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Social organization in Insects: Ants,Termites and honey bees Posted on : 05-02-2021 Posted by : Admin

Introduction.

An ant is quite a simple animal. Its behavioural repertory is limited to ten to forty elementary behaviours. Yet, anthills are very complex one can find nursery, warehouses or kitchen gardens in the anthills. Some individual ants forage, others take care of the eggs, repair the nest or protect the anthill against miscellaneous threats.

Key to complex organization of Insects

Division of labor could be the key. Ants are highly specialized, so specialized that some individuals have to be fed by others; they are unable to get food by themselves. In economics, division of labor leads to efficiency, but, to function properly, some sort of supervision is necessary. The different tasks have to be coordinated. Yet no such supervisors exist in anthills. No ants are able to manage this exploit. Nevertheless, the coordination necessarily exists; it results from some sort of self-organization process.

Let us examine foraging strategies in ants-

Initially, a number of ants are randomly walking outside the nest in search of food. All along their way, these ants deposit a light stream of pheromones. When an ant finds some food, it returns home, depositing a stronger stream of pheromones again. Ants have the special behaviour of following the trail. So more and more number of individuals will tend to follow the trail and reach the food. When the ants return, they strengthen the pheromone stream indicating positive feedback. As more individuals strengthen the trail, it attracts new individuals, which in turn strengthen the trail furthermore.

In this example, the ants don't communicate directly. Information is exchanged through modifications of the environment. This type of communication is known as stigmergy. This concept was proposed by P.P. Grassé in 1959. While studying nest reconstruction in termites he showed that it doesn't rely on direct communication between individual termites. The structure of the nest itself directs the tasks of the workers, possibly with the help of local pheromone concentrations. The state of the nest structure triggers some behaviour, which then modifies the nest structure and trigger new behaviours until the construction is over. The process is similar in ant foraging.

The ants follow pheromone stream, but it is only a tendency. The ant may abandon the pheromone trail and move more or less randomly. It is also possible that the "lost" termite finds a new resource, sometimes far more rich than the previous one.  Now this lost termite ant will start constructing a new pheromone trail to attract new individuals and a new positive feedback loop is set up.

Finally, when the resource is used up, a negative feedback loop is set. For example, if pheromone decay is quick, as resource is been exhausted less number of ants will tend to follow the trail and finally the trail will gradually disappear.

Self-organization in social insects can be understood through following four basic mechanisms:

• The existence of multiple interactions.
• Amplification through positive feedback.
• Negative feedback.
• Amplification of fluctuations

Social organization in Honey Bees

A characteristic well-organized pattern develops on the combs of honey bee colonies. This patterns consists of three concentric regions like a central brood area, a surrounding rim of pollen and a large peripheral region of honey resulting to a large extent from a self organized process based on local information.

The model relies on the following assumptions suggested by the experimental observations:

• The queen bee moves more or less randomly over the combs and lays most eggs in the neighbourhood of cells already occupied by brood. Eggs remain in place for 21 days
• Honey and pollen are deposited in randomly selected available cells
• Four times as much honey is brought back to the hive than pollen
• Typical removal: input ratios for honey and pollen are 0.6 and 0.95 respectively
•  Removal of honey and pollen is proportional to the number of surrounding cells containing brood.

Stigmetry in Pillar construction

The termites use soil pellets impregnated with pheromones to build pillars. In this process of construction two successive phases takes place. First, the non-coordinated phase which is characterised by a random deposition of pellets. This phase ends with one of the deposits reaching a critical size. Then, the construction phase starts is the group of builders is sufficiently large. Finally the pillars emerge.

The existence of an initial deposit of soil pellets stimulates workers to accumulate more materials through a positive feedback mechanism, since the accumulation of materials reinforces the attractively of deposits through the diffusing pheromones emitted by the pellets. This self-catalysed snowball effect leads to the coordinated phase. If the number of builders is too small, the pheromone trail will disappear between two successive trips by the workers and the strengthening mechanism cannot work. Finally, only the non-coordinated phase is seen.

Therefore, there is no need to invoke a change of behaviour by the participants in the transition from the non-coordinated to the coordinated phase. It is merely the result of an increase in group size.

• Define Stigmetry.
• Write about social behaviour in Termites during pillar construction.
• Explain social behaviour in honey bees.

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Social Organization and social behaviour of Insects

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Characteristics of social insects

Benefits of social behavior, characteristics of social behavior, caste system, social organisation in termites, social system in primates.

Social behavior refers to interactions between individuals of the same species, often providing mutual or individual benefits. In the case of insects, social behavior has evolved due to its advantages in survival and reproduction. By working together, individuals in insect societies enhance their ability to defend their colony, forage efficiently, and reproduce more successfully, thus increasing their evolutionary fitness .

Insects, such as ants, bees, wasps, and termites, demonstrate some of the most complex forms of social organization in the animal kingdom, known as eusociality. Eusocial insects exhibit three primary characteristics: cooperative care of offspring, division of labor, and overlapping generations within a colony. This level of social organization allows them to form highly structured communities where individuals have specific roles, such as workers, soldiers, or reproductive members, enhancing the colony’s efficiency and survival.

The division of labor is one of the most fascinating aspects of insect social behavior. For example, worker ants are responsible for foraging, maintaining the nest, and caring for the young, while the queen’s sole function is reproduction. This separation of tasks ensures that all essential functions within the colony are covered, optimizing the survival of the entire group.

Furthermore, social insects often communicate through chemical signals, known as pheromones, which help coordinate activities like foraging, defense, and reproduction. In ants, for instance, pheromones are used to mark trails leading to food sources, allowing other colony members to follow the path efficiently. This communication system enables large colonies to function as a unified entity, with individual insects acting for the benefit of the group rather than for personal gain.

The evolution of social behavior in insects is a remarkable example of how cooperation can drive the success of a species. By forming complex societies with specialized roles and sophisticated communication systems, these insects have thrived in a variety of environments. Therefore, understanding the social behavior of insects not only provides insights into their success but also offers broader lessons on the advantages of cooperation in the natural world.

Social insects exhibit distinct characteristics that enable them to form complex, cooperative societies. These characteristics not only ensure the survival of individuals but also the efficiency and continuity of their colonies. Below are the key characteristics of social insects:

• Large population : Colonies of social insects harbor large populations. For example, honey bee hives can house 20,000 to 80,000 worker bees, while ant colonies may contain up to 600,000 individuals. Termite nests can reach several million termites. Multiple generations coexist within these colonies, which are typically matriarchal, meaning most members are descendants of a single female.
• Elaborate nests : Social insects construct intricate nests to protect their young and store food. These nests are often perennial and are initiated by the reproductive caste but maintained by the workers. For instance, honey bee hives feature hexagonal wax cells, while termite nests (termitaria) may contain fungal gardens for cultivating fungi . The structure of these nests often includes brood chambers, royal chambers for reproductive members, and storage cells.
• Caste system : Colonies are divided into distinct castes, with each caste performing a specialized role. The primary division is between reproductive members (queens and kings) and sterile members (workers and soldiers). In some species, the queen’s sole function is to lay eggs, while soldiers protect the colony. In termites, soldiers can be mandibulate, equipped with strong jaws, or nasute, ejecting chemicals for defense. Ants have the most elaborate caste system, with caste differentiation influenced by genetic, environmental, and nutritional factors.
• Protective devices : Social insects have evolved various mechanisms for colony defense. Worker bees possess stingers, while termite soldiers are tasked with defending the colony, some with large mandibles and others capable of chemical warfare via nasute projections. These adaptations serve to repel predators and protect the colony from threats.
• Cohesiveness of the colony : The success of a social insect colony depends on cooperation. Colony members are interdependent, with each caste working toward the collective benefit. This cooperation is facilitated by chemical and physiological mechanisms that bind members together, ensuring smooth operation and unity.
• Parental care : Parental care in social insects is instinctual, with workers providing food, maintaining hive temperature, and tending to the young and the queen. Workers also handle tasks like cleaning, repairing the nest, and provisioning food. This care ensures the colony’s reproductive members and developing young are well-nourished and protected.
• Progressive provisioning of food : Social insects provide continuous feeding to developing young until they reach adulthood, unlike species that rely on mass provisioning. Workers typically provide for the immature stages, with some ants even farming aphids for honeydew or gathering and storing seeds for winter.
• Trophallaxis : Trophallaxis, or mouth-to-mouth feeding, is a critical behavior in many social insects. Workers feed the young and reproductive members of the colony. In termites, this feeding behavior is important for caste determination, as ectohormones are passed during feeding, influencing the development of nymphs.
• Swarming : Swarming involves the movement of large groups of individuals for feeding, migration, or mating. It reduces overcrowding and allows colonies to escape adverse conditions. In honey bees, swarming is also a mechanism for colony multiplication, with the queen leading a group of workers to establish a new hive.
• Communication : Social insects rely on tactile, chemical, visual, and auditory signals for communication. Pheromones are used by ants and termites to mark foraging trails, while the honey bee queen secretes substances to inhibit the reproductive abilities of workers. Honey bees also perform dances to communicate the location of food sources.

Social behavior offers numerous advantages to species that engage in it. These benefits often contribute to enhanced survival and reproductive success, providing a strong evolutionary advantage. Below are the key benefits of social behavior:

• Increased success in finding food : Many animals that work in groups have a higher chance of locating food. When multiple individuals cooperate, the likelihood that at least one will discover a food source increases, benefiting the entire group.
• Enhanced foraging efficiency : When animals search for food in groups, they can cover a larger area more efficiently. This collective effort improves their chances of encountering food, especially in environments where resources may be scarce or difficult to locate.
• Improved prey capture : In some species, group hunting increases the chances of successfully capturing prey. By working together, predators can take down larger or faster prey than they could individually. For instance, lions hunt wildebeests and wolves hunt moose more effectively when they cooperate as a pack.
• Coordinated hunting techniques : Some animals, like dolphins, use social behavior to create strategic hunting methods. Dolphins will encircle a school of fish, taking turns darting into the center to catch the trapped prey, ensuring a higher success rate for each individual.
• Group hunting of large prey : Carnivorous animals, such as wolves and lions, often band together to hunt large prey. By combining their efforts, they can overpower animals much larger than themselves, increasing their chances of a successful kill and ensuring the group is well-fed.
• Protection from predators : Living in social groups provides protection. Many animals form groups to reduce the risk of predation , as it is more challenging for predators to target an individual in a large group. The collective vigilance of the group increases the chances of spotting danger early and escaping.
• Facilitated travel : For some species, social behavior makes traveling more efficient. Groups can navigate large distances more easily, whether migrating to new habitats or moving in search of food, as they benefit from group coordination and protection during their journey.

Social behavior in animals is defined by their interactions within a group, leading to various adaptive advantages. Social insects, in particular, exhibit well-developed characteristics of social behavior, which contribute to the structure and functioning of their colonies. Here are the key characteristics of social behavior in insects:

• Social insects live in organized colonies, which may house tens of thousands to millions of individuals, such as 10,000-50,000 honey bees, 600,000 ants, and millions of termites.
• All members of a colony are typically the offspring of a single female, meaning they share a common genotype, which enhances colony cohesion.
• Social insects build complex nests for protection, food storage, and rearing their young.
• Honey bees construct wax combs made up of hexagonal cells, often found in trees or man-made structures.
• Ants build tunnel-like nests from soil or wood , with multiple exits for defense and movement.
• Division of labor in social insects leads to a caste system, where members are morphologically and behaviorally specialized for specific roles.
• The primary castes include reproductive (queen and king) and sterile (workers and soldiers). Workers, in many species like honey bees and wasps, are sterile females, whereas in termites and ants, both males and females can serve as workers.
• Factors determining caste include genetics and nutrition in bees, wasps, and ants, and external influences such as ectohormones in termites.
• Instinctive behaviors, including feeding, cleaning, and egg-laying, define parental care in social insects. Workers are responsible for maintaining these tasks to ensure the colony’s well-being.
• Social insects provide continuous care to their young throughout development, feeding them until they metamorphose into adults.
• Some ants nurture aphids in their nests, feeding on the honeydew they produce, while protecting them from predators. Fungus-growing ants cultivate fungi in specialized chambers and provide organic matter to nourish these fungal crops.
• The exchange of food among colony members is known as trophallaxis. This mutual feeding strengthens social bonds and helps nourish younger or reproductive members.
• In termites, trophallaxis plays a significant role in caste determination. Hormones exchanged during feeding regulate the development of nymphs into specific castes, such as workers or soldiers.
• When colonies grow too large, a portion of the population swarms, relocating to a new area. Swarming is critical for reproduction, migration, and colony distribution.
• In certain species, such as honey bees, a nuptial flight occurs, where queens and males leave the colony for mating.
• Social insects have evolved various protective mechanisms. Honey bees and wasps possess venomous stings, while ants and termites have developed strong mandibles for defense.
• Social insects communicate using chemical signals (pheromones), tactile cues, visual displays, and sounds.
• For example, ants leave chemical trails to guide others, while honey bees perform specific dances to convey information about food sources, a behavior famously studied by Von Frisch.

Social organization in honey bee

The caste system in social insects, such as honey bees, is a highly structured hierarchy, where different types of individuals are specialized for specific roles, all contributing to the functioning and survival of the colony. Each caste exhibits distinct morphological and behavioral traits, ensuring the efficient division of labor.

• The queen is the reproductive center of the colony, being the only fertile female and the largest individual.
• She has a long, tapered abdomen, small brain, and underdeveloped salivary glands. Unlike other members, the queen cannot produce honey, wax, or collect pollen.
• Developing from fertilized eggs, the queen is raised in a specialized larger chamber known as the “queen cell” and fed royal jelly throughout her larval stage.
• The queen’s primary function is reproduction. She is strictly monogamous, mating only once in her lifetime. Post-mating, her abdomen enlarges to accommodate her ovaries , a phenomenon seen across other social insects, referred to as physogastry .
• The queen lays both fertilized and unfertilized eggs, producing workers (from fertilized eggs) and drones (from unfertilized eggs).
• Drones are the male members of the colony, produced parthenogenetically from unfertilized eggs.
• They possess large wings that extend beyond the tip of their abdomen and develop in larger, hexagonal cells within the hive.
• Their sole function is reproduction. They participate in the nuptial flight , during which they mate with a queen. After mating, drones either die or are expelled from the colony by workers.
• Workers are the smallest and most numerous individuals in the colony. They are sterile females, hatched from fertilized eggs, and their bodies are highly specialized for a wide array of functions.
• Covered densely in hair, workers have mouthparts adapted for biting and lapping , ideal for foraging. Their spoon-shaped mandibles are used for molding wax, while their legs are adapted for pollen collection and storage.
• The forelegs contain an eye brush and antenna cleaner, the mid-legs possess a pollen spur, and the hind legs have a pollen basket. These adaptations play a crucial role in gathering and transporting pollen back to the hive.
• The wax glands, located on the ventral surface of the workers’ abdominal segments, produce the wax used for constructing and maintaining the hive.
• Workers’ salivary glands are well-developed and are responsible for producing royal jelly, which is used to feed larvae in the initial stages of their development.
• Their wings feature hamuli , small hooklets on the anterior margin of the hindwings that fit into sockets on the posterior margin of the forewings, ensuring efficient flight.
• The workers’ ovipositors are modified into a sting apparatus , which they use in defense. The poison delivered through their sting is primarily acidic.
• Workers undertake nearly all colony activities except reproduction. These tasks include feeding and caring for the larvae, attending to the queen, constructing and maintaining the hive, foraging for food, and defending the colony.

A beehive is a complex and meticulously organized structure, created by honey bees to store food, rear young, and ensure the colony’s survival. Built in a hanging position from trees, buildings, or rocks, the hive consists of thin walls made of beeswax, forming two layers of hexagonal chambers known as honeycombs. These chambers serve distinct purposes within the hive, facilitating the storage of food and the development of new bees.

• Beeswax, secreted from specialized wax glands located in the abdomen of worker bees, is the primary material used to construct the hive.
• Workers chew the wax and mix it with secretions from their cephalic glands, transforming it into a pliable substance to build honeycombs.
• Additionally, bees use propolis , a resinous mixture made from plant materials, to waterproof the hive and repair any damages. The resins and gums collected from plants are used for sealing and reinforcing the hive structure.
• Storage cells are located at the margins and top of the honeycomb, serving as repositories for honey and pollen. These cells ensure that the colony has food reserves, especially during times when foraging is not possible.
• Queen cells are specialized, peanut-like chambers designed for the development of the queen bee. Larger than other cells, these are built away from the regular worker and drone cells.
• Swarm Cells : These are formed when the colony becomes overcrowded. A second queen is raised, and the original queen departs with part of the colony to form a new hive. Swarm cells are typically lumpier and hang vertically.
• Supersedure Cells : These cells are created when the existing queen is injured, aging, or otherwise unfit to continue leading the colony. A new queen is raised by feeding young larvae royal jelly.
• Emergency Cells : Built when the queen dies unexpectedly, these cells are formed by converting existing brood cells into supersedure cells, ensuring the rapid development of a new queen. These cells have a distinct shape, being partly horizontal and partly vertical with a right-angle bend.
• Drone cells are larger than worker cells and are clustered at the bottom of the hive. Their dome-shaped design features a higher and rounded cap. These cells house drones, the male bees, and make up about 30% of the total cells in the hive, though the number may vary based on factors like season and colony genetics.
• Worker cells, which are smaller and slightly domed, are the most numerous in the hive. Located primarily in the center of the honeycomb, they serve a dual purpose. In the lower part of the honeycomb, worker cells are used to rear worker bees, while in the upper sections, they store honey and pollen. The structure and organization of worker cells are critical for maintaining the colony’s productivity and food supply.

Termites, commonly referred to as white ants, are fascinating insects that exhibit complex social organization. They belong to the class Insecta and order Isoptera, and they are predominantly found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions worldwide. Known for their soft bodies and hemimetabolous development, termites are primarily cellulose-eating, nocturnal creatures that thrive in large colonies. These colonies can comprise hundreds of thousands, and in some cases, millions of individuals, all of which stem from a single reproductive female, the queen. Understanding the social structure of termites provides insight into their ecological role as decomposers and their impact as pests.

• Termite colonies are matriarchal and can include over 1,700 species. A colony’s population typically stabilizes and reaches its maximum size within four to five years. The queen can live for up to 50 years and may lay around 2,000 eggs per day, significantly contributing to the colony’s growth.
• All members of a colony share a similar genotype due to their descent from a single queen, which reinforces the importance of genetic consistency in colony functioning.
• The termite colony consists of two main forms: reproductive forms (fertile castes) and sterile forms (caste). Each caste has specific roles essential for colony survival and efficiency.
• These are the sexually mature males and females, often referred to as the primary reproductive caste.
• They possess two pairs of large, equal-sized wings and are capable of flight until they shed their wings after mating.
• The body is chitinized and dark brown, with well-developed compound eyes and larger sex organs compared to other castes.
• Upon mating, they seek a location to establish a new colony, becoming the king and queen of their new nest.
• These individuals are also sexually mature but resemble nymphs and possess only short wing buds.
• They remain within the nest and can replace the primary king or queen if necessary, becoming polygamous.
• Their egg production is lower than that of macropterous forms.
• Rarely found and primarily located in lower termites, these forms appear similar to nymphs and lack wings.
• They are often referred to as Ergatoid Kings and Queens and may exist in several numbers within a colony.
• These wingless individuals are crucial to the colony’s daily operations. They are smaller in size, pale in color, and have rudimentary body structures.
• With a colony population that can reach up to 200,000, workers are responsible for nurturing eggs and nymphs, foraging for food, and maintaining the nest.
• They are also essential for cultivating fungal gardens, which serve as a primary food source, and are capable of digesting cellulose with the help of symbiotic flagellates, such as Trichonympha .
• Characterized by large, dark heads and formidable mandibles, soldier termites play a vital role in colony defense.
• They require sustenance from workers and are equipped with either large mandibles or specialized frontal rostrums to exude defensive fluids.
• Worker termites are responsible for building elaborate nests, known as termitaria, which can vary from simple soil cavities to towering mounds up to six meters high.
• These nests are made from a combination of mud, wood, and excrement, mixed with saliva, and are characterized by their hard, rock-like walls.
• Inside, the termitaria contain a complex network of passages and chambers designed for food storage, cultivation of fungi, and rearing of young. They are equipped with ventilation systems to regulate temperature and protect against rain.
• Termites exhibit notable parental care, with workers tending to the eggs and nymphs in designated fungal chambers.
• Trophallaxis, or the mouth-to-mouth transfer of food, is crucial in this process, allowing the sharing of nutrients and symbiotic microorganisms essential for digestion.
• The cooperative behaviors among castes facilitate the transfer of food and the exchange of pheromones, regulating caste development and colony dynamics.
• Termites utilize chemical signals known as pheromones to communicate within the colony. Each colony possesses a unique odor that helps in recognition of intruders and the organization of colony activities.
• Alarm pheromones trigger defensive behaviors from soldiers when the colony is threatened, while food sources are indicated through pheromone trails laid by foraging workers.
• In addition to chemical communication, termites also produce vibrations by banging their heads against tunnel walls, which serves as an alert mechanism for mobilizing the colony.

Social systems among primates exhibit a remarkable complexity that reflects their evolutionary adaptations and ecological demands. These systems are characterized by various forms of social organization that facilitate survival, reproduction, and social learning. The sociality observed in primates can be attributed to several factors, including increased brain size, the development of dexterous hands, reliance on visual communication, and adaptability to diverse habitats.

• Enlargement of Brain : The larger brain size in primates supports complex social interactions, allowing for advanced problem-solving and social cognition.
• Development of Grasping Hands : This adaptation enables primates to manipulate their environment effectively, facilitating various social behaviors, including grooming and food sharing.
• Vision Reliance : Primates’ acute visual capabilities aid in communication and the recognition of social cues, which are crucial for maintaining group dynamics.
• Diverse Habitats : Primates inhabit both arboreal and terrestrial environments, leading to varied social structures based on environmental factors.

The social behaviors in primates can be classified into six primary types, each with unique characteristics and implications for their social organization.

• Examples : Orangutans, aye-ayes, and lorises.
• Characteristics : These primates live predominantly in isolation, occupying a defined home range. For instance, orangutans associate primarily for mating purposes, with offspring relying on maternal care.
• Behavioral Aspects : They follow seasonal fruiting patterns and remain largely arboreal.
• Examples : Gibbons, tree shrews, lemurs, and marmosets.
• Characteristics : Monogamous arrangements are rare among primates, yet gibbons exemplify this through lifelong pair bonds. These groups usually consist of an adult male, female, and their offspring, with notable equal participation in activities and parental investment.
• Behavioral Aspects : Gibbons engage in elaborate vocalizations to defend their territory, and marmosets often have twins, with males playing a significant role in infant care.
• Examples : Patas monkeys, hanuman langurs, and red howler monkeys.
• Characteristics : These groups typically consist of one dominant male and multiple females and young. The male, often referred to as the overlord, directs group activities and territorial defense.
• Behavioral Aspects : The dominance hierarchy is clear, with males exhibiting significant physical differences compared to females, and male parental investment is minimal.
• Examples : Baboons.
• Characteristics : In these social structures, several females are bonded to a single male, forming harem-like groups. Such groups may come together to form larger troops for foraging and sleeping.
• Behavioral Aspects : Baboons exhibit flexible group dynamics, often separating into smaller units during foraging and regrouping for social interactions.
• Examples : Rhesus monkeys, gorillas, and spider monkeys.
• Characteristics : These groups feature multiple adult males and females, with social hierarchies influencing group interactions. In gorillas, a clear dominance hierarchy exists among males, with the alpha male leading the group.
• Behavioral Aspects : Rhesus monkeys demonstrate a complex social structure where female dominance is often linked to the status of their bonded males. Dominance behaviors are visibly marked by the males’ body language.
• Examples : Chimpanzees.
• Characteristics : Chimpanzees exhibit a fluid social structure, where group sizes vary based on food availability. Males defend territory and organize into smaller foraging parties when necessary.
• Behavioral Aspects : Communication within these groups relies heavily on vocalizations and body language, reflecting a sophisticated social awareness.

Primate social systems demonstrate several unique features:

• Close Associations : Primates form social bonds within territorial limits, facilitating resource sharing and protection.
• Information Sharing : Group members continuously exchange vital information regarding food sources, threats, and social dynamics.
• Group Size Variation : Social group sizes can range from pairs to hundreds, adapting to environmental conditions.
• Rank Relations : Social hierarchies influence interactions, with clear distinctions in dominance based on age, sex, and individual personality traits.
• Communication : Social organization emphasizes the importance of communication through sounds and gestures, allowing members to respond to social cues effectively.
• Division of Labor : Specific roles are often assigned based on individual status, aiding in group cohesion and efficiency during foraging, parenting, and defense.

The advantages of such social organization include:

• Permanent Structures : Stable social hierarchies facilitate group coherence.
• Enhanced Communication : Clear communication channels improve group cohesion and reduce misunderstandings.
• Specialization : Role differentiation enables efficient resource utilization and conflict resolution.
• Cohesion : Strong bonds among members enhance collective defense mechanisms against threats.
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• https://www.mlsu.ac.in/econtents/1216_Social%20Life%20of%20Insects%20(Bee,%20Wasp,%20Ants%20&%20Termite).pdf
• https://www.iaszoology.com/social-insects/
• https://avys.omu.edu.tr/storage/app/public/kokdener/137438/8.pdf
• https://jiwaji.edu/pdf/ecourse/zoology/Social%20Organisation%20In%20Insects.pdf
• https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1942-01095-001
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• http://bgsscienceacademy.ac.in/EducationalNotes/StudyMaterial/UG%20ZOOLOGY/Z5%20Social%20Behaviour%20-%20BGS%20SARC.pdf

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• Social Organisation In Insects

In insects social life has evolved only in two orders, namely, Isoptera (termites) and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants) which make a nest and live in colonies of thousands of individuals that practice division of labour and social interaction.

SOCIAL LIFE IN TERMITES

Termites were the first animals which started living in colonies and developed a well organised social system about 300 million years ago, much earlier than honey bees, ants and human beings. Although termites do not exceed 3-4 mm in size, their queen is a 4 inch long giant that lies in the royal chamber motionless, since its legs are too small to move its enormous body. Hence workers have to take care of all its daily chores.

Termite queen is an egg-laying machine that reproduces at an astonishing rate of two eggs per second. Generally the queen of a termite colony can lay 6,000 to 7,000 eggs per day, and can live for 15 to 20 years. The other castes, workers and soldiers are highly devoted to the colony, working incessantly and tirelessly, demanding nothing in return from the society.

Soldiers have long dagger-like mandibles with which they defend their nest and workers chew the wood to feed to the queen and larvae and grow fungus gardens for lean periods.

Nasutes are specialized soldiers which specialize in chemical warfare. They produce a jet of highly corrosive chemical from their bodies that can dissolve the skin of enemies and can also help in making galleries through the rocks.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF A BEE COLONY

The population of a healthy bee hive in spring and honey flow period may contain 40,000-80,000 individuals but the population declines in winter and extreme summer. There is remarkable order in the hive and no conflicts are seen among the members.

Generally only one queen stays in the hive and other queens along with their army of workers swarm out and seek new places for building their own hives. Queen takes one to several nuptial flights and after mating with drones settles in the hive and starts laying eggs.

Drones are haploid fertile males of the colony, whose only job seems to be to mate with the queen and transfer their sperms in her spermatheca. There are 2-3 dozen drones in a bee hive all of which energetically pursue a queen in her nuptial flight. Once the breeding season is over drones are driven out of the hive by workers and die of starvation, since they are unable to forage for themselves.

Workers in a hive are 20,000-80,000 in number, which are genetically sterile females that build, maintain and protect the hive. A worker attends to cleaning and maintaining the hive and feeding the larvae with honey and bee bread. It also secretes wax from the abdominal wax glands and participates in building honey comb cells. The workers function as foragers of nectar and pollen and in later part of life as water carriers, and eventually die while working.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN WASPS

The abdomen is narrowly attached to the thorax by a petiole. In addition to their compound eyes, wasps also have three simple eyes known as ocelli, arranged in a triangle on the top of the head. Females have diploid number of chromosomes and develop from fertilized eggs. Males are haploid and develop from unfertilized eggs.

Yellow jackets and paper wasps prey on caterpillars and other larvae that can destroy crops. Wasps feed on flower nectar and play a role in pollination. Wasps can be solitary or colonial and social insects that exist in colonies numbering up to several thousand strong and build nests.

Many instead create a paper-like substance primarily from wood pulp, which is gathered locally from weathered wood that is softened by chewing and mixing with saliva. The pulp is then used to make combs with cells for brood rearing. Mud daubers and pollen wasps construct mud cells in sheltered places typically on the sides of walls. Potter wasps similarly build vase-like nests from mud, often with multiple cells, attached to the twigs of trees or against walls.

ANT SOCIETIES

Ants have the highest developed social system, next only to man, with no apparent conflict seen in the society. A colony may have few thousand to over 500,000 individuals. The nests are built in various designs and are called formicaria . Extreme devotion to duty and “Work is worship” attitude binds them together.

Like honeybees, they have polyethism , which means castes are specialized to carry out specialized duties in the colony. For example, the queen has large abdomen to lay a lot of eggs (2-3 million in a year), males fertilize her, workers have broad, sharp mandibles for cutting and chewing and the soldiers have large head that bears sharp dagger-like mandibles for fighting. Workers and soldiers are sterile females.

Ants have poor eyesight and are deaf but have a highly sophisticated chemical language for communication. They possess glands that secrete pheromones for communication. The mutual attraction among the members of a colony is maintained by endless antennal caressing, licking and nuzzling during which they trade food, glandular secretions and enzymes, which is called tropholaxis .

Most ant species excavate nests in the ground or wood but some construct suspended nests on trees made of earth, carton, wax or silk, while some, like safari ants, do not build nests at all. Desert ants build crater-like nests or mounds in which they are able to maintain temperature much below the outside heat. The tropical ant Oecophylla makes nest by webbing the leaves with silken thread that is produced by their larvae.

About the author

Dr. girish chandra administrator.

Dr. Girish Chandra, retired Professor from Delhi University, has been teaching zoology for over 40 years and conducting research in insect taxonomy and pest control, particularly biological control and integrated pest management.

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Jahangir shah posted on1:34 pm - jan 27, 2017.

Sir your work is highlyl laudable, praiseworthy, memorable… Your efforts have highly helped poor students who could not readily get books from the local market…. I salute your dedication and honesty….. May GOD bless u…. And have his mercy on you…. Plz keep this social service going on…….

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Social Insects: An Evolutionary Journey into Cooperation

• Published: 21 December 2023
• Volume 103 , pages 943–948, ( 2023 )

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• Anoushka Dasgupta 1  

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This article is a primer on social insects, and includes salient features of eusociality, its evolution and characteristics of a few social insects. It introduces William Morton Wheeler’s landmark book “Social Life Among the Insects,” whose centenary year of publication inspired the theme of this special issue of the Journal of the Indian Institute of Science. It also gives a brief description of research on fascinating social insects being carried out in India, and how so much is yet to be explored.

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I would like to thank Raghavendra Gadagkar, Sachin Suresh and Vedanth Sriram for their helpful comments.

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