research project stage 1

• Research Guides

6 Stages of Research

• 1: Task Definition
• 2: Information Seeking
• 3: Location & Access
• 4: Use of Information
• 5: Synthesis
• 6: Evaluation

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Ask the Right Questions

The scope of an investigation determines how large or small your investigation will be. Determining the scope of an investigation is the critical first step in the research process because you will know how far and how deep to look for answers. This lesson will teach you how to develop a research question as a way to determine the scope of an investigation.

Click the image to open the tutorial in a new window.

Keyword(s):  5W Criteria, Ask the Right Questions, Guided Inquiry, Information Literacy, Library, New Literacies Alliance, Research as Inquiry, Research Question

Purpose of this guide

The purpose of this guide is to walk you through the 6 stages of writing an effective research paper. By breaking the process down into these 6 stages, your paper will be better and you will get more out of the research experience. 

The 6 stages are:

• Task Definition (developing a topic)
• Information Seeking (coming up with a research plan)
• Location & Access (finding good sources)
• Use of Information (Reading, taking notes, and generally making the writing process easier)
• Synthesis (coming up with your own ideas and presenting them well)
• Evaluation (reflection)

This research guide is based on the Big6 Information Literacy model from  https://thebig6.org/

Task Definition

The purpose of task definition is to help you develop an effective topic for your paper. .

Developing a topic is often one of the hardest and most important steps in writing a paper or doing a research project. But here are some tips:

• A research topic is a question, not a statement. You shouldn't already know the answer when you start researching.
• Research something you actually care about or find interesting. It turns the research process from a chore into something enjoyable and whoever reads your work can tell the difference. 
• Read the assignment before and after you think you have come up with your topic to make sure you are answering the prompt. 

Steps to Developing a Topic

• Assignment Requirements
• General Idea
• Background Research
• Ask Questions
• Topic Question

Read your assignment and note any requirements.

• Is there a required page length?
• How many sources do you need?
• Does the paper have to be in a specific format like APA?
• Are there any listed goals for the topic, such as synthesizing different opinions, or applying a theory to a real-life example?

Formulate a general idea.

• Look at your syllabus or course schedule for broad topic ideas.
• Think about reading assignments or class lectures that you found interesting.
• Talk with your professor or a librarian. 
• Check out social media and see what has been trending that is related to your course. 
• Think about ideas from popular videos, TV shows, and movies.
• Read The New York Times  (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Watch NBC Learn (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Search your library for relevant journals and publications related to your course and browse them for ideas
• Browse online discussion forums, news, and blogs for professional organizations for hot topics

Do some background research on your general idea.

• You have access to reference materials through the Library for background research.
• See what your course notes and textbook say about the subject.
• Google it. 

Reference e-books on a wide range of topics. Sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, key concepts, key thinkers, handbooks, atlases, and more. Search by keyword or browse titles by topic.

Over 1200 cross-searchable reference e-books on a wide variety of subjects.

Mind map it.

A mind map is an effective way of organizing your thoughts and generating new questions as you learn about your topic. 

• Video  on how to do a mind map. 
• Coggle Free mind mapping software that is great for beginners and easy to use.
• MindMup Mindmup is a free, easy to use online software that allows you to publish and share your mind maps with others.

Ask Questions to focus on what interests you.

Who?   What?   When?   Where?   Why?

We can focus our ideas by brainstorming what interests us when asking who, what, when where, and why:

Research Question:  Does flexible seating in an elementary classroom improve student focus?

Write out your topic question & reread the assignment criteria.

• Can you answer your question well in the number of pages required? 
• Does your topic still meet the requirements of the paper? Ex: is the question still about the sociology of gender studies and women?
• Is the topic too narrow to find research? 

Developing a Topic Tutorial

The following tutorial from Forsyth Library will walk you through the process of defining your topic. 

• Next: 2: Information Seeking >>
• Last Updated: Mar 29, 2024 11:34 AM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/6stages

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Research projects & dissertations

Managing a research project.

The following guide has been created for you by the  Student Learning Advisory Service . For more detailed guidance and to speak to one of our advisers, please book an  appointment  or join one of our  workshops . Alternatively, have a look at our  SkillBuilder  skills videos.   

The stages of a research project

The basic stages involved in undertaking a university research project are as follows:

1. Choose your research area

Usually, it is best choose an area that you have already studied or are studying within your academic field. Not only will this help you identify potential research, but you can be confident in finding a suitable supervisor and reliable sources within the university. Choosing an area that you also find particularly interesting will help sustain your engagement. 

2. Conduct preliminary research (scope out the topic)

Survey current research surrounding your chosen subject area. Reflect on it carefully, and take advice from academic staff to establish what has already been written on your chosen subject area. This will enable you to identify what you can do that has not been done before.

3. Decide your research topic

Clearly define and delineate your research topic. The more clearly you do so the more confidence and clarity you will have in what you are trying to achieve, and the easier it will be for you to monitor your progress. If you’re uncertain what you’re trying to achieve, how will you know whether you’re on course or not?

At this stage you might also formulate a provisional research question – that is, the question your research will answer:

Research topic: Investigate ‘A’ and ‘B’ to see if/how they interrelate.

Research Question: ‘To what extent is A caused by B?’

4. Decide your methodology

As you are deciding your topic, you should be investigating and considering your research methodology – how you will conduct your research. Is it going to be experimental, observational, theoretical, textual, qualitative, quantitative? Will it involve human subjects? Are there ethical considerations – specific protocols, procedures or approaches to follow? Think about the research method you have chosen; what advantages does it give? What insights might it yield? What difficulties might it pose? How has it been used before in your field of study?

5. Submit/present your research proposal for approval

Most schools have a formal deadline for receiving research proposals/dissertation plans, and a formal approval process. In some cases this is an assessment stage – so make sure you know exactly what you need to submit, and when, in order to progress with your project. Your school will have given you guidance about what your proposal should include. Generally, the common elements are:

• Your main research question/problem/title
• Questions or concerns that will help you solve your main research problem
• A brief literature review or list of key texts/sources
• An overview of your methodology
• A timeline showing your main research project tasks

6. Finalise your topic and methodology

You may need to revise your research plan in the light of feedback you receive during the approval process. Many students are overambitious in their aims; academic staff have a much clearer idea of what is achievable and necessary in terms of a successful research project, so be guided by their advice. You may also need to modify your methodology in the light of your initial research, or a pilot study. It may be necessary, for example, to alter a questionnaire that isn’t generating the data you were expecting.

7. Conduct your research (fieldwork)

This might take place in a laboratory, in a library or archive, at a computer, on the streets or in a field. Whatever the location, this is the practical activity of collecting raw information or data. Be aware that what you think you are going to find out, and what you actually do find out, can often be very different, so be prepared to alter your research aims/question accordingly.

8. Analysis/data processing

Whatever your research topic, you will need to analyse and process the information you have collected in order to make sense of it. This might involve statistical analysis, generating graphs, charts or tables, organising information into categories, or critical appraisal of texts or events. As well as finding out something, you need to understand what it means within your academic field.

9. Writing up

This is the process of producing the written document – your dissertation or thesis – upon which your research project will be assessed. Allow enough time to improve and revise your work through a series of drafts, and to edit and proof-read the final document – including ensuring that any graphs/images referred to in the text are properly numbered and labelled, and that your referencing is error-free – before formatting and binding the finished document. Do not underestimate how long the writing up process will take.

10. Submission

All academic research projects are time constrained, so you will have a specific deadline for submitting your work. With longer research projects, you will also have intermediate deadlines (e.g. progress/upgrade boards). Consequently, you will need to time-manage each stage of your work to ensure that you complete the overall project on time.

Project managing your research

Any complex project involving multiple activities and deadlines requires some form of management. Using simple project management techniques will allow you to keep control of your research project – to schedule your work more effectively, to identify how much time you have to spend on each stage, to create intermediate milestones that will tell you if you’re on schedule or not (and allow you to respond accordingly) and give you a clear overview of your progress.

One simple but highly effective technique is to produce a Gantt chart. This provides you with a clear visual plan of your research project, based on scheduling the different stages involved against a time base. The example below (Figure 1) is based on the ten basic research project stages, scheduled against two (hypothetical) formal deadlines – submission of the proposal in week 10 and submission of the finished dissertation in week 24:  

Figure 1: Simple research project Gantt chart    

This example is typical of an undergraduate or taught Masters’ dissertation. Longer research projects (PhD, Masters by research, etc.) will generally have more activities spread over a longer timeframe (See below, Figure 2, for an example of a project plan for a humanities PhD).  

Figure 2: Humanities PhD example Gantt chart

In project management, the scheduling of individual activities is always worked backwards from the deadline. Thus, the amount of time that you have to complete each task is a function of the overall project schedule. As shown above, some tasks have to be carried out consecutively (i.e., you can’t start the next task until you’ve completed the previous one), but other tasks can be carried out at the same time, or started before the previous task has been completed, (e.g. you might be able to start analysing your data whilst you’re still collecting it). What you also need to bear in mind with undergraduate dissertations is that your research project constitutes only one part (25%) of your academic activities, and that you’ll be working on other assignments, reading, exam revision, etc, at the same time. As such, it is important that you make full use of the available time period and balance your priorities accordingly.

Tip: With longer-term projects such as these, it can be difficult to stay focused and motivated. Try to dedicate some time to your project every day/week (depending on your other academic commitments) and break your tasks down into smaller chunks so that they are more manageable. The Pomodoro technique can also be helpful for generating small bursts of concentration. If you are struggling, maybe read an article on your topic to remind yourself of your interest in the area, or talk to fellow students or your supervisor(s).    

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How to Do Your Research Project: A Guide for Students

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Work your way through  interactive exercises  for each stage of the research project roadmap and watch  videos   from your pocket supervisor, Gary Thomas. Explore real-world practice through  case studies   and  journal articles . Reflect, revise, and take your learning on the go with  worksheets  and get to grips with key terms and concepts using digital  flashcards .

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How to Conceptualize a Research Project

• First Online: 01 January 2020

Cite this chapter

• Shaili Jain 2 , 3 ,
• Steven E. Lindley 2 , 3 &
• Craig S. Rosen 2 , 4  

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The research process has three phases: the conceptual phase, the empirical phase, and the interpretative phase. In this chapter, we focus on the first phase: the conceptual phase—the part of the research process that determines which questions are to be addressed by the research and how research procedures are to be used as tools in finding the answers to these questions. Here we describe the various components of the conceptualization phase that need to be carefully considered before moving on to the empirical and interpretative phases of the research. Conceptualization involves simultaneously bringing together several considerations to identify a good research idea, i.e., an answerable research question that is worth answering. Components of this process include conducting a thorough search of the peer-reviewed literature, finding a research mentor and other collaborators, considering methodology and study design, and assessing feasibility. It should be noted that although we describe these various components in a linear fashion in the text, in reality, the conceptualization phase is not a linear process and will require consideration of these components to varying degrees at various stages depending upon evolving circumstances and the reader’s unique strengths and weaknesses. Even though careful attention to all these components will require considerable time and effort on the part of the physician scientist, we consider this to be time well spent as it will lay the ground for a successful research endeavor.

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Additional Resources

Chapters 8, 10, 19, 20, and 24. In: Roberts LW, Hilty D, editors. Handbook of career development in academic psychiatry and behavioral sciences. 1st ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2006.

Hulley SB, Cummings SR, Browner WS, et al. Designing clinical research. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.

Kraemer HC, Kraemer KL, Kupfer DJ. To your health: how to understand what research tells us about risk. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Motulsky H. Intuitive biostatistics: a nonmathematical guide to statistical thinking. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.

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Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

Shaili Jain, Steven E. Lindley & Craig S. Rosen

Outpatient Mental Health, Veteran’s Affairs, Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA

Shaili Jain & Steven E. Lindley

National Center for PTSD Dissemination and Training Division, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Craig S. Rosen

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Correspondence to Shaili Jain .

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Laura Weiss Roberts

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About this chapter

Jain, S., Lindley, S.E., Rosen, C.S. (2020). How to Conceptualize a Research Project. In: Roberts, L. (eds) Roberts Academic Medicine Handbook. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31957-1_35

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21 Research project management

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What is a project? - Stage 1: Definition: defining and agreeing what the project is about - Stage 2: Planning: planning how the project will be conducted - Stage 3: Implementation and control: running the project - Stage 4: Close out: delivery and the end of the project

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• Volume 34, Issue 1
• Stages in the development of a research project: putting the idea together
• Article Text
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• Roger G Eston ,
• Ann V Rowlands
• School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2EN, Wales, United Kingdom
• Correspondence to: Dr R G Eston.

https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.34.1.59

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The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the process and stages involved in developing a research idea from its inception to realisation. It is not designed to be an all encompassing summary of the research process. It fprovides a brief guide to the most common sequence of stages involved in the development of a research idea into a viable research proposal. Useful references for further reading on important issues that are beyond the scope of this article are also provided.

Familiarity with the topic

Reviewing the literature.

Most literature searches begin with one of the many electronic databases available, using the author's name or a combination of carefully selected keywords. Individual databases are limited as to which journals are listed. Within sports and exercise science, Sports Discus and Medline are widely used. To avoid missing pertinent articles, it is suggested that a number of electronic databases are searched. Medline covers biomedically orientated journals, Sports Discus covers sport and exercise orientated sources, and the Science Citation Index covers scientific articles in general. In addition, the National Sports Medicine Institute has recently released the Sports Medicine and Related Topics (SMART) database of journal articles, which covers all aspects of sports and exercise science and medicine from 1985. Addresses for these databases on the internet are: for Medline, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/medline.html; for the Science Citation Index (United Kingdom higher education institutions only), http://www.bids.ac.uk/; for SMART, http://smart.nsmi.org.uk .

Most universities offering courses in sports and exercise science courses have access to Sports Discus available on a centrally accessed CD-ROM. Further relevant papers may be obtained by studying their reference lists. Papers that provide a critical review of the topic are also very useful. Many journals such as Sports Medicine specialise in reviews, although these can also be found in other mainstream journals such as the British Journal of Sports Medicine, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , and Journal of Sports Sciences . If the library does not hold a particular journal, it should be possible to obtain issues through the university's interlibrary loan service, although this is expensive and may limit the number of papers obtained.

When writing a review paper or conducting a more sophisticated empirically based review, such as a meta-analysis, it is important to endeavour to obtain all papers asking a given research question, 2 whether they are published or not. Although this may not be practically possible, the researcher should be careful not to select only those papers that are easiest to obtain as this may bias the review. Hence, further steps should be taken to obtain more elusive papers and/or obtain a random selection of relevant papers. Rosenthal 3 has written a comprehensive paper on bibliographic retrieval for researchers wishing to conduct a meta-analysis.

The research hypothesis and rationale

The typical empirical journal article and research proposal commences with a brief literature review to provide the background and rationale for the research. Questions that remain unanswered, or findings that need clarifying, are often highlighted here. This leads into explicit statements about the importance and necessity of the planned research.

Once the research problem has been stated, the hypothesis is normally presented. 4 However, often, hypotheses are not stated in research papers, primarily because of authors' assumptions that the reader can implicitly determine the hypotheses being tested from the description of the purpose or statement of the problem, which is most commonly stated at the end of the introduction. 1

The expected results form the research hypothesis. For example, it may be hypothesised that the mean cholesterol levels of trained men are lower than those of sedentary men. This is a research hypothesis, as it states what the results are expected to be. Conversely, the null hypothesis often states what the researcher does not expect to be the case. Its purpose is for use in the statistical test of reliability of results. It usually, although not always, 1 states that there are no differences between treatments, or that there is no relation between variables. 4 For example, the null hypothesis for the above study may state that there is no difference between the mean cholesterol levels of trained and sedentary men. If the null hypothesis were true, any observed differences would be due to chance alone, and the statistically non-significant differences that existed in the sample would not be inferred to exist in the population. Huck and Cormier 1 (chapters 7 and 8) give a detailed description of the different forms of hypotheses and the stages of hypothesis testing.

The design of the study

A study should be designed to answer the research question being asked. A thorough evaluation of the literature can help the researcher avoid repeating design mistakes that have been made in the past. Theoretically, research studies should become better and better with time as past mistakes are rectified and studies become more and more robust. However, this is generally not the case as in reality each study is a new and novel endeavour. 5

TYPES OF STUDY

As in medical research, broadly speaking the types of study used in sports science research can be split into two groups: observational and experimental. 5

Observational design

In observational studies, the participants receive no treatment or experimental manipulation. As the name suggests, the variables of interest are recorded from the participant with no attempt to influence the variables in any way. This is a descriptive study. In observational studies, the researcher analyses the data with the aim of determining differences or relations between variables and reasons why they do or do not exist. In experimental studies, the effect of treatment or manipulation of the independent variable is examined. 5 Examples of observational studies include those that have recorded skinfold levels and other estimates of body fat, 6– 9 or the measurement of body fat and physical activity in children to assess whether there is a relation between the two. 10, 11 In the latter examples, if the participants had received an aerobic training programme to assess the effects on body fat, the independent variable in the study would have been directly manipulated and the study would be experimental in nature. 12

Experimental design

If the study has an experimental design—that is, one of the independent variables is to be manipulated, it is important to be sure that any observed changes in the dependent variable—for example, power output—are due to the experimental treatment—for example, creatine ingestion—and not due to chance, growth, learning, or other extraneous factors. For example, in a study to investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on maximal anaerobic capacity—for example, that of Worth et al 13 —a control group was necessary to separate the treatment effect from any other causes that may have improved performance. A placebo group was also included in the above study to determine whether any improvement in performance was due to the creatine supplementation or to a psychological effect. 4

There are situations in which the inclusion of a placebo is not possible. For example, in studies in which the treatment is obvious to the participant (and the investigator). An example of this is a study to examine the effects of cryotherapy on exercise induced muscle damage and the soreness that accompanies it—for example, the study of Eston and Peters. 14 In this study, the control group had no treatment for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness, while the treatment group received cryotherapy by immersing the damaged arm in cool water for a limited period of time on several occasions after the eccentric exercise bout. It was not possible to have a placebo group in this study because it would be very clear to the participants what treatment they were receiving.

Repeated measures and independent groups design

Experimental studies can be conducted using separate groups for treatment, control, and placebo conditions (independent groups design) or by using the same group for all conditions (repeated measures design). The option chosen depends on the design of the experiment. There are advantages and disadvantages to each method.

REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN

In a repeated measures design, the same group is tested under all conditions. The experiment is more powerful, as the within group variability due to individual differences is removed 15 and thus the number of participants (n) in each condition can be smaller than if separate groups are required for each condition. However, the commitment required from each participant is greater. In addition, there may need to be a large gap between conditions because there may be long lasting effects that may remain during the subsequent condition. For example, if the treatment is a drug, it may remain in the participant's system after the drug course has finished. It is important that the drug is completely flushed out from the system or it may affect the results from the control or placebo condition. An example of this type of study is that of Head et al . 16 In this study, all participants received two types of β-blockers and a placebo for five days in a double blind randomised cross over design. A minimum of two days was allowed for wash out.

For many studies a repeated measures design is the best tool for tackling the research question. In a study of this nature, in which the same group of participants are exposed to several conditions, it is essential that the order in which they are exposed to the conditions is randomised. 4 This helps control for any learning effect or acclimatisation related to the testing procedure. For example, when the effects of practice in using ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) to regulate exercise intensity were assessed, healthy 17 and blind participants 18 performed bouts of exercise at randomised RPEs.

INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN

If two or more independent groups are used in a study, the groups should be similar except for the factor that is being investigated. For example, if the treatment group is comprised of young men, the control group should also consist of young men, not older men or young women. Ideally the participants should only differ with respect to the variable of interest. The method of allocating participants to groups must not be affected by the characteristics of the participants, therefore each participant should have an equal chance of being in any group. Bland 5 (chapter 2) describes various methods of randomly allocating participants to groups. There are numerous examples of random assignment of participants to independent groups—for example, Doyle and Parfitt 19 and Ehrlich and Haber. 20

The equivalence of the groups with respect to various measures can be checked before treatment by simple independent groups t tests or, in the case of more than two groups, by a one way analysis of variance. Provided that there is sufficient power to detect differences that are meaningful, these tests can provide an assurance of the equivalence of the groups. Alternatively, but less commonly, the investigators may adjust the scores after treatment on the basis of differences in the groups' scores before the test by using analysis of covariance procedures—for example, the study of Eston et al . 21 In this study, scores on muscle strength after treatment were adjusted for each group using the score obtained before the test as the covariate. 22 This reduced the possibility of the scores obtained after treatment being influenced by initial group differences.

When independent groups are used, the commitment required from the participant is less. Normally, he/she will experience the procedure only once. The time taken is therefore less, as all groups may be studied simultaneously. However, the design is less powerful, as the within group variability is greater because of individual differences between groups. 15 This implies that more participants per group are necessary (in comparison with a repeated measures design) for the design to have sufficient power.

MIXED MODEL DESIGN

Perhaps the most commonly used experimental design in sports and exercise science research is the mixed model analysis of variance. This contains at least one repeated measures factor and one independent groups factor. A typical example of this would be an experimental study that compares effects before and after treatment. For example, the effects of aerobics training on peak oxygen uptake and submaximal heart rate measures in girls, 23 or the effects of a prophylactic anti-inflammatory drug on muscle soreness after strenuous eccentric exercise—for example, the study of Semark et al . 24 In both of these studies, the participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group. In the latter study, the control group received a placebo. There are many other examples of the mixed model type of study.

Blind/double blind studies

In a single blind study, participants do not know whether they are receiving the placebo or the experimental treatment. A double blind study is when the tester also does not know what treatment the participant is receiving. This strengthens the design as it also reduces the tester's potential influence on the participants' results. Hence, neither the participant's nor the tester's expectations of the effects of the treatment should affect the outcome of the study. This is obviously important in studies to determine the effects of orally administered substances on performance, such as in the study by Head et al , 16 which assessed the effects of two different types of β-blocker on exercise metabolism, or in studies to assess the effects of oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity. 13

Power of the study

There is increasing criticism about the lack of statistical power of papers published in sports and exercise science and psychology journals. 25 – 27 Statistical power refers to the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis—that is, the probability that the study will lead to significant results. 26 If the null hypothesis is false but not rejected, a type 2 error is incurred. Cohen 26 suggested that a power of 0.80 is adequate when an alpha is set at 0.05—that is, the risk of type 1 error, which is rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true, is 0.05. This means that the risk of a type 2 error is 0.20.

An important consideration in relation to the statistical power of the study is the magnitude of the relation or treatment effect. This is known as the effect size. When calculated a priori, this quantifies the degree to which the investigator believes the null hypothesis to be false. 26 Each statistical test has an effect size index, which ranges from zero upwards and is scale free. 26 For example, the effect size index for a correlation is simply r ; no conversion is necessary. For assessment of the difference between two sample means, Cohen's d , Hedges g , or Glass's Δ can be used. These divide the difference between two means by a standard deviation (see Rosenthal, 28 p 35). Formulae are available for converting other test statistics—for example, t test, one way analysis of variance, and χ 2 results—into effect size indexes (see Rosenthal, 28 p 19).

To evaluate an effect size, some idea of its scale is needed. 26 Effect sizes are often described as small, medium, and large. Correlations ( r ) equalling 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 and Cohen's d equalling 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 equate to small, medium, and large effect sizes respectively. A table detailing the magnitude of other effect size indexes equal to small, medium, and large effect sizes is presented in Cohen. 26 The smaller the expected effect size, the larger the sample size necessary if the study is to have sufficient power to detect that effect size.

An example of a study in which the effect size may be medium, could be one to assess the effects of habitual physical activity on body fat in children—for example, that of Rowlands et al . 10 In this study, there was a moderate correlation between habitual physical activity and body fat, corresponding to a medium effect size. A large effect size may be expected in a study to assess the effects of a very low energy diet on body fat in overweight women; an example is the study of Eston et al . 29 In this study, a greatly reduced energy intake (daily intake 1695 kJ a day for six weeks) resulted in a substantial decrease in total body mass and percentage body fat.

The effect size should be estimated during the design stage of a study. This allows the determination of the sample size required to give adequate power for a given alpha. Hence, the study can be designed to ensure it has sufficient power to detect the effect of interest—that is, minimising type 2 error. A simple table detailing sample sizes necessary to detect small, medium, and large effect sizes, with a power of 0.80 and an alpha of 0.05, is presented in Cohen. 26 This table covers eight statistical tests including the difference between independent means, product-moment correlation, χ 2 , and one way analysis of variance. More detailed descriptions of power analysis and methods for determining the sample size necessary in more complex tests can be found in the texts by Cohen 30 and Stevens. 15 Power calculations can also be carried out on interactive sites on the internet—for example, http://members.aol.com/johnp71/javastat.html#Power .

When empirical data are available, this can sometimes be used to estimate the effect size for a study. However, for some research questions it is difficult to find enough information to estimate the expected effect size. Here, the expected effect size may be difficult to calculate because of the limited number of studies that provide empirical information on the topic, or there may be insufficient detail provided in the results of the relevant studies. To enable comparison of effect sizes from studies that differ in sample size, it is recommended that, in addition to reporting the test statistic and p value, the appropriate effect size index is also reported.

A review of 108 articles published in the Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport (AJMS; now The Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport ) in 1996 or 1997 showed that the median power to detect small, medium, and large effect sizes was 0.10, 0.46, and 0.84 respectively. 27 No study had adequate power to detect a small effect size, 38% had adequate power to detect a medium effect size, and 75% had adequate power to detect a large effect size. It is clear that, as recently as two to three years ago, the power of studies was often not being considered at the design stage of a study, if at all.

Ethical considerations

A further consideration in the design of a study involves the ethics of the testing procedures. Some journals will not accept papers unless the study has had ethics approval from a recognised ethics committee. The ethical implications of the study are dependent on the procedures to be undertaken and the nature of the participants. For example, the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) recommend that ethical clearance should be obtained before imposing unusual or severe psychological or physiological stress, administering any ergogenic aid, working with clients with disabilities, or using biopsy or venepuncture techniques. 31 The above list is not complete, and where there is any doubt cases should be looked at individually. Certain procedures that may be approved for adult participants may not be approved for children. Children are recognised as a vulnerable group with a limited comprehension capacity. 32 Consequently, they are unable legally to give consent. However, it is generally accepted that parents/guardians can give parental permission, and children who are old enough can choose whether or not to participate. Rowland 32 (chapter 5) presents a thorough discussion on the ethical aspects of research with children.

Whether the participants are children or not, the relevance of each of the measures or treatments should be considered during the design stage of the research. There should be a clear and justifiable rationale for the necessity of invasive procedures, particularly if there are valid alternative and non-invasive measures available. The frequency of the invasive procedures and the effect this has on the participants should be considered.

A further ethical consideration involves the denial of potentially beneficial treatment. For example, in an experimental design there may be one group of participants who receive the treatment, one group who receive the placebo, and one group who receive the control treatment. Those who receive the placebo will, by definition, think they are receiving the treatment. In this case, both the placebo and control group have been denied the treatment. It is important to consider the ethics of denying these groups the treatment, particularly if the treatment is expected to be beneficial. This does not arise in a repeated measures design as all participants are exposed to all treatments.

A possible solution is to offer all groups the treatment after the study. This would not be possible with some studies—for example, when the purpose of the treatment is to reduce the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness, because the symptoms would have dissipated by the end of the study. However, if the effects of an ergogenic aid were studied, the participants may volunteer because they believe they will have the opportunity to benefit from the ergogenic aid. In this situation it would be possible to offer the aid to all participants after the study. Ethically, this may be preferable to withholding the treatment from two thirds of the volunteers. It may also prevent participants from withdrawing from a study which they consider is providing little or no benefit to them.

This issue becomes increasingly important if the treatment is for a medical condition or for rehabilitation. This is a common scenario in clinical trials. It has been argued that withholding a potentially beneficial treatment from patients is ethically justified, as any biologically active treatment is also potentially harmful. Hence, the benefits need to be conclusively demonstrated in properly controlled trials before general administration. 5 The ethics of withholding treatment clearly depend on the type of treatment and participants involved.

Before a study is embarked on, it is necessary to ensure that the study is viable. This involves making a realistic assessment of the costs, time, and availability of the participants. If there is an application for funding, these details have to be approved by the host institution and the funding body. Costs will be related to the sample size, duration of the study, equipment needed, consumables, research assistants or other staff, travel, conference presentations, and institutional overheads.

tk;3The facilities available for conducting the research also need to be considered. If the study is laboratory based, it may be necessary to book laboratory time relatively early, as many people typically share laboratory facilities. This can only be achieved if a reasonably accurate estimate of the laboratory time needed to conduct the research is known. A pilot study can help answer these questions, identify problems, and prevent or limit methodological faults in the main study. Piloting procedures are an essential part of preparing a study. 4

Most studies within sports science and sports medicine require human participants. It is important to consider how these participants will be obtained and how representative of the relevant population they are. It may be necessary to advertise or send letters to request participation. If this is so, consideration should be given as to where to advertise, or where to obtain addresses of potential participants. For example, an advertisement in a leisure centre is likely to attract a different type of participant from a similar advertisement in a doctors surgery or outpatients clinic. The methods of obtaining participants will be largely determined by the population the sample is supposed to represent. For some studies, it is acceptable to use the most convenient sample of sports and exercise science undergraduates, but this is not appropriate for all proposed research.

Expected outcomes

During the planning stages of the study, the potential benefits should be considered. The expected outcomes are strongly linked with the literature review, hypothesis, and rationale. A useful exercise is to plot a graph of the expected outcomes for each group. This also helps to identify the most appropriate statistical analysis of the prospective data. An assessment of the expected outcomes and the potential value of these outcomes will help show whether or not the study is worth while.

We have considered some of the most important factors involved in designing a viable study that will adequately address the research question. Although we do not profess to be experts in all aspects of the above, we have learned through experience that attention to many of the above points will help to avoid frustration during the experimental process and when the study is presented for external review and subsequent presentation and publication. Good luck in your research.

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• Meta-skills for Graduate Students

Stages of a Research Project

A research project will progress through many stages from its conception through publishing the results. Below is a mostly  ordered list of the stages of an experimental research project in our laboratory. Sometimes these stages will be done in a different orde r, o r they may repeat, or they may blend into one another. Different fields of physics and different types of research (i.e., computational or theoretical) will likely have a different order or  different stages . If you are part of our research group, you can use the outline below to evaluate and plan your projects. 

• Conception/inspiration
• Development/feasibility study
• Literature review
• Simulations
• Experimental design : Outline both the measurements to be done and the equipment that is necessary to do them.
• Experimental setup, calibration, tests, troubleshooting : Construct and arrange the experimental equipment to do the planned measurements. This can take the majority of the time spent on an experiment.
• Preliminary steps
• Preliminary experimental measurements : Figure out how to do the measurements. This may require going back to steps 3 and 4 a few times.
• Preliminary data analysis : Figure out how to analyze the raw data. This may require going back to steps 3 and 4 a few times.
• Preliminary writing, essay-style : Start writing the paper because "writing is thinking". This is a first attempt at explaining the experiment and results. Use it to see what is missing, what additional data to take, and what additional analyses to do. This should continue throughout the rest of the project.
• Pipeline development : This is an outgrowth of the preliminary steps above.
• Experimental pipeline development : We often need to take all our data from one quantum dot (QD), and a given QD can't be easily re-found if the sample is changed. The experimental pipeline is an efficient method to collect all the data in a short amount of time. It takes time and effort to develop the procedures and programs to enable that.
• Raw data analysis pipeline development : To ensure the data being collected is valid, it needs to be analyzed immediately so a human can evaluate it for validity. The analysis pipeline is code that raw data can be put through immediately after collection, and which produces plots and figures that enable human evaluation. Similar to the experimental pipeline, it takes time and effort to develop the analysis method and code for this task.
• Experimental measurements directly into raw data analysis pipeline : This is when the data that will be used in the final analysis is recorded. This setup can take very little time if the experimental and analysis pipelines are well functioning. If the pipelines are not well functioning, then this step might be performed incorrectly and need to be repeated after redevelopment of the pipelines.
• Analysis of processed data : If the preliminary writing and data analysis were done well, then this step can be straightforward. If it is not straightforward, then we may need to return to the preliminary steps again.
• Writing : The order of writing is different from the order of the eventual paper. The order below starts with the easiest parts to write and ends with the hardest.
• Experimental setup/methods : Equipment (figures); kinds of measurements (archetypal examples); data analysis methods. As the graduate student who did the experiment, this section is the easiest to write because you just describe what you did.
• Data presentation/analysis : It is sometimes necessary to present all of the raw data, but sometimes the archetypal examples in the previous section are sufficient.
• Results and discussion : Plots and models of information extracted from raw data. This includes analysis of processed data.
• Conclusions : (Re)State main results and explanation. Describe how this fulfills the knowledge gap (see below) and enables useful and/or interesting things (outlook and future directions).
• Here we show : Summary of experiment. Preview of conclusions.
• Motivation and introduction : Why do this? Why is it interesting/useful? Describe the state of the field. Set up and describe the "gap in knowledge" that your work fills.
• Abstract : ("to draw out from") Take out the most essential parts of the manuscript.
• Reorder sections : The sections above are presented in the final manuscript in a different order than they are written: (1) abstract, (2) motivation and intro, (3) here we show, (4) experimental setup/methods, (5) data presentation and analysis, (6) results and discussion, (7) conclusions.

• Research Project & Skills

Select Stage

Stage 1 Getting Started

Stage 2 Maintaining Momentum

Stage 3 Completion

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When commencing your research project, it is important to develop research skills relevant to your field, identify your goals, establish milestones and conduct your research with the highest standard of integrity and honesty. 

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Planning A Good Research Project

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If you are undertaking a Doctorate, however, your planning needs to start even before you submit your application for the program, as you will be expected to have a clear idea of what your thesis will be about right from the start. Most Doctoral applications will need to include an outline research proposal (see Postgraduate programs ) unless you are applying for a scholarship or studentship to undertake a specified project. If you are applying for a specified project, you will need to be sure that it is a project you are excited about and interested in, and also that you have some ideas about the research methods you will need to use and the existing literature and research in the field.

How do I choose a good research topic for study?

Most masters students and most self-funding students at Doctoral level will have an almost completely open choice about the topic for their research project . The only limitations will be whether your university can support you to do the project, i.e. whether it has the equipment, facilities and staff expertise to do the study. As a Doctoral student, of course, this will have been a factor in your choice of university, as there is no point applying to a university that cannot support your research topic . So how do you choose what to do? The model below has been used successfully with large numbers of postgraduate students to help them choose their project topic. It works through a number of stages, which help you to narrow down your ideas from a broad field to a specific research question.

Stage 1 What are the broad themes that interest you?

Think broadly about what interests you in your subject. Write down a list of themes, by asking yourself the following questions: • What themes particularly interested you in your undergraduate program? • If you are a masters student or have completed a masters degree, what themes interested you in your masters degree? • What are the current ‘hot’ topics in the field? In other words, what topics is there most discussion about either in the research papers or in the popular journals? • If your field is a professional field (such as medicine, teaching, business, law), what are the current ‘hot’ professional issues that there is most discussion about? • Are there any issues in the field which are particularly important to your own national setting? • Are there any themes or topics that have interested you since you were young? For each of these questions write down a list of the topics that come into your mind. This might be a long or short list, but it is helpful to have at least one topic under each heading.

Stage 2 What are the interesting topics within those themes?

Now narrow down this list to a smaller list of topics. You can do this, for example, by seeing if there are any themes that have come up in answer to more than one of your questions in Stage 1, or by trying to put the themes from Stage 1 into a rank order of interest for you. By doing this you should be able to narrow down your choice to a short list of two or three top topics of interest.

Stage 3 What questions might you ask about those topics?

Now think about the key questions that might be appropriate in relation to each of these topics. An important aspect of any research project is that it should be investigating a question, so try to think of all the questions of interest or importance in relation to each of the two or three topics you have considered.

Stage 4 Choose a question and check its viability

From the list of questions you now have it should be possible to identify two or three that are particularly interesting or exciting for you, and then to choose one that grabs your interest. This is a good starting point for checking whether it is a reasonable or sensible question. At this stage you need to check whether it is a viable topic. By viability we mean is it a question that needs answering and is it a question that can be answered in your size of project.

Stage 5 Make your final choice

The last stage is to make your final choice of project. This may only be possible when you have been through Stage 4 several times, since there may be several possible projects you need to investigate for viability before you come up with a suitable topic. The final check to make when you are ready to settle on a topic or title is to ask yourself one last, but very important question: Does this topic really interest me and excite me? The answer needs to be ‘yes’, for you will be living with the topic for a long time. If it is your Doctoral thesis then you may be living with it night and day for three years. Even as a masters dissertation topic it will be your life for at least three months, so you have to feel excited about doing it.

In the process of choosing a topic there are a number of important issues to think about, which will be emphasised to you by your tutor. The key issues are: • Do not choose a project that is too large. Most postgraduate students’ first ideas about a research project are too ambitious, involving large amounts of data collection and questions that are too general. Keep your project very focused on a very specific topic. • Do not believe your research has to change the world. For a Doctoral thesis you do have to make a contribution to knowledge, but this is likely to be just a small advance in understanding. Masters and Doctoral theses are not large enough to contribute a new global theory to the sum of knowledge! • Start your project with a research question. Having a single overall question that you are investigating provides a very clear focus for your work – and you can keep asking yourself throughout your research ‘Is my work going to help answer my research question?’ to check that what you are doing is relevant. Having a research question does not mean you have to use any particular methodology – it just keeps you on track.

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Can I choose a research topic that will be about my own country?

Secondly, will you be able to get hold of literature and research that is relevant to your topic? For example, will your university library be able to get government reports or journals from your own country and in your own language?

Thirdly, will the university have the expertise to support your research in or about your own country? It may be that your topic is a general one which you will study in the context of your own country. However, if it is too specific will the university be able to support you?

However, do not let these issues deter you, if there is a satisfactory answer to each of these problems. Undertaking a study related to your own country may be both rewarding and valuable to you, and many postgraduate students do their Masters or Doctoral thesis in this way.

What will I need to put into my research proposal?

If your research project is part of a masters program, or a taught Doctorate, then you will probably need to get the approval of your tutor or the program leader for your proposal. This will happen part way through the program, and you will be given details of the timescale for submitting your proposal. For an MPhil/PhD the proposal will be part of your application to the programme and will be considered carefully in the decision about whether to offer you a place on the course. Whatever the timing, though, the proposal will need to include the same sorts of information: 1 A title. 2 The main research question that you will be focusing on, with, perhaps, a number of sub-questions. 3 The background to the study – why it is an important and interesting topic to study. 4 A brief background literature review. This should show that you have read a number of relevant books and papers so that you understand how your topic relates to the current knowledge and issues in the field. 5 A proposed methodology, that is, how you intend to undertake the study, what methods you will use, what data you will collect and how you will analyse the data. If this includes any form of experimental work or the use of any data collection or analysis equipment you need to provide a detailed and precise list of what you will need. You also need to explain why this methodology and this equipment is the best way to study this topic. 6 A proposed time schedule for the project, with key dates and the timing of each phase of the project. The detail and depth of the proposal will need to be rather greater for a Doctoral proposal than for a masters project. Typically, a masters proposal will be submitted on a standard pro-forma from your department and may be 500–1,000 words long. A Doctoral research proposal is likely to be an individualised document (that is, not on a form), and will probably be 1,000–2,500 words long.

In writing your proposal, remember that its purpose is to enable the academic staff to judge whether what you want to do is practicable and realistic, and will be suitable to enable you to write a dissertation or thesis of the right standard.

And what if your proposal is rejected? You should regard a rejection as saving you from big problems later on. Tutors have a very good idea of what will ‘work’ and what will not, what is achievable and what is not. If they suggest you think again it is because they believe you cannot produce a thesis or dissertation of the required standard from what you are proposing. So, take the advice they give, and submit another proposal.

How should I plan and organise my research project?

You need to start by thinking through what stages there are to your project. For most research projects we can identify ten stages:

Stage 1 – Choosing the project

We have already looked at this above.

Stage 2 – Initial literature review

The literature review is a critical early stage in your project. A literature review has many purposes. It enables you to find out what research has been undertaken in the field, what is ‘known’ and what the important questions are that others are investigating or have suggested for research. It helps you to understand the history of your field, to know how ideas have developed, changed, appeared and disappeared over time. You will become aware of the range of methodologies that have been used to research your field, both in the past and in the present, and you should start to develop a critical view of the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches. It will also enable you to discover who else is working in the field and what they are working on. Most importantly, though, it will help you to look at your initial ideas for your research and develop and refine them to produce the project that you will undertake. It is almost the most important stage of the project, for if you do this thoroughly and well you will be saved many potential problems later on.

Stage 3 – Finalising the research questions

Ideally your research questions will emerge from the literature review. The literature review will have shown you what is already known in the field and what important topics need to be researched.

Stage 4 – Choosing and developing the methodology

Whatever your subject and field, there will be a range of different research methods available to you. At this stage you need to choose the best approach to enable you to answer your research question. Many students though, unfortunately, start with an idea of the methods they want to use and then apply them to their research question whether or not they are the best way forward. The correct way forward, of course, is to read and reflect very broadly on possible research methods and then choose what is most appropriate, even if this involves you in learning new approaches or techniques.

Stage 5 – Piloting the methodology

Whatever method you use, you will need to pilot your methodology . Piloting is practising, checking that you can use the method correctly and that it will work in the circumstances in which you are using it to provide usable data. Piloting usually suggests changes and modifications to the methods you are using, sometimes large, sometimes small, and so is an essential process. Not piloting the methodology is a very common cause of failure for postgraduate students.

Stage 6 – Organising the data collection

Do not be put off by the word ‘data’. By data we are talking about the evidence you will use to arrive at your conclusions, and there are many types of data. Your data could be experimental results, field data or survey data or they could come from direct observations of social situations. The data could be quantitative, qualitative or a combination of both types. Stage 6 involves making the arrangements to collect that data.

Stage 7 – Data collection

Collecting the data can be a short or a long process – for example a project on the behaviour of apes may take many months of detailed observation and recording, while some experimental projects may take only a few weeks or even days to complete.

Stage 8 – Data analysis

Data analysis includes the systematic organising of the data and its presentation in a form that readers of your project can understand. It also includes the interpretation of the data to identify the important ideas or new bits of knowledge that they reveal. Each discipline will have descriptive and analytical techniques, ranging from statistical analysis to computer modelling to presentational methods to qualitative analysis. You will need to choose the methods best suited to the data you have collected, and will need to be able to justify your choice of methods.

Stage 9 – Drawing conclusions and interpretations

Stage 8 involved very detailed analysis and interpretation, working with the detail of the data and drawing out important ideas about every part of the topic that has been studied. Stage 9 is the ‘big picture’ stage of the research, where the detailed interpretations are drawn together to try to ‘answer’ the overall research question. It will certainly involve a critical reflection on the conclusions you have drawn and the methods you have used, and will probably make recommendations for future research in the field. In social science fields it may include recommendations for policy-makers and practitioners about future practice and policy.

Stage 10 – Preparing the final thesis

Writing of the thesis is covered in more detail in Writing a thesis . The final stage of the project, though, is assembling the final version of the thesis. You will have produced drafts of individual chapters throughout the project, and these can be assembled into the first draft of the overall thesis or dissertation. At this stage, though, the work needs to be prepared for submission – making sure the whole work is coherent; writing, re-writing and editing; assembling diagrams, tables or charts; completing and checking the bibliography and appendices; preparing the contents and the abstract; printing and binding the work. This all takes a significant amount of time, which needs to be built into the planning of the project.

You will see from reading through the stages of the project that there is much to plan and prepare for. While it is not possible to plan precisely how long each stage will take, and unforeseen things may arise, it is very helpful to plan as carefully as you can. There are two simple techniques you can use to plan your time and your project – a time line and a Gantt chart.

Points to remember

This looks a straightforward path to understand and follow, but there are a number of important points to remember with this model. First, your real project will not follow this path in a neat sequence: • Some stages will overlap – for example, you will certainly start to develop interpretations and conclusions as soon as you start collecting data, and you may of course want to test some of your conclusions by collecting further data. • You may need to return to earlier stages – for example, piloting may indicate you need to make changes to the methodology. • Some stages will continue throughout the project – for example, you will need to keep reviewing the literature throughout the project to be sure that you have not missed anything important or that there have not been new publications on the topic. Even while you are preparing the final thesis you will need to do a last-minute literature check so that you do not miss the latest publications. Secondly, you will need to be writing the thesis/dissertation from as early in the project as possible. Stage 10 is preparing the final version, not starting to write. We look in more detail at writing in Writing a thesis , but it is very important to recognise that you must start writing as soon as you can, otherwise it may become a major psychological barrier for you.

More information about these two techniques (and preparing the thesis) are given in Chapter 9 of Postgraduate Study in the UK   by Nicholas and Rosalind Foskett.

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5 NSF projects transforming how researchers understand plastic waste

The U.S. National Science Foundation champions research on how plastic impacts the planet. These five projects are changing how researchers think about plastic and what happens after it is tossed away.

Plastic is everywhere. Humans produce so much plastic that we end up throwing away about 400 million tons of plastic-related trash every year. And researchers are learning that this trash doesn't stay where it is deposited. From land to sea, plastic is found virtually everywhere on the planet.

Earth Day 2024 is highlighting the plastics problem with the theme: "Planet vs. Plastic." "Our reliance on harmful plastics is not sustainable," said Alexandra Isern, NSF assistant director for Geosciences. "We are committed to funding research that will address the plastics challenge to create a safer future for generations to come."

Here are five NSF-driven projects that look at the versatile material in both expected and unusual places and examine its impacts on the planet and the creatures who call it home. 

1. In soils

About half of the 400 million tons of plastic that people worldwide discard annually migrates beyond landfills.

Brian Giebel, an assistant research professor at the City University of New York, and Benjamin Bostick, a professor at Columbia University, are studying how these discarded plastics can affect soil health and function . The team is especially interested in plastic's potential to change how soils emit climate-warming gases like carbon dioxide and methane.

How does a piece of plastic eventually end up as a gas? First, it breaks down through chemical and physical processes in soils. When it degrades to less than 5 micrometers in size, slightly bigger than a speck of dust, it can become a tasty lunch for microorganisms, which then release carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.

The team will use a variety of laboratory techniques, like stable isotope measurements and X-ray microscopy, to track plastic's degradation, microbial uptake and eventual transformation to gas. 

2. In urban streams

From plastic wrappers to plastic bottles, plastics dominate daily life. Once used, however, plastic can often end up as litter within waterways.

Anne Jefferson, a professor at the University of Vermont, and her team are using time-lapse photography and repeat field surveys to understand how discarded plastic  moves through and sometimes stays in streams . "I kept seeing trash everywhere in the urban streams where I was doing research for other projects," Jefferson said. "Since stopping litter from entering streams seemed like a losing battle, I wanted to know more about what happens to the litter once it got into a stream and how it interacted with other elements of the stream channel."

Jefferson's findings will improve litter tracking models that follow plastic from streams to oceans. She wants to learn how much plastic is stored in flood plains or within stream and river channels rather than entering the ocean. Her findings will also help guide litter management, environmental cleanup and ecosystem restoration efforts.

3. On the ocean's surface

Just like humans, plastic is carbon-based. Aron Stubbins, a professor at Northeastern University, is using this fact to better understand whether plastic pollution has fundamentally changed the ocean's surface.

Plastic has been accumulating at the ocean's surface ever since mass production started about 70 years ago. Stubbins and his team are collecting plastic samples from the open ocean and measuring natural organic carbon and plastic-carbon concentrations to determine if the plastic carbon now makes up a significant fraction of the total surface ocean carbon. If that is the case, as the team suspects, then it's very likely that the plastic carbon levels on the ocean surface today are unprecedented.

The team collected samples from the Atlantic Ocean on a research cruise last summer. The anticipated findings will reveal whether ocean scientists need to consider the role of plastic carbon as an active component of the surface ocean carbon cycle. 

4. In the Arctic 

Bits of plastic smaller than 5 millimeters can come from larger plastic pieces that have broken apart, byproducts of plastic manufacturing or microbeads used in health and beauty products.

These microplastics litter the seas, even reaching the remote Arctic Ocean. Alexandra Jahn, an associate professor at the University of Colorado Boulder, is studying how sea ice moves microplastics in polar regions.

Jahn and her collaborators at the NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research, the University of Washington and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute are investigating why observed concentrations of microplastics in sea ice are many times higher than in the underlying ocean and how this affects where microplastics end up. The team is also investigating whether sea ice is more likely to melt when it contains dark microplastics, which increase sunlight absorption.

To help answer these questions, the team is growing sea ice embedded with microplastics in a laboratory and adding microplastics to numerical models of various complexity. 

5. In the atmosphere 

Manufacturers add certain chemicals to plastic to make it stronger, more flexible and more durable. However, when plastic waste ends up in the ocean, these often toxic additives can leach into the water and accumulate in the sea surface microlayer, where the top of the ocean meets the atmosphere. 

Nate Slade, an assistant professor at the University of California San Diego is studying how these chemicals can stick to droplets as they evaporate into the air , travel long distances across the ocean, pollute air quality, and eventually end up in a person's airways. 

Slade and his team want to know how long plastic additives can last when stuck to those droplets, known as aerosols, and how other chemicals can affect their transport. 

These and related NSF-supported projects will help scientists better understand how plastic impacts the planet and how to use that knowledge to build a resilient planet. 

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