assignment to subsidiary

Don’t Confuse Change of Control and Assignment Terms

• David Tollen
• September 11, 2020

An assignment clause governs whether and when a party can transfer the contract to someone else. Often, it covers what happens in a change of control: whether a party can assign the contract to its buyer if it gets merged into a company or completely bought out. But that doesn’t make it a change of control clause. Change of control terms don’t address assignment. They say whether a party can terminate if the other party goes through a merger or other change of control. And they sometimes address other change of control consequences.

Don’t confuse the two. In a contract about software or other IT, you should think through the issues raised by each. (Also, don’t confuse assignment of contracts with assignment of IP .)

Here’s an assignment clause:

Assignment. Neither party may assign this Agreement or any of its rights or obligations hereunder without the other’s express written consent, except that either party may assign this Agreement to the surviving party in a merger of that party into another entity or in an acquisition of all or substantially all its assets. No assignment becomes effective unless and until the assignee agrees in writing to be bound by all the assigning party’s obligations in this Agreement. Except to the extent forbidden in this Section __, this Agreement will be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties’ respective successors and assigns.

As you can see, that clause says no assignment is allowed, with one exception:

• Assignment to Surviving Entity in M&A: Under the clause above, a party can assign the contract to its buyer — the “surviving entity” — if it gets merged into another company or otherwise bought — in other words, if it ceases to exist through an M&A deal (or becomes an irrelevant shell company).

Consider the following additional issues for assignment clauses:

• Assignment to Affiliates: Can a party assign the contract to its sister companies, parents, and/or subs — a.k.a. its “Affiliates”?
• Assignment to Divested Entities: If a party spins off its key department or other business unit involved in the contract, can it assign the contract to that spun-off company — a.k.a. the “divested entity”? That’s particularly important in technology outsourcing deals and similar contracts. They often leave a customer department highly dependent on the provider’s services. If the customer can’t assign the contract to the divested entity, the spin-off won’t work; the new/divested company won’t be viable.
• Assignment to Competitors: If a party does get any assignment rights, can it assign to the other party’s competitors ? (If so, you’ve got to define “Competitor,” since the word alone can refer to almost any company.)
• All Assignments or None: The contract should usually say something about assignments. Otherwise, the law might allow all assignments. (Check your jurisdiction.) If so, your contracting partner could assign your agreement to someone totally unacceptable. (Most likely, though, your contracting partner would remain liable.) If none of the assignments suggested above fits, forbid all assignments.

Change of Control

Here’s a change of control clause:

Change of Control. If a party undergoes a Change of Control, the other party may terminate this Agreement on 30 days’ written notice. (“Change of Control” means a transaction or series of transactions by which more than 50% of the outstanding shares of the target company or beneficial ownership thereof are acquired within a 1-year period, other than by a person or entity that owned or had beneficial ownership of more than 50% of such outstanding shares before the close of such transactions(s).)

• Termination on Change of Control: A party can terminate if controlling ownership of the other party changes hands.

Change of control and assignment terms actually address opposite ownership changes. If an assignment clause addresses change of control, it says what happens if a party goes through an M&A deal and no longer exists (or becomes a shell company). A change of control clause, on the other hand, matters when the party subject to M&A does still exist . That party just has new owners (shareholders, etc.).

Consider the following additional issues for change of control clauses:

• Smaller Change of Ownership: The clause above defines “Change of Control” as any 50%-plus ownership shift. Does that set the bar too high? Should a 25% change authorize termination by the other party, or even less? In public companies and some private ones, new bosses can take control by acquiring far less than half the stock.
• No Right to Terminate: Should a change of control give any right to terminate, and if so, why? (Keep in mind, all that’s changed is the party’s owners — possibly irrelevant shareholders.)
• Divested Entity Rights: What if, again, a party spins off the department or business until involved in the deal? If that party can’t assign the contract to the divested entity, per the above, can it at least “sublicense” its rights to products or service, if it’s the customer? Or can it subcontract its performance obligations to the divested entity, if it’s the provider? Or maybe the contract should require that the other party sign an identical contract with the divested entity, at least for a short term.

Some of this text comes from the 3rd edition of The Tech Contracts Handbook , available to order (and review) from Amazon  here , or purchase directly from its publisher, the American Bar Association, here.

Want to do tech contracts better, faster, and with more confidence? Check out our training offerings here: https://www.techcontracts.com/training/ . Tech Contracts Academy has  options to fit every need and schedule: Comprehensive Tech Contracts M aster Classes™ (four on-line classes, two hours each), topical webinars (typically about an hour), customized in-house training (for just your team).   David Tollen is the founder of Tech Contracts Academy and our primary trainer. An attorney and also the founder of Sycamore Legal, P.C. , a boutique IT, IP, and privacy law firm in the San Francisco Bay Area, he also serves as an expert witness in litigation about software licenses, cloud computing agreements, and other IT contracts.

© 2020, 2022 by Tech Contracts Academy, LLC. All rights reserved.

Thank you to  Pixabay.com  for great, free stock images!

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• Assignment Clause

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• Acceleration Clause
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Assignment clause defined.

Assignment clauses are legally binding provisions in contracts that give a party the chance to engage in a transfer of ownership or assign their contractual obligations and rights to a different contracting party.

In other words, an assignment clause can reassign contracts to another party. They can commonly be seen in contracts related to business purchases.

Here’s an article about assignment clauses.

Assignment Clause Explained

Assignment contracts are helpful when you need to maintain an ongoing obligation regardless of ownership. Some agreements have limitations or prohibitions on assignments, while other parties can freely enter into them.

Here’s another article about assignment clauses.

Purpose of Assignment Clause

The purpose of assignment clauses is to establish the terms around transferring contractual obligations. The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) permits the enforceability of assignment clauses.

Assignment Clause Examples

Examples of assignment clauses include:

• Example 1 . A business closing or a change of control occurs
• Example 2 . New services providers taking over existing customer contracts
• Example 3 . Unique real estate obligations transferring to a new property owner as a condition of sale
• Example 4 . Many mergers and acquisitions transactions, such as insurance companies taking over customer policies during a merger

Here’s an article about the different types of assignment clauses.

Assignment Clause Samples

Sample 1 – sales contract.

Assignment; Survival .  Neither party shall assign all or any portion of the Contract without the other party’s prior written consent, which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld; provided, however, that either party may, without such consent, assign this Agreement, in whole or in part, in connection with the transfer or sale of all or substantially all of the assets or business of such Party relating to the product(s) to which this Agreement relates. The Contract shall bind and inure to the benefit of the successors and permitted assigns of the respective parties. Any assignment or transfer not in accordance with this Contract shall be void. In order that the parties may fully exercise their rights and perform their obligations arising under the Contract, any provisions of the Contract that are required to ensure such exercise or performance (including any obligation accrued as of the termination date) shall survive the termination of the Contract.

Reference :

Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database,  EX-10.29 3 dex1029.htm SALES CONTRACT , Viewed May 10, 2021, <  https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1492426/000119312510226984/dex1029.htm >.

Sample 2 – Purchase and Sale Agreement

Assignment . Purchaser shall not assign this Agreement or any interest therein to any Person, without the prior written consent of Seller, which consent may be withheld in Seller’s sole discretion. Notwithstanding the foregoing, upon prior written notice to Seller, Purchaser may designate any Affiliate as its nominee to receive title to the Property, or assign all of its right, title and interest in this Agreement to any Affiliate of Purchaser by providing written notice to Seller no later than five (5) Business Days prior to the Closing; provided, however, that (a) such Affiliate remains an Affiliate of Purchaser, (b) Purchaser shall not be released from any of its liabilities and obligations under this Agreement by reason of such designation or assignment, (c) such designation or assignment shall not be effective until Purchaser has provided Seller with a fully executed copy of such designation or assignment and assumption instrument, which shall (i) provide that Purchaser and such designee or assignee shall be jointly and severally liable for all liabilities and obligations of Purchaser under this Agreement, (ii) provide that Purchaser and its designee or assignee agree to pay any additional transfer tax as a result of such designation or assignment, (iii) include a representation and warranty in favor of Seller that all representations and warranties made by Purchaser in this Agreement are true and correct with respect to such designee or assignee as of the date of such designation or assignment, and will be true and correct as of the Closing, and (iv) otherwise be in form and substance satisfactory to Seller and (d) such Assignee is approved by Manager as an assignee of the Management Agreement under Article X of the Management Agreement. For purposes of this Section 16.4, “Affiliate” shall include any direct or indirect member or shareholder of the Person in question, in addition to any Person that would be deemed an Affiliate pursuant to the definition of “Affiliate” under Section 1.1 hereof and not by way of limitation of such definition.

Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database,  EX-10.8 3 dex108.htm PURCHASE AND SALE AGREEMENT , Viewed May 10, 2021, < https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1490985/000119312510160407/dex108.htm >.

Sample 3 – Share Purchase Agreement

Assignment . Neither this Agreement nor any right or obligation hereunder may be assigned by any Party without the prior written consent of the other Parties, and any attempted assignment without the required consents shall be void.

Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database,  EX-4.12 3 dex412.htm SHARE PURCHASE AGREEMENT , Viewed May 10, 2021, < https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1329394/000119312507148404/dex412.htm >.

Sample 4 – Asset Purchase Agreement

Assignment . This Agreement and any of the rights, interests, or obligations incurred hereunder, in part or as a whole, at any time after the Closing, are freely assignable by Buyer. This Agreement and any of the rights, interests, or obligations incurred hereunder, in part or as a whole, are assignable by Seller only upon the prior written consent of Buyer, which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld. This Agreement will be binding upon, inure to the benefit of and be enforceable by the parties and their respective successors and permitted assigns.

Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database,  EX-2.1 2 dex21.htm ASSET PURCHASE AGREEMENT , Viewed May 10, 2021, < https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1428669/000119312510013625/dex21.htm >.

Sample 5 – Asset Purchase Agreement

Assignment; Binding Effect; Severability

This Agreement may not be assigned by any party hereto without the other party’s written consent; provided, that Buyer may transfer or assign in whole or in part to one or more Buyer Designee its right to purchase all or a portion of the Purchased Assets, but no such transfer or assignment will relieve Buyer of its obligations hereunder. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of and be enforceable by the successors, legal representatives and permitted assigns of each party hereto. The provisions of this Agreement are severable, and in the event that any one or more provisions are deemed illegal or unenforceable the remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect unless the deletion of such provision shall cause this Agreement to become materially adverse to either party, in which event the parties shall use reasonable commercial efforts to arrive at an accommodation that best preserves for the parties the benefits and obligations of the offending provision.

Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database,  EX-2.4 2 dex24.htm ASSET PURCHASE AGREEMENT , Viewed May 10, 2021, < https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1002047/000119312511171858/dex24.htm >.

Common Contracts with Assignment Clauses

Common contracts with assignment clauses include:

• Real estate contracts
• Sales contract
• Asset purchase agreement
• Purchase and sale agreement
• Bill of sale
• Assignment and transaction financing agreement

Assignment Clause FAQs

Assignment clauses are powerful when used correctly. Check out the assignment clause FAQs below to learn more:

What is an assignment clause in real estate?

Assignment clauses in real estate transfer legal obligations from one owner to another party. They also allow house flippers to engage in a contract negotiation with a seller and then assign the real estate to the buyer while collecting a fee for their services. Real estate lawyers assist in the drafting of assignment clauses in real estate transactions.

What does no assignment clause mean?

No assignment clauses prohibit the transfer or assignment of contract obligations from one part to another.

What’s the purpose of the transfer and assignment clause in the purchase agreement?

The purpose of the transfer and assignment clause in the purchase agreement is to protect all involved parties’ rights and ensure that assignments are not to be unreasonably withheld. Contract lawyers can help you avoid legal mistakes when drafting your business contracts’ transfer and assignment clauses.

ContractsCounsel is not a law firm, and this post should not be considered and does not contain legal advice. To ensure the information and advice in this post are correct, sufficient, and appropriate for your situation, please consult a licensed attorney. Also, using or accessing ContractsCounsel's site does not create an attorney-client relationship between you and ContractsCounsel.

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Spotting issues with assignment clauses in M&A Due Diligence

Written by: Kira Systems

January 19, 2016

6 minute read

Although not nearly as complex as change of control provisions , assignment provisions may still present a challenge in due diligence projects. We hope this blog post will help you navigate the ambiguities of assignment clauses with greater ease by explaining some of the common variations. (And, if you like it, please check out our full guide on Reviewing Change of Control and Assignment Provisions in Due Diligence. )

What is an Assignment Clause?

First, the basics:

Anti-assignment clauses are common because without them, generally, contracts are freely assignable. (The exceptions are (i) contracts that are subject to statutes or public policies prohibiting their assignment, such as intellectual property contracts, or (ii) contracts where an assignment without consent would cause material and adverse consequences to non-assigning counterparties, such as employment agreements and consulting agreements.) For all other contracts, parties may want an anti-assignment clause that allows them the opportunity to review and understand the impact of an assignment (or change of control) before deciding whether to continue or terminate the relationship.

In the mergers and acquisitions context, an assignment of a contract from a target company entity to the relevant acquirer entity is needed whenever a contract has to be placed in the name of an entity other than the existing target company entity after consummation of a transaction. This is why reviewing contracts for assignment clauses is so critical.

A simple anti-assignment provision provides that a party may not assign the agreement without the consent of the other party. Assignment provisions may also provide specific exclusions or inclusions to a counterparty’s right to consent to the assignment of a contract. Below are five common occurrences in which assignment provisions may provide exclusions or inclusions.

Common Exclusions and Inclusions

Exclusion for change of control transactions.

In negotiating an anti-assignment clause, a company would typically seek the exclusion of assignments undertaken in connection with change of control transactions, including mergers and sales of all or substantially all of the assets of the company. This allows a company to undertake a strategic transaction without worry. If an anti-assignment clause doesn’t exclude change of control transactions, a counterparty might materially affect a strategic transaction through delay and/or refusal of consent. Because there are many types of change of control transactions, there is no standard language for these. An example might be:

In the event of the sale or transfer by [Party B] of all or substantially all of its assets related to this Agreement to an Affiliate or to a third party, whether by sale, merger, or change of control, [Party B] would have the right to assign any or all rights and obligations contained herein and the Agreement to such Affiliate or third party without the consent of [Party A] and the Agreement shall be binding upon such acquirer and would remain in full force and effect, at least until the expiration of the then current Term.

Exclusion for Affiliate Transactions

A typical exclusion is one that allows a target company to assign a contract to an affiliate without needing the consent of the contract counterparty. This is much like an exclusion with respect to change of control, since in affiliate transfers or assignments, the ultimate actors and responsible parties under the contract remain essentially the same even though the nominal parties may change. For example:

Either party may assign its rights under this Agreement, including its right to receive payments hereunder, to a subsidiary, affiliate or any financial institution, but in such case the assigning party shall remain liable to the other party for the assigning party’s obligations hereunder. All or any portion of the rights and obligations of [Party A] under this Agreement may be transferred by [Party A] to any of its Affiliates without the consent of [Party B].

Assignment by Operation of Law

Assignments by operation of law typically occur in the context of transfers of rights and obligations in accordance with merger statutes and can be specifically included in or excluded from assignment provisions. An inclusion could be negotiated by the parties to broaden the anti-assignment clause and to ensure that an assignment occurring by operation of law requires counterparty approval:

[Party A] agrees that it will not assign, sublet or otherwise transfer its rights hereunder, either voluntarily or by operations of law, without the prior written consent of [Party B].

while an exclusion could be negotiated by a target company to make it clear that it has the right to assign the contract even though it might otherwise have that right as a matter of law:

This Guaranty shall be binding upon the successors and assigns of [Party A]; provided, that no transfer, assignment or delegation by [Party A], other than a transfer, assignment or delegation by operation of law, without the consent of [Party B], shall release [Party A] from its liabilities hereunder.

This helps settle any ambiguity regarding assignments and their effects under mergers statutes (particularly in forward triangular mergers and forward mergers since the target company ceases to exist upon consummation of the merger).

Direct or Indirect Assignment

More ambiguity can arise regarding which actions or transactions require a counterparty’s consent when assignment clauses prohibit both direct and indirect assignments without the consent of a counterparty. Transaction parties will typically choose to err on the side of over-inclusiveness in determining which contracts will require consent when dealing with material contracts. An example clause prohibiting direct or indirect assignment might be:

Except as provided hereunder or under the Merger Agreement, such Shareholder shall not, directly or indirectly, (i) transfer (which term shall include any sale, assignment, gift, pledge, hypothecation or other disposition), or consent to or permit any such transfer of, any or all of its Subject Shares, or any interest therein.

“Transfer” of Agreement vs. “Assignment” of Agreement

In some instances, assignment provisions prohibit “transfers” of agreements in addition to, or instead of, explicitly prohibiting “assignments”. Often, the word “transfer” is not defined in the agreement, in which case the governing law of the contract will determine the meaning of the term and whether prohibition on transfers are meant to prohibit a broader or narrower range of transactions than prohibitions on assignments. Note that the current jurisprudence on the meaning of an assignment is broader and deeper than it is on the meaning of a transfer. In the rarer case where “transfer” is defined, it might look like this:

As used in this Agreement, the term “transfer” includes the Franchisee’s voluntary, involuntary, direct or indirect assignment, sale, gift or other disposition of any interest in…

The examples listed above are only of five common occurrences in which an assignment provision may provide exclusions or inclusions. As you continue with due diligence review, you may find that assignment provisions offer greater variety beyond the factors discussed in this blog post. However, you now have a basic understand of the possible variations of assignment clauses. For a more in-depth discussion of reviewing change of control and assignment provisions in due diligence, please download our full guide on Reviewing Change of Control and Assignment Provisions in Due Diligence.

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Successors and assigns

Successors and assigns clause samples

7. Successors and Assigns. Subject to the restrictions on transfer described in Sections 9 and 10 below, the rights and obligations of the Company and Investor shall be binding upon and benefit the successors, assigns, heirs, administrators and transferees of the parties.

04/10/2020 (CLOUDASTRUCTURE, INC.)

6.8Assignment; Binding Effect. Neither this Agreement nor any right, remedy, obligation or liability arising hereunder or by reason hereof nor any of the documents executed in connection herewith may be assigned by any Party without the prior written consent of the other Parties. Except as provided in the previous sentence, this Agreement and all of the rights and obligations hereunder shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the Parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns . Any attempted assignment in violation of this Agreement shall be null and void.

05/11/2016 (GrowGeneration Corp.)

7.Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit of and be enforceable by the Participant, the Company and their respective permitted successors and assigns (including personal representatives, heirs and legatees), except that the Participant may not assign any rights or obligations under this Agreement except to the extent and in the manner expressly permitted herein.

03/01/2018 (Affinion Group Holdings, Inc.)

(ii)This Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the Companies and their respective successors and assigns . The Companies will require any successor (whether direct or indirect, by purchase, merger, consolidation or otherwise) to all or substantially all of the business and/or assets of the Companies to assume expressly and agree to perform this Agreement in the same manner and to the same extent that the Companies would be required to perform it if no such succession had taken place. As used in this Agreement, “Companies” shall mean the Companies as hereinbefore defined and any successor to their business and/or assets as aforesaid that assumes and agrees to perform this Agreement by operation of law, or otherwise.

14. Successors and Assigns.This Amendment shall be binding upon Guarantor and its successors and assigns , and shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of Lender and its successors and assigns , including any subsequent holder of all or any portion of the Note.

03/01/2017 (Seritage Growth Properties)

SECTION3.01. Successors and Assigns. The provisions of this Amendment shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns . Neither party hereto may assign or otherwise transfer any of its rights under this Amendment, by operation of law or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the other party. Any assignment without such prior written consent shall be void.

06/11/2018 (BLACKROCK MUNIYIELD NEW JERSEY FUND, INC.)

SECTION2.01. Successors and Assigns. The provisions of this Amendment shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns . The assignment or otherwise transfer of any party’s rights under this Amendment shall be governed by Section7.05 of the VRDP Shares Purchase Agreement.

SECTION6.01. Successors and Assigns. This Amendment shall be binding upon, inure to the benefit of, and be enforceable by, the respective successors and assigns of each of the Fund and the Tender and Paying Agent. The assignment or otherwise transfer of any party’s rights under this Amendment shall be governed by Section7.06 of the Tender and Paying Agent Agreement.

Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties and their successors and assigns . Neither the Company not Puxin shall assign this Agreement or any rights or obligations hereunder without the prior written consent of the other parties.

05/15/2019 (APEX RESOURCES INC/NV)

The Fund’s investment advisor has contractually agreed to reimburse Fund expenses through March1, 2022 to the extent necessary so that Total Annual Fund Operating Expenses (excluding taxes, interest, short interest, short dividend expenses, brokerage commissions, acquired fund fees and expenses, and extraordinary expenses, if any) of ClassA, ClassC, and ClassI are limited to 1.15%, 1.90%, and 0.90% of average net assets, respectively. Calamos Advisors may recapture previously waived expense amounts within the same fiscal year for any day where the respective Fund’s expense ratio falls below the contractual expense limit up to the expense limit for that day. This undertaking is binding on CALAMOS ADVISORS and any of its successors and assigns . This agreement is not terminable by either party.

06/29/2018 (CALAMOS INVESTMENT TRUST/IL)

Section 12.17Successors and Assigns.This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of Borrowers and Agent and each Lender and their respective successors and permitted assigns.

08/15/2016 (Goodman Networks Inc)

1.10 SUCCESSORS AND ASSIGNS . For purposes of this Agreement, "Successors and Assigns" shall mean a corporation or other entity acquiring all or substantially all the assets and business of the Company (including this Agreement) whether by operation of law or otherwise.

08/29/2017 (Advanced Environmental Petroleum Producers Inc.)

5.3 Binding Provisions; Assignment. This Agreement will be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the Parties and, except as provided herein, their respective successors and assigns . This Agreement may not be assigned by any Party without the prior consent of the other Party. Any attempt to assign this Agreement in a manner prohibited by this Section 5.3 will be void.

08/21/2017 (APPLIANCE RECYCLING CENTERS OF AMERICA INC /MN)

Section 10.07 Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding upon and shall inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successors and permitted assigns. Neither party may assign its rights or obligations hereunder without the prior written consent of the other party, which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld or delayed. No assignment shall relieve the assigning party of any of its obligations hereunder.

10.5. Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement, the provisions of this Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the successors, assigns, heirs, executors, and administrators of the parties; provided, however, that (a)the Company shall not assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of each Investor, and (b)each Investor shall not assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of the Company, provided further, however, that each Investor shall be entitled to assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any of its Affiliates without the prior written consent of the Company.

06/21/2018 (ZTO Express)

6.5. Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement, the provisions of this Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon, the successors, assigns, heirs, executors, and administrators of the parties; provided, however, that (a)neither any Group Company nor any Founding Shareholder shall assign this Agreement or any of its or his rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of Alibaba, and (b)any Investor shall not assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of the Company and the Founder, provided further, however, that each party hereto shall be entitled to, without the consent of any Person, assign this Agreement or any of its or his rights herein to any of its or his Affiliates and any Person to whom such party transfers the Company Securities in accordance with the terms of this Agreement.

7.6. Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement, the provisions of this Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon, the successors, assigns, heirs, executors, and administrators of the parties; provided, however, that (a)the Company shall not assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of the Investors, and (b)each Investor shall not assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any Person without the prior written consent of the Company, provided further, however, that each Investor shall be entitled to, without the consent of any Person, assign this Agreement or any of its rights herein to any of its Affiliates and any Person to whom such Investor transfers the Company Securities in accordance with the terms of the Transaction Documents.

(b) Borrower understands that the Note Holder may transfer this Note. This Note shall be binding on Borrower and Borrower’s successors and assigns and shall inure to the benefit of Note Holder and its successors and assigns . Note Holder may assign, without the consent of Borrower, all or a portion of Note Holder’s rights under this Note and the other documents, instruments and agreements entered into in connection with the transactions contemplated hereby. Prior written notice of such assignment shall be given by Note Holder to Borrower. The Note Holder or anyone who takes this Note by transfer and who is entitled to receive payments under this Note is hereafter called the “Note Holder.” Borrower may not assign, transfer or delegate any of Borrower’s obligations or agreements hereunder. No amendment, modification or waiver of any provision of this Note shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the Note Holder and Borrower.

11/08/2019 (GlassBridge Enterprises, Inc.)

9.14. Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the Parties and their respective successors, legal representatives and permitted assigns. No Party may assign any of its rights or delegate any of its obligations under this Agreement, by operation of Law or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the other Parties, provided that Parent and Merger Sub may assign any of their rights hereunder to a Subsidiary of Parent without the prior written consent of the Company, but any such assignment shall not relieve Parent or Merger Sub of any of its obligations hereunder. Any purported assignment in violation of this Agreement is void.

12/20/2016 (Destination Maternity Corp)

22. Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the parties hereto and their respective heirs, personal representatives, successors and assigns . No party may assign its rights or obligations under the Agreement except in the context of a Transfer that is not prohibited by the terms of this Agreement.

12.9 Successors and Assigns. The Plan is binding upon and will inure to the benefit of the Debtors, the Post-Effective Date Debtors, and each of their respective Agents, successors, and assigns, including, without limitation, any bankruptcy trustees or estate representatives.

05/07/2018 (MESA AIR GROUP INC)

3.2Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise specifically set forth in this Agreement, the provisions hereof shall inure to the benefit of, and be binding upon, the successors, assigns, heirs, executors, and administrators of the parties hereto. Nothing in this Agreement, express or implied, is intended to confer upon any party other than the parties hereto or their respective successors and assigns any rights, remedies, obligations, or liabilities under or by reason of this Agreement, except as expressly provided by this Agreement.

(l)Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise expressly provided herein, the provisions hereof shall inure to the benefit of, and be binding upon the parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns ; provided, however, that prior to the receipt by the Company of adequate written notice of the transfer of any Common Stock or any Warrants to a Transferee specifying the full name and address of such Transferee, the Company may deem and treat the person listed as the holder of such Common Stock and/or Warrants in its records as the absolute owner and holder of such Common Stock and/or Warrants for all purposes.

Successors and Assigns. All covenants and agreements by or on behalf of Borrower contained in this Agreement or any Related Documents shall bind Borrower’s successors and assigns and shall inure to the benefit of Lender and its successors and assigns . Borrower shall not, however, have the right to assign Borrower’s rights under this Agreement or any interest therein, without the prior written consent of Lender.

Successors and Assigns. Subject to any limitations stated in this Agreement on transfer of Grantor’s interest, this Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties, their successors and assigns . If ownership of the Collateral becomes vested in a person other than Grantor, Lender, without notice to Grantor, may deal with Grantor’s successors with reference to this Agreement and the Indebtedness by way of forbearance or extension without releasing Grantor from the obligations of this Agreement or liability under the Indebtedness.

(g) Successors and Assigns. This Agreement will be binding upon my heirs, executors, administrators, and other legal representatives, and will be for the benefit of the Company, its successors, and its assigns.

10/02/2020 (Pivotal Investment Corp II)

(e) Successors and Assigns. The rights to cause the Company to register Registrable Securities under this Agreement may be transferred or assigned by each Holder to one or more transferees or assignees of Registrable Securities; provided, that any such transferee or assignee is an Affiliate of, and after such transfer or assignment continues to be an Affiliate of, such Holder and that each such transferee or assignee assumes in writing responsibility for its portion of the obligations of such transferring Holder under this Agreement. This Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit and be enforceable by the Company and its successors and assigns and the Holders and their respective successors and assigns (whether so expressed or not). In addition, whether or not any express assignment has been made, the provisions of this Agreement which are for the benefit Holders are also for the benefit of, and enforceable by, any subsequent or successor Holder.

To induce Lender to execute the foregoing Amendment, Guarantor (a)agrees and consents to the execution and delivery of the Amendment and the terms thereof; (b)ratifies and confirms that all guaranties and assurances granted, conveyed or otherwise provided to Lender under the Loan Documents, including, but not limited to that certain GUARANTY AGREEMENT dated as of DECEMBER 14, 2011 (as the same may have been amended, modified or restated from time to time, the “Guaranty”), are not released, diminished, impaired, reduced, or otherwise adversely affected by the Amendment; (c)confirms and agrees that the Guaranty continues to guarantee and assure the payment and performance of the Indebtedness in accordance with its terms; (d)agrees to perform such acts and duly authorize, execute, acknowledge and deliver such additional guarantees, assurances and other documents, instruments and agreements as Lender may reasonably deem necessary or appropriate in order to create, perfect, preserve and protect those guaranties and assurances; and (e)waives notice of acceptance of this consent and confirmation, which consent and confirmation binds Guarantor and Guarantor’s successors and assigns and inures to Lender and its successors and assigns . The terms, conditions and provisions of the Guaranty (as the same may have been amended, modified or restated from time to time) are incorporated herein by reference, as if stated verbatim herein.

12/11/2018 (Legacy Housing Corp)

15. Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding on and inure to the benefit of the parties hereto, their successors in interest and assigns.

03/11/2019 (Dermavant Sciences Ltd)

7. Successors and Assigns. This Assignment and Assumption Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit of the respective successors and assigns of DSG and RSG.

6. Binding Effect; Governing Law. Except as modified hereby, the Lease shall remain in full effect and this letter shall be binding upon Landlord and Tenant and their respective successors and assigns . If any inconsistency exists or arises between the terms of this letter and the terms of the Lease, the terms of this letter shall prevail. This letter shall be governed by the laws of the state in which the Premises are located.

d. Successors and Assigns. Director may not assign this Release Agreement or any of his rights and duties hereunder. Company may assign this Release Agreement to an entity controlled by or under common control with Company or to an entity that acquires all or substantially all of the stock or assets of Company. The provisions of this Release Agreement shall be binding on and shall inure to the benefit of Director, Company and their respective assigns, including any successor in interest to Company who acquires all or substantially all of Company’s stock or assets.

07/26/2019 (Crypto Co)

10. Public Announcements: Except with respect to LBCC to satisfy its disclosure requirements under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, unless otherwise required by law (based upon the reasonable advice of counsel), no Party shall make any public announcements in respect of this Agreement or the C&E Agreement or the transactions contemplated thereby or otherwise communicate with any news media without the prior written consent of the other parties, and the parties shall cooperate as to the timing and contents of any such announcement. 11. Entire Agreement: This Agreement contains the entire understanding of the Parties with respect to the matters covered herein and therein and, except as specifically set forth herein, neither the SBL nor LBCC makes any representation, warranty, covenant or undertaking with respect to such matters. 12. Survival of Agreement, Representations and Warranties: All representations and warranties contained herein shall survive the execution and delivery of this Agreement. 13. Successors and Assigns: This Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit of and be enforceable by the Parties and their respective successors and assigns . 14. Governing Law; Venue: This Agreement and the obligations, rights, remedies of the Parties hereto are to be constructed in accordance with and governed by the laws of the State of Delaware, with any action/dispute concerning this Agreement to be commenced exclusively in the state and federal courts sitting in the State of Delaware. 15. Miscellaneous: This Agreement embodies the entire agreement and understanding between the Parties hereto and supersedes all prior agreements and understanding relating to the subject matter hereof. This Agreement may be executed in two counterparts but all such counterparts shall together constitute but one and the same instrument.

04/25/2019 (Long Blockchain Corp.)

3. Binding Effect. The execution and delivery of this Agreement by the Lender and Borrower shall be binding upon each party hereto and their respective successors and assigns . This Agreement is final and irrevocable.

08/21/2017 (Helpful Alliance Co)

NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the mutual covenants contained herein and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which is hereby acknowledged, the parties agree and acknowledge that the Warrant shall be cancelled immediately upon execution of this Addendum 1 to the Settlement (“Addendum 1”) and that all rights and entitlements of the Lender for the Shares under the Warrant shall be irrevocably nulled and void. The execution and delivery of this Agreement by the Lender and Borrower shall be binding upon each party hereto and their respective successors and assigns . This Addendum 1 is final. The Lender acknowledges that it had an ample opportunity to review this Addendum 1, to obtain independent legal counsel to review this Addendum 1, and an election by the Lender not to obtain such legal counsel shall release the Borrower from any prerequisite to require such counsel. This Amendment shall be treated as part of the Settlement, and hence governed by, and construed under the laws of the State of Florida with further choice of courts located in Broward County, Florida.

11.7 Successors and Assigns. Neither this Agreement nor any rights or obligations hereunder may be assigned in whole or in part by either Party, by operation of law, or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the other Party; provided, however, that (a)without the prior written consent of Dermavant, NovaQuest may assign or transfer this Agreement in whole or in part to any Affiliate of NovaQuest and NovaQuest may assign, sell, pledge, contribute, or otherwise transfer its right to payment pursuant to Article IV (Dermavant’s Payments) hereof to any Person other than a competitor of Dermavant; and (b)without the prior written consent of NovaQuest, Dermavant may assign this Agreement to Dermavant Sciences Limited or any Controlled Affiliate, provided that NovaQuest is not adversely affected by such assignment and provided further that unless Dermavant remains directly liable for all obligations hereunder, Dermavant and NovaQuest shall first enter into a guarantee agreement [***] pursuant to which Dermavant will guarantee the payment obligations of Dermavant Sciences Limited or the Controlled Affiliate, as the case may be. This Agreement shall be binding upon, and subject to the terms of the foregoing sentence, inure to the benefit of the Parties hereto, their permitted successors, legal representatives, and assigns. Any assignment or attempted assignment not in accordance with this Section11.7 (Successors and Assigns) shall be null and void. For clarity, NovaQuest’s prior written consent is not required in connection with an Initial Public Offering. In no event shall any assignee of NovaQuest hereunder be entitled to any greater benefit of any payment of additional amount under Section4.4 or any recalculation of interest under Section4.6 than what NovaQuest would have been entitled to, except to the extent such entitlement to receive a greater payment results from a change in Applicable Law that occurs after the date of such assignment.

05/24/2019 (Dermavant Sciences Ltd)

15.3 Successors and Assigns. This Agreement may not be assigned or otherwise conveyed by any Party without the prior written consent of the other Parties; provided however that such prior written consent will not be required for an assignment to an Affiliate of a Party. This Agreement shall be binding on and inure to the benefit of the Parties hereto and their respective successors, successors in title and assigns to the extent that such assignment is permitted under this paragraph.

Section29.11 shall inure to the benefit of Landlord’s and the Landlord Parties’ present and future partners, beneficiaries, officers, directors, trustees, shareholders, agents and employees, and their respective partners, heirs, successors and assigns . Under no circumstances shall any present or future partner of Landlord (if Landlord is a partnership), or trustee or beneficiary (if Landlord or any partner of Landlord is a trust), have any liability for the performance of Landlord’s obligations under this Lease. Notwithstanding any contrary provision herein, neither Landlord nor the Landlord Parties shall be liable under any circumstances for injury or damage to, or interference with, Tenant’s business, including but not limited to, loss of profits, loss of rents or other revenues, loss of business opportunity, loss of goodwill or loss of use, in each case, however occurring.

Section 14.2 Successors and Assigns. This Deed of Trust shall be binding upon, and shall inure to the benefit of, Borrower and Lender and their respective successors and permitted assigns, as set forth in the Loan Agreement. Lender shall have the right, without the consent of Borrower, to assign or transfer its rights under this Deed of Trust in connection with any assignment of the Loan and the Loan Documents. Any assignee or transferee of Lendershall be entitled to all the benefits afforded to Lender under this Deed of Trust. Borrower shall not have the right to assign or transfer its rights or obligations under this Deed of Trust without the prior written consent of Lender, as provided in the Loan Agreement, and any attempted assignment without such consent shall be null and void.

03/25/2020 (Lodging Fund REIT III, Inc.)

Section 14.2 Successors and Assigns. This Deed of Trust shall be binding upon, andshallinuretothebenefitof,BorrowerandLenderandtheirrespectivesuccessorsandpermitted assigns, as set forth in the Loan Agreement. Lender shall have the right, without the consent of Borrower, to assign or transfer its rights under this Deed of Trust in connection with any assignment of the Loan and the Loan Documents. Any assignee or transferee of Lender shall be entitled to all the benefits afforded to Lender under this Deed of Trust. Borrower shall not have the right to assign or transfer its rights or obligations under this Deed of Trust without the prior written consent of Lender, as provided in the Loan Agreement, and any attempted assignment without such consent shall be null andvoid.

7.04Successors and Assigns. Subject to the foregoing, this Agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the parties hereto, their respective heirs, legal representatives, successors and assigns , and with respect to Owner, the phrase “ successors and assigns ” shall include purchasers of Owner’s interest in the Business.

7. Successors and Assigns. This Amendment shall be binding upon, and inure to the benefit of, the parties hereto and their respective successors, administrators andassigns.

9.Successors and Assigns. This Amendment shall be binding upon, and inure to the benefit of, the parties hereto and their respective successors, administrators and assigns.

Section 17.1. Indemnification by Owner.Except for liabilities incurred by Manager due to the gross negligence, willful misconduct or fraud of Manager, its employees or other agents, Owner hereby indemnifies, defends and holds harmless Manager and its Affiliates and each of their respective officers, directors, shareholders, employees, representatives and agents (collectively, the "Manager Indemnitees"), from and against any and all losses, costs, damages, liabilities, claims, actions and expenses whatsoever (including, without limitation, reasonable attorneys' fees and court expenses), incurred by any of the Manager Indemnitees arising out of, as a result of, or in connection with operation of the Hotel, including, without limitation, (i)the performance by Manager or its Affiliates of its services hereunder, including, without limitation, any and all obligations incurred relating to any agreements with third parties entered into by Manager or Owner in connection with the management or operation of the Hotel, (ii)any act or omission (whether or not willful, tortious, or negligent) of Owner or any third party (except those for which Manager expressly indemnifies Owner hereunder), or (iii)any other occurrence related to the Hotel or Manager's duties under this Agreement (except those for which Manager expressly indemnifies Owner hereunder).TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT ALLOWED BY LAW, THE OBLIGATIONS OF OWNER IN THE PRECEDING SENTENCE SHALL APPLY NOTWITHSTANDING THE NEGLIGENCE OF ANY OF THE MANAGER INDEMNITEES, WHETHER SUCH NEGLIGENCE IS SOLE, CONCURRENT, CONTRIBUTORY OR OTHERWISE.Owner may apply the proceeds of any available insurance to the payment of any claim under the indemnity set forth in this ‎Section 17.1.The provisions of this ‎Section 17.1 shall survive the expiration or termination of this Agreement and shall be binding upon Owner's successors and assigns .The Manager Indemnitees shall not invoke this indemnity for anything to the extent covered by insurance.

6.1 Successors and Assigns. The rights under this Agreement may be assigned (but only with all related obligations) by a Holder to a transferee of Registrable Securities that (i)is an Affiliate of a Holder; (ii)is a Holder’s Immediate Family Member or trust for the benefit of an individual Holder or one or more of such Holder’s Immediate Family Members; or (iii)after such transfer, holds at least 100,000 shares of Registrable Securities (subject to appropriate adjustment for stock splits, stock dividends, combinations, and other recapitalizations); provided, however, that (x)the Company is, within a reasonable time after such transfer, furnished with written notice of the name and address of such transferee and the Registrable Securities with respect to which such rights are being transferred; and (y)such transferee agrees in a written instrument delivered to the Company to be bound by and subject to the terms and conditions of this Agreement, including the provisions of Subsection 2.11. For the purposes of determining the number of shares of Registrable Securities held by a transferee, the holdings of a transferee (1)that is an Affiliate or stockholder of a Holder; (2)who is a Holder’s Immediate Family Member; or (3)that is a trust for the benefit of an individual Holder or such Holder’s Immediate Family Member shall be aggregated together and with those of the transferring Holder; provided further that all transferees who would not qualify individually for assignment of rights shall have a single attorney-in-fact for the purpose of exercising any rights, receiving notices, or taking any action under this Agreement. The terms and conditions of this Agreement inure to the benefit of and are binding upon the respective successors and permitted assignees of the parties. Nothing in this Agreement, express or implied, is intended to confer upon any party other than the parties hereto or their respective successors and permitted assignees any rights, remedies, obligations or liabilities under or by reason of this Agreement, except as expressly provided herein.

02/01/2021 (Northern Star Acquisition Corp.)

4. Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise provided herein, the terms and conditions of this Amendment shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the respective successors and assigns of the parties.

13.1 Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit of the respective successors and permitted assigns of each of the parties; provided, however, that neither this Agreement nor any rights hereunder may be assigned by a Borrower without Bank’s prior written consent, which consent may be granted or withheld in Bank’s sole discretion. Bank shall have the right without the consent of or notice to a Borrower to sell, transfer, negotiate, or grant participation in all or any part of, or any interest in, Bank’s obligations, rights and benefits hereunder; provided however that, Bank shall not effectuate any of the foregoing if such action would result in Western Alliance Bank (or its Affiliates) no longer acting as “Bank” hereunder without the prior written consent of Borrowers (which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld, conditioned or delayed). Notwithstanding the foregoing, no consent of Borrowers shall be required for any of the foregoing actions if such action occurs following an Event of Default, or is in connection with the sale or disposition of Bank or all or a portion of Bank’s loan portfolio, or any merger, acquisition or corporate reorganization affecting Bank.

e. Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of both parties and their respective successors and assigns , including any corporation with which, or into which, the Company may be merged or which may succeed to the Company’s assets or business, provided, however, that the obligations of the Employee are personal and shall not be assigned by him or her. The Employee over expressly consents to be bound by the provisions of this Agreement for the benefit of the Company or any subsidiary or affiliate thereof to whose employ the Employee may be transferred without the necessity that this Agreement be re-signed at the time of such transfer. Notwithstanding the foregoing, if the Company is merged with or into a third party which is engaged in multiple lines of business, or if a third party engaged in multiple lines of business succeeds to the Company’s assets or business, then for purposes of Section3(a), the term “Company’s Business” shall mean and refer to the business of the Company as it existed immediately prior to such event and as it subsequently develops and not to the third party’s other businesses.

e. Successors and Assigns. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of both parties and their respective successors and assigns , including any corporation with which, or into which, the Company may be merged or which may succeed to the Company’s assets or business, provided, however, that the obligations of the Puppy Lover are personal and shall not be assigned by him or her. The Puppy Lover expressly consents to be bound by the provisions of this Agreement for the benefit of the Company or any subsidiary or affiliate thereof to whose employ the Puppy Lover may be transferred without the necessity that this Agreement be re-signed at the time of such transfer.

Successors and Assigns. This Note shall be binding upon the Maker and its successors and shall inure to the benefit of the Payee and his successors and assigns . The term “Payee” as used herein, shall also include any endorsee, assignee or other holder of this Note.

09/06/2016 (PostAds, Inc.)

10.Successors and Assigns. Except as otherwise provided herein, the terms and conditions of this Note shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the respective successors and assigns of the parties. Nothing in this Note, express or implied, is intended to confer upon any party other than the parties hereto or their respective successors and assigns any rights, remedies, obligations, or liabilities under or by reason of this Note, except as expressly provided in this Note.

03/29/2018 (SUMMER ENERGY HOLDINGS INC)

19.Binding Effect. The Note will be binding upon, and inure to the benefit of Lender, and their successors and assigns . Borrower may not delegate its obligations under the Note.

SECTION 13. Successors and Assigns. This Amendment shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns . No Credit Party’s rights or obligations hereunder nor any interest therein may be assigned or delegated by any Credit Party without the prior written consent of all Lenders and any assignment in contravention of the foregoing shall be absolutely void.

08/11/2020 (FaceBank Group, Inc.)

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• assignments basic law

Assignments: The Basic Law

The assignment of a right or obligation is a common contractual event under the law and the right to assign (or prohibition against assignments) is found in the majority of agreements, leases and business structural documents created in the United States.

As with many terms commonly used, people are familiar with the term but often are not aware or fully aware of what the terms entail. The concept of assignment of rights and obligations is one of those simple concepts with wide ranging ramifications in the contractual and business context and the law imposes severe restrictions on the validity and effect of assignment in many instances. Clear contractual provisions concerning assignments and rights should be in every document and structure created and this article will outline why such drafting is essential for the creation of appropriate and effective contracts and structures.

The reader should first read the article on Limited Liability Entities in the United States and Contracts since the information in those articles will be assumed in this article.

Basic Definitions and Concepts:

An assignment is the transfer of rights held by one party called the “assignor” to another party called the “assignee.” The legal nature of the assignment and the contractual terms of the agreement between the parties determines some additional rights and liabilities that accompany the assignment. The assignment of rights under a contract usually completely transfers the rights to the assignee to receive the benefits accruing under the contract. Ordinarily, the term assignment is limited to the transfer of rights that are intangible, like contractual rights and rights connected with property. Merchants Service Co. v. Small Claims Court , 35 Cal. 2d 109, 113-114 (Cal. 1950).

An assignment will generally be permitted under the law unless there is an express prohibition against assignment in the underlying contract or lease. Where assignments are permitted, the assignor need not consult the other party to the contract but may merely assign the rights at that time. However, an assignment cannot have any adverse effect on the duties of the other party to the contract, nor can it diminish the chance of the other party receiving complete performance. The assignor normally remains liable unless there is an agreement to the contrary by the other party to the contract.

The effect of a valid assignment is to remove privity between the assignor and the obligor and create privity between the obligor and the assignee. Privity is usually defined as a direct and immediate contractual relationship. See Merchants case above.

Further, for the assignment to be effective in most jurisdictions, it must occur in the present. One does not normally assign a future right; the assignment vests immediate rights and obligations.

No specific language is required to create an assignment so long as the assignor makes clear his/her intent to assign identified contractual rights to the assignee. Since expensive litigation can erupt from ambiguous or vague language, obtaining the correct verbiage is vital. An agreement must manifest the intent to transfer rights and can either be oral or in writing and the rights assigned must be certain.

Note that an assignment of an interest is the transfer of some identifiable property, claim, or right from the assignor to the assignee. The assignment operates to transfer to the assignee all of the rights, title, or interest of the assignor in the thing assigned. A transfer of all rights, title, and interests conveys everything that the assignor owned in the thing assigned and the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor. Knott v. McDonald’s Corp ., 985 F. Supp. 1222 (N.D. Cal. 1997)

The parties must intend to effectuate an assignment at the time of the transfer, although no particular language or procedure is necessary. As long ago as the case of National Reserve Co. v. Metropolitan Trust Co ., 17 Cal. 2d 827 (Cal. 1941), the court held that in determining what rights or interests pass under an assignment, the intention of the parties as manifested in the instrument is controlling.

The intent of the parties to an assignment is a question of fact to be derived not only from the instrument executed by the parties but also from the surrounding circumstances. When there is no writing to evidence the intention to transfer some identifiable property, claim, or right, it is necessary to scrutinize the surrounding circumstances and parties’ acts to ascertain their intentions. Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998)

The general rule applicable to assignments of choses in action is that an assignment, unless there is a contract to the contrary, carries with it all securities held by the assignor as collateral to the claim and all rights incidental thereto and vests in the assignee the equitable title to such collateral securities and incidental rights. An unqualified assignment of a contract or chose in action, however, with no indication of the intent of the parties, vests in the assignee the assigned contract or chose and all rights and remedies incidental thereto.

More examples: In Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs ., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998), the court held that the assignee of a party to a subordination agreement is entitled to the benefits and is subject to the burdens of the agreement. In Florida E. C. R. Co. v. Eno , 99 Fla. 887 (Fla. 1930), the court held that the mere assignment of all sums due in and of itself creates no different or other liability of the owner to the assignee than that which existed from the owner to the assignor.

And note that even though an assignment vests in the assignee all rights, remedies, and contingent benefits which are incidental to the thing assigned, those which are personal to the assignor and for his sole benefit are not assigned. Rasp v. Hidden Valley Lake, Inc ., 519 N.E.2d 153, 158 (Ind. Ct. App. 1988). Thus, if the underlying agreement provides that a service can only be provided to X, X cannot assign that right to Y.

Novation Compared to Assignment:

Although the difference between a novation and an assignment may appear narrow, it is an essential one. “Novation is a act whereby one party transfers all its obligations and benefits under a contract to a third party.” In a novation, a third party successfully substitutes the original party as a party to the contract. “When a contract is novated, the other contracting party must be left in the same position he was in prior to the novation being made.”

A sublease is the transfer when a tenant retains some right of reentry onto the leased premises. However, if the tenant transfers the entire leasehold estate, retaining no right of reentry or other reversionary interest, then the transfer is an assignment. The assignor is normally also removed from liability to the landlord only if the landlord consents or allowed that right in the lease. In a sublease, the original tenant is not released from the obligations of the original lease.

Equitable Assignments:

An equitable assignment is one in which one has a future interest and is not valid at law but valid in a court of equity. In National Bank of Republic v. United Sec. Life Ins. & Trust Co. , 17 App. D.C. 112 (D.C. Cir. 1900), the court held that to constitute an equitable assignment of a chose in action, the following has to occur generally: anything said written or done, in pursuance of an agreement and for valuable consideration, or in consideration of an antecedent debt, to place a chose in action or fund out of the control of the owner, and appropriate it to or in favor of another person, amounts to an equitable assignment. Thus, an agreement, between a debtor and a creditor, that the debt shall be paid out of a specific fund going to the debtor may operate as an equitable assignment.

In Egyptian Navigation Co. v. Baker Invs. Corp. , 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 30804 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 14, 2008), the court stated that an equitable assignment occurs under English law when an assignor, with an intent to transfer his/her right to a chose in action, informs the assignee about the right so transferred.

An executory agreement or a declaration of trust are also equitable assignments if unenforceable as assignments by a court of law but enforceable by a court of equity exercising sound discretion according to the circumstances of the case. Since California combines courts of equity and courts of law, the same court would hear arguments as to whether an equitable assignment had occurred. Quite often, such relief is granted to avoid fraud or unjust enrichment.

Note that obtaining an assignment through fraudulent means invalidates the assignment. Fraud destroys the validity of everything into which it enters. It vitiates the most solemn contracts, documents, and even judgments. Walker v. Rich , 79 Cal. App. 139 (Cal. App. 1926). If an assignment is made with the fraudulent intent to delay, hinder, and defraud creditors, then it is void as fraudulent in fact. See our article on Transfers to Defraud Creditors .

But note that the motives that prompted an assignor to make the transfer will be considered as immaterial and will constitute no defense to an action by the assignee, if an assignment is considered as valid in all other respects.

Enforceability of Assignments:

Whether a right under a contract is capable of being transferred is determined by the law of the place where the contract was entered into. The validity and effect of an assignment is determined by the law of the place of assignment. The validity of an assignment of a contractual right is governed by the law of the state with the most significant relationship to the assignment and the parties.

In some jurisdictions, the traditional conflict of laws rules governing assignments has been rejected and the law of the place having the most significant contacts with the assignment applies. In Downs v. American Mut. Liability Ins. Co ., 14 N.Y.2d 266 (N.Y. 1964), a wife and her husband separated and the wife obtained a judgment of separation from the husband in New York. The judgment required the husband to pay a certain yearly sum to the wife. The husband assigned 50 percent of his future salary, wages, and earnings to the wife. The agreement authorized the employer to make such payments to the wife.

After the husband moved from New York, the wife learned that he was employed by an employer in Massachusetts. She sent the proper notice and demanded payment under the agreement. The employer refused and the wife brought an action for enforcement. The court observed that Massachusetts did not prohibit assignment of the husband’s wages. Moreover, Massachusetts law was not controlling because New York had the most significant relationship with the assignment. Therefore, the court ruled in favor of the wife.

Therefore, the validity of an assignment is determined by looking to the law of the forum with the most significant relationship to the assignment itself. To determine the applicable law of assignments, the court must look to the law of the state which is most significantly related to the principal issue before it.

Assignment of Contractual Rights:

Generally, the law allows the assignment of a contractual right unless the substitution of rights would materially change the duty of the obligor, materially increase the burden or risk imposed on the obligor by the contract, materially impair the chance of obtaining return performance, or materially reduce the value of the performance to the obligor. Restat 2d of Contracts, § 317(2)(a). This presumes that the underlying agreement is silent on the right to assign.

If the contract specifically precludes assignment, the contractual right is not assignable. Whether a contract is assignable is a matter of contractual intent and one must look to the language used by the parties to discern that intent.

In the absence of an express provision to the contrary, the rights and duties under a bilateral executory contract that does not involve personal skill, trust, or confidence may be assigned without the consent of the other party. But note that an assignment is invalid if it would materially alter the other party’s duties and responsibilities. Once an assignment is effective, the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor and assumes all of assignor’s rights. Hence, after a valid assignment, the assignor’s right to performance is extinguished, transferred to assignee, and the assignee possesses the same rights, benefits, and remedies assignor once possessed. Robert Lamb Hart Planners & Architects v. Evergreen, Ltd. , 787 F. Supp. 753 (S.D. Ohio 1992).

On the other hand, an assignee’s right against the obligor is subject to “all of the limitations of the assignor’s right, all defenses thereto, and all set-offs and counterclaims which would have been available against the assignor had there been no assignment, provided that these defenses and set-offs are based on facts existing at the time of the assignment.” See Robert Lamb , case, above.

The power of the contract to restrict assignment is broad. Usually, contractual provisions that restrict assignment of the contract without the consent of the obligor are valid and enforceable, even when there is statutory authorization for the assignment. The restriction of the power to assign is often ineffective unless the restriction is expressly and precisely stated. Anti-assignment clauses are effective only if they contain clear, unambiguous language of prohibition. Anti-assignment clauses protect only the obligor and do not affect the transaction between the assignee and assignor.

Usually, a prohibition against the assignment of a contract does not prevent an assignment of the right to receive payments due, unless circumstances indicate the contrary. Moreover, the contracting parties cannot, by a mere non-assignment provision, prevent the effectual alienation of the right to money which becomes due under the contract.

A contract provision prohibiting or restricting an assignment may be waived, or a party may so act as to be estopped from objecting to the assignment, such as by effectively ratifying the assignment. The power to void an assignment made in violation of an anti-assignment clause may be waived either before or after the assignment. See our article on Contracts.

Noncompete Clauses and Assignments:

Of critical import to most buyers of businesses is the ability to ensure that key employees of the business being purchased cannot start a competing company. Some states strictly limit such clauses, some do allow them. California does restrict noncompete clauses, only allowing them under certain circumstances. A common question in those states that do allow them is whether such rights can be assigned to a new party, such as the buyer of the buyer.

A covenant not to compete, also called a non-competitive clause, is a formal agreement prohibiting one party from performing similar work or business within a designated area for a specified amount of time. This type of clause is generally included in contracts between employer and employee and contracts between buyer and seller of a business.

Many workers sign a covenant not to compete as part of the paperwork required for employment. It may be a separate document similar to a non-disclosure agreement, or buried within a number of other clauses in a contract. A covenant not to compete is generally legal and enforceable, although there are some exceptions and restrictions.

Whenever a company recruits skilled employees, it invests a significant amount of time and training. For example, it often takes years before a research chemist or a design engineer develops a workable knowledge of a company’s product line, including trade secrets and highly sensitive information. Once an employee gains this knowledge and experience, however, all sorts of things can happen. The employee could work for the company until retirement, accept a better offer from a competing company or start up his or her own business.

A covenant not to compete may cover a number of potential issues between employers and former employees. Many companies spend years developing a local base of customers or clients. It is important that this customer base not fall into the hands of local competitors. When an employee signs a covenant not to compete, he or she usually agrees not to use insider knowledge of the company’s customer base to disadvantage the company. The covenant not to compete often defines a broad geographical area considered off-limits to former employees, possibly tens or hundreds of miles.

Another area of concern covered by a covenant not to compete is a potential ‘brain drain’. Some high-level former employees may seek to recruit others from the same company to create new competition. Retention of employees, especially those with unique skills or proprietary knowledge, is vital for most companies, so a covenant not to compete may spell out definite restrictions on the hiring or recruiting of employees.

A covenant not to compete may also define a specific amount of time before a former employee can seek employment in a similar field. Many companies offer a substantial severance package to make sure former employees are financially solvent until the terms of the covenant not to compete have been met.

Because the use of a covenant not to compete can be controversial, a handful of states, including California, have largely banned this type of contractual language. The legal enforcement of these agreements falls on individual states, and many have sided with the employee during arbitration or litigation. A covenant not to compete must be reasonable and specific, with defined time periods and coverage areas. If the agreement gives the company too much power over former employees or is ambiguous, state courts may declare it to be overbroad and therefore unenforceable. In such case, the employee would be free to pursue any employment opportunity, including working for a direct competitor or starting up a new company of his or her own.

It has been held that an employee’s covenant not to compete is assignable where one business is transferred to another, that a merger does not constitute an assignment of a covenant not to compete, and that a covenant not to compete is enforceable by a successor to the employer where the assignment does not create an added burden of employment or other disadvantage to the employee. However, in some states such as Hawaii, it has also been held that a covenant not to compete is not assignable and under various statutes for various reasons that such covenants are not enforceable against an employee by a successor to the employer. Hawaii v. Gannett Pac. Corp. , 99 F. Supp. 2d 1241 (D. Haw. 1999)

It is vital to obtain the relevant law of the applicable state before drafting or attempting to enforce assignment rights in this particular area.

Conclusion:

In the current business world of fast changing structures, agreements, employees and projects, the ability to assign rights and obligations is essential to allow flexibility and adjustment to new situations. Conversely, the ability to hold a contracting party into the deal may be essential for the future of a party. Thus, the law of assignments and the restriction on same is a critical aspect of every agreement and every structure. This basic provision is often glanced at by the contracting parties, or scribbled into the deal at the last minute but can easily become the most vital part of the transaction.

As an example, one client of ours came into the office outraged that his co venturer on a sizable exporting agreement, who had excellent connections in Brazil, had elected to pursue another venture instead and assigned the agreement to a party unknown to our client and without the business contacts our client considered vital. When we examined the handwritten agreement our client had drafted in a restaurant in Sao Paolo, we discovered there was no restriction on assignment whatsoever…our client had not even considered that right when drafting the agreement after a full day of work.

One choses who one does business with carefully…to ensure that one’s choice remains the party on the other side of the contract, one must master the ability to negotiate proper assignment provisions.

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What Is an Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of Contract Explained

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Assignment of contract allows one person to assign, or transfer, their rights, obligations, or property to another. An assignment of contract clause is often included in contracts to give either party the opportunity to transfer their part of the contract to someone else in the future. Many assignment clauses require that both parties agree to the assignment.

Learn more about assignment of contract and how it works.

What Is Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of contract means the contract and the property, rights, or obligations within it can be assigned to another party. An assignment of contract clause can typically be found in a business contract. This type of clause is common in contracts with suppliers or vendors and in intellectual property (patent, trademark , and copyright) agreements.

How Does Assignment of Contract Work?

An assignment may be made to anyone, but it is typically made to a subsidiary or a successor. A subsidiary is a business owned by another business, while a successor is the business that follows a sale, acquisition, or merger.

Let’s suppose Ken owns a lawn mowing service and he has a contract with a real estate firm to mow at each of their offices every week in the summer. The contract includes an assignment clause, so when Ken goes out of business, he assigns the contract to his sister-in-law Karrie, who also owns a lawn mowing service.

Before you try to assign something in a contract, check the contract to make sure it's allowed, and notify the other party in the contract.

Assignment usually is included in a specific clause in a contract. It typically includes transfer of both accountability and responsibility to another party, but liability usually remains with the assignor (the person doing the assigning) unless there is language to the contrary.

What Does Assignment of Contract Cover?

Generally, just about anything of value in a contract can be assigned, unless there is a specific law or public policy disallowing the assignment.

Rights and obligations of specific people can’t be assigned because special skills and abilities can’t be transferred. This is called specific performance.   For example, Billy Joel wouldn't be able to transfer or assign a contract to perform at Madison Square Garden to someone else—they wouldn't have his special abilities.

Assignments won’t stand up in court if the assignment significantly changes the terms of the contract. For example, if Karrie’s business is tree trimming, not lawn mowing, the contract can’t be assigned to her.

Assigning Intellectual Property

Intellectual property (such as copyrights, patents, and trademarks) has value, and these assets are often assigned. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) says patents are personal property and that patent rights can be assigned. Trademarks, too, can be assigned. The assignment must be registered with the USPTO's Electronic Trademark Assignment System (ETAS) .  

The U.S. Copyright Office doesn't keep a database of copyright assignments, but they will record the document if you follow their procedure.

Alternatives to Assignment of Contract

There are other types of transfers that may be functional alternatives to assignment.

Licensing is an agreement whereby one party leases the rights to use a piece of property (for example, intellectual property) from another. For instance, a business that owns a patent may license another company to make products using that patent.  

Delegation permits someone else to act on your behalf. For example, Ken’s lawn service might delegate Karrie to do mowing for him without assigning the entire contract to her. Ken would still receive the payment and control the work.

Do I Need an Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of contract can be a useful clause to include in a business agreement. The most common cases of assignment of contract in a business situation are:

• Assignment of a trademark, copyright, or patent
• Assignments to a successor company in the case of the sale of the business
• Assignment in a contract with a supplier or customer
• Assignment in an employment contract or work for hire agreement

Before you sign a contract, look to see if there is an assignment clause, and get the advice of an attorney if you want to assign something in a contract.

Key Takeaways

• Assignment of contract is the ability to transfer rights, property, or obligations to another.
• Assignment of contract is a clause often found in business contracts.
• A party may assign a contract to another party if the contract permits it and no law forbids it.

Legal Information Institute. " Assignment ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

Legal Information Institute. " Specific Performance ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. " 301 Ownership/Assignability of Patents and Applications [R-10.2019] ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

Licensing International. " What is Licensing ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

3 Ways to Transition Employment Contracts on Transfer of Business

Employees are often described as an organization’s most valuable asset. But unlike other assets, employees’ personal services cannot simply be assigned to a new employer without the consent of both employee and new employer.  Accordingly, a transfer of business resulting in the change of the employer’s legal identity constitutes an effective termination of employment in the form of a constructive dismissal. Businesses should actively manage how the transfer of employees occurs with a mind to reducing their liability.  There are several options that allow a business to mitigate against this risk and ensure a smooth transfer for its employees, including:

• Assignment of contract;
• Termination anticipating employee mitigation by offer of new employment; and
• Novation of employment contract and offer of new employment.

Assignment of Contract

Courts have accepted the assignment of an employment contract by a parent company to a subsidiary company in cases where the employee assents.  An assignment means the transferee (the company acquiring the business who we’ll refer to as the “buyer”) takes on the employees on the same terms as their current contracts, which continue to operate without interruption. 

The benefit is if the employee accepts the assignment, they cannot later claim constructive dismissal.  The termination provisions, as well as all other terms of the contract which may be favourable to the buyer, will continue in place. 

Except in extremely clear cases, courts will not infer an employee’s consent to a transfer of employment, so best practice is to have the parties sign a tri-partite agreement to that effect.  This agreement should clearly state that the employee accepts the assignment of their contract to the buyer and releases the transferor (the company transferring the business, who we’ll refer to as the “seller”) from all obligations under the contract. 

Termination anticipating employee mitigation by offer of new employment

The most appropriate method when selling a business to an unrelated company is for the seller to terminate all employees and the buyer to offer new contracts to employees on substantially similar terms. 

In this scenario, the new employment with the buyer does not, on its own, end the seller’s obligation arising from the constructive dismissal.  However, employees who start employment with the buyer right away and on substantially similar terms to their employment with the seller significantly mitigate any potential damages caused by the dismissal. 

Employees may still experience some loss, for example, if the new terms of employment are not as favourable, or if their new employment is terminated before what would have been the duration of the notice period owed by the seller.  In those cases, the seller may remain liable for the unmitigated portion of the employees’ losses.  The buyer may also be liable for outstanding damages not paid out by the seller.  Businesses considering this method should do a careful review of all terms of employment and potential liabilities and agree to appropriate indemnification clauses prior to the transfer. 

Novation of employment contract and offer of new employment

“Novation of contract” means that the obligations between the parties have come to an end.  It creates more certainty than simply assuming an employee will fully mitigate their damages.  It is described by the Supreme Court of Canada as “a trilateral agreement by which an existing contract is extinguished and a new one is brought into being in its place.”

There are several factors that indicate the novation of a contract.  A strong factor is when the new offer of employment from the buyer states that accepting employment with the buyer indicates agreement to a complete discharge of the old obligations in substitution of the new contract.  Another indicator is where the seller paid the employee their contractual termination notice (or reasonable common-law notice) in exchange for a release indicating all obligations under the old contract were satisfied. 

Key takeaways for employers in Canada

Businesses should take time to clearly define when and how employee contracts will be dealt with during a transfer.  The method of transitioning employees to their new company and the resulting apportionment of liabilities should be explicitly set down in an agreement between the seller and buyer. 

Posted by Barteaux Labour & Employment Lawyers Inc.

Barteaux Labour and Employment Lawyers Inc. is Atlantic Canada’s only homegrown management-side labour and employment law boutique, now offering immigration law as a core area of practice. We assist all kinds of employers, from multi-national corporations to non-profits, public bodies, and small businesses across a broad range of industries. We have a diverse team providing services to a varied group of clients.

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Assignment provisions in contracts

Author’s note, Nov. 22, 2014: For a much-improved update of this page, see the Common Draft general provisions article .

(For more real-world stories like the ones below, see my PDF e-book, Signing a Business Contract? A Quick Checklist for Greater Peace of Mind , a compendium of tips and true stories to help you steer clear of various possible minefields. Learn more …. )

Table of Contents

Legal background: Contracts generally are freely assignable

When a party to a contract “ assigns ” the contract to someone else, it means that party, known as the assignor , has transferred its rights under the contract to someone else, known as the assignee , and also has delegated its obligations to the assignee.

Under U.S. law, most contract rights are freely assignable , and most contract duties are freely delegable, absent some special character of the duty, unless the agreement says otherwise. In some situations, however, the parties will not want their opposite numbers to be able to assign the agreement freely; contracts often include language to this effect.

Intellectual-property licenses are an exception to the general rule of assignability. Under U.S. law, an IP licensee may not assign its license rights, nor delegate its license obligations, without the licensor’s consent, even when the license agreement is silent. See, for example, In re XMH Corp. , 647 F.3d 690 (7th Cir. 2011) (Posner, J; trademark licenses); Cincom Sys., Inc. v. Novelis Corp. , 581 F.3d 431 (6th Cir. 2009) (copyright licenses); Rhone-Poulenc Agro, S.A. v. DeKalb Genetics Corp. , 284 F.3d 1323 (Fed. Cir. 2002) (patent licenses). For additional information, see this article by John Paul, Brian Kacedon, and Douglas W. Meier of the Finnegan Henderson firm.

Assignment consent requirements

Model language

[Party name] may not assign this Agreement to any other person without the express prior written consent of the other party or its successor in interest, as applicable, except as expressly provided otherwise in this Agreement. A putative assignment made without such required consent will have no effect.

Optional: Nor may [Party name] assign any right or interest arising out of this Agreement, in whole or in part, without such consent.

Alternative: For the avoidance of doubt, consent is not required for an assignment (absolute, collateral, or other) or pledge of, nor for any grant of a security interest in, a right to payment under this Agreement.

Optional: An assignment of this Agreement by operation of law, as a result of a merger, consolidation, amalgamation, or other transaction or series of transactions, requires consent to the same extent as would an assignment to the same assignee outside of such a transaction or series of transactions.

• An assignment-consent requirement like this can give the non-assigning party a chokehold on a future merger or corporate reorganization by the assigning party — see the case illustrations below.

• A party being asked to agree to an assignment-consent requirement should consider trying to negotiate one of the carve-out provisions below, for example, when the assignment is connection with a sale of substantially all the assets of the assignor’s business {Link} .

Case illustrations

The dubai port deal (ny times story and story ).

In 2006, a Dubai company that operated several U.S. ports agreed to sell those operations. (The agreement came about because of publicity and political pressure about the alleged national-security implications of having Middle-Eastern companies in charge of U.S. port operations.)

A complication arose in the case of the Port of Newark: The Dubai company’s lease agreement gave the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey the right to consent to any assignment of the agreement — and that agency initially demanded $84 million for its consent.

After harsh criticism from political leaders, the Port Authority backed down a bit: it gave consent in return for “only” a $10 million consent fee, plus $40 million investment commitment by the buyer.

Cincom Sys., Inc. v. Novelis Corp., No. 07-4142 (6th Cir. Sept. 25, 2009) (affirming summary judgment)

A customer of a software vendor did an internal reorganization. As a result, the vendor’s software ended up being used by a sister company of the original customer. The vendor demanded that the sister company buy a new license. The sister company refused.

The vendor sued, successfully, for copyright infringement, and received the price of a new license, more than $450,000 as its damages. The case is discussed in more detail in this blog posting.

The vendor’s behavior strikes me as extremely shortsighted, for a couple of reasons: First, I wouldn’t bet much on the likelihood the customer would ever buy anything again from that vendor. Second, I would bet that the word got around about what the vendor did, and that this didn’t do the vendor’s reputation any good.

Meso Scale Diagnostics, LLC v. Roche Diagnostics GmbH, No. 5589-VCP (Del. Ch. Apr. 8, 2011) (denying motion to dismiss).

The Delaware Chancery Court refused to rule out the possibility that a reverse triangular merger could act as an assignment of a contract, which under the contract terms would have required consent. See also the discussion of this opinion by Katherine Jones of the Sheppard Mullin law firm.

Assignment with transfer of business assets

Consent is not required for an assignment of this Agreement in connection with a sale or other disposition of substantially all the assets of the assigning party’s business.

Optional: Alternatively, the sale or other disposition may be of substantially all the assets of the assigning party’s business to which this Agreement specifically relates.

Optional: The assignee must not be a competitor of the non-assigning party.

• A prospective assigning party might argue that it needed to keep control of its own strategic destiny, for example by preserving its freedom to sell off a product line or division (or even the whole company) in an asset sale.

• A non-assigning party might argue that it could not permit the assignment of the agreement to one of its competitors, and that the only way to ensure this was to retain a veto over any assignment.

• Another approach might be to give the non-assigning party, instead of a veto over asset-disposition assignments, the right to terminate the contract for convenience . (Of course, the implications of termination would have to be carefully thought through.)

Assignment to affiliate

[Either party] may assign this Agreement without consent to its affiliate.

Optional: The assigning party must unconditionally guarantee the assignee’s performance.

Optional: The affiliate must not be a competitor of the non-assigning party.

Optional: The affiliate must be a majority-ownership affiliate of the assigning party.

• A prospective assigning party might argue for the right to assign to an affiliate to preserve its freedom to move assets around within its “corporate family” without having to seek approval.

• The other party might reasonably object that there is no way to know in advance whether an affiliate-assignee would be in a position to fulfill the assigning party’s obligations under the contract, nor whether it would have reachable assets in case of a breach.

Editorial comment: Before approving a blanket affiliate-assignment authorization, a party should consider whether it knew enough about the other party’s existing- or future affiliates to be comfortable with where the agreement might end up.

Consent may not be unreasonably withheld or delayed

Consent to an assignment of this Agreement requiring it may not be unreasonably withheld or delayed.

Optional: For the avoidance of doubt, any damages suffered by a party seeking a required consent to assignment of this Agreement, resulting from an unreasonable withholding or delay of such consent, are to be treated as direct damages.

Optional: For the avoidance of doubt, any damages suffered by a party seeking a required consent to assignment of this Agreement, resulting from an unreasonable withholding or delay of such consent, are not subject to any exclusion of remedies or other limitation of liability in this Agreement.

• Even if this provision were absent, applicable law might impose a reasonableness requirement; see the discussion of the Shoney case in the commentary to the Consent at discretion provision.

• A reasonableness requirement might not be of much practical value, whether contractual or implied by law. Such a requirement could not guarantee that the non-assigning party would give its consent when the assigning party wants it. And by the time a court could resolve the matter, the assigning party’s deal could have been blown.

• Still, an unreasonable-withholding provision should make the non-assigning party think twice about dragging its feet too much, becuase of the prospect of being held liable for damages for a busted transaction. Cf. Pennzoil vs. Texaco and its $10.5 billion damage award for tortious interference with an M&A deal.

• Including an unreasonable-delay provision might conflict with the Materiality of assignment breach provision, for reasons discussed there in the summary of the Hess Energy case.

Consent at discretion

A party having the right to grant or withhold consent to an assignment of this Agreement may do so in its sole and unfettered discretion.

• If a party might want the absolute right to withhold consent to an assignment in its sole discretion, it would be a good idea to try to include that in the contract language. Otherwise, there’s a risk that court might impose a commercial-reasonableness test under applicable law (see the next bullet). On the other hand, asking for such language but not getting it could be fatal to the party’s case that it was implicitly entitled to withhold consent in its discretion.

• If a commercial- or residential lease agreement requires the landlord’s consent before the tentant can assign the lease, state law might impose a reasonableness requirement. I haven’t researched this, but ran across an unpublished California opinion and an old law review article, each collecting cases. See Nevada Atlantic Corp. v. Wrec Lido Venture, LLC, No. G039825 (Cal. App. Dec. 8, 2008) (unpublished; reversing judgment that sole-discretion withholding of consent was unreasonable); Paul J. Weddle, Pacific First Bank v. New Morgan Park Corporation: Reasonable Withholding of Consent to Commercial Lease Assignments , 31 Willamette L. Rev. 713 (1995) (first page available for free at HeinOnline ).

Shoney’s LLC v. MAC East, LLC, No. 1071465 (Ala. Jul. 31, 2009)

In 2009, the Alabama Supreme Court rejected a claim that Shoney’s restaurant chain breached a contract when it demanded a $70,000 to $90,000 payment as the price of its consent to a proposed sublease. The supreme court noted that the contract specifically gave Shoney’s the right, in its sole discretion , to consent to any proposed assignment or sublease.

Significantly, prior case law from Alabama was to the effect that a refusal to consent would indeed be judged by a commercial-reasonableness standard. But, the supreme court said, “[w]here the parties to a contract use language that is inconsistent with a commercial-reasonableness standard, the terms of such contract will not be altered by an implied covenant of good faith. Therefore, an unqualified express standard such as ‘sole discretion’ is also to be construed as written.” Shoney’s LLC v. MAC East, LLC , No. 1071465 (Ala. Jul. 31, 2009) (on certification by Eleventh Circuit), cited by MAC East, LLC v. Shoney’s [LLC] , No. 07-11534 (11th Cir. Aug. 11, 2009), reversing No. 2:05-cv-1038-MEF (WO) (M.D. Ala. Jan. 8, 2007) (granting partial summary judgment that Shoney’s had breached the contract).

Termination by non-assigning party

A non-assigning party may terminate this Agreement, in its business discretion , by giving notice to that effect no later than 60 days after receiving notice, from either the assigning party or the assignee, that an assignment of the Agreement has become effective.

Consider an agreement in which a vendor is to provide ongoing services to a customer. A powerful customer might demand the right to consent to the vendor’s assignment of the agreement, even in strategic transactions. The vendor, on the other hand, might refuse to give any customer that kind of control of its strategic options.

A workable compromise might be to allow the customer to terminate the agreement during a stated window of time after the assignment if it is not happy with the new vendor.

Assignment – other provisions

Optional: Delegation: For the avoidance of doubt, an assignment of this Agreement operates as a transfer of the assigning party’s rights and a delegation of its duties under this Agreement.

Optional: Promise to perform: For the avoidance of doubt, an assignee’s acceptance of an assignment of this Agreement constitutes the assignee’s promise to perform the assigning party’s duties under the Agreement. That promise is enforceable by either the assigning party or by the non-assigning party.

Optional: Written assumption by assignee: IF: The non-assigning party so requests of an assignee of this Agreement; THEN: The assignee will seasonably provide the non-assigning party with a written assumption of the assignor’s obligations, duly executed by or on behalf of the assignee; ELSE: The assignment will be of no effect.

Optional: No release: For the avoidance of doubt, an assignment of this Agreement does not release the assigning party from its responsibility for performance of its duties under the Agreement unless the non-assigning party so agrees in writing.

Optional: Confidentiality: A non-assigning party will preserve in confidence any non-public information about an actual- or proposed assignment of this Agreement that may be disclosed to that party by a party participating in, or seeking consent for, the assignment.

The Delegation provision might not be necessary in a contract for the sale of goods governed by the Uniform Commercial Code, because a similar provision is found in UCC 2-210

The Confidentiality provision would be useful if a party to the agreement anticipated that it might be engaging in any kind of merger or other strategic transaction.

Materiality of assignment breach

IF: A party breaches any requirement of this Agreement that the party obtain another party’s consent to assign this Agreement; THEN: Such breach is to be treated as a material breach of this Agreement.

A chief significance of this kind of provision is that failure to obtain consent to assignment, if it were a material breach, would give the non-assigning party the right to terminate the Agreement.

If an assignment-consent provision requires that consent not be unreasonably withheld , then failure to obtain consent to a reasonable assignment would not be a material breach, according to the court in Hess Energy Inc. v. Lightning Oil Co. , No. 01-1582 (4th Cir. Jan. 18, 2002) (reversing summary judgment). In that case, the agreement was a natural-gas supply contract. The customer was acquired by a larger company, after which the larger company took over some of the contract administration responsibilities such as payment of the vendor’s invoices. The vendor, seeking to sell its gas to someone else at a higher price, sent a notice of termination, on grounds that the customer had “assigned” the agreement to its new parent company, in violation of the contract’s assignment-consent provision. The appeals court held that, even if the customer had indeed assigned the contract (a point on which it expressed considerable doubt) without consent, the resulting breach of the agreement was not material, and therefore the vendor did not have the right to terminate the contract.

See also (list is generated automatically) :

• Notebook update: Reverse triangular merger might be an assignment of a contract, requiring consent Just updated the Notebook with a citation to a case in which the Delaware Chancery Court refused to rule out the possibility that a reverse...
• Assignment-consent requirements can cause serious problems in future M&A transactions A lot of contracts provide that Party A must obtain the prior written consent of Party B if it wishes to assign the agreement to a...
• SCOTX rejects implied obligation not to unreasonably withhold consent to assignment of contract In a recent Texas case, two sophisticated parties in the oil and gas busi­ness — let’s call them Alpha and Bravo — were negotiating a contract....
• Ken Adams and the marketplace of ideas I (used to) comment occasionally at Ken Adams’s blog. Recent examples: Here, here, here, here, and here. Ken and I disagree on a number of issues; some...

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What is a subsidiary company? Definition, examples and FAQs

Leading international companies have created a collective of 370,000 subsidiaries, many of which operate in the U.S. Before you follow in their footsteps, you must understand not only what a subsidiary company is but also how to manage one effectively.

A subsidiary company is owned or controlled by a parent or holding company . Usually, the parent company will own more than 50% of the subsidiary company. This gives the parent organization the controlling share of the subsidiary. Sometimes, control is achieved simply by being the majority shareholder. When a parent organization owns all common stock of a company, it is known as a ‘wholly owned' subsidiary.

This guide will explain:

• What a subsidiary company is

How a subsidiary company works

Examples of subsidiary companies.

• How entity management software can aid with corporation management

What is a subsidiary company?

Subsidiary definition: a company that is at least 50% owned by a parent or holding company.

A subsidiary company is either partially or wholly owned by another company. That company can be either a parent company, which is its own functioning company, or a holding company, which solely controls other companies and investments.

To be a subsidiary, a company has to be at least 50% owned by the parent or holding company. Subsidiaries 100% owned are considered wholly owned subsidiaries.

A subsidiary and parent company are legally separate entities. This means the individual organizations pay tax and debt, limiting shared liabilities between the companies. Subsidiary companies will have independence from the parent company and, in many cases, are individual brands. However, the parent company will naturally influence the subsidiary’s operations, including governance . The parent company can elect the board of directors as the major shareholder and drive the overall business strategy.

Subsidiaries are a commonly used structure for both national and international corporations. Tiers of subsidiaries group a range of industries within a multinational conglomerate. The structure can also bring together companies from within one sector in a corporate group.

How does a parent company control its subsidiary?

A parent company controls its subsidiary by owning all or most of its stocks. If that’s the case, the parent company can control most subsidiary operations, including assigning the board members.

The parent company can also include clauses in the subsidiary’s Articles of Incorporation to assign certain powers, such as requiring the parent company’s approval to pass bylaw changes or take certain actions.

That said, parent companies reap the benefits of subsidiaries when the subsidiary can operate more independently. This allows the subsidiary to set its own corporate strategy and objectives, which often significantly differ from that of the parent company.

Can a subsidiary be liable for a parent company?

Typically, a subsidiary cannot be liable for a parent company. Because they’re legally separate entities, they retain their own liability — meaning the parent company usually isn’t liable for the subsidiary’s actions either.

Can a subsidiary leave a parent company?

A subsidiary can leave a parent company, but the structure of the subsidiary/parent company relationship makes this uncommon. To leave the parent company, the subsidiary’s shareholders and board of directors would have to approve it. However, the parent company is among the shareholders — and, sometimes, the only shareholder — so it’s unlikely that a vote to leave the parent company would pass.

Can a subsidiary sue a parent company?

A subsidiary can sue a parent company, but it’s exceedingly rare and depends on the subsidiary’s Articles of Incorporation. To sue, the subsidiary has to prove damages due to the parent company — a difficult thing to do because the parent company owns the subsidiary. However, it’s still possible to sue if the parent company’s actions directly interfered with the subsidiary’s contractual obligations and the subsidiary suffered damages as a result.

Who owns a subsidiary company?

Subsidiary companies will be owned by either a parent company or a holding corporation. A wholly-owned subsidiary company will be entirely owned by the parent or holding corporation. In other cases, parent companies will have the controlling share of a subsidiary company. In practice, this means owning more than half of a company’s common stock. So, by definition, parent companies have majority ownership or control of a subsidiary.

As the major shareholder, parent companies will have the deciding vote when electing the directors in the boardroom. In many cases, a member sits on the board of both the parent and subsidiary company. Because of this, parent companies will significantly influence the strategic direction of subsidiaries, including any steering committee groups.

Types of subsidiary companies

There are two types of subsidiary companies: wholly owned and partially owned. The primary difference lies in the ownership stake of the parent or holding company.

Wholly-owned subsidiary: A wholly-owned subsidiary is 100% owned by the parent corporation. The parent company holds all common stock, which means they have sole influence over the subsidiary’s operations. This is generally achieved through a parent company acquiring full control of a company or by founding the subsidiary company itself. The wholly-owned subsidiary company is still legally recognized as its own entity.

Normal/partially-owned subsidiary: A normal subsidiary is when a parent or holding corporation owns more than half of the common stock. This means the subsidiary will have multiple shareholders who can influence the corporation’s ongoing operations.

What is the purpose of a subsidiary company?

The main benefit of subsidiary companies is that they are different legal entities from their parent company. This means the two companies can limit shared liabilities or obligations and will be separate in terms of regulation or tax. This legally recognized separation is a key difference between a branch and a subsidiary company.

Some other common reasons parent companies also use subsidiaries for the following purposes:

• Legal and financial liability: In practice, having two distinct legal entities limits the liability of both the parent and subsidiary company. Keeping companies separate can help to insulate the holding company from potential financial or legal issues faced by a subsidiary company.
• Regulatory compliance: In the case of multinational corporations, subsidiary companies will align themselves with local regulations or laws
• As an incorporated company in its own right, a subsidiary company can take advantage of more favorable corporate tax rates compared to where the parent company is based. This is a key part of good governance between parent companies and subsidiaries.
• Expand in new markets: Subsidiary companies are a common way for corporations to expand into international markets. As independent entities, the risk for the wider corporation is minimized.
• Utilize more flexible operations: Subsidiary companies are often distinct brands positioned under an overall holding company. These brands can benefit from the synergy between different parts of the larger corporate group but also retain the benefit of independence. Subsidiaries can be experimental brands or products, as financial liabilities are contained. As separate legal entities, subsidiary companies are more straightforward to manage or sell to.
• Leverage diverse expertise: Instead of investing heavily in internal research and development, parent companies often acquire companies with specific area expertise. An example would be a larger company purchasing a small firm that produces a specific technology or digital tool. Subsidiary companies allow parent corporations to diversify their business but isolate the potential risks.
• Tax advantages: Subsidiaries have the potential for favorable tax rates due to their separate setting from the parent company.
• Limited liability: Allows limited financial liability for the wider holding corporation, containing potential losses within the subsidiary company.
• Greater independence for brands: Keep a specific brand or product as its own legal entity to maintain independence and make selling straightforward.
• Develop niches: Subsidiaries focusing on specific product or technology development can strengthen the corporation as a whole.

Pros and cons of a subsidiary company

A subsidiary company may sound like a win-win. While it’s true that they shelter the parent from liabilities, offer tax benefits and facilitate growth, they also greatly complicate the corporate structure. Corporations considering a subsidiary should consider both the pros and cons of a subsidiary structure before moving forward.

Many modern businesses have subsidiaries; some offer liability protection, while others allow the parent company to reach new industries or territories. For example, PepsiCo isn’t just a company; it’s a conglomerate that owns more than one subsidiary company, including Mountain Dew, Frito-Lay and even Quaker Foods.

More common examples of subsidiary companies include:

How to find subsidiaries of a company

The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) requires publicly listed companies to disclose their subsidiaries, including when they acquire or dispose of a subsidiary. As a result, this information is publicly available, and you can find the subsidiaries of a company if you know where to look.

A company’s subsidiaries are usually listed on:

• The company website: Annual reports are a hotspot for lists of subsidiaries. You can also check press releases, as a company will likely mention subsidiary updates there.

The SEC website: You can search and download documents from the EDGAR database , including registration statements and other forms. These forms usually include subsidiary information.

How to create a subsidiary company

A parent company can either create a subsidiary company or purchase the majority shares in an existing company. If founding a new subsidiary, parent companies will need to:

• Authorize the subsidiary: The parent company’s board of directors will vote to form the subsidiary company. This should include a resolution about the agreement signed by the board chair.
• Determine the structure: A subsidiary company can follow a corporate or LLC structure since both limit liability. Both are taxed differently, so the parent company should choose a structure that benefits their finances.
• Complete the process of incorporation: As with the creation of any new company, the parent company needs to register the subsidiary within the state or country where it intends to establish it. The parent company will be recorded as the owner of the subsidiary during the incorporation process.
• Fund the subsidiary: Like any new business, subsidiaries need capital. A parent company can transfer assets to the subsidiary, making the parent company the owner.
• Define operations: Parent companies need to organize how the subsidiary company will operate. This includes everything from appointing the board of directors to establishing a governance framework to deciding how the subsidiary will make critical decisions.
• Elect a board of directors: As the majority owners, a parent corporation will elect the subsidiary’s board of directors, including the chairman of the board . In many cases, certain members will sit on the board of both the parent and subsidiary companies. They can help to represent the wider group’s interests when making strategic decisions.
• Produce ongoing documentation: As a legally separate entity, subsidiaries function as normal independent companies. They will produce their own independent financial statements. Parent companies must record all transactions between themselves and the subsidiary. Parent companies are also required to include financial statements from their subsidiary companies within a consolidated financial document. Corporate documentation is vital across the whole business life cycle, from initial incorporation until the potential closure of a subsidiary .

Effectively create and manage your subsidiaries

Managing the boardroom and operations of one subsidiary company can be complex, let alone multiple subsidiaries. Simplify the process with entity management software . With the right solution , you can improve your efficiency, streamline your business intelligence and ultimately create a centralized corporate record to help you make more strategic decisions about your subsidiaries.

Diligent Entity Management tracks governance decisions, regulatory compliance and financial records in one easy-to-access dashboard. Analyze subsidiary information from your entire corporation group in real-time.

Find out how Diligent Entity Management can help your corporation. Request a demo from the team today.

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

Is a subsidiary an llc or a corporation.

A subsidiary company can be either an LLC or a corporation. The parent company will decide which structure the subsidiary will take. This is usually a financial and legal decision. While both LLCs and corporations limit liability, they are taxed differently.

Are subsidiaries 100% owned?

Subsidiaries can be both wholly-owned (100% owned) or not-wholly-owned. A parent company only needs to own more than 50% of another company’s stock for that company to be considered a subsidiary.

Is a subsidiary its own company?

Yes. Subsidiaries typically operate on their own and follow their own structure, but they benefit from the resources and connection to their parent company.

What are tiered subsidiaries?

There can be multiple layers or tiers of subsidiary companies within a wider corporate group. A company owned by a parent corporation is a first-tier subsidiary. But this subsidiary company may hold majority shares of a subsidiary company of its own. The second subsidiary company can be described as a second-tier subsidiary of the overall parent corporation. The tiers can continue depending on the complexity of the corporate group.

The parent company will have a degree of control over both tiers of subsidiary companies. As the major shareholder, it will hold direct control of a first-tier subsidiary. It can elect the board of directors and influence strategic business decisions when required. Using this influence, the parent company can exercise indirect control of the second-tier subsidiary.

What is a wholly-owned subsidiary company?

If the entire subsidiary company is owned by the parent corporation, this is known as a wholly owned subsidiary. A wholly-owned subsidiary company has no other shareholders. This gives the parent corporation a major influence on the company’s ongoing operations. Direct control of who sits on the board of directors helps define the aims and strategic decisions made by the subsidiary company.

What is an associate company?

When a corporation owns a minor share of another business, the company is known as an associate or affiliated company. In this case, a corporation owns a portion of a company but not enough to have full ownership. Usually, this is when a parent corporation owns less than half of a company's common shares. To be considered a subsidiary, the parent corporation would need to own the majority of the company.

With a minority share of common stock, a parent corporation will have no direct control over strategic decisions. In most cases, a larger company will invest in a smaller associate company. The parent company will usually record the value of this investment on its financial statements.

What are sister companies?

Sister companies are subsidiary companies that share a parent or holding company. Most sister companies operate independently and have no relationship other than the owning corporation.

Does a subsidiary have its own CEO?

Subsidiaries do have their own CEO, management team and board of directors. The parent company does have sway over who holds those positions, though.

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The Parent and The Subsidiary. When is The Former Liable for The Actions of the Latter?

• Posted on: Apr 5 2021

Corporations are legal entities distinct from their managers. As such, like any shareholder or investor, a corporation can buy shares in another corporation. When a corporation buys enough voting shares of another corporation to control that company, a parent – subsidiary relationship is created. 

Specifically, when a corporation buys less than 100%, but more than 50%, of another company, the latter company becomes a regular subsidiary of the former. If the corporation acquires 100% of the voting shares of another company, then the acquired company becomes a wholly owned subsidiary of the other. The difference between a subsidiary and a wholly owned subsidiary, therefore, is the amount of voting control held by the parent company. 

As a general matter, the corporate identities of the parent and its regular subsidiaries cannot be disregarded. However, the courts will look beyond the corporate form where necessary to prevent fraud or to achieve equity. Thus, for example, a parent corporation may become a party to its subsidiary’s contract if the parent’s conduct manifests an intent to be bound by the contract. Such intent will be inferred from the circumstances surrounding the transaction, including whether the parent participated in the negotiation of the contract. Indeed, a parent corporation that negotiates a contract but has its subsidiary sign it can be held liable as a party to the contract, if the subsidiary “is a dummy for the parent corporation.” A.W. Fiur Co. v. Ataka & Co. , 71 A.D.2d 370 (1st Dept. 1979).

Moreover, a parent corporation may be liable on a contract signed by its subsidiary if the subsidiary is shown to be a mere shell dominated and controlled by the parent for the parent’s own purposes. In In re Sbarro Holding, Inc. , 91 A.D.2d 613 (2d Dept. 1982), a holding company sought to stay an arbitration proceeding against it and other related corporations on the ground that the agreement that called for arbitration was between a franchisee and its subsidiary. The court held that all the related corporations could be compelled to participate in the arbitration proceeding, although they were not signatories of the contract. The court explained that:

The corporate veil will be pierced (1) to achieve equity, even absent fraud, where the officers and employees of a parent corporation exercise control over the daily operations of a subsidiary corporation and act as the true prime movers behind the subsidiary’s actions, and/or (2) where a parent corporation conducts business through a subsidiary which exists solely to serve the parent.

Sbarro , 91 A.D.2d at 614 (citations omitted). 

Additionally, where a shareholder uses a corporation for the transaction of the shareholder’s personal business, as distinct from the corporate business, the courts have held the shareholder liable for acts of the corporation. See Rapid Tr. Subway Constr. Co. v. City of N.Y. , 259 N.Y. 472 (1932). The determinative factor is whether “the corporation is a ‘dummy’ for its individual stockholders who are in reality carrying on the business in their personal capacities for purely personal rather than corporate ends.” Walkovszky v. Carlton , 18 N.Y.2d 414, 418 (1966).

Apart from the foregoing rules, a parent corporation can be held liable for the actions of its subsidiary under veil piercing or alter ego liability principles. 

The alter ego doctrine has been applied to pierce the veil between corporations when subsidiary corporations are used by a dominating parent corporation to engage in fraudulent or wrongful conduct. Under New York law, a corporation is considered to be a “mere alter ego when it ‘has been so dominated by . . . another corporation . . . and its separate identity so disregarded, that it primarily transacted the dominator’s business rather than its own.’” Trabucco v. Intesa Sanpaolo, S.p.A , 695 F. Supp. 2d 98, 107 (S.D.N.Y. 2010). When that occurs, “the dominating corporation will be held liable for the actions of its subsidiary ….” Id.

Courts consider a wide array of factors in assessing the degree of domination and control exercised by the parent company. Such factors include: overlap in ownership, officers, directors, and personnel; common office space, address and telephone numbers of the corporate entities; whether the related corporations deal with the dominated corporation at arm’s length; and whether the corporation in question had property that was used by other of the corporations as if it were its own. Shisgal v. Brown , 21 A.D.3d 845, 848 (1st Dept. 2005) (internal citation omitted). Because the decision whether to pierce the corporate veil depends “on the attendant facts and equities” ( Matter of Morris v. N.Y. State Dep’t of Taxation & Fin. , 82 N.Y.2d 135, 141 (1993)), and because said facts can apply to an “infinite variety of situations” ( Wm. Wrigley Jr. Co. v. Waters , 890 F.2d 594, 601 (2d Cir. 1989)), no one factor controls the consideration. N.Y. Dist. Council of Carpenters Pension Fund v. Perimeter Interiors, Inc. , 657 F. Supp. 2d 410, 421 (S.D.N.Y. 2009). Courts recognize, however, “that with respect to small, privately-held corporations, ‘the trappings of sophisticated corporate life are rarely present,’” and, therefore, they “must avoid an over-rigid ‘preoccupation with questions of structure, financial and accounting sophistication or dividend policy or history.’” Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. v. Recovery Credit Servs., Inc. , 98 F.3d 13, 18 (2d Cir. 1996) (quoting Wrigley , 890 F.2d at 601).

In applying these and other factors, the cases “reveal[] common characteristics” that necessitated piercing the corporate veil. Wrigley , 890 F.2d at 601. “In each case, the evidence demonstrated an abuse of that form either through on-going fraudulent activities of a principal, or a pronounced and intimate commingling of identities of the corporation and its principal or principals, which prompted the reviewing courts, driven by equity, to disregard the corporate form.” Id.

In World Wide Packaging, LLC v. Cargo Cosmetics, LLC , 2021 N.Y. Slip Op. 02088 (1st Dept. Apr. 1, 2021) ( here ), the Appellate Division, First Department had the opportunity to consider the foregoing principles in reversing the order of the motion court, which allowed World Wide Packaging, LLC (“World Wide Packaging”) to amend its complaint to assert a claim of alter ego liability against defendant TPR Holdings, LLC (“TPR”).

World Wide Packaging involved claims against the affiliates of TPR (“Subsidiary Defendants”) for breaching their payment obligations with regard to certain cosmetic supply transactions conducted on credit accounts. 

As alleged, TPR had been conducting business with World Wide Packaging since 2012. The Subsidiary Defendants were operating subsidiaries of TPR. 

In 2016, TPR requested that Plaintiff establish “separate credit accounts” for each of its subsidiaries to transact their own individual business dealings with World Wide Packaging. Plaintiff agreed. From August 2016 through June 2018, World Wide Packaging had an established a course of dealing with each of the Subsidiary Defendants whereby Plaintiff had done business with the subsidiaries of TPR on their own separate credit accounts. 

In 2018, Plaintiff commenced the action against the Subsidiary Defendants, asserting contract claims against each of them for nonpayment on certain transactions conducted on their individual credit accounts. World Wide Packaging later sought leave to amend its complaint to add TPR as a defendant under, inter alia , alter ego liability/veil piercing theories of liability.

The motion court granted the motion. Defendants appealed. The First Department unanimously reversed, holding that there was no evidence that TPR was the real party in interest with regard to the separate transactions at issue in the litigation or dominated and controlled the Subsidiary Defendants beyond the incident of ownership.

The Court explained that “the complaint [was] silent” as to TPR’s involvement in the negotiation of the credit accounts Plaintiff created with the Subsidiary Defendants. Slip op. at *1. Indeed, said the Court, although “[i]t appear[ed] that TPR Holdings initially approached plaintiff about three separate credit accounts for its three subsidiaries. … there [was] no allegation about who negotiated the pricing or the general terms of each transaction.” Id. And, noted the Court, “Plaintiff acknowledged that the purchase orders were issued separately by the subsidiary defendants.”

In short, concluded the Court, “[w]hile it appears that TPR Holdings’ employees were frequently, but not always, involved in the creative aspect of the transactions by approving the order designs, there is no allegation that TPR Holdings directly participated or micro-managed each transaction underlying the purchase orders or acknowledged that it was the actual party in interest.” Id.

The Court also held that Plaintiff’s claim for piercing the corporate veil was insufficient. The Court noted that “[e]ven if TPR Holdings exercised complete domination of the subsidiary defendants, plaintiff failed to allege that the abuse of the corporate form was for the purpose of defrauding plaintiff and causing it an injury.” Id. The Court explained that “plaintiff did not allege that the subsidiary defendants were not legitimate businesses or that they were created for an improper purpose of cutting off plaintiff’s ability to collect on the contract, or that corporate funds were purposefully diverted to make any of the three companies judgment proof.” Id. (citing Tap Holdings, LLC v. Orix Fin. Corp. , 109 A.D.3d 167, 174-177 (1st Dept. 2013); Fantazia Intl. Corp. v. CPL Furs N.Y., Inc. , 67 A.D.3d 511, 512 (1st Dept. 2009)). Merely alleging that “TPR Holdings caused the subsidiary defendants to breach a contract,” concluded the Court, was “insufficient to show the requisite wrongdoing.” Id. at *1-*2 (citing Skanska USA Bldg. Inc. v. Atlantic Yards B2 Owner, LLC , 146 A.D.3d 1, 12 (1st Dept. 2016), aff’d , 31 N.Y.3d 1002 (2018)).

Under New York law (and elsewhere), a parent corporation may be held liable for its subsidiaries’ acts when the “alleged wrong can seemingly be traced to the parent through the conduit of its own personnel and management,” and the parent has interfered with the subsidiaries’ operations in a way that surpasses the control exercised by a parent as an incident of ownership. See , e.g. , United States v. Bestfoods , 524 U.S. 51, 64 (1998) (quotation omitted). As noted by the Court in World Wide Packaging , there was no allegation or evidence that TPR interfered with the actions of its subsidiaries. 

Moreover, there was no allegation or evidence in World Wide Packaging to support the imposition of veil piercing or alter ego liability. As the Court in World Wide Packaging recognized, allegations of domination and control without any allegation or evidence of fraud, inequity or other misconduct is insufficient to support a claim for alter-ego/veil-piercing liability against a parent corporation. 

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Subsidiary accounting: A guide to the equity and consolidated methods

Did you recently acquire (or plan to form) a new subsidiary company? Are you scouring the Internet for information on accounting and bookkeeping best practices for your company structure? Well, you’ve come to the right place, because this blog has subsidiary accounting info galore. 

In this blog, we’ll cover the pros and cons of subsidiaries, important accounting practices for subsidiaries, and the different bookkeeping methods required for this business type. Buckle up and let’s go!

What is a subsidiary?

Advantages of subsidiaries, subsidiary accounting: the equity method vs. the consolidated method, the equity method for subsidiary accounting, the consolidated method for subsidiary accounting, llc subsidiary tax implications, disadvantages of subsidiaries.

First things first: let’s define our terms to make sure we’re all on the same page. 

• A subsidiary (aka a joint company structure) is owned and/or controlled, either fully or partially (at least 50%), by another company (called the parent company). 
• A parent company is a single  company that owns the subsidiary or subsidiaries. 

The parent company and the subsidiary company should have different bank accounts, distinct tax account numbers (EINs), and separate operations. This means the parent company and the subsidiary company will have different accounting records and books, but we’ll chat more about financial statements later. 

Let’s get into some examples now. Let’s say Company A buys 55% of Company B. Company A becomes the parent company and now has controlling ownership in Company B, the subsidiary company. Another example: Company C decides to form a new company, Company D. Company C is the parent, and Company D is the subsidiary. 

Now, here are some famous real-life examples of parent companies and their subsidiaries:

• Pepsi, Frito-Lay, Doritos, and more are subsidiaries of PepsiCo., the parent company. 
• Marvel, Disney Channel, and ABC Television Group are subsidiaries of the Walt Disney Company.
• Band-Aid, Aveeno, Tylenol, and Neutrogena are subsidiaries of Johnson & Johnson.

Now that we’ve gone over what a subsidiary is, let’s cover what the advantages are, including some you may not have thought of when you first formed or acquired a subsidiary.

Protects the parent from liabilities

Forming a subsidiary can be a smart way to protect one part of the business from the risks and obligations of another part of the business placed in the subsidiary. For example, if the parent company sells and distributes explosives for mining purposes, and one explosive is riskier than the others, transferring the business operations and intellectual property associated with the riskiest explosive to the subsidiary can protect the rest of the parent's assets from legal claims and damages.

Tax advantages

There may be different ways subsidiaries can take advantage of lower tax rates. Instead of paying tax on the entire profits of both the parent and its subsidiaries in one jurisdiction, subsidiaries may only be responsible for their country and/or state taxes where it operates (with the proper planning, that is!). Additionally, in certain countries, like the United States, the parent company and the subsidiary can combine to file a consolidated tax return, which can help them save on taxes. When dealing with taxes, it’s always best to consult with your tax advisor first before creating the subsidiary. Unfortunately, there could be tax traps with subsidiaries that actually increase overall taxes instead of saving them… So yeah, check with your tax advisor!

Different company culture

The company culture and structure of a subsidiary might not necessarily be the same as its parent company or other subsidiaries, which can be a good thing! A certain management style or culture may work for one company, but not the other. For example, if the subsidiary and parent company are in different countries, this separation also allows for each company to use the appropriate management style for their location.

Different markets

If the parent company and the subsidiary are serving different customers, then they can each keep their own branding and marketing to appeal to their unique customer bases. Appealing to two different customer markets also means more profits coming in from more sources, which is a win-win.

Doing accounting for subsidiaries can be complex, but we’ll walk through it together. The two most common bookkeeping methods for a subsidiary are the equity method and the consolidated method . The parent company can ultimately decide whether to report the investment in a subsidiary using the equity method or consolidate for its internal financial statements. Note: This may not be the case for audited financial statements where accounting rules need to be strictly followed!

The equity method is best used for investments of between 20% to 50% or significant influence in a company or joint venture, but not over 50% ownership. If you own a small business, you may choose to use the equity method even in the event of 100% control over the subsidiary if consolidated financial statements are not necessary. But before we start getting ahead of ourselves, let’s go over what the differences are between the equity method and the consolidated method.

Parent companies use the equity method to record the revenue from their subsidiary company (or companies), which goes on their non-consolidated income statements. The parent company’s investment is initially recorded at cost. Let’s say the parent company owns 58% of its subsidiary, and the subsidiary has a net income of $1,000,000. The parent company would report $580,000 as a debit (an increase) to the Investment in Subsidiary Asset Account and a credit to the Investment Income Account.

After that, the carrying amount is adjusted each fiscal period for the investor’s proportionate share of change of the investment. Additionally, if the subsidiary’s value increases in net worth, the value of the subsidiary may increase drastically.

Okay, example time! This time, with a table⁠—get excited. 🎉 Let’s say a parent company acquires 25% of a subsidiary company for a market value of $100. Here’s what the equity method would look like:

Subsidiary reports $500 profit for the year⁠—Parent company receives 25% of $500

Based on Schedule K-1

If there is cash distribution

The consolidated method is usually preferred over the equity method if the percentage the parent company owns is on the higher side (more than 50%, or if it controls the subsidiary). 

The consolidated method is the process of eliminating entries that would double the overall value of the subsidiary. In simple terms, the consolidation method involves the parent and subsidiary’s financial statements being (wait for it…) consolidated in one set of financial statements, which includes consolidated balance sheets and income statements. Any overlapping transfers, payments, and loans need to be removed or eliminated. If these adjustments aren’t made, the companies’ financial statements would not only look wonky, but be inaccurate as well. 

Tip: The consolidated method should be generated using an Excel spreadsheet and, for example, cannot be generated using the parent or subsidiary Wave accounts. Excel is a handy tool to use because of its consolidate feature , which lets you select data from multiple workbooks and combine them in one place. Wave Accounting can’t add two or more companies' reports, so parent and subsidiary data can’t be merged. If you’re a Wave Accounting user, you will need to download the data and merge data into one combined Excel file.

Now, let’s talk specifically about LLCs. LLC stands for “limited liability company”; it’s a U.S. business structure that protects its owner(s) from being personally responsible for (you guessed it) liabilities or debts of the business. Therefore it is best from a legal perspective for each LLC to have its own bank accounts and set of books to keep their own assets separate from other entities. An LLC is economically responsible up to the value of the assets it owns. LLCs are a popular choice for corporations starting a new subsidiary because they’re relatively easy to set up. 

LLCs, in general, have a pass-through taxation model which means they allocate their income, losses, credits, and deductions to their legal owners, who include these items on their tax returns. LLCs, by default, do not pay U.S. federal income tax as separate entities; pass-through subsidiary activity will flow to the parent.

Let’s go over an example of what a pass-through would look like. If an LLC has more than one member , it will file a 1065 form partnership return and report its net profit to the members with a Schedule K-1. Members use the K-1 to include the income and expenses generated by the LLC on their personal tax returns. 

If the ultimate parent company is an individual , as mentioned above, they will report this activity on their tax return. If they are the sole owner , they will use a Schedule C attached to their form 1040 return. If they are a partial owner , they will pick up the activity from the Schedule K-1 received on the ‘Other income’ line of the form 1040 (page 1, line 8). If the LLC is owned by a corporation, it will include its share of profit or loss in the owner’s tax return. If the LLC is wholly owned 100% by one corporation by default, the LLC is disregarded for federal tax purposes and does not file a separate return from its owner. If it is partially owned, as mentioned above, it will file Form 1065 for a partnership return because it has more than one member.

An LLC can also elect to file as a corporation for tax purposes. The election must be made within 75 days of its effective date. Once the election is made, it may be subject to corporate income tax and a separate corporate tax return will be required.

An LLC can be accounted for by both the equity and consolidated method of financial statement reporting. However, we strongly suggest letting your tax preparer know so they know to make any necessary tax adjustments.

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Don’t worry, we did so you don’t have to.

We’ve sung the praises of subsidiaries, so it’s only fair we get into the disadvantages now. Even if you’ve already gone ahead with forming or acquiring a subsidiary, it’s a good idea to be aware of the possible hurdles you might face so you can prepare yourself going forward. ‍ Conflicts ‍ The subsidiary and parent company may not agree on decisions, which can cause conflict between the two companies. The relationship between parent and subsidiary is in and of itself already complicated, so decision making might be slowed down. Limited control Possible bad news for the parent companies in the room: You may not have full control over the subsidiary, including things like management and access to funds. Parent not fully protected Subsidiaries aren’t a means for the parent company to evade all responsibility. The parent company may need to guarantee to pay off debts or take out loans for the subsidiary. Additionally, the parent company may still be liable for the operations of its subsidiary, especially if the subsidiary is engaging in any illegal activities (but we can assume that isn’t going to be a problem here, right?). In some cases, if the subsidiary is involved in a scandal or goes into a ton of debt, this may also affect the parent’s reputation. More paperwork Remember what we said about the parent and subsidiary relationship being complicated? This can result in more legal and accounting paperwork that needs to be done, not to mention additional tax returns and filings. I know we’ve said this a million times before, but it’s best to contact an accountant and tax professional for assistance!

Need more help with subsidiary accounting?

If all of this info about subsidiary accounting is giving you a headache, don’t worry; it can take a while to wrap your head around the equity and consolidated methods. Here’s a recap of everything we covered:

• A subsidiary is owned, either fully or partially ( at least 50%), by a parent company.
• Forming or acquiring a subsidiary can provide tax advantages and protection from liabilities, but can also make decision making and paperwork more difficult. 
• Two popular options for accounting are the equity method and the consolidated method. 
• Parent companies use the equity method to record the revenue from their subsidiary company, which is adjusted each fiscal period. 
• The consolidation method combines the parent and subsidiary’s financial statements into one set, with any overlapping factors being eliminated to ensure their financial statements are accurate. 
• LLCs have a pass-through taxation model. Pass-through subsidiary activity will flow to the parent for tax purposes.
• Taxation of subsidiaries and LLCs may be complicated. Contact a tax professional for assistance. 

That’s a lot of information, so pat yourself on the back for making it this far! If you have questions about subsidiary accounting, financial statements, or personal questions about your small business, our Wave Advisors team of tax professionals can provide you with personalized, 1:1 assistance.

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The information and tips shared on this blog are meant to be used as learning and personal development tools as you launch, run and grow your business. While a good place to start, these articles should not take the place of personalized advice from professionals. As our lawyers would say: “All content on Wave’s blog is intended for informational purposes only. It should not be considered legal or financial advice.” Additionally, Wave is the legal copyright holder of all materials on the blog, and others cannot re-use or publish it without our written consent.