article proofreading

Editing and Proofreading

What this handout is about.

This handout provides some tips and strategies for revising your writing. To give you a chance to practice proofreading, we have left seven errors (three spelling errors, two punctuation errors, and two grammatical errors) in the text of this handout. See if you can spot them!

Is editing the same thing as proofreading?

Not exactly. Although many people use the terms interchangeably, editing and proofreading are two different stages of the revision process. Both demand close and careful reading, but they focus on different aspects of the writing and employ different techniques.

Some tips that apply to both editing and proofreading

• Get some distance from the text! It’s hard to edit or proofread a paper that you’ve just finished writing—it’s still to familiar, and you tend to skip over a lot of errors. Put the paper aside for a few hours, days, or weeks. Go for a run. Take a trip to the beach. Clear your head of what you’ve written so you can take a fresh look at the paper and see what is really on the page. Better yet, give the paper to a friend—you can’t get much more distance than that. Someone who is reading the paper for the first time, comes to it with completely fresh eyes.
• Decide which medium lets you proofread most carefully. Some people like to work right at the computer, while others like to sit back with a printed copy that they can mark up as they read.
• Try changing the look of your document. Altering the size, spacing, color, or style of the text may trick your brain into thinking it’s seeing an unfamiliar document, and that can help you get a different perspective on what you’ve written.
• Find a quiet place to work. Don’t try to do your proofreading in front of the TV or while you’re chugging away on the treadmill. Find a place where you can concentrate and avoid distractions.
• If possible, do your editing and proofreading in several short blocks of time. Your concentration may start to wane if you try to proofread the entire text at one time.
• If you’re short on time, you may wish to prioritize. Make sure that you complete the most important editing and proofreading tasks.

Editing is what you begin doing as soon as you finish your first draft. You reread your draft to see, for example, whether the paper is well-organized, the transitions between paragraphs are smooth, and your evidence really backs up your argument. You can edit on several levels:

Have you done everything the assignment requires? Are the claims you make accurate? If it is required to do so, does your paper make an argument? Is the argument complete? Are all of your claims consistent? Have you supported each point with adequate evidence? Is all of the information in your paper relevant to the assignment and/or your overall writing goal? (For additional tips, see our handouts on understanding assignments and developing an argument .)

Overall structure

Does your paper have an appropriate introduction and conclusion? Is your thesis clearly stated in your introduction? Is it clear how each paragraph in the body of your paper is related to your thesis? Are the paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence? Have you made clear transitions between paragraphs? One way to check the structure of your paper is to make a reverse outline of the paper after you have written the first draft. (See our handouts on introductions , conclusions , thesis statements , and transitions .)

Structure within paragraphs

Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence? Does each paragraph stick to one main idea? Are there any extraneous or missing sentences in any of your paragraphs? (See our handout on paragraph development .)

Have you defined any important terms that might be unclear to your reader? Is the meaning of each sentence clear? (One way to answer this question is to read your paper one sentence at a time, starting at the end and working backwards so that you will not unconsciously fill in content from previous sentences.) Is it clear what each pronoun (he, she, it, they, which, who, this, etc.) refers to? Have you chosen the proper words to express your ideas? Avoid using words you find in the thesaurus that aren’t part of your normal vocabulary; you may misuse them.

Have you used an appropriate tone (formal, informal, persuasive, etc.)? Is your use of gendered language (masculine and feminine pronouns like “he” or “she,” words like “fireman” that contain “man,” and words that some people incorrectly assume apply to only one gender—for example, some people assume “nurse” must refer to a woman) appropriate? Have you varied the length and structure of your sentences? Do you tends to use the passive voice too often? Does your writing contain a lot of unnecessary phrases like “there is,” “there are,” “due to the fact that,” etc.? Do you repeat a strong word (for example, a vivid main verb) unnecessarily? (For tips, see our handouts on style and gender-inclusive language .)

Have you appropriately cited quotes, paraphrases, and ideas you got from sources? Are your citations in the correct format? (See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for more information.)

As you edit at all of these levels, you will usually make significant revisions to the content and wording of your paper. Keep an eye out for patterns of error; knowing what kinds of problems you tend to have will be helpful, especially if you are editing a large document like a thesis or dissertation. Once you have identified a pattern, you can develop techniques for spotting and correcting future instances of that pattern. For example, if you notice that you often discuss several distinct topics in each paragraph, you can go through your paper and underline the key words in each paragraph, then break the paragraphs up so that each one focuses on just one main idea.

Proofreading

Proofreading is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface errors such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation. You should proofread only after you have finished all of your other editing revisions.

Why proofread? It’s the content that really matters, right?

Content is important. But like it or not, the way a paper looks affects the way others judge it. When you’ve worked hard to develop and present your ideas, you don’t want careless errors distracting your reader from what you have to say. It’s worth paying attention to the details that help you to make a good impression.

Most people devote only a few minutes to proofreading, hoping to catch any glaring errors that jump out from the page. But a quick and cursory reading, especially after you’ve been working long and hard on a paper, usually misses a lot. It’s better to work with a definite plan that helps you to search systematically for specific kinds of errors.

Sure, this takes a little extra time, but it pays off in the end. If you know that you have an effective way to catch errors when the paper is almost finished, you can worry less about editing while you are writing your first drafts. This makes the entire writing proccess more efficient.

Try to keep the editing and proofreading processes separate. When you are editing an early draft, you don’t want to be bothered with thinking about punctuation, grammar, and spelling. If your worrying about the spelling of a word or the placement of a comma, you’re not focusing on the more important task of developing and connecting ideas.

The proofreading process

You probably already use some of the strategies discussed below. Experiment with different tactics until you find a system that works well for you. The important thing is to make the process systematic and focused so that you catch as many errors as possible in the least amount of time.

• Don’t rely entirely on spelling checkers. These can be useful tools but they are far from foolproof. Spell checkers have a limited dictionary, so some words that show up as misspelled may really just not be in their memory. In addition, spell checkers will not catch misspellings that form another valid word. For example, if you type “your” instead of “you’re,” “to” instead of “too,” or “there” instead of “their,” the spell checker won’t catch the error.
• Grammar checkers can be even more problematic. These programs work with a limited number of rules, so they can’t identify every error and often make mistakes. They also fail to give thorough explanations to help you understand why a sentence should be revised. You may want to use a grammar checker to help you identify potential run-on sentences or too-frequent use of the passive voice, but you need to be able to evaluate the feedback it provides.
• Proofread for only one kind of error at a time. If you try to identify and revise too many things at once, you risk losing focus, and your proofreading will be less effective. It’s easier to catch grammar errors if you aren’t checking punctuation and spelling at the same time. In addition, some of the techniques that work well for spotting one kind of mistake won’t catch others.
• Read slow, and read every word. Try reading out loud , which forces you to say each word and also lets you hear how the words sound together. When you read silently or too quickly, you may skip over errors or make unconscious corrections.
• Separate the text into individual sentences. This is another technique to help you to read every sentence carefully. Simply press the return key after every period so that every line begins a new sentence. Then read each sentence separately, looking for grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors. If you’re working with a printed copy, try using an opaque object like a ruler or a piece of paper to isolate the line you’re working on.
• Circle every punctuation mark. This forces you to look at each one. As you circle, ask yourself if the punctuation is correct.
• Read the paper backwards. This technique is helpful for checking spelling. Start with the last word on the last page and work your way back to the beginning, reading each word separately. Because content, punctuation, and grammar won’t make any sense, your focus will be entirely on the spelling of each word. You can also read backwards sentence by sentence to check grammar; this will help you avoid becoming distracted by content issues.
• Proofreading is a learning process. You’re not just looking for errors that you recognize; you’re also learning to recognize and correct new errors. This is where handbooks and dictionaries come in. Keep the ones you find helpful close at hand as you proofread.
• Ignorance may be bliss, but it won’t make you a better proofreader. You’ll often find things that don’t seem quite right to you, but you may not be quite sure what’s wrong either. A word looks like it might be misspelled, but the spell checker didn’t catch it. You think you need a comma between two words, but you’re not sure why. Should you use “that” instead of “which”? If you’re not sure about something, look it up.
• The proofreading process becomes more efficient as you develop and practice a systematic strategy. You’ll learn to identify the specific areas of your own writing that need careful attention, and knowing that you have a sound method for finding errors will help you to focus more on developing your ideas while you are drafting the paper.

Think you’ve got it?

Then give it a try, if you haven’t already! This handout contains seven errors our proofreader should have caught: three spelling errors, two punctuation errors, and two grammatical errors. Try to find them, and then check a version of this page with the errors marked in red to see if you’re a proofreading star.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Especially for non-native speakers of English:

Ascher, Allen. 2006. Think About Editing: An ESL Guide for the Harbrace Handbooks . Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Lane, Janet, and Ellen Lange. 2012. Writing Clearly: Grammar for Editing , 3rd ed. Boston: Heinle.

For everyone:

Einsohn, Amy. 2011. The Copyeditor’s Handbook: A Guide for Book Publishing and Corporate Communications , 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lanham, Richard A. 2006. Revising Prose , 5th ed. New York: Pearson Longman.

Tarshis, Barry. 1998. How to Be Your Own Best Editor: The Toolkit for Everyone Who Writes . New York: Three Rivers Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Proofread

Proofreading is an important skill for any writer. Whether you are a researcher or an academic, writing and publishing are important parts of your career. Before you submit any article for publication, you must proofread it thoroughly. How is proofreading done? In this article, we will review the key parts of proofreading, discuss how it differs from other types of editing, and give you some tips on ways to effectively proofread your own papers. We will focus on English proofreading , but you can apply these tips to proofreading in another language as well.

What is Proofreading? Proofreading is when you carefully check a document for errors such as basic grammar, style and consistency before it is published or submitted for publication. Proofreading focuses specifically on “minor” errors and consistency rather than major errors or content suggestions. Items that a proofreader should review include proper spelling, capitalization, spacing between words, punctuation, and formatting. For writers who are submitting an article to a publisher that requires a specific citation format (APA, Chicago, etc.), the step of proofreading is when you check whether the formatting in your document adheres to the demands of the citation style. While most of us think of “citation style” as only applying to references, in fact, citation style guides also specify how section headings and table or figure headings should look.

How do you Proofread Documents? Professional proofreaders develop their own style and process for effectively proofreading documents over time. This process can vary depending on the type of document. Technical documents that have formulas or complex figures may require a proofreader to pay special attention to punctuation or capitalization. For example, while in English, there is generally a space between a word and a parenthesis, in chemical formulas, there is no space. Many proofreaders who offer professional proofreading services find it most effective to begin their work by reviewing different sections at a time. For example, a proofreader may begin by reviewing all of the headings and chapter titles to ensure they are consistent and correct. Next, the proofreader may then go back through the document focusing on any tables or figures. It is only at the end that a proofreader will read through the entire document to see if there are any problems or errors that they missed the first few times.

Tips for Proofreading Effectively While each proofreader has their own methodology, all proofreaders should keep several things in mind. The following are some tips from experienced proofreaders that can help make the job easier. The first five tips are general recommendations for anyone who is faced with the task of proofreading, particularly proofreading their own work. The second five tips presume that you are using a word processing program such as Microsoft Word to perform the task of English proofreading .

• Take a break from the text. You should never finish writing a text and then directly begin proofreading. You need a break of at least several hours and preferably several days so that you can approach the text with a fresh set of eyes.
• Approach the text in sections. Don’t read it straight through. Begin by focusing on headings, then address tables and figures. Read different paper sections out of order. Reading the entire paper through should be your final step.
• Stay consistent. If you make a change to a word, phrase, punctuation mark, etc., make sure that the change you made is reflected throughout the entire text.
• Print out the text and review the hard copy version when you do your final proofreading round. This isn’t always feasible for every document. However, it is well-documented that reading on paper allows people to catch errors they might miss when reading on a computer screen.
• Read aloud. Sometimes it is easier to catch errors when you hear what you read. Reading aloud can also help you stay focused.
• Review your spellchecking settings before you begin. You can select which errors you would like the program to focus on and which ones you don’t care about. Do you love the Oxford comma? You can make spellcheck mark an error where it hasn’t been used.
• Never, ever rely fully on spellchecking programs. While spellcheckers can be a lifesaver, you cannot depend on them to do the entire job for you. Spellcheckers will not pick up on words that are used incorrectly (to vs. too vs. two). In addition, if you are editing a paper or article that incorporates foreign language terms, spellcheckers will have difficulty properly distinguishing errors.
• Know your language and citation style. Should the paper be in American English? British English? Are all of the citations correctly formatted? If you have the time, it doesn’t hurt to check citation formatting against an online citation generator.
• Use the “find and replace all” function. In many documents, if an error has been made once, it has been made throughout the text. Learning how to use “find and replace all” when you come across an error can save you lots of time and effort.
• Get familiar with the Corpus of Contemporary American English and the British National Corpus. English is a complex and inconsistent language with numerous variations. Sometimes there can be more than one right answer. If you aren’t sure whether to use “on” or “in,” or whether Americans use “analyse” or “analyze,” the corpus can tell you which words and phrases are most common and in what context. Both are available online for free.

Proofreading your own work can be difficult and tedious. Fortunately, there are numerous professional proofreading services available. Hiring proofreading services can be particularly useful for anyone who needs to strictly adhere to a particular citation style. Professional proofreading services have the expertise and resources to ensure that your document meets all of the requirements. Whether you hire someone or you do it yourself, proofreading is an essential step for any writer before publication.

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• Writing Tips

Why Proofreading Is Important

4-minute read

• 11th February 2023

Any type of writing can benefit from proofreading. In this article, we’ll explain what proofreading can help you achieve with your work and why it’s so important.

What Is Proofreading?

Proofreading is a type of editing . It’s the process of reviewing a piece of writing for errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting. It takes place after the writing process is complete, and it’s the last type of editing you’ll do before publication.

While earlier stages of editing might make more significant changes to the structure and content of a document, proofreading focuses on catching surface-level errors that the writer has made or that previous edits have introduced.

What Is the History of Proofreading?

Proofreading gets its name from traditional printing presses, where “galley proofs” were mockups of a printed manuscript to test how the published document would look. These “proofs” were then checked for mistakes before being used in the expensive process of printing.

Historically, proofreading was done on paper using symbols called proofing marks . While proofing marks are still in use, these days, most modern proofreading is carried out on a computer using word processing software, such as Microsoft Word .

Why Is Proofreading Important?

Proofreading is crucial to ensuring that a piece of writing is clear, accurate, and easy to understand. These qualities are essential for any document that’s going to be published or shared in some way, from novels to dissertations.

Proofreading helps written work appear professional, reliable, and credible, which is especially important in the case of academic and business writing . It can also help maintain the “ suspension of disbelief ” in works of fiction.

In addition, proofreading saves time and money by catching mistakes before they’re published, submitted, or widely distributed.

What Impact Can Errors Have?

Even the smallest mistake can have a major impact on a piece of writing. In some cases, an error in grammar, punctuation, spelling, or formatting can cause confusion and lead to misinterpretation of what the author intended to say. A missing comma, for example, can completely change the meaning of a sentence:

And the same is true of typos that confuse similar words:

Errors in a text can also:

●  Distract readers from the point being made

●  Detract from the credibility of the work

●  Make the work difficult to read and understand

●  Negatively impact an author’s reputation

This can lead to significant consequences, such as poor grades, rejection from publishers, or missed career opportunities.

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To summarize:

●  Proofreading is an essential step in the writing process that helps to ensure written work is clear, accurate, and easy to understand.

●  It’s particularly important for academic and professional writing, as errors can detract from the credibility of the work.

●  Errors can have serious consequences for an author and damage their professional reputation.

●  Proofreading can prevent confusion and save time by catching errors before they’re published.

Whether you choose to proofread your own work or use a professional, proofreading is essential to producing a good quality piece of writing.

1. What are the most common errors found during proofreading?

Some errors appear more often than others.

10 of the most common proofreading errors are:

• Incorrect apostrophe usage
• Missing commas
• Comma splices
• Sentence fragments
• Dangling and misplaced modifiers
• Confusing homophones, such as their/there/they’re, its/it’s, and to/too/two
• Faulty subject–verb agreement
• Misused sayings and idioms
• Inconsistent formatting
• General spelling errors

When proofreading your work, it’s a good idea to keep an eye out for these types of mistakes.

2. How can I proofread a large document efficiently?

It’s difficult to stay focused when looking through a long document, especially if you’ve already read it multiple times.

To help stay on track when proofreading large documents, try:

• Following a proofreading checklist
• Choosing one type of error to focus on at a time (e.g. first checking the entire document for spelling errors, then grammatical errors, and so on)
• Splitting the document into smaller, more manageable chunks
• Taking frequent breaks to rest your eyes (and your brain!)

3. How do I find a professional proofreader?

If you want a second pair of eyes on your writing, a professional proofreader can help.

Here at Proofed, we have a team of over 750 expert proofreaders ready to clean up your writing. 

Whether you’re writing an academic paper , job application , or novel manuscript , our proofreaders can help make sure your work is at its best. Try us out today with a free trial .

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Proofreading can be a difficult process, especially when you’re not sure where to start or what this process entails. Think of proofreading as a process of looking for any inconsistencies and grammatical errors as well as style and spelling issues. Below are a few general strategies that can help you get started.

General Strategies Before You Proofread

General strategies while you proofread, when you are done.

• Make sure that you leave plenty of time after you have finished your paper to walk away for a day or two, a week, or even 20 minutes. This will allow you to approach proofreading with fresh eyes.
• Print out a hard copy. Reading from a computer screen is not the most effective way to proofread. Having a hardcopy of your paper and a pen will help you.
• Have a list of what to look for. This will help you manage your time and not feel overwhelmed by proofreading. You can get this list from previous assignments where your instructor(s) noted common errors you make.
• Don’t rush . Many mistakes in writing occur because we rush. Read slowly and carefully to give your eyes enough time to spot errors.
• Read aloud to yourself. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read each word and can help you notice small mistakes.
• Read aloud to a friend and have the friend give you oral feedback.
• Have a friend read your paper aloud while you don’t read along.
• Use the search in document function of the computer to look for common errors from your list.
• Read from the end. Read individual sentences one at a time starting from the end of the paper rather than the beginning. This forces you to pay attention to the sentence itself rather than to the ideas of the paper as a whole.
• Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
• Have a friend look at your paper after you have made all the corrections you identified. A new reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
• Make an appointment with a Writing Lab tutor if you have any further questions or want someone to teach you more about proofreading.
• Ask your teacher to look at the areas you usually have trouble with to see if you have made any progress.

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Proofreading Guide for Beginners: An In-Depth Walkthrough of This Career

Ashleigh Ferguson

So you want to be a proofreader? Great! Whether you’re looking to proofread as a side-hustle or as your career, proofreading is a viable option for a satisfying and lucrative job.

Kudos to you for taking the next step by researching the possibilities.

If you’re already a big fan of ProWritingAid, you’re already a lover of words and the mechanics of writing. You’re definitely ready to take the plunge.

We’re going to make this really easy for you. This article is your one-stop guide to becoming a proofreader.

What Is Proofreading?

Who is a proofreader what does a proofreader do, what does proofreading involve, how do i become a proofreader, what skills are needed for proofreading as a job.

• What’s the Average Salary for Proofreading Jobs?

Before I explain what proofreading is, we need to briefly touch on the stages of editing.

While the editing process may vary from person to person, there are a few key stages that are always included:

• Developmental editing
• Copy editing
• Proofreading

As you can see, proofreading is the final stage of the editing process. It is the final check after formatting and before self-publishing or sending a manuscript to an agent or publisher.

As a proofreader, what exactly is your job?

A proofreader reads a book’s printed proof to check for typesetting errors before the final print run.

They don’t work with the author on their manuscript to make any substantial changes to the story. If you’re looking for a more interactive role, then you might be looking to be an editor .

If you’re going to be a proofreader there are few things that will become a part of your routine.

While responsibilities might vary from company to company and job to job, as a proofreader you’ll be responsible for catching spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors.

There are many niche areas of proofreading that you can dabble in. For example, you may choose to work on documents specifically related to law, medicine, technology, or art.

For our purposes, we'll focus on the tasks you might complete as a proofreader for fiction manuscripts.

These are a few of the questions you’ll ask yourself as you proofread:

• Are the italics consistent?
• Are the headings all formatted correctly?
• Are there any missing page numbers?
• Is there any double spacing between words?
• Are there any missing headers or footers?
• Is the quotation mark usage consistent? (e.g. all curly or all straight)

These aren't all of the things you'll look for, but this list gives you an idea of the kinds of errors and inconsistencies you'll need to spot.

No matter where you are in life, if you want to become a proofreader, there are options. Let’s look at the educational requirements.

What Degrees Can Help Me to Become a Proofreader?

Let’s start with degrees. Majors in Communication, English, and Journalism are common for proofreaders—but they're not essential.

These particular degrees all introduce you to the rules of grammar and writing, as well as helping familiarize you with writing to a certain style guide. Plus you’ll have a leg up in proofreading vacancies that require a first degree.

If you’re a final year English student who’s unsure of what to do with your degree, proofreading is definitely an option. Or maybe you’re already in the communications industry. Proofreading is a great way to pivot into another related field.

"Proofreading" as a job title is a bit of a broad brush, so you might want to niche down a bit. Certain positions will definitely call for an advanced degree and perhaps experience in a particular area.

For example, a background in law will give you an advantage if you were to apply for a position proofreading legal documents.

How to Become a Proofreader Without a Degree

However, that’s not to say that you can’t be successful without a degree. In fact, certifications are becoming more commonplace. These courses will cover a few things such as:

Make sure you evaluate the courses against your needs so you’re getting exactly what you need out of it.

Major accredited institutions include the U.S. Proofreader Certification Association or the Editors Association of Canada.

Both are referred to as the gold standard when it comes to being certified as a proofreader.

The process is similar for both: you select the credentials that best suit you, pay the requisite fees and take the exam, and if you pass you’re all set! You’re now a certified proofreader.

The next step is to find clients in your chosen niche. You can also supplement what you learn in your courses with writing experience. Seeking out internships is a sure way to gain relevant experience that puts you in a better position to land a job.

In addition to training, there are certain skills that you’re going to need if you want to become a proofreader. Let’s look at soft skills and technical skills.

Soft Skills Needed to Become a Proofreader

There are some soft skills that are indispensable in this field. You’ll need to have eagle eyes and care enough about the nitty-gritty.

You know the saying The devil is in the detail ? That’s your mantra now.

You also need to have a willingness to research the things you don’t know.

This is a particular asset if you’re hoping to work across industries as you’re bound to come across topics that you’re not familiar with.

Good time management will also become invaluable as you work to meet deadlines, and good communication skills are key when working with clients.

You’re essentially acting in the capacity of a problem-solver for your clients. You want to ensure that they’re not only getting a bang for their buck, but also that you deliver the services professionally.

What Technical Skills Do I Need to Work in Proofreading?

Since we’re in modern age, you’ll find that most of your proofreading tasks will require a computer.

Which is why it’s super helpful if you possess some proficiency in word processing, editorial software, and spreadsheets.

There are some clients who specifically seek freelancers who are familiar with specific editorial styles, so it doesn’t hurt to familiarize yourself with the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook and/or the Chicago Manual of Style.

Of course these are all things you can learn if you don’t already have knowledge of them.

Is There Any Software That Can Help With Proofreading?

Using software as a proofreader isn't cheating—it's efficient. By automating certain tasks like US and UK spelling consistency, punctuation consistency, and acronym checking, you leave more of your attention for the trickier stuff.

ProWritingAid's Consistency Report will highlight where a writer has used hyphens and em dashes interchangeably, capitalization inconsistency, English language inconsistencies, differently-typed ellipses, and more.

You're being paid to proofread. You'll go back over the writing after fixing errors with ProWritingAid—but the software will catch the glaring errors that may distract you from the finer details.

Try the Consistency Report with a free account.

What’s the Average Salary for Proofreading Jobs ?

According to proofreading expert Caityln Pyle , "proofreaders can charge per word, per page, per project, or per hour. It depends on the length of the project and your own preferences."

She mentioned that she was able to earn $43,000 a year as a proofreader, and that was only part time!

Which pretty much matches the data from the United States Bureau where the median wage is $41,140 with the ability to earn upwards of $65,840.

And of course, as a freelancer you’re free to charge what you want, backed by your skills and experience.

Is There a Demand for Proofreading Services?

You bet your bottom dollar there is. As long as there are documents being written, there are mistakes being made.

And as long as mistakes are being made, you guessed it, there will always be a need for proofreaders to spot them.

There are numerous freelancing opportunities to take advantage of. There are plenty of online job sites that post proofreading vacancies, whether part-time or full time.

Once you've built up a solid client base, all that's left to do is manage them. If each of your clients requires different styles, terms, punctuation, and capitalization, keeping track of them all can become a headache.

ProWritingAid's Style Guides allow you to create custom rules for your writing's grammar, style, and punctuation. Check out our guide to creating style guide rules to see how you can automate those client-specific demands.

Ready to Embark on a Career in Proofreading?

Of course you are! That’s why you’re here, isn’t it? And we’re here to tell you, you have all it takes.

When it comes to embarking on something new, imposter syndrome may kick in from time to time.

But don’t be deterred, use these tips as the starting point to gain the momentum you need. You’ve got this!

Take your writing to the next level:

20 Editing Tips from Professional Writers

Whether you are writing a novel, essay, article, or email, good writing is an essential part of communicating your ideas., this guide contains the 20 most important writing tips and techniques from a wide range of professional writers..

Be confident about grammar

Check every email, essay, or story for grammar mistakes. Fix them before you press send.

Ashleigh Ferguson is a former copywriter on the ProWritingAid team. With an affinity for learning new things, you can always count on her to know some random fact. She’s a self-proclaimed ‘Fix-it Felix’ and a newly minted ‘candle lady’.

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• Manuscript Review

What is the main purpose of proofreading a paper?

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Table of Contents

It’s commonplace to feel nervous about submitting your scientific work. Whether you’re concerned about meeting research reviewers’ high expectations and/or the target journals’ guidelines. Proofreading is the final stage before a manuscript leaves your hands and enters the expanding universe of appraisal for publication. So, it makes sense that you want to deliver a perfectly written document, and avoid embarrassing mistakes.

Most of us simply have either friends or colleagues proofread our work, but they may have their own limitations regarding proficiency in text writing. Instead, it’s highly advised that you look for professional help at this important stage.

The main purpose of proofreading is to improve the quality of the paper, ensuring there are no lingering mistakes, and correcting generalized discourse errors or writing inconsistencies. Essentially, you want to make sure you have a well-defined communication goal. Analyzing whether the content is properly conveyed, and the sentences are syntactically and grammatically well-written, are just two of the basic tasks to achieve publication-ready work. Specifically, a perfect manuscript, ready to be published in the most recognized scientific journals.

What is proofreading

Proofreading is the last writing process before the author submits the article for publication. It is the stage of verification, by the author him or herself, or by another person. Thus, it is not only important to check grammar and spelling, it is also highly advised to ensure that the idea of the writer/author is in agreement with what he or she wants to communicate with the audience. In other words, that the article/work is clearly written for its intended target audience.

Proofreading Vs. Editing

Paper proofreader.

How often have you conducted high-quality research, but the article about that research didn’t match the quality of the research itself? How many times have you regretted missing a mistake that ultimately led to a failed submission?

Proofreading ensures flawless content for publication, increasing your chances of success. An excellent paper proofreader checks all digital sources related to the document, including websites, email addresses, etc.

A good paper proofreader is someone who will take care of your work as if it were his or her own and, in addition to correcting grammar errors, also detects the possibility of scientific plagiarism. Proofreading your scientific article using scientific editing will save you from the humiliation of having your article rejected by scientific journals due to grammatical errors or inadequate language.

Why is proofreading important?

Effective proofreading is absolutely essential for producing high-quality documents, whether academic or professional. When done clearly, correctly and thoroughly, proofreading can be the difference between writing something that communicates as it is supposed to or a huge misunderstanding. It can also be the difference between acceptance and rejection in a distinguished journal. No author creates an excellent text without reviewing, reflecting, and revising – or trusting someone to do so – before the final version of their manuscript is complete and submitted.

Language and text reviewing are important to detect:

• Grammar mistakes and numbering errors – e.g. forms of numbers, short and scientific forms, degrees of comparison, etc.
• Spelling mistakes – simple misspellings, or incorrect use of a homonym (words that sound alike, but have different meanings, e.g. “read,” for “red”), typographical error, etc.
• Inconsistency in the document format – this can be simple font, spacing and justification rules, or standard format for the applicable research sub-type (e.g. research review versus experiment)
• Punctuation errors – missing or extra commas, periods, and/or quotation marks used incorrectly
• Misplaced words – correct word choice improves the quality of your content
• Poorly structured paragraphs
• Errors in sentence structure

Whatever the nature of your research, Elsevier will be glad to give you a hand in reviewing and amending your manuscript. Professional editors can proofread your document so the final product is well-written, precise, and easy to read. With Elsevier’s medical editing and proofreading services team, we can help you with grammar, syntax, spelling, and punctuation; maximizing impact, and increasing your chances of publication.

Language Editing Services by Elsevier Author Services:

Find more about our  Language Editing Standard : completion within 7 business days; editing by native speakers in (scientific) American or British English; PhD or PhD candidates selection according to your field of study and an exclusive guarantee: free re-edit or your money back.

• Manuscript Preparation

Types of Scientific Articles

• Research Process

Navigating the Research Landscape: A Deep Dive into the FINER Method

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Systematic Review VS Meta-Analysis

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Article Proofreading is an editorial firm offering top-tier editing, proofreading, formatting, and translation services to authors, researchers, students, and businesses, ensuring error-free documents. We are here to assist if you seek a blend of affordability and excellence. Our native English-speaking editors possess extensive expertise in editing papers from various fields, including sciences, medicine, engineering, art, history, economics, politics, humanities, business, management, and social sciences.

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At our core, language should never be a barrier to our client’s success. As a result, we are committed to empowering authors, researchers, students, and businesses globally by delivering exceptional, high-quality services.

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• Dedication to facilitating authors' communication in clear and well-written English.
• Providing an unwaveringly dependable service while upholding the highest quality of our work.
• Adherence to a stringent confidentiality and non-disclosure policy for all projects.
• Placing paramount importance on customer satisfaction.

Our Editing Process

• Manuscript Submission: You submit your manuscript to our team.
• Expert Selection: We carefully assign an editor based on their expertise in your field.
• Initial Editing: A junior editor conducts the first round of thorough editing.
• Senior Review: The manuscript undergoes a comprehensive review by a senior editor.
• Finalization: After editing, your polished manuscript is available for download.

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Article Proofreading is committed to enhancing research communication by eliminating language barriers. Our exceptional team of expert editors provides top-quality editing, proofreading, formatting, and translation services to authors, researchers, students, and businesses. With a specialization in editing research papers across various disciplines, including Life Science, Physical Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Humanities, our native English-speaking editors are academic scholars from renowned universities in the UK, Canada, the US, and Australia.

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How to Review Your Article Proof

An article proof shows you what your article will look like in a print or online publication.

Use the   IEEE Author Gateway   to review and approve your article proof.

• Click “Download and review article PDF” button on the “Article Detail – In Progress” page to download the proof.
• Indicate any changes to the proof by annotating the PDF. Be sure to include the membership status and progressive years of membership grades for authors who are IEEE members.
• Click “Upload final corrections” to upload your corrected proof, including any other files such as revised graphics. Zip or compress multiple files into a single upload.

If you receive your article proof PDF as an email attachment, simply download, annotate, and email it back to your IEEE Journals Production Manager (JPM). If you are unable to annotate the PDF file, you can still email corrections to your JPM through one of the following methods.

• Provide a Word, new PDF, or text document that contains a list of corrections. Cite the page, column, paragraph, and line of correction.
• Print out the PDF file. Mark your corrections on the printout. Scan and send it via email as an attached file.

Please note that the JPM cannot accept a new version of the article. All corrections must be submitted through one of the above methods.

Corrections on graphics

If changes are required on any graphics, supply a replacement image file electronically in one of the following preferred formats: PS, EPS, PNG, or TIF. Line art TIF images must be 600 dpi and 1 bit per pixel. Grayscale and photo TIF images must be 300 dpi and 8 bits per pixel. IEEE will not make edits to previously submitted graphics files.

Providing keywords

If you did not include keywords with your article, please provide them during the proof stage. For best results, define any abbreviations and, where possible, strive to use standardized keywords.   IEEE’s list of suggested keywords   will help you find the best keywords to fit your article.

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AI Proofreading Tools for Researchers (Top 6 tools enlisted)

Table of Contents

In the research realm, maintaining the highest standards of accuracy and clarity is paramount particularly when you’re working on a research paper. The dissemination of knowledge and advancements in various fields hinges on the meticulous presentation of findings and methodologies. However, the process of manuscript preparation, editing, proofreading, and reviewing can be time-consuming and often lead to delays and potential errors.

And that’s when AI proofreading comes into the picture. AI proofreading tools are new-age technology aid that is revolutionizing the way research is communicated and published. AI-powered proofreading tools are proving to be invaluable assets for researchers and editors, streamlining the proofreading process and ensuring the highest quality of academic work. This article gives you an overview of AI tools for proofreading and their role in enhancing academic writing.

The Rise of AI Proofreading in Scholarly Publishing

Traditionally, proofreading has been a meticulous and time-consuming task, often relying solely on the expertise of human editors. While human reviewers play an essential role in assessing the overall quality and content of manuscripts, AI proofreading tools offer an additional layer of reinforcement by identifying and correcting grammatical errors, inconsistencies, and stylistic issues.

The integration of AI proofreading into the research landscape is driven by the following factors:

Increased Volume of Research Output

The sheer volume of research papers being published has grown exponentially, making it challenging for human editors to keep up with the demand. AI proofreading tools can handle large volumes of text efficiently, alleviating the burden on editors and ensuring timely publication of research findings.

Global Collaboration and Diverse Writing Styles

Research collaborations often involve individuals from diverse linguistic backgrounds, leading to variations in writing styles and potential inconsistencies in grammar and usage. AI proofreading tools can adapt to these variations, ensuring that manuscripts adhere to established writing guidelines.

Consistency and Adherence to Style Guidelines

Academic journals and institutions often have specific style guides that authors must follow. AI proofreading tools can be trained on these guidelines, ensuring that manuscripts conform to the required style conventions, and reducing the risk of errors and inconsistencies.

Applications of AI Proofreading in Research

AI proofreading tools can be applied at various stages of research and scholarly publishing. Here are a few of them —

Manuscript Preparation

Researchers can use AI proofreading tools to identify and correct errors in their manuscripts before submitting them for review. This helps to ensure that the initial submission is of high quality and reduces the likelihood of errors being raised during the review process.

Peer Review Process

AI proofreading tools can assist editors and reviewers in identifying potential errors and inconsistencies in manuscripts during the peer review process. This can help to streamline the review process and ensure that the final published manuscripts are of the highest quality.

Journal Publishing and Archiving

AI proofreading tools can be integrated into journal publishing platforms to ensure that published manuscripts adhere to the journal's style guidelines and are free of errors. This helps to maintain the integrity and reputation of the journal.

Now, let’s explore the top 6 AI proofreading tools that facilitate error-free academic writing.

Top 6 AI Proofreading Tools to Improve Your Academic Writing

Ginger is a versatile proofreading tool that caters to both English and non-English writers. It offers comprehensive error detection, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes. Additionally, Ginger provides real-time translation capabilities, making it a valuable tool for multilingual writers.

2. WhiteSmoke

WhiteSmoke is a comprehensive proofreading AI tool that combines grammar and spelling checking with plagiarism detection and translation services. It offers a user-friendly interface and provides detailed explanations for suggested corrections, helping users improve their writing skills.

3. LanguageTool

LanguageTool is an open-source proofreading tool that supports over 30 languages. It is known for its accuracy and adaptability to various writing styles. LanguageTool's free version offers basic proofreading features, while the premium version provides advanced style and tone suggestions.

4. Slick Write

Slick Write is an another proofreading tool that focuses on enhancing writing style and clarity. It identifies and eliminates unnecessary words and phrases, improves sentence structure, and suggests alternatives for overused expressions. Slick Write is particularly useful for authors who seek to achieve concise and impactful writing.

5. Hemingway Editor

Hemingway Editor is a web-based AI tool for proofreading that emphasizes clarity and readability. It identifies complex sentences, passive voice constructions, and adverbs, suggesting simpler alternatives. Hemingway Editor is particularly useful for writers who seek to create concise and easily understandable content.

6. PaperRater

PaperRater is an AI-powered essay writing and proofreading tool designed for students. It provides feedback on grammar, spelling, style, and plagiarism, along with a comprehensive score and suggestions for improvement. PaperRater can be a valuable tool for students to enhance their academic writing skills.

Benefits of AI Proofreading in Research

The adoption of AI proofreading tools in research and scholarly publishing offers a range of benefits

Enhanced Accuracy and Consistency

Proofreading tools can detect a wide range of errors, including grammatical mistakes, typos, and inconsistencies in formatting and style. This helps to ensure the accuracy and professionalism of research manuscripts.

Improved Efficiency and Workflow

By automating many of the tasks involved in proofreading, AI tools can significantly reduce the time and effort required to prepare manuscripts for publication. This frees up researchers and editors to focus on more substantive aspects of the research workflow.

Accessibility and Language Support

AI proofreading tools can handle multiple languages, making them accessible to researchers from around the world. This facilitates collaboration across all the domains and ensures that research findings are accessible to a wider audience.

Identification of Plagiarism

AI proofreading tools can detect instances of plagiarism, helping to maintain the integrity of research and upholding ethical standards in scholarly publishing.

Limitations and Considerations for AI Proofreading

While AI proofreading tools offer significant benefits, it is important to understand their limitations and use them responsibly.

Human Review Remains Essential

AI proofreading tools should not be considered a substitute for human review. Human editors still play a crucial role in assessing the overall quality, content, and coherence of manuscripts.

Error Detection Accuracy

AI proofreading tools are not infallible and may occasionally miss errors or suggest incorrect corrections. It is essential to carefully review the suggestions provided by AI tools and exercise critical judgment.

Contextual Understanding

Proofreading tools may struggle with contextual nuances and stylistic choices. Authors should carefully review the suggestions provided by AI tools to ensure that they align with the intended meaning and style of the manuscript.

AI proofreading tools have revolutionized the way we approach writing, providing valuable assistance in identifying and correcting errors, enhancing style, and improving overall clarity. These tools are not meant to replace human editors but rather complement their expertise, ensuring that written work meets the highest standards of quality and effectiveness.

By leveraging AI proofreading tools, authors can elevate their communication skills and achieve greater success in various endeavors. If you’ve used any of the above proofreading tools, you can share your experience with us and recommend the best tool to our readers!

Suggested Reads!

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Free online proofreading and essay editor

A reliable proofreading tool and essay editor for any writer or student, a complete environment.

Typely is more than just a proofreading tool. It's a complete writing environment.

Thousands of checks

More than a thousand checks are being performed and we've only scratched the surface.

Inspired by the greatest writers

Gain access to humanity’s collective understanding about the craft of writing.

A proofreading tool that does not bark at every tree

Typely is precise. Existing tools for proofreading raise so many false alarms that their advice cannot be trusted. Instead, the writer must carefully consider whether to accept or reject each change.

We aim for a tool so precise that it becomes possible to unquestioningly adopt its recommendations and still come out ahead — with stronger, tighter prose. Better to be quiet and authoritative than loud and unreliable.

Relax, focus, write your next masterpiece...

Writing presumes more than simply laying out words on a paper. Typely helps you get in the mood and keeps you focused, immersed and ready to write your story.

Whether you need a distraction-free environment, some chill relaxing sounds or a pomodoro timer to manage your time we got you covered.

Got questions? We have answers.

No. Typely is completely free and we plan on keeping it that way. We are considering some advanced features however that might be available under a premium plan.

The only limit we have applied thus far is on the number of characters you can submit and that is being set at a maximum of 50,000.

In theory yes but that will require a lot of work and professionals dedicated for this job. We are considering a way of letting the community participate somehow.

Typely does not do grammar checking because it's hard and almost impossible to get right. The aim for Typely is to be precise and reliable.

Justice Department settles with Larry Nassar victims for $138.7 million

The Justice Department announced Tuesday it has agreed to pay nearly $139 million to victims of former Team USA gymnastics doctor Larry Nassar, settling legal claims brought over the department’s failure to investigate allegations that could have brought the convicted child molester to justice sooner and prevented dozens of assaults.

One of the largest of its kind in Justice Department history, the settlement brings to a close the last major legal case in an ugly chapter of Olympic sports in this country. Nassar’s prolific abuses occurred over a span of decades at international events including the Olympics , as well as at Michigan State University, where Nassar worked, and local gymnastics centers in Michigan and around the country.

Once well respected in elite gymnastics circles for his association with Team USA, Nassar committed hundreds of alleged assaults over the years, often under the guise of medical treatment. Members of multiple U.S. Olympic gymnastics teams have alleged abuse by Nassar, including Simone Biles, Aly Raisman and McKayla Maroney.

Nassar, 60, is serving an effective life sentence for federal convictions relating to possession of child pornography, as well as state convictions for sexual assaults of patients under his care.

A 2021 Justice Department inspector general’s report found that FBI agents in the Indianapolis and Los Angeles field offices failed to adequately respond to allegations against Nassar raised in 2015 and 2016.

In Indianapolis, the report found, one top FBI official overseeing the investigation also was applying for a job with the U.S. Olympic Committee at the time, and later lied to the inspector general’s office about the situation. In Los Angeles, the report found, agents failed to alert local authorities in any of the places where Nassar continued to treat young gymnasts while he was under investigation.

More than 70 girls and women later alleged in court filings that Nassar assaulted them between 2015 and when he was arrested in November 2016.

FBI Director Christopher A. Wray publicly apologized to Nassar’s victims, and the bureau fired an agent in the Indianapolis office involved with the case.

In a news release Tuesday, the department said it had agreed to pay $138.7 million to resolve 139 legal claims over its handling of the Nassar case.

“For decades, Lawrence Nassar abused his position, betraying the trust of those under his care and medical supervision while skirting accountability,” acting associate attorney general Benjamin C. Mizer said in a statement. “These allegations should have been taken seriously from the outset. While these settlements won’t undo the harm Nassar inflicted, our hope is that they will help give the victims of his crimes some of the critical support they need to continue healing.”

Tuesday’s announcement brings the total sum paid out by institutions to Nassar’s victims over his abuses to more than $1 billion. In 2018, Michigan State agreed to pay $500 million to more than 330 victims. And in 2021, the U.S. Olympic and Paralympic Committee agreed to pay $380 million to hundreds of Nassar’s victims.

John Manly, attorney for more than 100 of the women involved with the Justice Department settlement, said in an interview that the settlement will bring closure to his clients but still falls short of the criminal charges they wanted to see against the agents involved.

“For many of these families, knowing that the premier law enforcement agency in the U.S. knew their child was being treated by a child molester and did nothing for the better part of two years will always trouble them,” Manly said.

In 2021, after victims including Biles and Maroney offered emotionally wrenching testimony to the Senate Judiciary Committee, the Justice Department agreed to review its decision to not criminally charge two FBI agents from the Indianapolis office accused by the inspector general of making false statements. But the review concluded with the department again deciding not to charge the agents.

The Justice Department previously has agreed to pay similar sums to victims of mass shootings where federal agencies faced accusations of negligence.

Last year, the Justice Department agreed to pay $144.5 million to the families of 26 people killed in a 2017 mass shooting in Texas, resolving allegations of failures involving the federal government’s gun background check system. In 2021, the department struck a $130 million settlement with 40 survivors and families of a 2018 shooting at a high school in Parkland, Fla., over accusations the FBI failed to investigate tips that preceded the massacre.

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Three Takeaways From the Pennsylvania Primaries

A liberal Pittsburgh-area congresswoman turned away a centrist challenger, Nikki Haley kept ringing up votes against Donald Trump, and a Senate race began in earnest.

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By Chris Cameron and Anjali Huynh

• April 23, 2024

With the 2024 primary season entering the homestretch — and the presidential matchup already set — hundreds of thousands of Pennsylvanians cast their ballots on Tuesday in Senate and House contests as well as for president and local races.

President Biden and former President Donald J. Trump, who had been heading toward a 2020 rematch for months before securing their parties’ nominations in March, scored overwhelming victories in their primaries, facing opponents who had long since dropped out of the race. But Nikki Haley, Mr. Trump’s former rival in the Republican primaries, still took more than 100,000 votes across the state.

A long-awaited Senate matchup was officially set, as well, as David McCormick and Senator Bob Casey won their uncontested primaries.

And Representative Summer Lee, a progressive first-term Democrat, fended off a moderate challenger who had opposed her criticism of Israel’s war in Gaza. While Mr. Biden has faced protest votes in a number of states, Ms. Lee’s race was one of the first down-ballot tests of where Democrats stand on the war.

Here are three takeaways.

A progressive Democrat fended off a challenge that focused on her criticism of Israel’s military campaign.

Ms. Lee, a first-term progressive Democrat who represents a Pittsburgh-area district, was an early critic of Israel’s war in Gaza, where about 34,000 people have died since the war began six months ago. Ms. Lee’s stances against Israel’s military campaign drew a primary challenge from Bhavini Patel, a moderate Democrat who opposed Ms. Lee’s approach on the war.

But Ms. Lee emerged victorious, suggesting that public sentiment on the war, particularly among Democrats, has shifted significantly against Israel in the six months since the war began.

Trump shut McCormick out of his first Senate run. Now they share the Republican ticket.

Mr. McCormick won an unopposed Republican primary for Senate in Pennsylvania, pitting him against Mr. Casey, the Democratic incumbent. While Mr. McCormick had no rivals this time around, his victory represents something of a redemption arc after his defeat in his first Senate primary run in the state in 2022.

He is positioned with the best chance yet for Republicans to unseat Mr. Casey, an 18-year incumbent who has previously sailed to re-election. He defeated his previous Republican opponent in 2018 by 13 points , and an analysis by the Cook Political Report rates the race as leaning toward the Democrats.

Mr. Trump helped sink Mr. McCormick’s first run when he backed a rival candidate, the celebrity physician Dr. Mehmet Oz . In a race that hung on a knife’s edge, Mr. Trump’s backing of Dr. Oz, and his scorching attacks against Mr. McCormick, proved decisive — Dr. Oz eked out a win by fewer than a thousand votes.

Mr. McCormick has earned the endorsement of Mr. Trump for the coming battle against Mr. Casey, and they will share adjoining places at the top of Pennsylvania’s ballot in November.

‘Scranton Joe’ Biden sails to victory. Trump meets resistance from Haley holdouts.

Mr. Biden, who grew up in Scranton, Pa., took nearly 95 percent of the vote in the Democratic primary, scoring a yawning lead in a key battleground state. Representative Dean Phillips, who was on the ballot but dropped out of the race last month, got about 5 percent of the vote.

Mr. Trump also notched a decisive primary victory, but many Republican voters continued to express their discontent with the former president. At least 100,000 voters cast ballots for Ms. Haley, who had been Mr. Trump’s chief rival in the primaries before dropping out of the race last month.

The results on Tuesday suggest that Mr. Biden is on surer footing with the Democratic base in Pennsylvania compared with other battleground states, like Michigan, where the president has faced significant numbers of protest votes focusing on his handling of the war in Gaza.

The Haley vote suggests Mr. Trump may have some work to do to bring her voters back to his side in the fall.

Chris Cameron covers politics for The Times, focusing on breaking news and the 2024 campaign. More about Chris Cameron

Anjali Huynh , a member of the 2023-24 Times Fellowship class based in New York, covers national politics, the 2024 presidential campaign and other elections. More about Anjali Huynh

Our Coverage of the 2024 Election

Presidential Race

Donald Trump has put forth a law-and-order candidacy while also criticizing the legal system when it comes to himself and making exceptions for his supporters. Here’s  a look at his complicated relationship  with law enforcement.

Kamala Harris, campaigning in Wisconsin, took sharp swipes at Trump for his actions on abortion , a hot topic across the country . But she stayed silent on the war in Gaza, another issue erupting elsewhere among the critical bloc of young voters she has been courting.

President Biden announced $7 billion in grants for solar power projects and tried to draw a contrast with Republicans  who want to roll back his policies on climate change.

Other Key Races

David McCormick, the G.O.P. senate candidate, has often spoken about his modest upbringing on a farm in Pennsylvania . A close look at his past tells a different story.

Summer Lee’s race in Pennsylvania once seemed primed to become a major test of Democratic attitudes about the Middle East . But in much of the district, an expected ideological battle has not arrived.

A high-energy crowd rallied in Pittsburgh to support Representative Summer Lee, a left-leaning congresswoman whose primary is a high-profile test  of whether she can stave off a challenge aimed in part at her stance over the war in Gaza.

After Hamas’s Oct. 7 attack on Israel, pro-Israel political groups put the Democratic Party’s most outspoken critics on notice. The groups have raised millions to challenge candidates they see as not sufficiently pro-Israel, but have spent little  as public opinion shifts.