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Journal of Materials Science

Abstracts in Chinese - 中文摘要

The Journal of Materials Science is a key publication exploring the intricate relationship between structure, properties, and uses of various materials.

• Publishes high-quality research papers and reviews across a broad range of materials, including metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers, and more.
• Offers a platform for scientists studying the structure and properties of all engineering materials.
• Recognized for publishing significant original research and innovative techniques.
• C. Barry Carter

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Volume 59, Issue 15

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Origami theory-inspired multiscale simulation of folded graphene aerogel with improved mechanical properties.

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Investigation of group 13 elements as potential candidates for p -type dopants in the narrow-gap thermoelectric semiconductor α-SrSi 2

• Haruno Kunioka
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The interfaces in incompatible A/B homopolymer blends with graft copolymer: a dissipative particle dynamics simulation study

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Hydrogen trapping and embrittlement of titanium- and vanadium carbide-containing steels after high-temperature hydrogen charging

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Journal updates

The william bonfield prize for best review paper.

The Journal of Materials Science is pleased to introduce the William Bonfield Prize for Best Review Paper, in honor of Professor William Bonfield’s immeasurable contributions to both the Journal of Materials Science and the field of Materials Research more broadly.

The Robert W. Cahn Prize for Best Research Paper

Congratulations to the Winners of the 2022 Cahn Prize! For more information, 2022's finalists, and previous years' prizes, click here!

Call for Papers: Synthesis and characterization of functional nanocomposite materials

The Journal of Materials Science invites authors to submit to a special issue exploring current and emerging trends in the synthesis and characterization of advanced functional nanocomposite materials.

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Research Paper Writing: 5. Methods / Materials

• 1. Getting Started
• 2. Abstract
• 3. Introduction
• 4. Literature Review
• 5. Methods / Materials
• 6. Results / Analysis
• 7. Discussion
• 8. Conclusion
• 9. Reference

Methods / Materials Overview

These sections of the research paper should be concise. The audience reading the paper will always want to know what materials or methods that were used. The methods and materials may be under subheadings in the section or incorporated together. The main objective for these sections is to provide specialized materials, general procedures, and methods to judge the scientific value of the paper.

What to include in the sections

• Described separately
• Include the chemicals, biological, and any equipment
• Do not include common supplies, such as test tubes, pipette tips, beakers, etc. or standard lab equipment
• Single out sources like a specific type of equipment, enzyme, or a culture
• These should be mentioned in a separate paragraph with its own heading or highlighted in the procedure section if there is one
• Refer to solutions by name and describe
• Describes in detail how the analysis was conducted
• Be brief when presenting methods under the title devoted to a specific technique or groups of procedures
• Simplify and report what the procedure was
• Report the method by name
• Use third person passive voice, and avoid using first person
• Use normal text in these sections
• Avoid informal lists
• Use complete sentences

Example of a Methods Section

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Sixth Ed. 2010

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How to write a materials and methods section of a scientific article?

In contrast to past centuries, scientific researchers have been currently conducted systematically in all countries as part of an education strategy. As a consequence, scientists have published thousands of reports. Writing an effective article is generally a significant problem for researchers. All parts of an article, specifically the abstract, material and methods, results, discussion and references sections should contain certain features that should always be considered before sending a manuscript to a journal for publication. It is generally known that the material and methods section is a relatively easy section of an article to write. Therefore, it is often a good idea to begin by writing the materials and methods section, which is also a crucial part of an article. Because “reproducible results” are very important in science, a detailed account of the study should be given in this section. If the authors provide sufficient detail, other scientists can repeat their experiments to verify their findings. It is generally recommended that the materials and methods should be written in the past tense, either in active or passive voice. In this section, ethical approval, study dates, number of subjects, groups, evaluation criteria, exclusion criteria and statistical methods should be described sequentially. It should be noted that a well-written materials and methods section markedly enhances the chances of an article being published.

How to Write a Materials and Methods Section of a Scientific Article?

Up to the 18 th Century scientific researches were performed on a voluntary basis by certain scientists. However from the second half of the 19 th century, scientific development has gained momentum with the contributions of numerous scientists including Edison, Fleming, and Koch. In parallel with these developments, apparently each scientific field, and even their branches made, and still making magnificent progressions from the end of the 18 th century. Secondary to these developments, scientific researches have been implemented systematically by universities, and various institutions in every part of the world as an integral component of national strategies. Naturally, the number of researchers who performed scientific investigations or sponsored by various institutions increased considerably. Also, as is known very well, all over the world scientists, and researchers move from one place to another to disseminate scientific knowledge. All of these scientific efforts, and activities reflect on clinical practice, and hundreds of thousands, and millions scientific articles which we can currently gain access into all of them online. As indicated by the investigator Gerard Piel, “Without publication, science is dead” which explains the importance of publication. In other words, if you don’t share your investigation and knowledge, they don’t mean anything by themselves. Although sharing the knowledge is essential for writing a scientific paper, nowadays writing a scientific article is mostly learnt as a master-apprentice relationship, and therefore certain standards have not been established. This phenomenon creates serious stress especially for young investigators in their early stage of writing scientific papers. Indeed investigators receiving their residency training confront this reality finally during writing of their dissertations. Though sharing knowledge is known as a fundamental principle in writing a scientific paper, it creates difficulties in the whole world. Relevant to this issue, in the whole world investigations have been performed, and books have been written on the subject of how to write a scientific paper. Accordingly, in our country mostly local meetings, and courses have been organized. These organizations, and investigations should be performed. Indeed, nowadays, in the first assessments, the rejection rate of the journals by internationally acknowledged scientific indexes as “Science Citation İndex (SCI)” and “Science Citation İndex Expanded (SCI-extended” which have certain scientific standards, increases to 62 percent. As a matter of fact only 25% of Class A journals have been included in the lists of SCI, and SCI-extended.

As we all know very well, scientific articles consist of sections of summary, introduction, material, and methods, discussion, and references. Among them, conventionally Materials and Methods section has been reported as the most easily written or will be written section. Although it is known as the most easily written section, nearly 30% of the reasons for rejection are related to this section per se. Therefore due care, and attention should be given to the writing of this section. In the writing process of the ‘Material and Methods’ section, all achievements performed throughout the study period should be dealt with in consideration of certain criteria in a specific sequence. Since as a globally anticipated viewpoint, ‘Materials and Methods’ section can be written quite easily, it has been indicated that if difficulties are encountered in writing a manuscript, then one should start writing from this section. In writing this section, study design describing the type of the article, study subjects to be investigated, methods, and procedures of measurements should be provided under four main headings. [ 1 , 2 ] Accordingly, in brief, we can emphasize the importance of providing clear-cut, adequate, and detailed information in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section to the scientists who will read this scientific article. Meeting these criteria carries great importance with respect to the evaluation of reliability of the investigation by the readers, and reviewers, and also informing them about procedural method, design, data collection, and assessment methods of the investigation, Priorly, as is the case in all scientific investigations, one should be reminded about the importance, and indispensability of compliance with certain standard writing rules. Accordingly, rules of grammar should be obeyed, and if possible passive voice of simple past tense should be used. Related to these rules, use of verbs ‘investigated’, ‘evaluated’ or ‘performed’ will be appropriate. Recently, expressions showing the ownership of the investigation as ‘we performed’, ‘we evaluated’, ‘we implemented’ have taken priority. Since the important point is communication of the message contained in the scientific study, the message should be clearly comprehensible. While ensuring clarity of the message, use of flourishing, and irrelevant sentences should be avoided. [ 1 , 3 ] According to another approach, since our article will be read by professionals of other disciplines, it is important to comply with certain rules of writing. To that end, standard units of measurements, and international abbreviations should be used. Abbreviations should be explained within parentheses at their first mention in the manuscript. For instance let’s analyze the following sentence” The patients were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, complete urinalysis, PSA, and urinary system ultrasound” The abbreviation PSA is very well known by the urologist. However we shouldn’t forget that this article will be read by the professionals in other medical disciplines. Similarly this sentence should not be written as: “The patients were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, complete urinalysis PSA (prostate-specific antigen), and urinary system ultrasound.” Indeed the abbreviation should follow the explanation of this abbreviation. Then the appropriate expression of the sentence should be. “The patients were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, complete urinalysis, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and urinary system ultrasound.”

In addition to the abovementioned information, in the beginning paragraphs of ‘Materials and Methods’ section of a clinical study the answers to the following questions should be absolutely provided:

• The beginning, and termination dates of the study period.
• Number of subjects/patients/experimental animals etc. enrolled in the study,
• Has the approval of the ethics committee been obtained?
• Study design (prospective, retrospective or other). [ 1 , 2 , 4 – 7 ]

Still additional features of the study design (cross-sectional) should be indicated. Apart from this, other types of study designs (randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled or double-blind, parallel control etc.) should be revealed.

The heading of the section “Materials and Methods” can be changed to “Patients and the Method” in accordance with writing rules of the journal in question. Indication of starting, and termination dates of a clinical study will facilitate scientific interpretation of the article. Accordingly, outcomes obtained during development phase of a newly implemented method might be considered differently from those acquired during conventional use of this method. Besides, incidence of the diseases, and number of affected people might vary under the impact of social fluctuations, and environmental factors. Therefore with this justification study period should be specified. Number of cases included in the study should be absolutely indicated in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section. It will be appropriate to determine study population after consultation to a statistician-and if required-following “power analysis” Accordingly, the need for a control group will be indicated based on the study design. Nowadays, as a requirement of patient rights, obtainment of approval from ethics committee should be indicated with its registration number. In addition, acquirement of informed consent forms from patients should be indicated. Ethics Committee approval should be obtained in prospective studies performed with study drugs. Otherwise in case of occurrence of adverse effects, it should be acknowledged that in compliance with Article #90 of the Turkish Criminal Law, a 3-year prison sentence is given to the guilty parties. [ 8 ] Since issues related to the Ethics Committee are the subject of another manuscript, they won’t be handled herein.

The following paragraph exemplifies clearly the aforementioned arguments: “After approval of the local ethics committee (BADK-22), informed consent forms from the patients were obtained, and a total of 176 cases with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) were retrospectively evaluated between January 2011, and December 2012.” In a prospectively designed study, methods used to communicate with the cases including face-to-face interviews, phone calls and/or e-mail should be indicated. [ 1 , 2 ] Each paragraph or subheading in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section should be in accordance with the related ones in the ‘Results’ section. In other words, the sequence of paragraphs, and subheadings in the ‘Results’ section should be the same in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section.

As a next step, names of the groups, and distribution of the cases in these groups should be indicated. For instance: the statement “Cases were divided into 3 groups based on their LUTS scores as. Groups 1 (0–9; n=91), 2 (10–18; n=66), and 3 (≥19; n=20)” clearly delineates the scope of the study at baseline.. In the ‘Materials and Methods’ section the number of study subjects should be absolutely documented. Herein, after assignment of names to groups, in the rest of the manuscript, these names should be used. For example instead of saying: “Mean ages of the cases with LUTS scores between 0–9, 10–18, and ≥19 were determined to be 63.2±2.1, 62.8±4.5, and 65.7±3.9 years, respectively” it will be more comprehensible to use the expression: “Mean ages of the Groups 1, 2, and 3 were specified as 63.2±2.1, 62.8±4.5, and 65.7±3.9 years.” (p=0.478). Expressions indicated in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section should not be repeated in the “Results” section. Thus, errors of repetition will be precluded. Following the abovementioned information, the evaluation method of the cases enrolled in the study should be indicated. Hence, results of medical history, physical examination, and if performed laboratory or radiological evaluations-in that order-should be indicated. The application of survey study-if any-should be investigated, and documented. Therefore, the following sentences encompass all the information stated above: “The cases were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, measurements of serum follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone (T) levels, complete urinalysis, urinary flow rate, direct urinary system roentgenograms, urinary system ultrasound, and if required cyctoscopy. Lower urinary system complaints, and erectile dysfunction were evaluated using International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS), and International Erectile Function Scale (IIEF), respectively.” Apparently, questionnaire forms were used in the above-cited study. However, methods used for the evaluation of questionnaire forms, and significance of the results obtained, and if possible, the first performer of this survey should be written with accompanying references. In relation to the abovementioned questionnaires the following statements constitute standard expressions for the ‘Materials and Methods’ section: “International Prostate Symptom Score (IPPS) was used in the determination of the severity of prostatic symptoms. IPSS used to determine the severity of the disease, evaluate treatment response, and ascertain the symptomatic progression, is the most optimal scoring system recommended by European Association of Urology (EAU) which classifies the severity of the disease based on IPSS scores as mild (0–7), moderate (8–19), and severe symptomatic (20–35) disease. In the evaluation of sexual function International Erectile Function Scale (IIEF) was used. IIEF is one of the most prevalently used form for the patients who consulted for the complaints of sexual dysfunction Based on IIEF scores, the severity of the disease was classified as severe (1–10), moderate (11–16), mild to moderate (17–21), mild (22–25), and no ED (26–30).”

Whether the institutions of the authors working for should be written in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section can be a subject of debate, generally viewpoints favour provision of this information. However, in compliance with their writing rules, some journals do not favour open-label studies where name of the study site is indicated, and this principle is communicated to the author during editorial evaluation Besides, in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section, the brand of the study object, and its country of origin should be indicated. (ie. if radiological methods are used, then the brand of radiological equipment, and its manufacturing country should be specified. In a study entitled ‘The Impact of Computed Tomography in the Prediction of Post-Radical Nephrectomy Stage in Renal Tumours’ since the main topic of the study is computed tomography, the specifications of the equipment used should be explicitely indicated. On the other hand, the details of the medical method which can effect the outcomes of the study should be also recorded. Accordingly, the methods applied for percutaneous nephrolithotomy, ureterorenoscopy, varicocelectomy, transurethral prostatectomy, radical prostatectomy (perineal, open, laparoscopic or robotic should be absolutely indicated. Then inclusion, and exclusion criteria, and if used control group, and its characteristics should be documented. Thus the following paragraph about exclusion criteria will be appropriate: Patients with a history of neurogenic bladder, prostatic or abdominal operation, and transrectal ultrasound guided prostate biopsy (within the previous 6 months), those aged <40 or >70 years, individuals with a peak urine flow rate below 10 ml/sec, and residual urine more than 150 cc were not included in the study.” [ 1 – 3 , 9 ]

Some diseases mentioned in the “Materials and Methods” section require special monitorization procedures. In these cases the procedure of monitorization should be documented for the sake of the validity of the study in question. Accordingly, in conditions such as “nephrectomy, prostatectomy, orchidectomy, pyeloplasty, varicocelectomy, drug therapies, penile prosthesis, and urethral stricture” clinical follow-up protocols should be provided.

The abovementioned rules, and recommendations are most frequently valid for a clinical study, and some points indicated in experimental studies should be also considered. Types, weights, gender, and number of the animals used in animal studies should be absolutely specified. Besides condition of evaluation of experimental animals should be noted. Then as is the case with clinical studies, approval of the ethics committee should be obtained, and documented. Accordingly, the beginning paragraphs of the ‘Materials and Methods’ can be expressed as follows:

“In the study, 40 Wistar-Albino 6-month-old rats each weighing 350–400 g were used. After approval of the ethics committee (HADYEK-41) the study was performed within the frame of rules specified by the National Institute for animal experiments. The rats were divided into 3 groups. Hence, Group 1 (n=7) was accepted as the control group. The rats subjected to partial ureteral obstruction with or without oral carvedilol therapy at daily doses of 2 mg/kg maintained for 7 days constituted Groups 3 (n=8), and 2 (n=8), respectively. Each group of 4 rats was housed in standard cages with an area of 40×60 cm. The animals were fed with standard 8 mm food pellets, and fresh daily tap water. The rats were kept in the cages under 12 hours of light, and 12 hours of dark. Ambient temperature, and humidity were set at 22±2°C, and 50±10%, respectively.”

Herein, the method, and agent of anesthesia used (local or general anesthesia) in surgical procedures, and then the experimental method applied should be clearly indicated. For example the following sentences explain our abovementioned arguments; “All surgical procedures were performed under xylazine-ketamine anesthesia. In all groups, ureters were approached through midline abdominal incision. In Group 1, ureters were manipulated without causing obstruction. Results of biochemical, and pathological evaluations performed in Group 1 were considered as baseline values.”

“Through a midline abdominal incision partial ureteral obstruction was achieved by embedding two-thirds of the distal part of the left ureter into psoas muscle using 4/0 silk sutures as described formerly by Wen et al. [ 10 ] ( Figure 1 ). [ 11 ] All rats were subjected to left nephrectomies at the end of the experimental study.” As formulated by the above paragraph, if the method used is not widely utilized, then the first researcher who describes the method should be indicated with relevant references. One or more than one figures with a good resolution, and easily comprehensible legends should be also included in the explanation of the experimental model. For very prevalently used experimental models as torsion models cited in the “Materials and Methods” section, there is no need to include figures in the manuscript.

Partial ureteral obstruction model [ 11 ]

Appropriate signs, and marks placed on the figure will facilitate comprehension of the legends ( Figure 2 ).

Ureteral segments (black arrows) seen in a rat partial ureteral obstruction model [ 11 ]

The signs used will also improve intelligibility of the target. The figures should be indicated within parentheses in their first mention in the “Materials and Methods” section. Headings and as a prevalent convention legends of the figures should be indicated at the end of the manuscript.

If a different method is used in the study, this should be explained in detail. For instance, in a study where the effect of smoking on testes was investigated, the method, and the applicator used to expose rats to cigarette smoke should be indicated in the ‘Methods’ section following classical description. Relevant to the study in question, the following paragraph explaining the study method should be written: “A glass chamber with dimensions of 75 × 50 × 50 cm was prepared, and divided into 4 compartments with wire fences. The rats in the 2., and 4. cages were placed in these compartments. Each compartment contained 4 rats. Cigarette smoke was produced using one cigarette per hour, and smoke coming from the tip, and the filter of the lighted cigarette was pumped into the gas chamber with a pneumatic motor. The rats were exposed to smoke of 6 cigarettes for 6 hours. The compartments of the rats were changed every day so as to achieve balanced exposure of the rats to cigarette smoke.” [ 12 ]

Meanwhile, chemical names, doses, and routes of administration of the substances used in experimental studies should be indicated. If the substance used is a solution or an antibody, then manufacturing firm, and its country should be indicated in parenthesis. This approach can be exemplified as “Animals used in experiments were randomized into 4 groups of 8 animals. Each group was housed in 2 cages each containing 4 animals. The first group did not undergo any additional procedure (Group 1). The second group was exposed to cigarette smoke (Group 2). The third (Group 3), and the fourth (Group 4) groups received daily intraperitoneal injectable doses of 10 mg/kg resveratrol (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). The Group 4 was also exposed to cigarette smoke. [ 12 ]

After all of these procedures, method, and analytical procedure of histopathological examination used should be described-if possible-by a pathologist Similarly, biochemical method used should be referenced, and written by the department of clinical chemistry. It can be inferred that each division should describe its own method. In other words, histopathological, microbiological, and pharmacological method should be described in detail by respective divisions.

If we summarize all the information stated above, understandably sharing of the scientific knowledge is essential.. Since reproducibility of a study demonstrates the robustness of a study, with the detailed approaches indicated above, reproducibility of our study is provided, and the relevant questions of “How?”, and “How much?” are answered. Besides, since ‘Materials, and Methods’, and ‘Results’ sections will constitute a meaningful whole, explanations of all information related to the data mentioned in the ‘Results’ section should be provided. As an important point not to be forgotten, evaluation or measurement method used for each parameter indicated in the ‘Results’ section should be expounded in the “Materials and Methods” section. For example if you used an expression in the” Results” section like “median body mass index (BMI) of the patients was 27.42 kg/m 2 ”, then you should beforehand indicate that comparative evaluation of BMIs will be done in the “Materials and Methods” section. In addition, the description, and significance of the values expressed in the “Results” section should be indicated in the “Materials and Methods” section. In other words, it should be stated that the patients were evaluated based on their BMIs as normal (18–24.9 kg/m 2 ), overweight (25 kg/m 2 –40 kg/m 2 ), and morbid obesity (>40 kg/m 2 ). If you encounter difficulties in writing “Materials and Methods” section, also a valid approach for other sections, firstly simple headings can be written, then you can go into details. In brief, for every parameter, the reader should get clear-cut answers to the questions such as “How did they evaluate this parameter, and which criteria were used?”. [ 1 , 3 , 13 – 15 ]

The last paragraph of the ‘Materials, and Methods’ section should naturally involve statistical evaluations. This section should be written by statisticians. Accordingly, the preferred statistical method, and the justifications for this preference should be indicated. In conventional statistical evaluations, provision of details is not required. In information indicated above, the statement “For statistical analysis, ANOVA test, chi-square test, T test, Kruskal-Wallis test have been used.” is not required very much. Instead, more appropriate expression will be a statement indicating that recommendations of a knowledgeable, and an experienced statistician were taken into consideration or advanced statistical information was reflected on the statistical evaluations as follows: “Chi-square tests were used in intergroup comparisons of categorical variables, and categorical variables were expressed as numbers, and percentages. In comparisons between LUTS, and ED as for age, independent two samples t-test was used. In the evaluation of the factors effective on erectile dysfunction multivariate logistic regresssion test was used. P values lower than 0.05 were considered as statistically significant The calculations were performed using a statistical package program (PASW v18, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL).” Herein, the type of statistical package used for statistical methods should be emphasized.

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Materials and methods

The study’s methods are one of the most important parts used to judge the overall quality of the paper. In addition the Methods section should give readers enough information so that they can repeat the experiments. Reviewers should look for potential sources of bias in the way the study was designed and carried out, and for places where more explanation is needed.

The specific types of information in a Methods section will vary from field to field and from study to study. However, some general rules for Methods sections are:

• It should be clear from the Methods section how all of the data in the Results section were obtained.
• The study system should be clearly described. In medicine, for example, researchers need to specify the number of study subjects; how, when, and where the subjects were recruited, and that the study obtained appropriate ‘informed consent’ documents; and what criteria subjects had to meet to be included in the study.
• In most cases, the experiments should include appropriate controls or comparators. The conditions of the controls should be specified.
• The outcomes of the study should be defined, and the outcome measures should be objectively validated.
• The methods used to analyze the data must be statistically sound.
• For qualitative studies, an established qualitative research method (e.g. grounded theory is often used in sociology) must be used as appropriate for the study question.
• If the authors used a technique from a published study, they should include a citation and a summary of the procedure in the text. The method also needs to be appropriate to the present experiment.
• All materials and instruments should be identified, including the supplier’s name and location. For example, “Tests were conducted with a Vulcanizer 2.0 (XYZ Instruments, Mumbai, India).”
• The Methods section should not have information that belongs in another section (such as the Introduction or Results).

You may suggest if additional experiments would greatly improve the quality of the manuscript. Your suggestions should be in line with the study’s aims. Remember that almost any study could be strengthened by further experiments, so only suggest further work if you believe that the manuscript is not publishable without it.

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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4 Writing the Materials and Methods (Methodology) Section

The Materials and Methods section briefly describes how you did your research. In other words, what did you do to answer your research question? If there were materials used for the research or materials experimented on you list them in this section. You also describe how you did the research or experiment. The key to a methodology is that another person must be able to replicate your research—follow the steps you take. For example if you used the internet to do a search it is not enough to say you “searched the internet.” A reader would need to know which search engine and what key words you used.

Open this section by describing the overall approach you took or the materials used. Then describe to the readers step-by-step the methods you used including any data analysis performed. See Fig. 2.5 below for an example of materials and methods section.

Writing tips:

• Explain procedures, materials, and equipment used
• Example: “We used an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer to analyze major and trace elements in the mystery mineral samples.”
• Order events chronologically, perhaps with subheadings (Field work, Lab Analysis, Statistical Models)
• Use past tense (you did X, Y, Z)
• Quantify measurements
• Include results in the methods! It’s easy to make this mistake!
• Example: “W e turned on the machine and loaded in our samples, then calibrated the instrument and pushed the start button and waited one hour. . . .”

Technical Writing @ SLCC Copyright © 2020 by Department of English, Linguistics, and Writing Studies at SLCC is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Atomistic Representation of Anomalies in the Failure Behaviour of Nanocrystalline Silicene

• Tawfiqur Rakib
• Sourav Saha
• Md Mahbubul Islam

Three-dimensional Graphene with MoS 2 Nanohybrid as Potential Energy Storage/Transfer Device

• Kulvinder Singh
• Sushil Kumar
• Kaushik Ghosh

Highly Efficient Colored Perovskite Solar Cells Integrated with Ultrathin Subwavelength Plasmonic Nanoresonators

• Kyu-Tae Lee
• Ji-Yun Jang
• Hui Joon Park

Towards large-scale in free-standing graphene and N-graphene sheets

• E. Tatarova
• B. Gonçalves

Germanium-doped Metallic Ohmic Contacts in Black Phosphorus Field-Effect Transistors with Ultra-low Contact Resistance

• Hsun-Ming Chang
• Adam Charnas
• Chao-Hsin Wu

Nickel Cobalt Sulfide core/shell structure on 3D Graphene for supercapacitor application

• Lemu Girma Beka

Graphene Quantum Dot Solid Sheets: Strong blue-light-emitting & photocurrent-producing band-gap-opened nanostructures

• Ganapathi Bharathi
• Devaraj Nataraj
• Dibyendu Bhattacharyya

Graphene-copper composite with micro-layered grains and ultrahigh strength

• Lidong Wang
• Weidong Fei

Performance of Solid-state Hybrid Energy-storage Device using Reduced Graphene-oxide Anchored Sol-gel Derived Ni/NiO Nanocomposite

• Himadri Tanaya Das
• Kamaraj Mahendraprabhu
• Perumal Elumalai

Graphitizing Non-graphitizable Carbons by Stress-induced Routes

• Maziar Ghazinejad
• Sunshine Holmberg

Flexible Fe 3 O 4 @Carbon Nanofibers Hierarchically Assembled with MnO 2 Particles for High-Performance Supercapacitor Electrodes

• Nousheen Iqbal
• Xianfeng Wang

Toward new gas-analytical multisensor chips based on titanium oxide nanotube array

• Fedor Fedorov
• Michail Vasilkov
• Victor Sysoev

Investigation of Thermally Induced Degradation in CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 Perovskite Solar Cells using In-situ Synchrotron Radiation Analysis

• Nam-Koo Kim
• Young Hwan Min
• Donghwan Kim

Ion bombardment induced buried lateral growth: the key mechanism for the synthesis of single crystal diamond wafers

• Matthias Schreck
• Stefan Gsell
• Martin Fischer

The High Temperature Tensile and Creep Behaviors of High Entropy Superalloy

• Te-Kang Tsao
• An-Chou Yeh
• Sheng-Rui Jian

High-throughput Identification and Characterization of Two-dimensional Materials using Density functional theory

• Kamal Choudhary
• Irina Kalish
• Francesca Tavazza

Brush-paintable and highly stretchable Ag nanowire and PEDOT:PSS hybrid electrodes

• Sang-Mok Lee

High-Mobility and High-Optical Quality Atomically Thin WS 2

• Francesco Reale
• Pawel Palczynski
• Cecilia Mattevi

A novel hierarchical porous nitrogen-doped carbon derived from bamboo shoot for high performance supercapacitor

• Xiufang Chen
• Junyi Zhang

Electrical performance of lightweight CNT-Cu composite wires impacted by surface and internal Cu spatial distribution

• Rajyashree Sundaram
• Takeo Yamada
• Atsuko Sekiguchi

Spray-cast multilayer perovskite solar cells with an active-area of 1.5 cm 2

• James E. Bishop
• David K. Mohamad
• David G. Lidzey

Determining the Quality Factor of Dielectric Ceramic Mixtures with Dielectric Constants in the Microwave Frequency Range

• Yingxiang Li

Quantum Light in Curved Low Dimensional Hexagonal Boron Nitride Systems

• Nathan Chejanovsky
• Youngwook Kim
• Jörg Wrachtrup

Enhanced thermal conductivity of epoxy composites filled with silicon carbide nanowires

• Dianyu Shen
• Zhaolin Zhan

Accurate and efficient band gap predictions of metal halide perovskites using the DFT-1/2 method: GW accuracy with DFT expense

• Shu Xia Tao
• Peter A. Bobbert

White Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Individual Polymerized Carbon Nanodots

• Zhengmao Yin
• Xiangang Xu

Thermal Conductance of the 2D MoS 2 / h -BN and graphene/ h -BN Interfaces

• Zhun-Yong Ong
• Kedar Hippalgaonkar

Instability in CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 perovskite solar cells due to elemental migration and chemical composition changes

• Zubair Ahmad
• Mansoor Ani Najeeb
• M. K. Nazeeruddin

Understanding contact gating in Schottky barrier transistors from 2D channels

• Abhijith Prakash
• Hesameddin Ilatikhameneh
• Joerg Appenzeller

Multi-frequency sound production and mixing in graphene

• M. S. Heath
• D. W. Horsell

The structural and magnetic properties of dual phase cobalt ferrite

• Shyam K. Gore
• Santosh S. Jadhav
• Kwang Ho Kim

Flexible PVDF membranes with exceptional robust superwetting surface for continuous separation of oil/water emulsions

Fluorescence brightness and photostability of individual copper (I) oxide nanocubes

• Nafisa Zohora
• Ahmad Esmaielzadeh Kandjani
• Brant C. Gibson

Van der Waals MoS 2 /VO 2 heterostructure junction with tunable rectifier behavior and efficient photoresponse

• Nicoló Oliva
• Emanuele Andrea Casu
• Adrian Mihai Ionescu

3D free-standing nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide aerogel as anode material for sodium ion batteries with enhanced sodium storage

Cross-Talk Immunity of PEDOT:PSS Pressure Sensing Arrays with Gold Nanoparticle Incorporation

• Rajat Subhra Karmakar
• Jer-Chyi Wang

The Influence of Porosity on Fatigue Crack Initiation in Additively Manufactured Titanium Components

• S. Tammas-Williams
• P. B. Prangnell

An extremely simple macroscale electronic skin realized by deep machine learning

• Kee-Sun Sohn
• Jiyong Chung

Electrochemical performance and interfacial properties of Li-metal in lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide based electrolytes

• Reza Younesi
• Fanny Bardé

Influence of synthesis parameters on CCVD growth of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes over aluminum substrate

• Egon Kecsenovity
• Klara Hernadi

Large-scale synthesis of uniform hexagonal boron nitride films by plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition

• Tae Keun Kim
• Sung-Yool Choi

Operando Multi-modal Synchrotron Investigation for Structural and Chemical Evolution of Cupric Sulfide (CuS) Additive in Li-S battery

• Chonghang Zhao

The agglomeration, coalescence and sliding of nanoparticles, leading to the rapid sintering of zirconia nanoceramics

• Andraž Kocjan
• Manca Logar
• Zhijian Shen

Indium selenide: an insight into electronic band structure and surface excitations

• A. Politano
• A. Cupolillo

Fabrication of Subnanometer-Precision Nanopores in Hexagonal Boron Nitride

• S. Matt Gilbert
• Gabriel Dunn

Stretchable conductive elastomer for wireless wearable communication applications

• Jingtian Xi
• Matthew M. F. Yuen

Aligning cellulose nanofibril dispersions for tougher fibers

• Pezhman Mohammadi
• Matti S. Toivonen
• Markus B. Linder

Carbon nanowalls as a platform for biological SERS studies

• Pavel Dyakonov
• Kirill Mironovich
• Stanislav Evlashin

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Whitesides Research Group

Paper as a Material

Paper has been used by humans for thousands of years. Today paper is a commodity material commonly used for printing and packaging, but the properties of paper make it appropriate for many other uses. Paper, for example, is porous, it wicks liquids, it is flexible, foldable/creasable, biocompatible and biodegradable. We use these unique properties to achieve new uses for paper in areas such as cell biology, robotics, electronics, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and microfluidic devices.

PAPER COMPOSITES

Elastomer Composites for Robots

We have used paper to introduce anisotropy into elastomers, and to build soft pneumatic actuators. 1 We folded paper into 3D structures following the principles of origami to form a robotic actuator. The folded structures increase the stiffness and anisotropy of elastomeric actuators, while being light in weight (Fig 1). The principles of design lead to actuators that respond to pressurization that are capable of a wide range of motions (bending, extension, contraction, twisting, and others).

Cells in Gels in Paper

In cell biology, it is important to create 3D scaffolds for cells to recapitulate the structure and function of living tissue. We have used hydrophobic patterning to define areas for cell growth on a single sheet of paper. The patterned paper is then impregnated with suspensions of cells in extracellular matrix hydrogel, and layers of paper are stacked to form a layered 3D model of a tissue (Fig 2). 2–4 The cells in gel/paper composite provide a 3D environment for cell growth. Mass transport of gases (e.g. oxygen), and nutrients can be varied between the different layers, to provide control over the environment in 3D. The stacked paper can then be simply destacked and each paper composite layer can be analyzed by imaging, or other techniques, which eliminates the need for sectioning.

Hydrophobic R F Paper and SLIPS

We have fabricated “fluoroalkylated paper” (“R F paper”) by vapor-phase silanization of paper with fluoroalkyl trichlorosilanes 5 . R F paper is both hydrophobic and oleophobic, but maintains the high permeability to gases and mechanical flexibility of the untreated paper, and can be folded into functional shapes (e.g., microtiter plates and liquid-filled gas sensors). The silanized papers have also been used to build open channel paper microfluidic devices and analytical devices (Fig 3,8). 6,7

When R F paper is impregnated with a perfluorinated oil, it forms a “slippery” surface (paper slippery liquid-infused porous surface, or “paper SLIPS“) capable of repelling liquids with very low surface tensions. The foldability of the paper SLIPS allows the fabrication of channels and flow switches to guide the transport of liquid droplets (Fig 4).

PAPER BASED MICROFLUIDIC DEVICES

Paper Microfluidics Devices with Photolithography or Wax printing

Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs) are a new class of point-of-care diagnostic devices that we have developed to be low-cost, and easy to use 8–12 . µPADs are fabricated by micro patterning hydrophobic regions on paper. These regions define paths for liquids that spontaneously wick through the paper. We have developed two different patterning methods: 1) The photolithography method (Fig 5) uses an epoxy-based negative photoresist (SU-8). Paper is impregnated with photoresist, dried, and exposed to UV light through a transparency mask, which can be printed. The unexposed photoresist can be washed out of the paper to form the hydrophobic microfluidic channels. 13 2) Wax printing 14 is a simple and inexpensive method for patterning microfluidic structures in paper using a commercially available printer and hot plate (Fig 6). Patterns of solid wax are printed on the surface of paper, and a hot plate melts the wax so that it permeates through the paper.

Hydrophobic channels patterned into paper wick micro-liter volumes of fluids by capillary action and distribute the fluids into test zones where independent assays take place (Fig 7). It is possible to pattern microfluidic channels in paper with dimensions down to 200 µm in width. It is also possible to pattern different types of paper, such that the properties of the paper can be selected for specific applications (e.g., filtering, wicking fluids, pumping fluids, and storing reagents).

By stacking layers of patterned-paper and double-sided adhesive tape we can generate three dimensional (3D) microfluidic devices 10 (Fig 7). 3D devices can distribute fluids within layers of paper and between adjacent layers of paper. Using 3D devices, it is possible to distribute samples from a single entry point into thousands of test spots where assays can take place.

Open Channel Paper Microfluidic Devices

We have fabricated pressure-driven, open-channel microfluidic systems in paper with lateral dimensions down to 45 microns. The open channel microfluidic devices are manufactured by, first, creating patterns by either carving 7 or by embossing 15 the paper, to create the channels (Fig 8). Vapor phase silanization then renders paper omniphobic, but preserves its high gas permeability and mechanical properties. The paper is then sealed with tape so that the channels form conduits capable of guiding liquid. These devices are compatible with complex fluids such as droplets of water in oil. The porosity of the paper to gases allows processes not possible in devices made using PDMS or other nonporous materials. Droplet generators and phase separators, for example, could be made
by embossing “T”-shaped channels on paper. Vertical stacking of embossed, or cut layers, of omniphobic paper can generate 3D systems of microchannels.

ELECTRONIC AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

Printed Electrochemical Devices

We have developed microfluidic paper-based electrochemical devices (µPEDs) that are comparable in function to commercial electrochemical cells, but are a fraction of the cost, and disposable. µPEDs comprise paper microfluidic channels that direct the liquid to printed carbon and Ag/AgCl electrodes for electrochemical detection. We have created µPEDs with reference electrodes that allow well-defined electrochemical potentials 16 , for accurate voltammetric measurements (Fig 9), and potentiometric measurements. 17

µPEDs are capable of quantitatively detecting various analytes (e.g., heavy metals, glucose, and various ions) in aqueous solutions, including biological fluids such as urine, serum and blood. These one time use disposable systems can be easily interfaced with other electronic devices, such as commercial glucometers or proprietary designed electronics to perform measurements and transmit data 18,19 .

Paper-Based Electronics

We have fabricated flexible electronic circuits on paper (Fig10,11,12). The circuits comprise typically patterned metallic wires on paper, and discrete surface-mountable electronic components that are fastened directly to the wires with conductive adhesive. Four examples of our work in this area are:

1) Paper touch pads were constructed from a commercially available, metallized paper. 20

2) Electronic display that is fabricated by patterning electrically conductive wires (heaters) on one side of paper, and thermochromic ink on the opposite side. 21

3) Paper-based three-dimensional electronic circuits (Fig 10) that are thin and lightweight; they should be useful for applications in consumer electronics and packaging, and for disposable systems. Unlike printed circuit boards, paper can be folded and creased, to form complex 3D structures, and disposed of by incineration 22 .

4) Hydrophobic (“R F paper”) was used as a substrate for inkjet printing of aqueous inks that are the precursors of electrically conductive patterns (Fig 11). By controlling the surface chemistry of the paper, it is possible to print high resolution, conductive patterns that remain conductive after folding and exposure to common solvents 23 .

Paper Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

By combining the mechanical properties of paper with electronic control or feedback we developed paper MEMS. We have fabricated force sensors that were constructed using paper as the structural material. The working principle of the sensors are based on the piezoresistive effect generated by conductive materials patterned on a paper substrate 24 . We have fabricated force sensors, paper-based weighing balance 24 , and cantilever-type MEMS deflection sensors (Fig 12). 23

REFERENCES:

• Martinez, R. V, Fish, C. R., Chen, X. & Whitesides, G. M. "Elastomeric Origami : Programmable Paper-Elastomer Composites as Pneumatic Actuators", 1376–1384 (2012). doi:10.1002/adfm.201102978
• Mosadegh, B., Dabriri.B.E., Lockett.M., Derda.R., Campbell.P., Parker.K.K., and Whitesides.G.M., "Three-Dimensional Paper-Based Model for Cardiac Ischemia", 1036–1043 (2014). doi:10.1002/adhm.201300575
• Derda, R., Tang.S.K.Y., Laromaine.A., Mosadegh.B., Hong.E., Thuo.M.M., Mammoto.A., Ingber.D.E., and Whitesides.G.M., "Multizone Paper Platform for 3D Cell Cultures", PLoS ONE, 2011, 6, e18940.
• Mosadegh, B., Lockett.M.R., Minn.K.T., Simon.K.A., Gilbert.K., Hillier.S., Newsome.D., Li.H., Hall.A.B., Boucher.D.M., Eustace.B.K., and Whitesides.G.M., "A paper-based invasion assay : Assessing chemotaxis of cancer cells in gradients of oxygen", Biomaterials 52, 262–271 (2015).
• Glavan, A., Martinez.R.V., Subramaniam.A.B., Yoon.H.J., Nunes.R.M.D., Lange.H., Thuo.M.M., and Whitesides.G.M., "Omniphobic ‘rF paper’ produced by silanization of paper with fluoroalkyltrichlorosilanes", Adv. Funct. Mater. 24, 60–70 (2014).
• Glavan, A., Christodouleas.D.C, Mosadegh.B., Yu.H., Smith.B., Lessing.J., Fernandez-Abedul.M.T, and Whitesides.G.M, "Folding Analytical Devices for Electrochemical ELISA in Hydrophobic RH Paper", Analytical Chemistry , 2014, 86, 11999-12007. (2014).
• Glavan, A., Martinez.R.V., Maxwell.E.J., Subramaniam.A.B., Nunes.R.M.D., Soh.S., and Whitesides.G.M., "Rapid fabrication of pressure-driven open-channel microfluidic devices in omniphobic R(F) paper", Lab Chip 13, 2922–30 (2013).
• Maxwell, E. J., Mazzeo, A. D. & Whitesides, G. M. "Paper-based electroanalytical devices for accessible diagnostic testing", MRS Bull. 38, 309–314 (2013).
• Martinez, A. W., Phillips, S. T., Whitesides, G. M. & Carrilho, E. "Diagnostics for the developing world: microfluidic paper-based analytical devices", Anal. Chem. 82, 3–10 (2010).
• Martinez, A. W., Phillips, S. T. & Whitesides, G. M. "Three-dimensional microfluidic devices fabricated in layered paper and tape", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105, 19606–11 (2008).
• Ellerbee, A.K., Phillips, S.T., Siegel, A.C., Mirica, K.A., Martinez, A.W., Striehl, P., Jain, N., Prentiss, M., and Whitesides, G.M., "Quantifying colorimetric assays in paper-based microfluidic devices by measuring the transmission of light through paper", Anal. Chem. 81, 8447–8452 (2009).
• Martinez, A.W., Phillips, S.T., Nie, Z., Cheng, C., Carrilho, E., Wiley, B.J., and Whitesides, G.M., "Programmable diagnostic devices made from paper and tape", Lab Chip 10, 2499–2504 (2010).
• Martinez, A. W., Phillips, S. T., Wiley, B. J., Gupta, M. & Whitesides, G. M. "FLASH : A rapid method for prototyping paper-based microfluidic devices" . Lab on a Chip , 2008, 8, 2146-2150. doi:10.1039/b811135a
• Carrilho, E., Martinez, A. W. & Whitesides, G. M. "Understanding wax printing: a simple micropatterning process for paper-based microfluidics", Anal. Chem. 81, 7091–5 (2009).
• Thuo, M.M., Martinez.R.V., Lan.W., Liu.X., Barber.J.R., Atkinson.M.B.J., Bandarage.D.C., Bloch.J., and Whitesides.G.M., "Fabrication of low-cost paper-based microfluidic devices by embossing or cut-and-stack methods", Chem. Mater. 26, 4230–4237 (2014).
• Lan, W., Maxwell.E.J., Parolo.C., Bwambok.D.K., Subramaniam.A.B., and Whitesides.G.M., "Paper-based electroanalytical devices with an integrated, stable reference electrode", Lab Chip 13, 4103–8 (2013).
• Lan, W., Zou.X.U, Hamedi.M.M, Hu.J., Parolo.C., Maxwell.E.J, Buhlmann.P., and Whitesides.G.M, "Paper-Based Potentiometric Ion Sensing", Anal. Chem. 86, 9548−9553, (2014).
• Nie, Z., Deiss, F., Liu, X., Akbulut, O. & Whitesides, G. M. "Integration of paper-based microfluidic devices with commercial electrochemical readers", Lab Chip 10, 3163–9 (2010).
• Nemiroski, A., Christodouleas.D.C, Hennek.J.W, Kumar.A.A, Maxwell.E.J, Fernandez-Abedul.M.T, and Whitesides.G.M., "Universal mobile electrochemical detector designed for use in resource-limited applications", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111, 11984-11989 (2014).
• Mazzeo, A.D., Kalb.W.B., Chan.L., Killian.M.G., Bloch.J-F., Mazzeo.B.A., and Whitesides.G.M.,"Paper-Based , Capacitive Touch Pads", 2850–2856 (2012). doi:10.1002/adma.201200137
• Siegel, A. C., Phillips, S. T., Wiley, J. & Whitesides, G. M. "Thin , lightweight , foldable thermochromic displays on paper", Lab on a Chip , 9 , 2775-2781 (2009).
• Siegel, A.C., Phillips, S.T., Dickey, M.D., Lu, N., Suo, Z., and Whitesides, G.M., "Foldable printed circuit boards on paper substrates", Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 28–35 (2010).
• Lessing, J., Glavan.A., Walker.S.B., Keplinger.C., Lewis.J.A., and Whitesides.G.M., "Inkjet printing of conductive inks with high lateral resolution on omniphobic ‘R(F) paper’ for paper-based electronics and MEMS", Adv. Mater. 26, 4677–82 (2014).
• Liu, X., Mwangi, M., Li, X., O’Brien, M. & Whitesides, G. M. "Paper-based piezoresistive MEMS sensors", Lab Chip 11, 2189–96 (2011).

• MyU : For Students, Faculty, and Staff

Roberts group publishes synthetic chemistry research in Science

MINNEAPOLIS / ST. PAUL (04/25/2024) – The Roberts group recently published a new paper in  Science that explores enabling the use of a previously inaccessible functional group for N-heteroaromatic compounds.  Science – the flagship journal for the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) – publishes groundbreaking research across the spectrum of scientific fields. 

N-Heteroaromatic are an important class of molecules which are key to elements of pharmaceutical, agrochemicals and materials. Efficient and innovative methods to make functionalized heteroarenes are needed to make these critical molecules more readily available. One attractive method for the synthesis of N-heteroaromatic compounds would be the use of a N-heteroaryne – an aromatic ring containing a nitrogen atom and a triple bond. N-heteroarynes within 6-membered rings have been used as key intermediates for synthetic chemists, however after 120 years of aryne research the use of 5-membered N-heteroarynes has remained elusive. Notably, a computational model has predicted these 5-membered N-heteroarynes to be “inaccessible”, meaning they cannot be accessed synthetically due to the excessive strain associated with forming a triple bond within a small 5-membered ring.

The Roberts group hypothesized by applying principles of organometallic chemistry, forming 5-membered N-heteroarynes at a metal center would alleviate strain through back-bonding and allow access to this previously inaccessible functional group.  In a report which was published in  Science , the Roberts group achieved the first synthesis of 7-azaindole-2,3-yne complexes using phosphine-ligated nickel complexes. The complexes were characterized by X-ray crystallography and spectroscopy. Additionally, the complexes showed ambiphilic reactivity, meaning they react with both nucleophiles and electrophiles, making them an exceptionally versatile tool for the synthesis of N-heteroaromatic compounds. This exciting research breakthrough will have important applications in expanding the “chemist’s toolbox” for developing new pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials, and also provide fundamental insights on accessing synthetically useful strained intermediates.

This new work from the Roberts group was enabled by the National Institutes of Health, and by a multitude of fellowships held by the paper’s collaborators. Fifth-year PhD candidate Erin Plasek is supported by the UMN Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship;  fifth-year student Jenna Humke is supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program; both Plasek and Humke are supported by Department of Chemistry Fourth-Year Excellence Fellowships; and third-year graduate student Sallu Kargbo was supported by the Gleysteen Departmental First Year Fellowship. For leadership excellence of her research program, Courtney Roberts has been awarded the 3M Alumni Professorship, the McKnight Land-Grant Professorship, the Amgen Young Investigator Award, and the Thieme Chemistry Journal Award in the past year alone.

“It is incredibly exciting to see this work, which started out as a few lines in my initial job proposals, come to fruition because of the exceptional team of students and postdocs behind it. We are delighted to finally share this new functional group for 5-membered N-heterocycles with the synthetic community,” Roberts writes.

Founded in 2019, the Roberts group uses inorganic and organometallic chemistry and catalysis to solve fundamental problems in synthetic organic chemistry related to pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and materials. They have published work related to early transition metal catalysis, photochemical reactions, and inducing regioselectivity in metal-mediated aryne reactions. The group now consists of 14 graduate students, two postdoctoral associates, and one undergraduate researcher from a range of organic and inorganic backgrounds, which allows the team to take a multidisciplinary approach to solving research problems. They value diversity, collaboration, inclusivity, and radical candor in everything they do.

Roberts Group Website

Science Vol. 384 Issue 6694

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Help | Advanced Search

Computer Science > Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

Title: materialseg3d: segmenting dense materials from 2d priors for 3d assets.

Abstract: Driven by powerful image diffusion models, recent research has achieved the automatic creation of 3D objects from textual or visual guidance. By performing score distillation sampling (SDS) iteratively across different views, these methods succeed in lifting 2D generative prior to the 3D space. However, such a 2D generative image prior bakes the effect of illumination and shadow into the texture. As a result, material maps optimized by SDS inevitably involve spurious correlated components. The absence of precise material definition makes it infeasible to relight the generated assets reasonably in novel scenes, which limits their application in downstream scenarios. In contrast, humans can effortlessly circumvent this ambiguity by deducing the material of the object from its appearance and semantics. Motivated by this insight, we propose MaterialSeg3D, a 3D asset material generation framework to infer underlying material from the 2D semantic prior. Based on such a prior model, we devise a mechanism to parse material in 3D space. We maintain a UV stack, each map of which is unprojected from a specific viewpoint. After traversing all viewpoints, we fuse the stack through a weighted voting scheme and then employ region unification to ensure the coherence of the object parts. To fuel the learning of semantics prior, we collect a material dataset, named Materialized Individual Objects (MIO), which features abundant images, diverse categories, and accurate annotations. Extensive quantitative and qualitative experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our method.

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