual knowledge and competencies. Notably, personalized learning environments within this community can manifest in overt or covert ways. In overt instances, such as collaborative task completion, experienced learners on a given topic may assume leadership roles, sharing their expertise and guiding the evolution of the community’s collective knowledge. Meanwhile, other members engage in personalized learning through targeted questions, consultations, and feedback sessions. Conversely, implicit personalized learning occurs through subtle mechanisms of observation and imitation. For example, a learner facing challenges in vocabulary acquisition might unconsciously improve by observing and adopting strategies from proficient peers. Similarly, learners deficient in social skills or time management can also benefit from this covert form of learning. In essence, while personalized and collaborative learning environments exhibit distinct characteristics, they are not mutually exclusive entities defined by discrete learning phases or physical spaces (e.g., in-class versus out-of-class settings).
• The pivotal goal revolves around the constructive evolution of both individual and collective knowledge frameworks. This teaching model meticulously blends personalized learning milieus with collaborative learning ecosystems within the learning community, geared towards nurturing and accelerating the construction of both individual learners’ knowledge and the collective knowledge of the group, akin to the converging gray area depicted in the Tai Chi diagram. It underscores that neither personalized nor collaborative learning environments can be neglected in achieving the goal of knowledge construction, as their synergy is vital. Moreover, the model incorporates the process of knowledge construction within the framework of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domains, illustrating that this process does not adhere to a rigid linear progression, nor do the cognitive levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy necessarily escalate sequentially. Instead, knowledge construction progresses in a spiral manner, with potential intersections or skipping across cognitive objectives. The confinement of knowledge construction to static learning environments is a misconception. While it is commonly assumed that memorization and comprehension primarily occur in individual settings, this notion is challenged by the fact that these processes can also be facilitated through collective endeavors within learning communities, such as shared recitation and mutual clarification. Furthermore, the belief that analysis, application, reflection, and innovation are inherently collaborative undertakings is also contested, as these cognitive objectives can equally be cultivated within personalized learning environments, demonstrating the versatility and interconnectedness of different learning modalities. It is essential to emphasize that individual and collective knowledge are not independent constructs or aspirations, but rather complementary aspects of the learning ecosystem. The collective knowledge within a learning community arises from the harmonious blend of individual efforts, as members collaborate, share insights, and engage in deep analysis to reach shared comprehension and develop a distinctive learning culture. This process is fundamentally driven by the social negotiation and construction of individual knowledge, where each individual’s cognitive landscape is enriched by the collective, and vice versa. The intertwined dynamic between individual and collective knowledge within a learning community fosters a continuous upward spiral, nurtured by both personalized and collaborative learning modalities. Consequently, the design of educational content, instructional methodologies, and assessment frameworks must encompass the dual imperatives of advancing both individual and collective knowledge development.
• The holistic learning environment is fortified by a diverse array of resources, seamlessly integrated and ubiquitous in their support of learning objectives. The proliferation of information-enabled educational technologies has significantly enriched the learning resource landscape. This encompasses a comprehensive spectrum, including flipped classroom resources, online resources, social resources, and the shared repertoire within a learning community, all of which are designed to cater to the varying demands of constructivist learning across multiple scenarios. Flipped and online resources range from curated micro-lectures and accompanying instructional materials to a panoply of digital assets, such as visuals, audios, videos, written content, websites, and innovative tools for interaction, documentation, and content creation (e.g., instant messaging platforms, massive open online courses, blogs, vlogs, and open-source platforms fostering user-generated knowledge). Social resources are multifaceted, encompassing teachers, renowned experts and scholars in specific domains, and individuals who reside within learners’ immediate learning ecosystems, offering invaluable assistance. The learning community’s shared skill repository represents a rich tapestry woven from the diverse talents and contributions of its members, intertwined with the collective intelligence embodied in their collaborative endeavors. This includes tangible outputs like project accomplishments and discussion archives, as well as intangible elements like the community’s discourse norms, learning ethos, and sense of belonging. This collective knowledge, which is both a product and a catalyst of community development, stands as a vital resource underpinning its continued growth. Additionally, there are intersections between these resource categories, with flipped resources, for instance, often incorporating online resources like MOOC videos, articles, and various digital platforms and tools. The endorsement from experts in certain disciplines, as part of social resources, often manifests as learners’ ability to procure pertinent resources via online platforms. Consequently, the categorization of resource types outlined in this roadmap aims to form an exhaustive list, embracing all potential avenues that can bolster learners’ knowledge construction endeavors. This underscores the model’s inclusivity and adaptability towards various resource types. Notably, these resources are not confined to a singular learning phase or environment, transcending the boundaries of both in-class and out-of-class contexts. Instead, they are seamlessly integrated across both personalized and collaborative learning ecologies, aligned with the model’s core mission to support constructive learning that transcends the traditional classroom paradigm.
• Repositioning the Teacher’s Role. This model eschews rigid definitions of teacher and student roles, mirroring the spontaneous nature of teaching and learning in a constructivist environment where the where, how, and by whom these activities occur are not predetermined. The flipped classroom model reverses the traditional script, pushing knowledge transmission and explanation beyond the confines of the classroom, encouraging teachers to descend from their authoritative perches and morph into instructional designers and supporters, intimately involved in identifying and supporting struggling students. In a learning community, membership and roles evolve organically in response to the learning themes, fostering an environment of equity and mutual respect. Core roles are not externally imposed but emerge naturally within the community’s fabric; for instance, when a learning theme aligns with a member’s domain expertise, they naturally ascend to the role of an expert, while others, through observation and participation, gradually attain core status. This cycle repeats as the community tackles new learning themes. Within the flipped classroom + learning community approach, teachers’ roles are not monolithic, but rather fluid, shifting within each community context. The teaching–learning dynamic extends beyond the classroom walls and lecture-style interactions; learners can accumulate knowledge through observing their peers within the community or engaging directly in practical experiences. In this framework, which aligns with contemporary educational structures, teachers retain a pivotal organizing role, particularly at the onset, by providing robust infrastructure for personalized and collaborative learning environments. This encompasses resource curation, community facilitation, guidance, and assistance with overcoming practical obstacles. Additionally, teachers serve as invaluable social resources and domain experts, offering learners accessible knowledge support that is constructive rather than prescriptive. They can also engage as active members within the learning community, forming the cornerstone of a collaborative teacher–student community. Although this study primarily explores the construction of student peer learning communities, the model’s applicability extends to fostering teacher–student learning communities as well.
• Positioning in-class and out-of-class activities as contextual backdrops. The flipped classroom paradigm harmoniously fuses traditional and digital learning modalities, enhancing educational outcomes. Nevertheless, the foundational model’s clear delineation of these phases, while emphasizing the novelty of the “flipped” approach, fails to capture the intricate, spiral dynamics of learning construction and cognitive elaboration central to constructivist perspectives. This segmentation may inadvertently foster disjointed learning experiences due to insufficiently nurtured learning environments and inadequate resource provisioning. The inflexible dichotomy between extracurricular and in-class learning, as embodied in the traditional flipped classroom model, poses a significant challenge for courses already burdened with inadequate class hours. By allocating extracurricular time primarily for self-study through video lectures, aiming at foundational knowledge acquisition, and reserving in-class sessions for collaborative endeavors that should ideally encompass application, analysis, reflection, and innovation, students may find their extracurricular tasks insufficiently enriching, fostering a limited understanding. Moreover, the condensed in-class period may prove inadequate for the thorough exploration of higher-order cognitive objectives, while the ad hoc collaborative environment may not adequately support effective collaboration. This formalistic adherence to the flipped classroom framework, neglecting the need for adaptability, has emerged as a critical obstacle hindering its further advancement. With the advancement of educational theories and practices, the cornerstone of the constructivist-oriented teaching model shifts from the mere dissemination of knowledge to the cultivation of an environment that nurtures learners’ knowledge construction. Learning is a perpetual, boundless endeavor that transcends temporal and spatial constraints, mirroring the essence of constructivist learning and the learning culture embraced in the digital age. Hence, the conventional dichotomy between in-class and extracurricular segments in the flipped classroom paradigm fades into the background, transforming into a contextual framework. In-class interactions embody the synchronous engagement of teachers and learners, empowering teachers, as experts, to efficiently observe and guide learning communities and individuals during direct encounters. Additionally, the mutual observation among learning communities sparks introspection and deliberation within each collective, emphasizing that in-class and extracurricular experiences, akin to learning resources, intertwine and permeate the entire learning ecology.

4. The Effectiveness of Flipped Classroom + Learning Community Model

4.1. participants, 4.2. instruments and procedure, 4.3. data analysis, 4.4. the results, 4.4.1. academic performance, 4.4.2. learner perception development.

During the first semester, I found the flipped classroom quite novel because I could arrange my own time. Also, since it’s a brand new language, being able to listen and watch repeatedly is of great help to my learning. I wouldn’t worry about not understanding in class and how to make up for it after class. If I didn’t understand something, I could always go back and review it. I felt this was extremely beneficial for laying a solid foundation. In general, I have a relatively high acceptance of the flipped classroom model.

G4S2: The main difficulty I faced during the first semester was with the classroom activities. Since everyone was still unfamiliar with each other, but we were expected to interact frequently, it felt quite awkward.

G3S4: Although this method can enhance learning, I often find it challenging to fully prepare for class because I rely heavily on self-study. Unfortunately, I’m not particularly disciplined, so there are times when I don’t do as much advance preparation as I should. Consequently, during class, I sometimes struggle to fully understand the material.

With the encouragement and oversight from the learning community in the second semester, I was able to better adapt to the flipped classroom model, and both my study time and efficiency have improved. I think the flipped classroom is working quite well now.

Especially when it comes to grammatical points, it’s incredibly helpful. It also significantly aids in vocabulary acquisition and enhances my listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Initially, when I started memorizing German vocabulary, I had a hard time remembering the gender of words—masculine, feminine, and neuter. I would often mix them up. However, I mentioned this issue in our learning community, and Zhang (G2S2) suggested associating and grouping the words together. I adopted her method, and it really helped me retain the information more firmly. Regarding listening, speaking, reading, and writing, we regularly practice these skills after each unit. For instance, we’ll dictate or write down the words after completing a unit. Additionally, during our discussions, we often read out loud from the texts, and my peers kindly correct my pronunciation whenever I mispronounce something. I find these practices incredibly useful.

I believe that language courses are generally quite suitable for FC + LC model. Since we’re learning a foreign language, and normally in school, we only speak Chinese, there’s a lack of language environment, especially when it comes to learning German. Therefore, I think the learning community model is quite fitting for language courses. I hope to continue using the flipped classroom combined with the learning community model in the next semester, and I’m willing to continue forming a community with the other two community members.

5. Discussions

6. limitations and future research.

• Experimentation and iterative refinement of the FC + LC teaching model across a spectrum of disciplines, academic levels, majors, and cultural milieus, fostering a more nuanced comprehension of its practical implications.
• Strengthening the empirical foundation by augmenting sample sizes and introducing control groups, thereby offering a more compelling argument for the superiority of the FC + LC model over the FC model.
• Delving deeper into the mechanisms that govern learning community effectiveness in flipped classrooms, recognizing its direct bearing on learners’ academic achievement and perception development, with a view to mitigating the potential for the Matthew effect by elucidating the influencing factors and dynamic evolution of such communities, ultimately fostering sustainable learning outcomes within the FC + LC model.

7. Conclusions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Wang, J. Research on the Flipped Classroom + Learning Community Approach and Its Effectiveness Evaluation—Taking College German Teaching as a Case Study. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177719

Wang J. Research on the Flipped Classroom + Learning Community Approach and Its Effectiveness Evaluation—Taking College German Teaching as a Case Study. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177719

Wang, Jie. 2024. "Research on the Flipped Classroom + Learning Community Approach and Its Effectiveness Evaluation—Taking College German Teaching as a Case Study" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177719

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