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| Modernist planning was a popular idea, and used as a solution to these problems. But the movement could not adequately comprehend and cater for the social dynamics of family and community, and a result, many modernist buildings were pulled down in the seventies. With reference to key architectural studies, this essay discusses the principles of modernism, how modernist architects initially worked to solve design problems through the creation of urban utopias, and why the ambitious modernist dream ultimately failed. Students at the Bauhaus school of design were taught purity of form and to design for a better world by Walter Gropius. The phrase ‘form follows function’ is often used when discussing the principles of modernism. It asserts that forms should be simplified – architectural designs should bear no more ornament than is necessary to function. Modernists believe that ornament should follow the structure and purpose of the building. Family life and social interaction was at the centre of the modernist dream for a planned environment. “The vision was for trouble free areas by mixing blocks with terraces to create squares, zoning services and amenities, all interlinked by roads”.[2] The modernists planned for zoned areas where residential and commercial amenities were distinct and separate. In his introduction to Paul Greenhalgh outlined key features in modernist design including function, progress, anti-historicism and social morality.[3] These principles can be found in many of the key realisations of the modernist dream – Le Corbusier’s famous Villa Savoye in Poissy, France is a prime example. It shows no reference to historic architectural design; the pioneering plan was a progressive leap for the late 1920s. The form clearly follows the intended functions of the residential building, bearing no unnecessary ornament, and the open space surrounding the structure as well as the open plan interior lends itself to the ideals of social living and communication. The modernist ideals were not applied to social housing until 1937, when Maxwell Fry’s Kensal House in London applied the principles of the movement to a social housing scheme. It was a success and is still popular with its residents today. It then became the prototype for other social housing projects to follow the example of modern living. Many projects of the modernist era were initially successful, and the public came to associate this strong aesthetic with prosperity and progress. In the post war era, the ambitions of the modernists and their “strong sense of social responsibility in that architecture should raise the living conditions of the masses.”[4] seemed so progressive and promising that it was understandable the Architectural Review should herald the movement as the style of the century.One successful project by the architect Ralph Eskrine was the Byker Housing project in Newcastle, which began in the 1960s. Historically, Byker began as a village, but by the late 19th century the dominant type of housing in the working class area was the Tyneside flat. Conditions were poor, and occupants of the area generally suffered from overcrowding, poor sanitation and poverty. Despite the less that desirable situation, Byker was noted for it’s character, and the strength of neighbourly relationships. The design team were keen to retain this sense of community, and as such, “Byker was one of the first major attempts in Britain to create a dialogue between community and architecture.”[5] The public housing development combines a perimeter type wall of multi storey flats, low rise housing and public spaces and play areas. The wall makes use of a south facing aspect to utilise light and views across the city and of the River Tyne. 20 percent of the accommodation is housed in the wall, but the remaining majority was contained in the low rise houses within.[6] The project took a modern approach to living, yet mixed it with a consideration for those who would reside there, a lack of which has been a criticism of many modernist developments. Eskrine adopted a more humane approach to the modernist principles, yet still established clean lines, function, progress, and above all social morality. He worked his plan around Victorian elements of the area such as churches, and some of the original cobblestones and parts of the demolished Newcastle City Hall, were incorporated into the public areas. Perhaps the integration of local history in this manner, which goes against one of the principles of modernism established by the pioneering architects of the movement, and outlined by Greenhalgh, was a contributing factor to the widely agreed attitude that this project was a success. Although it was expressed that “some missed the streets as places of community and gathering, and as arenas or personal expression.”[7] , The majorities were happy to reside in the new development, thanks to the social continuity and comfortable varied environment provided. This issue was also a concern of Jane Jacobs, author of In her book, Jacobs accused Le Corbusier, one of the pioneers of the movement, of an inhumane planning process that did not properly consider those who were to live in the planned developments. She claimed the modernist aesthetic to be dull, and her writing promoted the street, in particular the pavement, as a place where a community can meet, socialise, and control their own privacy. [8] However not all modernist social housing projects were as successful: many were demolished from the 1970s due to large-scale failure. The ultimate example of the failure of the modernist utopia is the now infamous Pruitt Igoe urban housing development in St. Louis, Missouri, completed in 1955. The development was planned according to the modernist principles of Le Corbusier, and comprised of 33 11 storey high rise blocks made up of small individual apartments. There were communal areas including large corridors, outdoor spaces around the blocks, and communal rooms for activities such as laundry, intended to increase the social interaction amongst the community. However by the late 1960s, “the project's recreational galleries and skip-stop elevators, once heralded as architectural innovations, had become nuisances and danger zones. Large numbers of vacancies indicated that even poor people preferred to live anywhere but Pruitt-Igoe.”[9] Poverty, crime and segregation of the community were major problems for the residents of the development. It was suggested that the modernist style was to blame for these social problems, and comparisons with the adjacent Carr Village can be used as an example to back this up. The village was made up of low rise dwellings, with a similar demographic make-up to Pruitt Igoe, yet remained both fully occupied and trouble free throughout the period from construction to demolition of it’s neighbouring development. [10] Much publicity developed in 1972, when the first of the buildings was demolished on March 16th. The day was declared by the architect Charles Jencks to be the day on which modern architecture died in his book Le Corbusier noted the positive force technology had played in people’s lives with revolutionary inventions such as the car and the telephone, and declared the house should be “a machine for living in”. They utilised glass, steel and concrete in their designs, which allowed them the opportunity to create buildings of radical design, such as the skyscraper, which would not have been plausible were it not for these materials. Buildings like these have no doubt, even today, redefined the urban landscape. He and the other modernist architects believed that a for a home to provide its function it should have the purity of form of a well-designed machine.[11] This principle may work well enough when applied to a commercial building, but which family can honestly say they operate like a machine, like clockwork? Some modernist apartment blocks even went so far as to dictate and include the furniture and blinds, to keep a pure aesthetic throughout the whole building. Removing home comforts from the domestic interior may well encourage purity within design, but it does little to encourage the creation of a ‘home’ rather than a house. The pioneers of the movement held a firm belief that in creating a better architecture, a better world would ultimately follow.[12] We could say they were a little arrogant and ambitious in hoping to change the world with their design principles. There is no doubt that a new architecture would improve towns and the living situation of many, however to assume that it could improve the world as a whole is completely nonsensical. What about problems of economy and political debate? Perhaps the reason the modernist utopia is so often cited as a failure is because of its unrealistic ambitions. There is no doubt that modernism, to an extent, solved some design problems by keeping abreast of technology. Lubetkin’s HighPoint One flats in London are still as desirable accommodations as they were when built in 1935. At the time of completion they were described as "one of the finest, if not absolutely the finest, middle-class housing projects in the world"[13] Residents of the flats had the luxury of central heating and built in refrigerators, as well as the use of communal gardens and even a pool. Today one of the three bedroom apartments is up for sale for the indulgent price of £595,000.[14] Applying the same principles to public housing on a budget was not always as successful. In Britain, the movement was often associated with public housing more than anything else. It’s collapse is often linked with the social problems residents of public housing estates commonly face. During the sixties and seventies, the political parties encouraged the building of high rise, high density tower blocks, which were then, an obvious improvement from the existing Victorian housing throughout the country. In the race to create modernist design solutions for all, corners were cut and substitutions made in design which could not be forgiven. Ronan Point is another example from London – a gas explosion unearthed weaknesses in the buildings structure, when one side collapsed dramatically in 1968. The public were shocked at the structural weakness of this pre fabricated tower and immediately questioned the stability of other high rise blocks which were defining the landscape. This, along with the demolishing of failed projects such as Pruitt Igoe, meant the public no longer had faith in the modernist movement. . Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 123-163.2. Jeremiah, D. (2000). p.124 3. Greenhalgh, P (1990) , London: Reaktion pp.1-24 4. Henket, H,J. (2002). Modernity, Modernism and the Modern Movement. In: Henket, H & Henyen, H . Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. p.10 5. Sharp, D (2002) Images Publishing Group: Melbourne p.351 6. Jones, P & Canniffe, E (2007) Architectural Press: Worldwide p.149 7. Jones, P & Canniffe, E (2007) p. 151 8. Henket, H,J. (2002). Modernity, Modernism and the Modern Movement. In: Henket, H & Henyen, H . Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. p.11. 9. Von Hoffman, A. Available: http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/PruittIgoe.html. Last accessed 06 May 2010. 10. Newman, O, (1996). Washington D.C: DIANE Publishing p. 11 11. The Open Univeristy. Available: http://www.open2.net/modernity/. Last accessed 6 May 2010. 12. Henket, H,J. (2002). 13. The Open Univeristy. Available: http://www.open2.net/modernity/. Last accessed 6 May 2010. 14. Trovit Homes, Available: http://homes.trovit.co.uk/highpoint-london/ Last accessed 9 May 2010. . Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 123-163.2. Jeremiah, D. (2000). p.124 3. Greenhalgh, P (1990) , London: Reaktion pp.1-24 4. Henket, H,J. (2002). Modernity, Modernism and the Modern Movement. In: Henket, H & Henyen, H . Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. p.10 5. Sharp, D (2002) Images Publishing Group: Melbourne p.351 6. Jones, P & Canniffe, E (2007) Architectural Press: Worldwide p.149 7. Jones, P & Canniffe, E (2007) p. 151 8. Henket, H,J. (2002). Modernity, Modernism and the Modern Movement. In: Henket, H & Henyen, H . Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. p.11. 9. Von Hoffman, A. Available: http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/PruittIgoe.html. Last accessed 06 May 2010. 10. Newman, O, (1996). Washington D.C: DIANE Publishing p. 11 11. The Open Univeristy. Available: http://www.open2.net/modernity/. Last accessed 6 May 2010. 12. Henket, H,J. (2002). 13. The Open Univeristy. Available: http://www.open2.net/modernity/. Last accessed 6 May 2010. 14. Trovit Homes, Available: http://homes.trovit.co.uk/highpoint-london/ Last accessed 9 May 2010. Rowe, H. A. (2011). "The Rise and Fall of Modernist Architecture." , (04). Retrieved from Rowe, Hayley A. "The Rise and Fall of Modernist Architecture." 3.04 (2011). < > Rowe, Hayley A. 2011. The Rise and Fall of Modernist Architecture. 3 (04), ROWE, H. A. 2011. The Rise and Fall of Modernist Architecture. [Online], 3. Available: graduated in 2011 with a concentration in History Of Modern Art, Design and Film from in Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom. 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1 (page 1) p. 1 Introduction
- Published: November 2018
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Somewhere between 1910 and 1970, architecture changed. Expensive Western buildings became transformed from ornamented fancies, which referred to the classical and medieval pasts, into strikingly plain reflections of novel materials, technologies, and ideas. The phrase ‘modern architecture’ describes a spectrum of buildings and ideas and the Introduction explains that it didn’t just emerge fully formed in the 1910s and 1920s, or as the consequence of 19th-century pioneers, but was instead the product of two centuries of industrialization, and the global spread of industrial culture. The aim of this Very Short Introduction is to illustrate how modern architecture was produced out of—and reflected—the cultures that constructed it.
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Modernism: 1917 to 1965 – A Revolution in Architecture and Design
Modernism: 1917 to 1965 – Timeline of prominent architectural styles
Modernism in architecture emerged as a transformative movement between 1917 and 1965, marking a departure from traditional styles and giving rise to innovative design principles. This period witnessed a profound shift in how architects approached their craft, embracing new materials, technologies, and philosophies that would shape the built environment for decades to come.
The Birth of Modernism
Breaking traditions: a paradigm shift in design.
Modernism emerged as a response to the changing socio-political landscape following World War I. Architects sought to break away from the ornate and embellished styles of the past, focusing instead on functionality, simplicity, and a rejection of unnecessary ornamentation. The movement was a rebellion against the constraints of historical architectural conventions.
Key Characteristics of Modernist Architecture
Modernist architecture is characterized by several key principles. Functionality takes precedence over form, emphasizing efficiency and purpose. Clean lines, geometric shapes, and the use of industrial materials became defining features of Modernist structures. Spaces were designed with an emphasis on natural light and open floor plans, fostering a sense of minimalism.
Influential Architects of the Modernist Movement
Le corbusier: pioneer of modern architecture.
Le Corbusier, a Swiss-French architect, was a pioneer of Modernist architecture. His belief in the harmony between architecture and society led to the development of the Five Points of Architecture, which advocated for the use of pilotis, free design of the ground plan, free design of the façade, horizontal windows, and a roof garden.
Mies van der Rohe: Less is More
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, a German-American architect, coined the famous phrase “less is more.” He championed simplicity and elegance in design, creating iconic structures like the Barcelona Pavilion and the Farnsworth House. Mies van der Rohe’s work exemplified the use of open space and minimalistic aesthetics.
Modernist Movements Across the Globe
International style: a global phenomenon.
The International Style, a significant offshoot of Modernism, gained prominence in the 1920s and 1930s. Characterized by the use of glass, steel, and reinforced concrete, this style emphasized functionality and rejected regional ornamentation. Notable examples include the Bauhaus School in Germany and the UN Headquarters in New York.
Brazilian Modernism: Oscar Niemeyer and Brasília
Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer played a pivotal role in bringing Modernism to Latin America. His avant-garde designs, particularly evident in Brasília, the purpose-built capital of Brazil, showcased futuristic forms and a commitment to urban planning.
Legacy and Impact on Contemporary Architecture
Modernism’s enduring influence.
The Modernist movement’s impact is enduring, with its principles continuing to shape contemporary architecture. The emphasis on functionality, open spaces, and the use of industrial materials has become integral to the design philosophy of many architects today.
Sustainable Modernism: A Contemporary Approach
In the 21st century, architects are revisiting Modernist principles with a focus on sustainability. The integration of green technologies, energy-efficient materials, and environmentally conscious design reflects a continuation of the Modernist ethos in response to contemporary challenges.
Modernism, spanning from 1917 to 1965, was a revolutionary period in the world of architecture. Architects such as Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe led the charge, ushering in an era defined by simplicity, functionality, and a rejection of unnecessary ornamentation. The International Style spread these principles globally, leaving an indelible mark on architectural history.
Call to Action
As we continue to navigate the ever-evolving field of architecture, let us draw inspiration from the innovative spirit of Modernism. Embracing simplicity, functionality, and sustainability, architects can contribute to a built environment that not only meets the needs of today but also ensures a sustainable and aesthetically pleasing future. Explore the timeless principles of Modernism in your own designs and join the ongoing conversation about shaping the architecture of tomorrow.
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Contemporary Architecture and the Modern City
- Written by Gerhard W. Mayer
- Published on September 06, 2024
This article was originally published on Common Edge .
"O beautiful, for spacious skies, for amber waves of grain, has there ever been another place on earth where so many people of wealth and power have paid for and put up with so much architecture they detested as within thy blessed borders today?"
Tom Wolfe wrote this in his 1981 book From Bauhaus to Our House . The conflict between modern and traditional design has barely abated since, as is evident in this recent article. In the U.S. , modern buildings are often met with community aversion, for familiar reasons: their perceived coldness and lack of contextual sensitivity, the impact on local character, and the loss of historical continuity. But on another level, the critique against modern design finds even more purchase on the larger scale: the city . Modern U.S. cities reek of traffic congestion and pollution, social inequality and gentrification , a loss of community and cultural spaces , and a lack of usable open space.
Related Article
In the U.S., modern buildings and modern cities are often conflated—and objected to. But this is not the case internationally. There, modern architecture has been separated from modern cities. Modern design is broadly appreciated for new buildings, but the “modern” city has been largely rejected. Overseas we can observe a culture that is looking forward to better urban lives with modern buildings, modern construction methods and lower carbon footprints, while here in the U.S. we reminisce about building designs that are several decades old, and cities where cars could just move around more freely.
How did we get to this point?
For most of human history, architectural design has progressed in evolutionary steps, with formal innovation carefully balanced against tried and proven prototypes and established building techniques. But just before World War I, technological advancements, a response to industrialization , and changing social values brought about a style revolution. Suddenly, architects were not just designing buildings; they believed that architecture could improve society . By linking the style movement to broader social and political changes, a rise of democratic ideals created a desire for more equitable and functional spaces for all people. Modern architecture was both a response to and an active participant in the larger social transformations of its time.
And cities really did need renewal. Before the war, living in a major metropolis was, for most people of average and below means, a challenging proposition. In London —at the time the world’s major metropolis, with about 6 million people—the effects of the Industrial Revolution led to a stark divide between the wealthy and the poor, the latter living in cramped, poorly maintained tenements, particularly in the East End. In Vienna , a severe lack of housing meant that people would rent beds in eight-hour intervals at a time. Public health was a major concern. Many areas had inadequate sanitation, leading to outbreaks of diseases like cholera and tuberculosis.
Key elements of a “modern” city emerged in Paris in 1930. Le Corbusier ’s famous urban plan envisioned a city strictly separated by functions: residential areas, business districts, and recreational spaces connected by broad, open boulevards to facilitate efficient traffic flow and prevent congestion. Housing was to be in high-rise apartment blocks set within vast green spaces. The idea was to provide ample light, air, and greenery for all residents.
After World War II, much of the world embraced this idea of a “modern city” as a guide to transforming their urban landscapes. Urban renewal was to provide new housing , commercial spaces, and modern infrastructure—frequently meaning more and more space for cars. In the U.S., modern architecture was displaying new economic and cultural power through the International Style . Combined with sprawling suburbs, this generated a prominent expression in American cities: largely flat and sprawling, with a tall central business district.
Similar “modern” design and urban planning concepts resulted in cities that began to lose their unique identities, while car-dependent mobility started to show its downsides. Many cities struggled with traffic congestion, air pollution, and noise stemming from rapid population growth and reliance on automobiles. By prioritizing space for automobiles, modern cities neglected the inclusion of sufficient green spaces and recreational areas. This affected residents’ well-being and reduced opportunities for outdoor activities, contributing to a sense of confinement and stress.
Counter to the original equitable intentions of the modern movement, the rise of modern cities often lead to the displacement of long-time residents and the erosion of affordable housing options. This process created stark divides between affluent newcomers and existing communities, exacerbated social inequality, and contributed to a sense of injustice and alienation among displaced populations.
Finally, while the International Style was an ideal vehicle for America’s new economic strength, developing cities mostly in financial terms led to a shift toward more commercial and corporate spaces at the expense of community-oriented and culturally significant areas. Traditional markets, local businesses, and communal gathering spots gave way to chain stores and luxury developments, diminishing the vibrancy and diversity that characterize thriving urban communities.
Several counter-reactions emerged against modern design ideas.
In 1972, the Club of Rome published a report called The Limits to Growth. Using computer modeling, it explored the dire consequences of continued economic and population growth on the Earth’s finite resources. This publication is often hailed as the start of the sustainability movement.
Postmodernism , which gained prominence in the 1980s, sought to reintroduce elements of history, context, and symbolism into architectural design to counteract the alienation and perceived monotony of modern buildings with a more diverse, inclusive, and often playful approach to architectural design.
But the most impactful counter-reaction to modernism was focused on Urban Design. Interbau 1957 in Berlin had presented a model for the “modern” city of tomorrow that was the first real built demonstration of Le Corbusier ’s ideals. It became an influential model much of the modern world had followed.
This new “ Hansaviertel ” brought with it also an embrace of the automobile; and over time it turned out that there simply was not enough space for them in historic cities. This led to rising public discontent and bizarre urban design ideas: in Amsterdam, for instance, an American planner suggested filling in the famous canals with underground garages.
In the 1970s, Berlin set out to create another event to undo the influence of its own 1957 Interbau and create a new way forward. The 1987 International Building Exhibition (IBA) in Berlin was to address and rejuvenate Berlin’s urban environment with a focus on architectural and planning innovation. The IBA’s goal was to regain the urban areas as residential locations through a return to traditional urban design, with modern architectural designs that were to fill in the urban fabric of Berlin. The impact of the 1987 IBA was prodigious. It triggered several subsequent similar events, although at first only in Germany. Today, the idea of Rapid Urban Prototyping as a method of urban innovation has spread beyond Germany’s borders. IBAs have gone international and are occurring as far away as Melbourne .
Berlin separated modern building design from modern urban design and demonstrated that cities can continue their timeless, traditional urban fabric with cutting-edge modern and sustainable buildings. Communities found that the environmental advantages of compact walkable cities with new sustainable building techniques put them at the forefront of green initiatives and sustainability efforts. They invested in renewable energy, green public transportation, and eco-friendly buildings. For example, Copenhagen aims to become carbon neutral by 2025 , showcasing a commitment to a cleaner future.
People overseas are quite happy with modern architecture , as they see it adding to their quality of life. New developments bring with them a belief that the modern technology in them will help us. People understand that city living is a more sustainable choice due to a more efficient use of resources, reduced reliance on cars, and better access to public transportation.
There are whole new neighborhoods being constructed in and around existing cities that are inviting, multigenerational, mixed-use districts. They promote biodiversity while offering a solution to a city’s affordable housing crisis. By picking up threads from previous garden city movements, new projects seek to bring the urban environment into harmony with existing natural landscapes , establishing a community of ecologically responsive housing units organized according to the model of a “rural village.”
Rather than characterless boxes in the International Style , modern buildings overseas are highly individualistic and often quirky, and serve to articulate the public realm while affording inhabitants the luxuries of light-flooded spaces with open-floor plans. Modern buildings range from individualistic to highly artistic and incorporate natural features of the landscape. Sustainability is promoted throughout.
People hope that with modern buildings in well-designed cities, there is a path forward to solve our climate crisis and maintain a high-quality life people have become accustomed to.
In the U.S., laypeople conflate modern design with the modern city, to predictable results. Modern architects here are stuck because the cities they work in are stuck. Los Angeles , for instance, still celebrates the Case Study residential design program as cutting-edge “modern,” as though it were created just yesterday instead of 60 years ago. And many urban planners are still dreaming about a city of towers, although by now it is abundantly clear that they will likely be towers in giant parking lots, or on giant parking garages, surrounded by traffic clogged streets. And the promised open space is spoon-fed in tiny parklets few people will ever use.
Of course, there are those occasional U.S. architects who manage to transcend local obstacles and deliver first-class modern designs. But for modern building design to become a broadly desired solution, as many architects desperately wish for, it might be necessary to reform urban design first and start migrating the car dominated cities into timeless, walkable, multimodal, and compact cities. This will generate whole catalogs of new building types and design challenges for which architects can then create uniquely American solutions. If modern design is seen as contributing to the urban quality of life and fixes our climate problems, people will find new hope. And with that will come, eventually, a desire to express our unique way forward in contemporary ways.
Until our cities change, public objection to modern design is a major factor that affects the speed of delivery, cost, and our general ability to solve our problems, all resulting in compromised urban and building solutions inferior to those found abroad. Modern design must demonstrate that it can increase people’s quality of life and solve problems, above all by lowering society’s carbon footprint. Continuing to prioritize car mobility in our cities, with giant boxy buildings that take massive efforts to push past people’s objections, is the opposite direction we should be headed in a warming world.
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CS 550: Advanced Computer Networks (Modern Datacenters)
Course overview.
This advanced graduate-level course focuses on the key aspects of modern datacenter networking. Students will explore the differences between traditional Internet architectures and modern datacenters, with an emphasis on cutting-edge technologies, practical applications, and ongoing research. The course is designed to equip students with the necessary knowledge to engage with state-of-the-art networking research and practices.
Office Hours and Contact
- Instructor: Balajee Vamanan
- Office Hours: Friday 3–4 PM at SEO 1310 or by appointment via email.
- Email Policy: Use Piazza for questions/discussions about lectures, papers, and projects. Email is reserved for personal matters only.
Course Goals
- Familiarize students with state-of-the-art networking research, specifically in datacenters.
- Practice reading and critiquing research papers.
- Develop skills for reproducing research results.
- Class Webpage: https://www.550.cs.uic.edu
- Piazza: https://piazza.com/uic/fall2024/cs550/home
- Blackboard: For grades and other official communications.
- Book: Lecture notes and papers
Modality of the Class
Each class will focus on the discussion of 1-2 research papers. Students are expected to read and critique papers before class, and most of the lecture time will be dedicated to in-depth discussion.
Prerequisites
- CS 450 or equivalent: Students must be familiar with basic networking concepts and be comfortable with coding and debugging.
- Project Work: The course involves a significant project component, where students will code and benchmark their work.
Grading Breakdown (Tentative)
- Class Participation: 10%
- Paper Presentations: 30% (2-3 papers per student)
- Paper Critiques: 20%
- Proposal (1-2 pages): 10%
- Presentation (15 mins + 5 mins Q&A): 10%
- Report (10-12 pages): 10%
- Demo (10 mins): 10%
Topics and Schedule (tentative)
Course outline, week 1: introduction to datacenter networks.
- Overview of datacenter architecture
- Evolution of datacenter networks
- Key challenges in datacenter networking
Week 2: Datacenter Topologies
- Traditional three-tier architecture
- Clos networks and fat-tree topologies
- Emerging topologies (e.g., DCell, BCube)
Week 3: Datacenter Network Protocols
- TCP/IP in datacenter environments
- RDMA (Remote Direct Memory Access)
- Datacenter TCP (DCTCP)
Week 4: Software-Defined Networking (SDN) in Datacenters
- SDN architecture and principles
- OpenFlow and other SDN protocols
- SDN controllers for datacenters
Week 5: Network Virtualization
- Network overlays (VXLAN, NVGRE, STT)
- Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
- Virtual Network Functions (VNFs) in datacenters
Week 6: Load Balancing in Datacenters
- Layer 4 vs. Layer 7 load balancing
- Software vs. hardware load balancers
- Advanced load balancing algorithms
Week 7: Datacenter Traffic Engineering
- Flow scheduling
- Multipath routing (ECMP, MPTCP)
- Traffic prediction and optimization
Week 8: Quality of Service (QoS) in Datacenters
- QoS requirements for different applications
- QoS mechanisms (traffic shaping, policing, marking)
- End-to-end QoS in multi-tenant environments
Week 9: Network Security in Datacenters
- Threat models for datacenter networks
- Firewalls and Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS)
- Microsegmentation and zero-trust networking
Week 10: Datacenter Interconnects
- Intra-datacenter connectivity
- Inter-datacenter networking
- Software-defined WANs (SD-WAN) for datacenter interconnection
Week 11: Network Monitoring and Telemetry
- Network monitoring tools and techniques
- Streaming telemetry
- Network analytics and machine learning for anomaly detection
Week 12: Energy Efficiency in Datacenter Networks
- Green networking techniques
- Energy-aware routing and scheduling
- Power management in network devices
Week 13: Datacenter Network Performance
- Performance metrics and benchmarking
- Latency and throughput optimization
- Congestion control mechanisms
Week 14: Emerging Technologies in Datacenter Networking
- Programmable data planes (P4)
- Optical networking in datacenters
- Silicon photonics and co-packaged optics
Week 15: Cloud-Native Networking
- Container networking (e.g., Kubernetes networking)
- Service mesh architectures
- Network automation and Infrastructure as Code (IaC)
Week 16: Future Trends and Research Directions
- AI/ML-driven network management
- Satellite networks and their impact on datacenter connectivity
- Edge computing and its impact on datacenter networks
How to Succeed in this Class
- Keep up with the class materials and participate in discussions.
- Read and critique papers before each class.
- Prepare your presentations thoroughly.
- Start your project early and maintain regular progress.
- How to read a paper: pdf
Module 1: Topology
- Reference: PortLand: A Scalable Fault-Tolerant Layer 2 Data Center Network Fabric pdf
- Reference: Original fat-tree paper: pdf
- (Sep 10) Jellyfish: Networking Data Centers Randomly: pdf
Module 2: Datacenter Transport
- (Sep 12) Datacenter TCP (DCTCP): pdf
Greece’s Hottest Summer on Record
Meet the most famous ‘tourist’ in greece: scott ‘the american’, turkey blocks international netflix screening of “famagusta”, trump’s crypto project could create a conflict of interest.
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How Ancient Greek Architecture Shaped the Modern World
Ancient Greek architecture is one of the aspects of ancient Greece that has shaped our modern world most.
It is well known that the magnificent temples and public buildings of ancient Greece have captivated the world for centuries if not millennia. However, this profound influence of Greek architecture on the world of architecture extends far beyond the famous ruins of Athens and other Greek cities.
Ranging from the monumental government buildings of Washington DC in the United States to the sleek skyscrapers of modern cities in America, Europe, and Asia, ancient Greek architectural elements and innovations shaped—and continue to shape—the urban environment around us today.
The canonic orders of ancient Greek architecture
The heart of Greek architecture is the three canonic orders of the classical architecture of ancient Greece: The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders.
Many of us have heard of these, but do we really know what they are and how they were created? Each one of them has its distinct proportions along with their unique ornamental details. Nonetheless, despite their differences, they all share a focus on symmetry, balance, and harmony, elements crucial to the ancient Greek definition of aesthetically pleasing results.
The Doric order
Starting with the Doric order, it is by far the oldest and more importantly, the simplest of the three. It is characterized by its plain, sturdy columns which have no base and are accompanied by a simple capital.
The Parthenon in Athens is the most well-known example of the Doric order. Its austere but imposing columns are wider at the bottom and taper towards the top.
By employing this technique, the Greeks managed to create a sense of strength and solidity in their end product. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC is a modern homage to the Doric style and has clearly been influenced by the aesthetics of the Parthenon in Athens.
The Ionic order
The Ionic order is much more slender and elegant than the Doric, and some might say it is the most familiar of them all. Its columns have a foundational base and a scrolled capital, which is very often adorned with volutes.
The Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis hill of Athens in Greece is a prime example of the Ionic order of ancient Greek architecture. It can be admired right next to the Doric Parthenon. The scrolled capitals of the columns give its viewers a sense that the building is covered with grace and refinement.
Many neoclassical mansions across the Western world as well as public buildings, such as the British Museum in London, feature Ionic columns.
The Corinthian order
Finally, the Corinthian order is by far the most extravagant and ornate of the three. Its beautifully slender columns are topped with truly intricate capitals. These are carved with acanthus leaves and other decorative motifs that make them spectacular.
The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens showcases the monumental grandeur of the Corinthian style. The lavish ornamentation of every Corinthian columns has made them a favorite among architects whose main goal is to convey a particular sense of opulence and sophistication. We can see this from ancient Roman temples all the way to modern-day skyscrapers.
Beyond the orders, however, Greek architects became true innovators in the use of a series of other elements.
Over time, these elements have managed to become the most important cornerstones of classical architecture. Pediments, which are the triangular spaces above the columns, often featured intricate sculptural reliefs in ancient Greek buildings. Friezes, on the other hand, the horizontal bands located above the columns, were adorned with continuous sculptures.
These would normally depict mythological scenes from the rich depository of Greek mythology or real-life battles that had been engrained in the subconscious of the Greeks. The use of fine materials, especially marble and limestone, set a new standard for architectural beauty, too.
The revival movement of ancient Greek architecture
The influence of Greek architecture experienced a truly remarkable resurgence in the 18th and 19th centuries. This became known in the world of architecture as the Greek Revival movement.
Architects in the bigger powers of Europe and America of the time began incorporating a large number of Greek elements into their designs. Obviously, they had to adapt their use to modern materials and building techniques. However, the influence of the ancient Greek principles of architecture was more than evident.
The Second Bank of the United States in Philadelphia, built in the early 1800s, is a fantastic example of the Greek Revival style. The building, with its plain Doric columns and lack of sculptural decoration, is proof of this fascinating movement that brought Greek architecture back to the spotlight.
Nonetheless, the Greek Revival Movement was not the only one. Later examples, like Neoclassicism and Beaux-Arts also drew heavily on Greek influences from the glorious past of Athens and the other city-states .
These particularly grandiose styles were big fans of truly lush ornamentation that would go along with classical details.
Examples of these movements can be seen in iconic structures like the Lincoln Memorial, the New York Stock Exchange, and the Palais Garnier in Paris. Even as modernist architects rejected historical ornamentation in favour of much cleaner lines and functionality over the image, they continued to get inspired by the core principles of Greek architecture like proportion, symmetry , and harmony.
Today, influences of Greek architectural styles can be found in a wide variety of buildings of all types and styles across the world.
From the well-known columned porticos of government buildings to the clean lines of contemporary homes in modern suburbs, the legacy that ancient Greece left us with is still alive.
Architects, regardless of their personal taste, many times have to rely on the classical orders and principles of proportion to create pleasing and harmonious designs. Obviously, modern times need modern measures, this is why materials like glass and steel allow for modern reinterpretations of ancient forms.
The innovations of the Greeks in architectural elements such as design, proportion and aesthetics have managed to surpass the limits and boundaries of time and geography. They have truly left an eternal mark on the built environment of countless cities, small and big, affluent and impoverished alike.
From the majestic temples of the Greek antiquity to the imposing towering skyscrapers of the modern era, the Greek architecture continues to inspire architects and architecural movements to this day.
It shapes the world we live in in profound ways that are not always fully appreciated as they are normally taken for granted. Greek architecture does remind us of the importance of harmony, balance, and elegance in design, something that is not merely a trend, but a fundamental human aspiration that has been defining human creativity for millennia.
Now as we look to the future and the elements of architectural innovations of the next decades, it is more than certain that the influence of Greek architecture will continue to evolve and most probably adapt to the changing needs and tastes of an ever-evolving society.
However, the core principles that have shaped this architectural tradition, namely the cornerstones of symmetry, proportion, and a deep appreciation for form and function, will definitely remain as relevant as ever.
See all the latest news from Greece and the world at Greekreporter.com . Contact our newsroom to report an update or send your story, photos and videos. Follow GR on Google News and subscribe here to our daily email!
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Study Of Malayali Architecture & Its Adaptation In a Modern Context
Time, Art, Beauty and History – they are something to be preserved, to be cherished and to be made even more beautiful by conscious attempts. Kerala, a state that has its culture, its cuisine, its architecture, its art, its sociography, has amalgamated initially by choice and later by force, has grown today to be one of India’s growing markets for Information Technology, Tourism and real estate. Slowly, but eventually the onset of modern, contemporary and composite styles of architecture will overpower the traditional, vernacular and singular style. One of the most important characteristic of the Malayali Architecture is its roof – becoming the style’s most recognizable feature. This is a study where we analyze the roof structures of Malayali Architecture – a staple and characteristic feature of the style, and its modern time adaptations.
Related Papers
Janmejoy Gupta , Naushaba Jameel
The vernacular architecture of any place is evolved through ages by consistent and continuous effort for more efficient solutions. Housing typologies though a result of multiple determinants, climate and culture are the two most important determinants. Materials, construction, and technology are best treated as modifying factors, rather than form determinants. This paper studies the evolution of vernacular architecture of Kerala in response to climatic conditions and varied cultural influences it has been subjected to. The orientation of buildings", internal arrangement of spaces, the presence of internal courtyards , use of locally available materials and other socio-cultural factors have combined together to create the vernacular architecture as it exists today. Other than improved thermal comfort, the vernacular architecture of Kerala also gives a number of pointers towards betterment of architectural quality in modern architecture with respect to planning principles, aesthetics and building materials used in built form. Alongside, this paper also looks at the different architectural lessons that can be learnt from the vernacular architecture of Kerala to be applied to modern architecture practiced in Kerala to make it more culturally and climatologically contextual to Kerala.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT)
IJERT Journal
https://www.ijert.org/living-the-common-styles-kerala-and-south-kanara-traditional-architecture https://www.ijert.org/research/living-the-common-styles-kerala-and-south-kanara-traditional-architecture-IJERTV9IS120149.pdf This article focuses on the similarities of the domestic culture which is reflected in the Architecture of these geographies namely Kerala and South Kanara. We need to study the rich Traditional Architecture of these identified regions. In this interesting search, the amazing facts regarding similarities between Kerala's traditional Nalukettu houses and traditional Manor houses of South Kanara need to be highlighted. The Nalukettu is the traditional style of architecture of Kerala where in an agrarian setting a house has a quadrangle in the centre. Originally the abode of the wealthy Brahmin and Nair families, this style of architecture has today become a status symbol among the well-to-do in Kerala. Nalukettu is evident in the traditional homes of the upper class homestead where customs and rituals were a part of life. The Manor houses are the dwellings of Bunt community. They are usually set amidst the agricultural fields. The houses have large courtyards to perform all the activities of farming. Usually the products from the field are got separated, cleaned and stored. They have a large cow shed at the rear of the house.
sneha kaladharan
The architectural language of India versatile and still it is changing. While considering Kerala, it has an architectural style that has more depth and independence which was not influenced by other foreign and only evolved from the cultural, regional and functional aspects. This architectural fashion has been followed for a long period of time and its essence is persisting. The Kerala traditional architecture has its high importance as it satisfied all the concerns contextually, culturally and functionally. The more important form is naalukettu style which has been constructed for many years and many are still naalukettu which has its glory. One of the finest examples for the traditional naalukettu is Paliyam house for the women’s of Paliyam family. But as the time changes, people changes, cultural values changes, climate changes, needs and requirement changes so as a result of these architectural fashion should also be changes or evolves. But as the traditional architecture has its roots deep every evolution has taken its essence and put out architecture that is functionally appropriate. But due to the European influence in the recent eras, as people tend to follow the European culture they also tend to follow the architectural style, at that time it was contemporary style which took the Kerala architecture to a new era. The contemporary architecture was seen all over during those times and still seen. One of the examples of the contemporary architecture style is the skewed house by lijo –reni architects at Palakkad.as the time goes the contemporary architecture got many defaults as they are not fully satisfying the architecture of Kerala through various aspects.so many architects tend to combine both these architecture styles to produce a style which is much more functionally and esthetically pleasing. There are many examples that could be seen of this architecture style like the shikara residence by the wall makers, the canopy house by the scribble engine, the glass encased house by the stapati architects. But these styles does not identifies as Kerala. Kerala architecture tends to the crisis of identity crisis as in the present era. The identity of Kerala architecture is lost and it is not gaining back again as the architecture is still changing. This identity crisis is evident……
International journal of engineering research and technology
Lekha Hegde
TENGKU ANIS QARIHAH RAJA ABDUL KADIR
Paarija Saxena
IAEME PUBLICATION
IAEME Publication
Generally, architecture can be termed as a field of art in building, a structure designed by human beings. Therefore, the grandeur and the height of a civilization is measured by the buildings it left behind which include religious buildings. This can be seen through Indian architecture that appeared as a result of the emergence of Buddhism and Hinduism. Between the main objectives of this study is to discuss the concept, goals and philosophy found in the architecture of India. In addition, the study also discusses the characteristics and elements of Indian architecture made up of Buddhist and Hindu architecture that has influenced some of the architecture of other buildings in the world. In this writing, the authors used qualitative methodology focusing on research on the analysis of documents and observations. The finding shows that the concept and philosophy of Indian architecture has been largely influenced by nation and world civilization. The study also identified the characters and elements. system along the western coast of India.
IRJET Journal
This paper narrates an essay on the major distinctive styles of traditional architecture of India from its different regions which has acquired a lot of fame in the worldwide over decades. It's a matter of pride to all the Indians for getting such an opportunity to experience varieties of traditional architecture spread throughout their motherland as it has a huge asset of heritage and antiquity. A range of architectural varieties have developed in the parts of the country due to its diversified socio-cultural, traditional and religious background as well as most importantly climatic variations. Among all the aspects, the religious diversity has played a vital role in the development of distinctive architectural styles chronologically. It is the result of above-mentioned aspects which contributed towards the formation of a set of architectural assets within a single piece of land. There may be a lot of research works done in the field of traditional Indian architecture; still my study attempts partially to contribute in the existing body of literature through a documentation of major traditional architectural styles found across the different regions of India.
PLANNING MALAYSIA: Journal of the Malaysian Institute of Planners
The paper reports on a basic classification based on formal and morphological similarities of large vernacular buildings across the Malay region, based on their frontages; with the aim of developing a universal regional language and set of rules of local architecture for urban and multi-storeys typologies. Generally, seen as idiosyncratic and individualistic, Malay regional palaces and mansions across different states and regions under former Sultanates, exhibit different vocabularies, yet have underlying similarities. While form and architecture may arise from the local technology and construction methods of the era, aesthetic expressions of these palaces recall formal archetypes which can be described, and characterised, regardless of location. Focusing on palaces in Malaysia and East Sumatran region from the late 1800s onwards, recurring forms of a Malay-Classical language are observed and classified into generic morphologies of frontages. The aim is towards formal taxonomy that can represent a more inclusive architectural identity of the region, rather than identities based on nations. By defining the 'generic' and the 'variant', significant palaces across the Malay region are discussed and positioned within a classification based on a range of generic archetypes. Variants include cases which have absorbed external influences yet retain the essences of local form, while some examples, refer to elements that have modernised been yet represent the last offshoot or branch of the same region. To identify generic rules and frameworks of design, the regional roots of form, including frontages, for public buildings is crucial for urbanscape and the urgency of developing guidelines and a set of compositional rules and language of urban architecture derived from the essences of tradition and past forms.
European Association of Archaeologists (EAA)
Percy Arfeen-Wegner
Conventional narratives have traditionally depicted a significant rupture in architectural traditions across Malabar, South India, with the advent of Portuguese influence in the 16th century. While acknowledging the era’s marked socio-economic transformations, particularly within the Indian Ocean trade dynamics, it is essential to question if cultural shifts were uniformly sudden or drastic, as is often assumed. This paper aims to investigate shifts in building traditions and practices through a meticulous examination of the evolution of the iconic overhanging timber roof frame, spanning c. 15th–17th centuries. The study will scrutinise aspects of building technologies, techniques of execution, and motifs of constructions, with a particular focus on two pivotal inquiries: a) the heuristic value of framing architectural evolution through the dichotomy of “east” versus “west”, where the west is often portrayed as an ‘imposing’ force and the east as a ‘passive recipient’, and b) whether changes in building traditions can solely be attributed to external political influences, notably the arrival of the Portuguese. This paper contends that the reception of building traditions was complex and multifaceted. It suggests that the evolution of building practices involved extensive experimentation with techniques, as well as considerations of adaptation, internalisation and even rejection within regional contexts. This nuanced understanding challenges simplistic narratives of cultural imposition and underscores the agency and adaptability inherent in architectural evolution over time.
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The concept of modernism in architecture is difficult to define despite being clearly conceived in opposition to late 19th century historicism, and rejecting historical precedents and traditional methods of building (Ching et al., 2011, Curtis, 1996).Despite showing strong preferences for industrial building materials and production, the buildings of modern style have simple forms, visually ...
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However it was not until after the Second World War that it gained mass popularity, after modernist planning was implemented as a solution to the previous failure of architecture and design to meet basic social needs. During the 1930s as much as 15% of the urban populations were living in poverty, and slum clearance was one of the many social ...
Abstract. Somewhere between 1910 and 1970, architecture changed. Expensive Western buildings became transformed from ornamented fancies, which referred to the classical and medieval pasts, into strikingly plain reflections of novel materials, technologies, and ideas. The phrase 'modern architecture' describes a spectrum of buildings and ...
Conclusion. Modernism, spanning from 1917 to 1965, was a revolutionary period in the world of architecture. Architects such as Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe led the charge, ushering in an era defined by simplicity, functionality, and a rejection of unnecessary ornamentation. The International Style spread these principles globally, leaving ...
4 Susan Lichtenstein, 'Editing Architecture: Architectural Record and the Growth of Modern Architecture, 1928-1938' (unpublished doctoral thesis, Cornell University, 1990). 5 Erdem Erten, 'Shaping "The Second Half Century": The Architectural Review 1947-1971' (unpublished doctoral thesis, MIT, 2004).
MODERNISM IN ARCHITECTURE AND ITS AFTERMATH. 1995, Theoretical Perspectives, Centre for Research on Politics; University of Dhaka. Modernism in the arts is a general term used to describe various tendencies in the first three quarters of the twentieth century. It refers mainly to a conscious attempt to break away from the artistic traditions of ...
Frontiers of Architectural Research is an international journal that publishes original research papers, review articles, and case studies to promote rapid communication and exchange among scholars, architects, and engineers. This journal introduces and reviews significant and pioneering …. View full aims & scope. $1500. Article publishing ...
of architecture in the Middle East and North Africa. Recent sociopolitical and cultural movements also moved this region into an age of complexity and contradiction, a situation predicted by late modern-ists. As a result, contemporary architecture is no longer a monotonous, universal, or homogenous phenomenon. Since the 1970s, local and interna-
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The Quest for American Orthodox Architecture: Modernism Meets Tradition. The paper highlights the innovative attempts to marry the "old world" Orthodox architectural traditions with the American vernacular and American modernism in the works of Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Constantine Pertzoff. Download.
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Academia.edu is a platform for academics to share research papers. ... THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN THE EARLY 1900'S THE REVOLUTION OF DESIGN STARTED 'HERE' Chantal Rhone- ID#- 1202695 Architecture since 1900-ARC 2007 David Cuthbert May 5, 2014 Architecture over the centuries has been subject to ...
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This paper considers four selected precedents: two case studies of single-unit urban house designs of pioneering Sri Lankan architects with modernist influence as examples for 1950s and 60s houses ...
Email Policy: Use Piazza for questions/discussions about lectures, papers, and projects. Email is reserved for personal matters only. Course Goals. Familiarize students with state-of-the-art networking research, specifically in datacenters. Practice reading and critiquing research papers. Develop skills for reproducing research results. Resources
The research paper presents a brief outline of the genesis of Post-modern architecture as a reaction to Modernist architecture, its evolution, and its basic characteristics, as experienced in Europe and America.
A Doric temple in Segesta, Sicily. Credit: Ludvig14, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0. Ancient Greek architecture is one of the aspects of ancient Greece that has shaped our modern world most.. It is well known that the magnificent temples and public buildings of ancient Greece have captivated the world for centuries if not millennia.
The work is devoted to the study of the influence of folk architecture on the professional practice of housing design by modern architects. The study focuses on the use of traditional heritage ...
Important characteristics of these architectural possibilities are explained, with a focus on how they might be adjusted to the constantly changing technology landscapes of the future. At the airinterface leveled 6 G plans to use sub-Terahertz spectrum, use state-of-the-art technologies for sharing spectrum, optimize air-interface design using ...
The research paper presents a brief outline of the genesis of Post-modern architecture as a reaction to Modernist architecture, its evolution, and its basic characteristics, as experienced in Europe and America. Next, the development of contemporary.
Vishnu K Suresh #13037 Dr. D. Y. Patil School Of Architecture 2 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 ABSTRACT 4 LIST OF SKETCHES & PHOTOGRAPHS 5 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION & RESEARCH DESIGN 7 • Introduction • Research Question • Need & Significance • Aim • Objectives • Scope Chapter 2: METHODOLGY 12 • Introduction • Research Question ...