research articles in psychiatric

Editor's Choice: JAMA+ AI Site to Inform Medicine and Public Health

Justin D. Russell, PhD; Sara A. Heyn, JD, PhD; Matthew Peverill, PhD; et al

Original Investigation | October 23, 2024

Just Published

• TRACEs and Developmental Differences in Psychiatric Risk Justin D. Russell, PhD; et al. Original Investigation Justin D. Russell, PhD; et al.
• Patterns of Brain Maturation in Autism and Their Molecular Associations Charlotte M. Pretzsch, PhD; et al. Original Investigation open access Charlotte M. Pretzsch, PhD; et al. Editorial
• Antipsychotic Drugs and Cognitive Function Lena Feber, MSc; et al. Original Investigation Lena Feber, MSc; et al.
• Diagnosing and Treating ADHD in Adults Carlos Blanco, MD, PhD; et al. Viewpoint Carlos Blanco, MD, PhD; et al.
• Addressing the Problems Patients Encounter When Filling Buprenorphine Prescriptions Erin L. Winstanley, PhD; et al. Viewpoint Erin L. Winstanley, PhD; et al.
• Development of Sensory Regions vs the Rest of the Cortex in Autism Jessica Girault, PhD Editorial Jessica Girault, PhD
• Toward Equitable Interventions in Public Mental Health Ulrich Reininghaus, PhD; et al. Review has active quiz Ulrich Reininghaus, PhD; et al.
• Prioritization of Psychopathological Symptoms and Clinical Characterization in Psychiatric Diagnoses Stefan Leucht, MD; et al. Review has active quiz Stefan Leucht, MD; et al.
• Bringing Imaging Biomarkers Into Clinical Reality in Psychiatry Amit Etkin, MD, PhD; et al. Special Communication has active quiz Amit Etkin, MD, PhD; et al. Editor's Note
• 14,840 Views Efficacy and Safety of Xanomeline-Trospium Chloride in Schizophrenia
• 10,042 Views Associations Between Social Media Time and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems Among US Youth
• 7,767 Views ADHD Medications and Long-Term Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases
• 7,055 Views Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction vs Escitalopram for the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders
• 6,509 Views Effect of Pain Reprocessing Therapy vs Placebo and Usual Care for Patients With Chronic Back Pain
• 5,805 Views Association Between Physical Activity and Risk of Depression
• 5,515 Views Effects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder
• 4,941 Views Transmission of Mental Disorders in Adolescent Peer Networks
• 4,927 Views Bright Light Therapy for Nonseasonal Depressive Disorders
• 4,623 Views Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts After Direct or Indirect Psychotherapy
• 352 Citations Association Between Physical Activity and Risk of Depression
• 316 Citations Perturbations in Gut Microbiota Composition in Psychiatric Disorders
• 230 Citations Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in the Treatment of Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder
• 168 Citations US Drug Overdose Mortality Rates by Race and Ethnicity Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• 156 Citations Methamphetamine Use, Use Disorder, and Overdose Deaths Among US Adults
• 155 Citations Association of Psychological Distress Prior to Infection With Risk of Post–COVID-19 Conditions
• 145 Citations Association Between Mental Health Disorders and Mortality Among Patients With COVID-19 in 7 Countries
• 134 Citations Changes in the Mental Health and Well-being of Older Adults in England During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• 111 Citations Effect of Pain Reprocessing Therapy vs Placebo and Usual Care for Patients With Chronic Back Pain
• 110 Citations Inflammation and Brain Structure in Schizophrenia and Other Neuropsychiatric Disorders
• Register for email alerts with links to free full-text articles
• Access PDFs of free articles
• Manage your interests
• Save searches and receive search alerts

• Search by keyword
• Search by citation

Page 1 of 154

PANDAS, a series of difficult decisions: a case report

Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus (PANDAS) is a controversial diagnosis with limited evidence-based treatment guidelines available, particularly for severe and treat...

• View Full Text

Clinical outcomes and outcome predictors of two-year assertive community treatment in Norway: an explorative prospective pre–post study

Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) teams have become a part of mental health services for people with severe mental illness in many high-income countries. Studies in several countries have investigated the ou...

Identification of immune traits associated with neurodevelopmental disorders by two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis

One of the main causes of health-related issues in children is neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), which include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and Tourette s...

Patterns and predictors of help-seeking intentions for suicidal ideation compared to other health conditions among rural Chinese adults

Psychological help-seeking for suicidal ideation is a critical aspect of effective suicide prevention. Past research has documented low help-seeking amongst rural residents in China. This study investigates th...

An investigative study on the causes of depression and the coping strategies among clinical medical students in private universities in North Central Nigeria

Depression is among known mental health conditions and students in schools of medicine are not immune to it. In this investigative study, 211 clinical medical students of two private universities from North-Ce...

An investigation of the Bernstein’s strengths Scale: factorial validity and network analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms, mental health, and the strengths of the healthy adult self

Bernstein’s heuristic model of personal strengths describes 16 positive attributes of the healthy adult self, grouped into four higher-order factors: self-directedness (identity, self-reflection, self-confiden...

Borderline personality disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder in adolescents: protocol for a comparative study of borderline personality disorder with and without comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder (BORDERSTRESS-ADO)

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a prevalent and debilitating psychiatric condition often accompanied by Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), with a substantial prevalence of trauma history among aff...

A longitudinal study on the development trajectory of auditory processing and its relationship with language development in Chinese preschool children with autism spectrum disorder: study protocol

It was reported that more than 96% of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children are accompanied with different degrees of sensory processing abnormalities, and up to 50% of ASD children exhibit abnormal auditory...

The psychometric properties of Chinese version of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome-quality of life scale (GTS-QOL) for children and adolescents

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a persistent neurological disorder that profoundly affects the quality of life for afflicted individuals, however, tailored health-related quality of life (QOL) measures...

A nomogram for predicting postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder: a prospective cohort study

Postpartumpost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as a psychological stress disorder, has long-term and widespread harm. Still, compared with other postpartum psychiatric disorders, postpartum PTSD has received...

Evaluating the causal relationship of Levo-carnitine and risk of schizophrenia: a bidirectional two-sample mendelian randomization study

Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disorder affecting about 1% of the global population, characterized by significant cognitive impairments and a strong hereditary component. Carnitine, particularly Levo-c...

Network analysis of resilience, anxiety and depression in clinical nurses

Resilience is a protective feature against anxiety and depression disorders. However, the precise relationship and structure of resilience and anxiety and depression remain poorly understood. This study sought...

Association between olfactory function and metabolic syndrome in bipolar disorder patients: a cross-sectional study

Olfactory function is closely related to mood and the endocrine system. However, the role of olfactory function in bipolar disorder combined with metabolic syndrome remains unclear. The purpose of this study w...

The combined effects of depression or anxiety with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in predicting the prognosis of coronary heart disease patients

Depression, anxiety and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) are individually associated with poor prognosis in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). However, the combined effects of depression w...

Genetic polymorphism involved in major depressive disorder: a systemic review and meta-analysis

Genetic polymorphism studies in families and twins indicated the heritability of depression. However, the association between genes with genetic polymorphism and depression provides various findings and remain...

Sleep timing and the prevalence of hypertension in middle-aged and older populations: the sleep heart health study

Sleep characteristics such as duration, continuity, and irregularity are associated with the risk of hypertension. This study aimed to investigate the association between sleep timing (including bedtime, wake-...

Improvement in symptoms of anxiety and depression in individuals with type 2 diabetes: retrospective analysis of an intensive lifestyle modification program

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic metabolic disorder that has a notable influence on mental well-being, contributing to elevated morbidity and mortality rates. Depression and anxiety disorders are the most co...

Interpersonal symptoms in adolescence depression across Asian and European regions: a network approach

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) poses a significant global health challenge, with symptom presentation potentially varying between adolescents and adults. Adolescence is a critical period marked by heightened ...

Mobile phone addiction and self-injury in adolescents with MDD: mediation by self-esteem and depression, and the failure of usage restrictions

Previous studies have suggested a significant association between mobile phone addiction (MPA) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in general adolescents. However, limited research has analyzed this relationsh...

A pre-post trial to examine biological mechanisms of the effects of time-restricted eating on symptoms and quality of life in bipolar disorder

The primary objective of this trial is to examine the mechanisms of time-restricted eating (TRE) as an adjunct to psychiatric care for people with bipolar disorder (BD) with sleep or circadian disruptions. Thi...

Early gesture development as a predictor of autism spectrum disorder in elevated-likelihood infants of ASD

Gesture difficulties have been reported in later-born siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Careful observation of gesture development during the first two years of children at elevated lik...

Nourishing the mind: how the EAT-Lancet reference diet (ELD) and MIND diet impact stress, anxiety, and depression

Previous studies have suggested a link between diet and mental health. However, there is a lack of evidence regarding the association between emerging diets such as the EAT-Lancet reference diet (ELD) and the ...

Effects of decision making and impulsivity on the addictive features of non-suicidal self-injury behaviors in adolescents with depressive disorder

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) behaviors pose a significant threat to the physical and psychological well-being of adolescents. Recent research suggests that persistent, uncontrollable and repetitive NSSI can...

Investigating the relationship between internet addiction, domestic violence, and emotional divorce among married women in Tehran

Identifying the factors affecting emotional divorce due to the negative consequences of this social problem in women can play an important role in preventing its occurrence. Therefore, the present study aimed ...

Prevalence of schizophrenia spectrum disorders in the Lazio region, Italy: use of an algorithm based on health administrative databases

Mental healthcare provision is undergoing substantial reconfiguration in many regions of the world. Such changes require a broad, evidence-based approach incorporating epidemiological data and information on l...

The effect of acceptance and commitment therapy on work-related rumination and job fatigue of medical emergency and accident management center staff: an experimental study

Working in accident management centers and medical emergencies makes employees face psychological tensions and leads to a decrease in their work quality and endangering the lives of patients. Therefore, any so...

Experiences of residents in a therapeutic community model of substance use disorder treatment in a mental hospital in Ghana

In Ghana, the use of illegal drugs and alcohol has been classified as endemic. To manage this menace, the Therapeutic Community model for Substance Use Disorders (SUD) was introduced in Ghana about a decade ag...

Effects of 6-week olanzapine treatment on serum IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, and TNF-α levels in drug-naive individuals with first-episode schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder. Growing evidence indicates that the activation of the inflammatory response system with interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-al...

Insomnia as a predictor of treatment outcomes in adolescents receiving concentrated exposure treatment for OCD

Research suggests that individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) frequently experience insomnia. Some previous studies have suggested that insomnia may predict treatment outcomes, but the evidence i...

Cross-sectional study about suicide ideation and attempts among Brazilian pre-adolescents

Suicide is a global public health problem. In childhood, the risk factors are less clear, highlighting family and individual factors. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and sociodemographic, social,...

A case report of adolescent lactation due to the drug blonanserin

Second-generation antipsychotic drugs are increasingly used to treat depressive disorders with psychotic symptoms. In addition to effectively managing psychotic symptoms, second-generation antipsychotics can a...

Correction: Prevalence and biopsychosocial factors associated with depressive symptoms among patients living with systemic lupus erythematosus in clinical settings in urban Thailand

The original article was published in BMC Psychiatry 2022 22 :103

Prevalence and correlates of emotion dysregulation among children and adolescents in Lebanon: results from a National Survey

Data on Emotion Dysregulation among youth in Lebanon is scarce. Given that Emotion Dysregulation is associated with psychopathology and has a negative impact on youth outcomes, there is a need to better unders...

Emergency treatment of tongue bite after rat poison poisoning in a patient with recurrent depressive disorder: a case report

Recurrent depressive disorder (RDD) is mainly manifested as a low mood, negative and pessimistic mood, and often presents suicidal tendencies when severe. This study reports on a patient with RDD who experienc...

Psychometric evaluation of the Chinese version of the hospital-acquired insomnia scale (HAIS) and analysis of influencing factors

Adequate sleep and rest are essential for patient recovery; however, lack of sleep has become a common problem faced by Chinese patients during hospital stays. Reduced sleep is often associated with a higher r...

Impact of second-generation antipsychotics monotherapy or combined therapy in cytokine, lymphocyte subtype, and thyroid antibodies for schizophrenia: a retrospective study

Schizophrenia (SCZ) shares high clinical relevance with the immune system, and the potential interactions of psychopharmacological drugs with the immune system are still an overlooked area. Here, we aimed to i...

The translation and validation of the surgical anxiety questionnaire into the modern standard Arabic language: results from classical test theory and item response theory analyses

Preoperative anxiety is commonly found in patients who are waiting for surgery and can lead to negative surgical outcomes. Understanding the sources of surgical anxiety allows healthcare providers to identify ...

The Practical and Social Functioning (PSF) scale: development and measurement properties of an instrument for assessing activity and social participation among people with serious mental illness

Participation in society and the ability to perform various activities are crucial aspects of everyday functioning. The intertwined relationship between functioning, disability, and health is emphasized in the...

Gender-specific correlates for suicide mortality in people with schizophrenia: a 9-year population-based study

Schizophrenia is associated with a high mortality rate due to the high risk of suicide. However, there is still a lack of evidence on the gender-specific risk factors for suicide among people with schizophreni...

How accurately can supervised machine learning model predict a targeted psychiatric disorder?

Hoarding disorder (HD) is characterized by a compulsion to collect belongings, and to experience significant distress when parting from them. HD is often misdiagnosed for several reasons. These include patient...

Serotonin transporter 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and escitalopram treatment response in patients with major depressive disorder

There is no doubt that genetic factors have the potential to predict the therapeutic outcomes of antidepressants in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). This study investigated the association betwee...

The relationship between emotional inhibition, emotional deprivation, failure, vulnerability to harm schema, and severity of symptoms among patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder

Assess the relationship between emotional inhibition, emotional deprivation, failure, vulnerability to harm schema, and severity of symptoms among obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Towards accurate screening and prevention for PTSD (2-ASAP): protocol of a longitudinal prospective cohort study

Effective preventive interventions for PTSD rely on early identification of individuals at risk for developing PTSD. To establish early post-trauma who are at risk, there is a need for accurate prognostic risk...

Allopregnanolone and progesterone in relation to a single electroconvulsive therapy seizure and subsequent clinical outcome: an observational cohort study

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an important treatment for several severe psychiatric conditions, yet its precise mechanism of action remains unknown. Increased inhibition in the brain after ECT seizures, m...

Impact of family engagement on client participation in coordinated specialty care for first episodes of psychosis

Coordinated specialty care (CSC) programs for first episodes of psychosis are increasingly offered in the United States. A component of CSC programs is active family engagement in treatment, though research on...

Unraveling the brain dynamics of Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder: a dynamic functional network connectivity analysis

Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder (DPD), a prevalent psychiatric disorder, fundamentally disrupts self-consciousness and could significantly impact the quality of life of those affected. While existing ...

Outcomes of an adapted prolonged exposure psychotherapy for people with early phase psychosis, substance misuse, and a history of adversity: the PE + trial

Several adversity-focused treatment trials have reported improvements to adversity sequelae (e.g., PTSD symptoms) and decreases in psychotic symptoms among individuals with psychotic disorders. Yet, no trials ...

Relationship between personality and adolescent depression: the mediating role of loneliness and problematic internet use

Previous research has indicated that personality traits, loneliness, and problematic internet use (PIU) significantly contribute to the prevalence of adolescent depression. However, the specific interrelations...

Gender differences in preferences for mental health apps in the general population – a choice-based conjoint analysis from Germany

Men and women differ in the mental health issues they typically face. This study aims to describe gender differences in preferences for mental health treatment options and specifically tries to identify partic...

Prevalence of suicide ideation and its associated risk factors among undergraduate students of the university for development studies, Tamale

Suicide and its associated risk factors are of public health importance across the globe. The affected persons are mostly the youth. Empirical research in this crucial area of public health is generally lackin...

Important information

Editorial board

For authors

For editorial board members

For reviewers

• Manuscript editing services

Annual Journal Metrics

Citation Impact 2023 Journal Impact Factor: 3.4 5-year Journal Impact Factor: 4.2 Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP): 1.374 SCImago Journal Rank (SJR): 1.301 Speed 2023 Submission to first editorial decision (median days): 24 Submission to acceptance (median days): 146 Usage 2023 Downloads: 8,228,380 Altmetric mentions: 7,538

• More about our metrics

Peer-review Terminology

The following summary describes the peer review process for this journal:

Identity transparency: Single anonymized

Reviewer interacts with: Editor

Review information published: Review reports. Reviewer Identities reviewer opt in. Author/reviewer communication

More information is available here

• Follow us on Twitter

BMC Psychiatry

ISSN: 1471-244X

• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Acquisition
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music and Religion
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Meta-Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Society
• Law and Politics
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Games
• Computer Security
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business Strategy
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Systems
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Research Methodology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

50 Studies Every Psychiatrist Should Know

Resident Physician

Professor of Psychiatry; Vice Chairman for Education, Residency Program Director and Chief of Geriatric Psychiatry

• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

50 Studies Every Psychiatrist Should Know presents key studies that have shaped the clinical practice of psychiatry. Selected using a rigorous methodology, the studies cover a broad range of topics including anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, women's mental health, child and adolescent disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, personality disorders, psychiatry in primary care, cognitive disorders, and epidemiological studies with an emphasis on clinical trials. For each study, a concise summary is presented with an emphasis on the results and limitations of the study and its implications for practice. An illustrative clinical case concludes each review, followed by brief information on other relevant studies. This is one of the only books of its kind to present a collection of the most influential studies in psychiatry that are detailed enough to be used on rounds, but still easily digestible. It is a must-read for health-care professionals and anyone who wants to learn more about the data behind clinical practice.

Signed in as

Institutional accounts.

• GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]
• Google Scholar Indexing

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 05 September 2023

Rapid and novel treatments in psychiatry: the future is now

• Carolyn I. Rodriguez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6697-1692 1 , 2   na1 &
• Charles F. Zorumski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9704-5154 3 , 4   na1  

Neuropsychopharmacology volume  49 ,  pages 1–2 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

4521 Accesses

2 Citations

10 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Drug development
• Pharmacology

Psychiatric illnesses are major public health problems and leading causes of disability and death worldwide. These illnesses often have their origins in childhood and adolescence, and account for over a third of disabilities across the human lifespan. Psychiatric disorders also contribute to premature aging and risk of dementias. Individuals with severe and persistent mental illnesses die years earlier than expected for their birth cohorts. Contributors to premature death include smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, drug and alcohol use, cardiovascular illnesses, violence, and suicide. In 2021, “deaths of despair”—including suicide, drug overdoses, and drug and alcohol-related deaths—claimed the lives of over 185,000 individuals in the United States.

The devastation wreaked by psychiatric illnesses strongly underlies the need for novel, rapid, and more effective treatments. The latest treatments—including psychotropic medications, neurostimulation methods, and evidence-based forms of psychotherapy—clearly benefit patients, but must be viewed as good but not great treatments. Current standard treatments can take weeks or longer to produce significant benefits, and even then, responses are often partial and limited by side effects, poor treatment compliance, and relapse. As a graphic example, current data indicate that about 30% of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) do not respond to current treatments and are considered “treatment resistant.”

How do we address this pressing need? Optimistically, many in the field now believe that psychiatry is in the early phases of a revolution in therapeutics—a revolution that includes novel approaches to treatment that, in some cases, can act very rapidly (within hours to days) to produce benefits that can be sustained for several weeks or more. This current revolution began over 20 years ago with the advent of using the dissociative anesthetic ketamine as a psychotherapeutic with rapid and dramatic antidepressant effects in patients who are refractory to other treatments. This work has progressed dramatically, and ketamine use in clinical practice is becoming increasingly common. In March 2019, esketamine—the ketamine enantiomer that is more active as an antagonist at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs)—was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment-resistant major depression in adults, and subsequently for depressive symptoms in adults with MDD with acute suicidal ideation or behavior. Other novel and rapid treatments are in development and show substantial promise, such as the neurosteroid brexanolone, approved by the FDA for treatment of postpartum depression in individuals 15 years and older. Zuranolone, an orally active neurosteroid for postpartum depression in adults, was approved in August 2023. Multiple other treatments are in development; some already in late phase clinical trials.

This issue of Neuropsychopharmacology Reviews (NPPR) presents an overview of the current state of rapid and novel treatments in psychiatry, with an eye on the future of this critical area. The papers that follow are grouped into three major categories. All authors provide their version of SWOT analyses highlighting current strengths of the field, weaknesses and limitations of the approach, opportunities to move forward, and threats to therapeutic development as we look beyond the present state to future opportunities.

We begin with a series of perspectives that highlight how we arrived at the present state, and factors that will be necessary to move the field forward. These perspectives are written by leaders in the field and describe academic, industry, patient, and regulatory considerations in new treatment development. This section highlights areas of success, as well as some significant problems that have plagued treatment development to date and some of the major challenges that will confront the field as it moves forward.

The second section presents more formal reviews and forms the heart of this discussion, focusing critically on four leading examples of novel treatment approaches: ketamine and glutamate system modulators, GABA receptor modulators including neurosteroids, the advent of psychedelic agents as treatments in psychiatry, and the rapidly evolving field of brain stimulation methods. Neuromodulation approaches include less invasive stimulation methods (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation) and invasive (surgical) therapeutic approaches (e.g., deep brain stimulation). In each of the four main topic areas, the first article provides a critical look at the current state of clinical data, the second paper describes the current mechanistic understanding of the treatment approach, and each section ends with an article looking specifically beyond the current state to future opportunities in that area of therapeutics.

The final group of papers give perspectives on what is necessary to move the field forward. These articles address the important issues of how to sustain the benefits of rapid treatments, the design of clinical trials for rapidly acting novel agents as we look to the future, the repurposing of existing drugs as psychotherapeutics, the use of pharmacogenomics to enhance treatment responses, and the opportunities presented by computational methods in treatment development. Other important considerations include how new treatments can be used ethically and equitably to serve the vast population of individuals with psychiatric illnesses who are underserved and presently have restricted access to the most effective treatments. In addition, the critical area of advancing treatments in child and adolescent psychiatry is addressed—a topic that is worthy of more extensive discussion, given the early age of onset and persistence of many psychiatric disorders.

We are now in a critical time in psychiatry. Mechanistic understanding of the neural basis of behavior and mental illnesses is evolving rapidly, including novel thinking about therapeutic targets that harness the incredible plasticity of the human brain. The efforts that are presently underway and that will be developed based on this rapidly evolving science offer great optimism for the future. We hope this issue of the journal moves this discussion and the necessary science forward quickly, serving as a road map to future opportunities.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Carolyn I. Rodriguez, Charles F. Zorumski.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Carolyn I. Rodriguez

Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA

Center for Brain Research in Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA

Charles F. Zorumski

Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Carolyn I. Rodriguez or Charles F. Zorumski .

Ethics declarations

CIR has, in the last 3 years, been a consultant for Biohaven Inc., Osmind, and Biogen; received research grant support from Biohaven Inc.; received royalties from American Psychiatric Association Publishing; and received a stipend from APA Publishing for her role as Deputy Editor at The American Journal of Psychiatry. CFZ has served on the Scientific Advisory Board of Sage Therapeutics.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Rodriguez, C.I., Zorumski, C.F. Rapid and novel treatments in psychiatry: the future is now. Neuropsychopharmacol. 49 , 1–2 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-023-01720-2

Download citation

Received : 21 August 2023

Accepted : 22 August 2023

Published : 05 September 2023

Issue Date : January 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-023-01720-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Advanced deep learning and large language models for suicide ideation detection on social media.

• Mohammed Qorich
• Rajae El Ouazzani

Progress in Artificial Intelligence (2024)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

An official website of the United States government

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Psychiatric disorders and obesity: A review of association studies

• Author information
• Article notes
• Copyright and License information

Address for correspondence: Dr. Vikas Menon, E-mail: [email protected]

Received 2016 Nov 27; Revised 2017 Feb 22; Accepted 2017 Mar 18.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

Background:

Inconsistent evidence exists regarding the strength, direction, and moderators in the relationship between obesity and psychiatric disorders.

This study aims to summarize the evidence on the association between psychiatric illness and obesity with particular attention to the strength and direction of association and also the possible moderators in each postulated link.

Materials and Methods:

Systematic electronic searches of MEDLINE through PubMed, ScienceDirect, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar were carried out from inception till October 2016. Generated abstracts were screened for eligibility to be included in the review. Study designs that evaluated the strength of relationship between obesity and psychiatric disorders were included in the study. Quality assessment of included studies was done using the Newcastle–Ottawa checklist tool.

From a total of 2424 search results, 21 eligible articles were identified and reviewed. These included studies on obesity and depression ( n = 15), obesity and anxiety (four) and one each on obesity and personality disorders, eating disorder (ED), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and alcohol use. Maximal evidence existed for the association between depression and obesity with longitudinal studies demonstrating a bidirectional link between the two conditions. The odds ratios (ORs) were similar for developing depression in obesity (OR: 1.21–5.8) and vice versa (OR: 1.18–3.76) with a stronger association observed in women. For anxiety disorders, evidence was mostly cross-sectional, and associations were of modest magnitude (OR: 1.27–1.40). Among other disorders, obesity, and EDs appear to have a close link (OR: 4.5). Alcohol use appears to be a risk factor for obesity and not vice versa but only among women (OR: 3.84).

Conclusion:

Obesity and depression have a significant and bidirectional association. Evidence is modest for anxiety disorders and inadequate for other psychiatric conditions. Gender appears to be an important mediator in these relationships.

KEY WORDS: Anxiety, depression, metabolic syndrome, obesity, psychiatry, review

Introduction

As per the World Health Organization (WHO) global estimates in 2014, almost 40% of adults are overweight (body mass index [BMI] ≥25 kg/m 2 ) with nearly a third of them obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m 2 ).[ 1 ] India, with its rapid urbanization and changing socioeconomic landscape, is experiencing an increase in obesity rates among its population.[ 2 , 3 , 4 ] In a recent nationally representative study, an estimated 135 million people were found to be suffering from generalized obesity and high prevalence rates were noted in both rural and urban areas.[ 5 ] This rising trend has also been reflected in childhood obesity with several Indian and international studies showing alarmingly increasing trends over the last decade.[ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ] These figures make it clear that obesity is assuming epidemic proportions cutting across age, sociocultural and ethnic boundaries, thus becoming a significant public health issue.

Although the physical comorbidity burden in obesity is well established,[ 10 , 11 ] its relation to mental health is relatively less explored. In the last couple of decades, however, evidence is gradually accumulating on the association between various psychiatric disorders and obesity, particularly among those seeking treatment for the same.[ 12 , 13 , 14 ] Despite this, knowledge gaps exist with regard to the strength and the direction of the association between obesity and various psychiatric conditions. Further, given the methodological differences between the studies, there is a need to synthesize the available evidence in this area so that clinicians and researchers have a better understanding of the links between obesity and psychiatric disorders. This has the potential to inform clinical evaluation and identify further research targets in this area such as the possible neurobiological links between obesity and psychiatric disorders. From a management perspective, it has been shown that early identification and management of common psychiatric problems can optimize outcomes among obesity patients presenting for surgical treatment. Hence, practicing clinicians need to be well informed about the same.

With this background, we carried out the present systematic review with the objective of summarizing the available evidence on the association between psychiatric illness and obesity with particular attention to the strength and direction of association and also the possible moderators in each postulated link. In this context, moderators refer to those variables that may influence the strength of relationship between two other variables (here, referring to psychiatry and obesity).

Materials and Methods

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Using the patient, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study design criteria, all studies that assessed the association between obesity and psychiatric disorders or vice versa were included provided they met the following criteria:

The study provided a quantitative measure of association between obesity (explanatory variable) and specific psychiatric illness (outcome variable) or vice versa. Psychiatric outcomes should, necessarily, have been mentioned as “risk” to be included as it provides a quantitative estimate of the strength of the association

Studies done in populations with no prior medical comorbidities such as diabetes. This was done as chronic medical illness is a major confounder in the relationship between obesity and psychiatric illness[ 15 , 16 ]

Studies that did not use alternate definitions of obesity such as abdominal obesity/sarcopenic obesity

Studies published in English language peer-reviewed journals.

Search strategy and study selection

Electronic searches of MEDLINE through PubMed, ScienceDirect, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar were carried out from inception till October 2016. Our aim as stated above was to identify studies which directly looked into the association between psychiatric illness and obesity. “Psychiatric illness” was defined as any International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition coded category between F00 and F99. Obesity was defined as per the WHO definition based on BMI ≥30 kg/m 2 .[ 1 ] For this review, literature search was carried out using random combinations of the following keywords – “obesity”/”overweight”/”weight gain”/”weight changes” and “psychiatry”/”psychiatric illness”/”depression”/”anxiety”/”eating disorders (EDs)”/”binge eating”/”bulimia”/”personality disorders (PDs)”/”substance use”/”alcohol”/”nicotine”/”cannabis.” The initial search was carried out in PubMed, after which a similar search was done in other search engines to identify relevant articles. A supplemental Google Search using random combinations of the above terms was also done to further comb the extant literature. There was no restriction on the date of publication.

The titles and abstracts of the studies that met broad inclusion criteria were examined independently by the two authors (VM and TMR). In case of inadequate information in the abstract, both the authors independently scrutinized the full texts of potentially relevant articles to select those that met the inclusion criteria for the present review. Any disagreements at this stage (e.g., which assessment point to choose in cohorts that were analyzed repeatedly) were sorted out through mutual discussion until consensus. Following this, consolidated list of abstracts was drawn up after removing duplicates. In addition, reference lists of included studies were manually examined to check for potential articles by both the authors independently. Citation indexing services and conference proceedings were not included in the present review, the latter primarily due to concerns about incomplete reporting of data and uncertainty about the study quality.

Data extraction and quality assessment

Quality assessment of included studies was performed concurrently with data extraction by the two authors independently. The data extracted from the articles include the author and year of study, place of conduct of study, characteristics of the study population, sample size, study design, primary objective, fully adjusted measure of association such as risk (either odds ratio [OR]/relative risk [RR]), and any significant moderators/mediators. We used an adapted version of the Newcastle–Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale to critically appraise the selected articles which fell into the category of observational studies. This tool has good psychometric properties such as content validity and inter-rater reliability.[ 17 ] It includes items such as representativeness of sampling procedures, validity of assessment measures employed, response rate, and whether the study controlled for at least three essential confounders. Reporting on methodological aspects of a study than numerical scores has been suggested to be more appropriate for nonrandomized observational studies included in systematic reviews and hence this tool was preferred for quality assessment.[ 18 ] A response rate of 60% was considered adequate, based on prior systematic reviews of observational studies.[ 19 ] We rated the individual components of the quality assessment tool (criteria met, not met, not reported) and derived an overall rating for the quality of every study (high, moderate, poor) included in the review. Quality assessment was not separately done for systematic reviews and meta-analysis included but we relied on the authors’ quality analysis reported in the paper. For effect estimates, we relied on values reported by the authors and did not calculate summary measures or perform additional analysis. We did not attempt a meta-analysis as none of the identified studies were randomized controlled trials.

The flowchart for literature search is shown in Figure 1 . After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 studies were identified for synthesis from an initial search yielding a combined total of 2424 articles. Majority of included studies were on depression ( n = 15) while four were on anxiety and one each on PDs, EDs, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and alcohol use. Of these, two studies evaluated a range of psychiatric outcomes in obesity and have been described in appropriate sections. Thus, a total of 21 papers were included in the review of which eight were cross-sectional studies, six longitudinal, two systematic reviews, and five were meta-analyses papers. Quality assessment of observational studies showed that four studies were rated high on the quality assessment checklist and others were moderate ( n = 10). Data extracted from the selected studies are presented in Table 1 .

Flowchart for literature search

Characteristics of included studies

Obesity and depression

From the 15 studies identified in this area, three cross-sectional studies done in general adult population had an average OR of 1.33 for depression in obesity.[ 20 , 21 , 22 ] This finding was replicated in a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies in adolescents with roughly similar odds of developing depression in obesity (OR: 1.4) and vice versa (OR: 1.7).[ 23 ] Thus, the study provided evidence for a bidirectional link between obesity and depression with depressed adolescents having about 70% higher risk for being obese. Broadly, similar findings were also echoed in a 10-year prospective study on older women with obese people having 38% higher risk for developing depression and depressed people having 10% elevated risk for obesity compared to controls.[ 24 ] These effect sizes were consistently higher among females (pooled OR: 1.32) than males (pooled OR: 1.00) in community-based studies suggesting a significant moderating role for gender in this relationship.[ 25 ] In another exclusive meta-analysis of longitudinal studies, the odds of being depressed in obesity (OR: 1.55) and conversely, odds of obesity in depression (OR: 1.58) was similar.[ 26 ] Findings from three longitudinal studies on adolescents/young adults show that the prospective risk of developing depression in obese individuals were significantly higher in females.[ 27 , 28 , 29 ] One study, interestingly, also noted that obesity had a protective effect against depression in males (OR: 0.31) while it predicted depression among young women (OR: 2.14).[ 30 ] Gender as a significant moderator of the obesity-depression association was also observed in the meta-analysis by Blaine, with a significantly higher risk (150%) among females (OR: 2.5).[ 31 ] Other studies have noted the role of ethnicity as a possible moderator, wherein only in white women, obesity was associated with significantly greater likelihood of depression.[ 32 ] Some evidence for severity of obesity as a possible moderator in the association between depression and obesity has also been observed with one study noting modest correlations between obesity indices and severity of depression ( r = 0.49).[ 33 ] Interestingly, Atlantis and Baker, in their systematic review of epidemiological studies aimed at determining whether obesity causes depression, have found weak evidence for obesity increasing incidence of depression and point out the need for methodologically rigorous prospective cohort studies in this regard.[ 34 ]

Obesity and anxiety

Among the four studies that were reviewed in this area, one found poor correlation between BMI and anxiety across both the genders ( r = 0.024 in males and 0.083 in females),[ 35 ] while another cross-sectional study also reported a similar lack of association between BMI and both anxiety and depression ( r = 0.15 and 0.1, respectively).[ 36 ] In a large nationally representative survey, where relationship of different psychiatric disorders in obesity was studied, the authors found that obese people had 27% increased lifetime risks of being diagnosed with panic disorder (OR: 1.27).[ 20 ] In a meta-analysis that evaluated both prospective and cross-sectional studies separately,[ 37 ] mixed results were observed in the two prospective studies with one study showing significant association between obesity and anxiety disorders only in men (OR for men 1.50 vs. women 0.99) while the other study, carried out only among women, showed an extremely high association (OR: 6.27). Hence, the moderating role of gender was inconclusive here. In the same meta-analysis, the 14 cross-sectional studies showed a positive but varying association (OR: 1.10–2.73). An inconsistency index of 84.3% was noted by the authors pointing toward significant heterogeneity in the results.

Obesity and personality disorders

In the systematic review on 68 studies,[ 38 ] the odds of having any PD was greater among obese people (OR: 1.2–1.95) and this relationship was directly proportional to the severity of obesity (24% risk in Class III obesity). Further, the association was more significant among females where the authors noted higher rates of avoidant and antisocial PD in females with severe obesity (38%) when compared to females without obesity (30%). This difference was not significant in men.

Obesity and eating disorders

Darby et al . conducted a study to assess time trends in the prevalence of comorbid ED in obesity over a 10-year period.[ 39 ] Their findings showed that comorbid ED and obesity had increased from 1% to 3.5% over the study period. This rise in prevalence was significantly higher than increase in rates of obesity or ED alone.

Obesity and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

In a large epidemiological study, the authors explored the association between adult obesity and lifetime/remitted/persisting ADHD. Adult persistent ADHD was found to be significantly associated with obesity (OR: 1.44).[ 40 ] In women, the association was significant for all the three categories (remitted/persisting/lifetime ADHD). Notably, when corrected for possible confounders, association between obesity and lifetime ADHD continued to be significant only among females (adjusted OR: 1.09) but not in males (adjusted OR: 0.98).

Obesity and alcohol use

One longitudinal study, among young adults, explored prospective three-way association between obesity, depression, and alcohol use. In this study, alcohol use disorders prospectively predicted obesity only among women (OR: 3.84). Obesity, however, did not seem to be a clear risk factor for alcohol use.[ 30 ]

Although a significant amount of literature is available on obesity and psychiatric illness, the current review has specifically looked into the strength of association of each psychiatric illness with obesity. Clearly, the evidence was more voluminous and strongest for depression, with most of the studies reporting significant association for the presence of depression in obesity.[ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 26 , 28 , 31 , 32 ] However, most of these studies were cross-sectional in nature which cannot conclusively establish the cause-and-effect relationship between the two conditions due to design limitations. This can only be established through longitudinal research designs. Only few such longitudinal studies were available which gave evidence for a reciprocal link between depression and obesity and this was replicated in a meta-analysis paper also which provides stronger evidence of the association.[ 23 , 24 , 26 , 34 ] Variability in effect sizes across studies may stem from methodological differences such as the cutoffs used for measuring BMI, methods used to measure psychiatric outcomes such as depression (clinical vs. rating scales), varying lengths of follow-up in longitudinal designs and the nature of effect estimate used (RR vs. absolute risk estimates). Subgroup analysis based on parameters such as age, gender, and differences in measurement methods were reported in a few studies and this may also have contributed to some of the differences observed.

The role of gender as a moderator in this relationship was evident in a handful of studies that showed greater effect sizes in females,[ 22 , 25 , 28 ] and specifically, in adolescent females.[ 27 , 31 ] The earlier onset of puberty in females and the complex hormonal and biological changes that accompany this phenomenon may result in earlier onset of obesity among females and this may persist from adolescence to adulthood.[ 41 , 42 ] The inherently higher dissatisfaction with their bodies among females combined with societal pressures to remain thin may affect self-esteem and enhance stress, which may further increase the risk of both obesity and depression preferentially among females across life span.[ 43 , 44 ] One study provided preliminary evidence of the role of ethnicity as a possible moderator.[ 32 ] Other moderators identified included severity of obesity.[ 33 ] A few studies have shown that both overweight and obesity were risk factors for depression,[ 26 ] whereas few studies have pointed out that overweight is actually a protective factor against depression.[ 22 ] Clearly, this disparity needs to be addressed in future studies with appropriate designs. The mechanisms postulated for depression in obesity include the social dimensions of weight such as negative self-perceptions and stigma as well as the health consequences of being overweight.[ 45 , 46 , 47 ] Conversely, the mechanisms leading to obesity in depression mostly focus on ethnic and lifestyle factors.[ 48 ] Recently, the role of serotonin and particularly, the 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptor has come under scrutiny as a therapeutic target to reduce the burden of comorbid depression and obesity.[ 49 ]

For anxiety disorders, the number of studies was comparatively fewer. From the reviewed articles, the correlation between obesity and anxiety appears less robust in comparison to depression.[ 35 , 36 ] One study has shown that obese individuals had a higher odds of lifetime panic disorder.[ 20 ] In the meta-analysis that was reviewed, though the pooled OR pointed toward a significant association, the inconsistency index was high.[ 37 ] With the exception of specific phobia and social anxiety, evidence is largely mixed in studies which performed subgroup analysis by subtypes of anxiety disorders.[ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ] The relative lack of longitudinal studies assessing the relationship between anxiety disorders and obesity precludes clear conclusions regarding the direction of association.

The relationship between obesity and PDs appears complex. Few studies have explored specific personality traits in obese individuals and among these, neuroticism and impulsivity has been consistently replicated.[ 54 , 55 , 56 ] Moreover, among obese people attending a bariatric surgery clinic, roughly a quarter had clinical evidence of borderline PD.[ 57 ] Our review shows that the odds of having any PD in obese individuals are high and cluster C traits (avoidant/dependent) are often predominant.[ 38 ]

EDs-obesity-other psychiatric illness could form a vicious cycle and many studies have looked into psychiatric illness in the context of comorbid ED and obesity. However, the direct association between ED and obesity has been rarely studied. In the only such study included in this review, the authors have shown that though ED and obesity are increasing in general population, the odds of having comorbid ED and obesity have increased around 4.5 times, indirectly pointing toward an underlying association between these disorders.[ 39 ]

One prospective study has reported increased the prevalence of obesity in adults with a childhood history of ADHD.[ 58 ] The study included in the present review looked into the strength of association of this relationship and pointed out that persistent ADHD in childhood was associated with obesity later and more so in females.[ 40 ] However, as there are very few studies addressing this question, one needs to wait for more evidence before clinical recommendations can be made.

Several neuroimaging studies have implicated a common neurobiology in feeding and substance use such as reinforcement of the reward pathway.[ 59 , 60 ] As such, there has been a trend to consider obesity as a part of “addiction.”[ 61 , 62 ] However, studies that explored the strength of this association are scarce. Here, we have reviewed an article which studied the interaction between obesity-substance use and depression and show that obesity rates were more in those with substance use disorders and this association was stronger in females.[ 30 ]

Our findings have important clinical and research implications. With steadily increasing rates of obesity globally, an understanding of the impact of obesity on prevalence rates of mental disorders assumes significance. This may provide inputs from a mental health prevention and promotion standpoint. It may inform the development of prediction tools and better interventions. It may also spur research on the causal pathways and mechanisms mediating the relationship. Figure 2 represents an evidence based model for understanding the association between obesity and psychiatric disorders with key moderators in this relationship and is adapted from earlier works in this field.[ 63 ]

Evidence-based model for association between psychiatric disorders and obesity (moderators shown in ellipse and disorders in rectangle boxes - arrows indicate the direction of association observed)

A growing body of evidence suggests that there may be pathophysiological links between psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and metabolic conditions such as obesity and diabetes.[ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ] Further, obesity (or high BMI) has been identified consistently as a risk factor for metabolic syndrome among psychiatric populations receiving treatment with agents such as clozapine.[ 68 , 69 ] This three-way link between obesity, metabolic syndrome, and psychiatric disorders presents significant opportunities to improve our understanding of pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders and develop newer therapeutic targets.

Psychiatric evaluation may be an important component of comprehensive obesity care and merits further evaluation. This can be expected to optimize therapeutic and functional outcomes. Furthermore, as the bidirectional link becomes apparent, the treatment of the psychiatric illness may bring down the obesity burden and vice versa. Future research opportunities in this area include clarifying the relation between obesity severity and clinical subtypes of depression and anxiety given the heterogeneous nature of these conditions. Researchers should also consider important methodological issues such as measuring obesity through objective rather than self-reported measures and possible confounders such as physical comorbidities to unravel the complex relationship between obesity and psychiatric illness.

Limitations of the present review include the confounding effects of unmeasured medical comorbidities and differences in the way outcomes were assessed. The included studies were quite heterogeneous in characteristics of the study population. As none of the included studies were randomized controlled trials, we did not perform a meta-analysis. We were unable to peruse certain databases due to limitations of institutional access. Furthermore, it is possible that some studies may have been missed as it did not fit our inclusion criteria or remain unpublished or unavailable on academic databases. We tried to keep the studies homogeneous with regard to their design and domains of outcome studied so as to render an interpretation of findings easier and that allied with the quality assessment done are advantages of the present review.

Obesity and psychiatric illness are closely linked, and the evidence is strong and reciprocal for depression, modest, and inconsistent for anxiety disorders and inadequate for other psychiatric conditions. Apart from depression, the causal relationships between obesity and other psychiatric disorders could not be established from available data. Although both genders appeared to be at risk of psychiatric disorders in obesity and vice versa, many of these associations were stronger in females indicating a possible moderating role for gender in this relationship. Based on current evidence, there is a need to carry out a cost-effectiveness analysis of a multidisciplinary approach to the management of obesity.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

• 1. World Health Organization. World Health Statistics 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014. [Last cited on 2016 Nov 20]. Available from: http://www.apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112738/1/9789240692671_eng.pdf . [ Google Scholar ]
• 2. Bhardwaj S, Misra A, Misra R, Goel K, Bhatt SP, Rastogi K, et al. High prevalence of abdominal, intra-abdominal and subcutaneous adiposity and clustering of risk factors among urban Asian Indians in North India. PLoS One. 2011;6:e24362. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024362. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 3. Mohan V, Deepa R. Obesity and abdominal obesity in Asian Indians. Indian J Med Res. 2006;123:593–6. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 4. Deepa M, Farooq S, Deepa R, Manjula D, Mohan V. Prevalence and significance of generalized and central body obesity in an urban Asian Indian population in Chennai, India (CURES: 47) Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63:259–67. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602920. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 5. Pradeepa R, Anjana RM, Joshi SR, Bhansali A, Deepa M, Joshi PP, et al. Prevalence of generalized and abdominal obesity in urban and rural India- the ICMR – INDIAB Study (Phase-I) [ICMR – INDIAB-3] Indian J Med Res. 2015;142:139–50. doi: 10.4103/0971-5916.164234. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 6. Ranjani H, Mehreen T, Pradeepa R, Anjana R, Garg R, Anand K, et al. Epidemiology of childhood overweight and amp; obesity in India: A systematic review. Indian J Med Res. 2016;143:160. doi: 10.4103/0971-5916.180203. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 7. Raj M, Kumar RK. Obesity in children and adolescents. Indian J Med Res. 2010;132:598–607. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 8. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Lamb MM, Flegal KM. Prevalence of high body mass index in US children and adolescents, 2007-2008. JAMA. 2010;303:242–9. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.2012. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 9. Wang Y, Lobstein T. Worldwide trends in childhood overweight and obesity. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2006;1:11–25. doi: 10.1080/17477160600586747. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 10. Kearns K, Dee A, Fitzgerald AP, Doherty E, Perry IJ. Chronic disease burden associated with overweight and obesity in Ireland: The effects of a small BMI reduction at population level. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:143. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-143. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 11. Must A, Spadano J, Coakley EH, Field AE, Colditz G, Dietz WH. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA. 1999;282:1523–9. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.16.1523. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 12. Fitzgibbon ML, Stolley MR, Kirschenbaum DS. Obese people who seek treatment have different characteristics than those who do not seek treatment. Health Psychol. 1993;12:342–5. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.12.5.342. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 13. Lykouras L, Michopoulos J. Anxiety disorders and obesity. Psychiatriki. 2011;22:307–13. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 14. Lin HY, Huang CK, Tai CM, Lin HY, Kao YH, Tsai CC, et al. Psychiatric disorders of patients seeking obesity treatment. BMC Psychiatry. 2013;13:1. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-13-1. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 15. Sacco WP, Wells KJ, Vaughan CA, Friedman A, Perez S, Matthew R. Depression in adults with type 2 diabetes: The role of adherence, body mass index, and self-efficacy. Health Psychol. 2005;24:630–4. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.24.6.630. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 16. Labad J, Price JF, Strachan MW, Fowkes FG, Ding J, Deary IJ, et al. Symptoms of depression but not anxiety are associated with central obesity and cardiovascular disease in people with type 2 diabetes: The Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study. Diabetologia. 2010;53:467–71. doi: 10.1007/s00125-009-1628-9. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 17. Wells G, Shea B, O’Connell J, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, et al. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Nonrandomised Studies in Meta-analysis. 2011. [Last cited on 2017 Feb 24]. Available from: http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp .
• 18. Jüni P, Witschi A, Bloch R, Egger M. The hazards of scoring the quality of clinical trials for meta-analysis. JAMA. 1999;282:1054–60. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.11.1054. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 19. Wong WC, Cheung CS, Hart GJ. Development of a quality assessment tool for systematic reviews of observational studies (QATSO) of HIV prevalence in men having sex with men and associated risk behaviours. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2008;5:23. doi: 10.1186/1742-7622-5-23. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 20. Simon GE, Von Korff M, Saunders K, Miglioretti DL, Crane PK, van Belle G, et al. Association between obesity and psychiatric disorders in the US adult population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:824–30. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.824. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 21. Zhong W, Cruickshanks KJ, Schubert CR, Nieto FJ, Huang GH, Klein BE, et al. Obesity and depression symptoms in the Beaver Dam Offspring Study population. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:846–51. doi: 10.1002/da.20666. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 22. Kim JY, Chang HM, Cho JJ, Yoo SH, Kim SY. Relationship between obesity and depression in the Korean working population. J Korean Med Sci. 2010;25:1560–7. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2010.25.11.1560. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 23. Mannan M, Mamun A, Doi S, Clavarino A. Prospective associations between depression and obesity for adolescent males and females – A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0157240. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157240. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 24. Pan A, Sun Q, Czernichow S, Kivimaki M, Okereke OI, Lucas M, et al. Bidirectional association between depression and obesity in middle-aged and older women. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012;36:595–602. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2011.111. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 25. de Wit L, Luppino F, van Straten A, Penninx B, Zitman F, Cuijpers P. Depression and obesity: A meta-analysis of community-based studies. Psychiatry Res. 2010;178:230–5. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.015. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 26. Luppino FS, de Wit LM, Bouvy PF, Stijnen T, Cuijpers P, Penninx BW, et al. Overweight, obesity, and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67:220–9. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.2. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 27. Richardson LP, Davis R, Poulton R, McCauley E, Moffitt TE, Caspi A, et al. A longitudinal evaluation of adolescent depression and adult obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:739–45. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.157.8.739. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 28. Marmorstein NR, Iacono WG, Legrand L. Obesity and depression in adolescence and beyond: Reciprocal risks. Int J Obes (Lond) 2014;38:906–11. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2014.19. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 29. Herva A, Laitinen J, Miettunen J, Veijola J, Karvonen JT, Läksy K, et al. Obesity and depression: Results from the longitudinal Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2006;30:520–7. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803174. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 30. McCarty CA, Kosterman R, Mason WA, McCauley E, Hawkins JD, Herrenkohl TI, et al. Longitudinal associations among depression, obesity and alcohol use disorders in young adulthood. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2009;31:442–50. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.013. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 31. Blaine B. Does depression cause obesity? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies of depression and weight control. J Health Psychol. 2008;13:1190–7. doi: 10.1177/1359105308095977. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 32. Hicken MT, Lee H, Mezuk B, Kershaw KN, Rafferty J, Jackson JS. Racial and ethnic differences in the association between obesity and depression in women. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2013;22:445–52. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2012.4111. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 33. Ma J, Xiao L. Obesity and depression in US women: Results from the 2005-2006 National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010;18:347–53. doi: 10.1038/oby.2009.213. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 34. Atlantis E, Baker M. Obesity effects on depression: Systematic review of epidemiological studies. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008;32:881–91. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2008.54. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 35. Ejike CE. Association between anxiety and obesity: A study of a young-adult Nigerian population. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2013;4(Suppl 1):S13–8. doi: 10.4103/0976-3147.116429. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 36. Guedes EP, Madeira E, Mafort TT, Madeira M, Moreira RO, Mendonça LM, et al. Body composition and depressive/anxiety symptoms in overweight and obese individuals with metabolic syndrome. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2013;23:5–82. doi: 10.1186/1758-5996-5-82. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 37. Gariepy G, Nitka D, Schmitz N. The association between obesity and anxiety disorders in the population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obes (Lond) 2010;34:407–19. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2009.252. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 38. Gerlach G, Loeber S, Herpertz S. Personality disorders and obesity: A systematic review. Obes Rev. 2016;17:691–723. doi: 10.1111/obr.12415. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 39. Darby A, Hay P, Mond J, Quirk F, Buttner P, Kennedy L. The rising prevalence of comorbid obesity and eating disorder behaviors from 1995 to 2005. Int J Eat Disord. 2009;42:104–8. doi: 10.1002/eat.20601. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 40. Cortese S, Faraone SV, Bernardi S, Wang S, Blanco C. Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity: Epidemiological study. Br J Psychiatry. 2013;203:24–34. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.112.123299. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 41. Malina R, Bouchard C, Bar-Or O. Growth, Maturation and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2004. Obesity in childhood and adolescent; pp. 535–7. [ Google Scholar ]
• 42. Slyper AH. The pubertal timing controversy in the USA, and a review of possible causative factors for the advance in timing of onset of puberty. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65:1–8. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2006.02539.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 43. Laus MF, Costa TM, Almeida SS. Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates. Eat Behav. 2015;19:159–62. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 44. Ge X, Natsuaki MN, Conger RD. Trajectories of depressive symptoms and stressful life events among male and female adolescents in divorced and nondivorced families. Dev Psychopathol. 2006;18:253–73. doi: 10.1017/S0954579406060147. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 45. Zhao G, Ford ES, Dhingra S, Li C, Strine TW, Mokdad AH. Depression and anxiety among US adults: Associations with body mass index. Int J Obes (Lond) 2009;33:257–66. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2008.268. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 46. Needham BL, Crosnoe R. Overweight status and depressive symptoms during adolescence. J Adolesc Health. 2005;36:48–55. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.12.015. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 47. Ross CE. Overweight and depression. J Health Soc Behav. 1994;35:63–79. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 48. Beydoun MA, Wang Y. Pathways linking socioeconomic status to obesity through depression and lifestyle factors among young US adults. J Affect Disord. 2010;123:52–63. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2009.09.021. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 49. Kurhe Y, Mahesh R. Mechanisms linking depression co-morbid with obesity: An approach for serotonergic type 3 receptor antagonist as novel therapeutic intervention. Asian J Psychiatr. 2015;17:3–9. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2015.07.007. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 50. Barry D, Pietrzak RH, Petry NM. Gender differences in associations between body mass index and DSM-IV mood and anxiety disorders: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Ann Epidemiol. 2008;18:458–66. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.12.009. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 51. Scott KM, McGee MA, Wells JE, Oakley Browne MA. Obesity and mental disorders in the adult general population. J Psychosom Res. 2008;64:97–105. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.09.006. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 52. Kasen S, Cohen P, Chen H, Must A. Obesity and psychopathology in women: A three decade prospective study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008;32:558–66. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803736. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 53. Herpertz S, Burgmer R, Stang A, de Zwaan M, Wolf AM, Chen-Stute A, et al. Prevalence of mental disorders in normal-weight and obese individuals with and without weight loss treatment in a German urban population. J Psychosom Res. 2006;61:95–103. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.10.003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 54. Terracciano A, Sutin AR, McCrae RR, Deiana B, Ferrucci L, Schlessinger D, et al. Facets of personality linked to underweight and overweight. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:682–9. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181a2925b. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 55. Gerlach G, Herpertz S, Loeber S. Personality traits and obesity: A systematic review. Obes Rev. 2015;16:32–63. doi: 10.1111/obr.12235. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 56. Sutin AR, Ferrucci L, Zonderman AB, Terracciano A. Personality and obesity across the adult life span. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2011;101:579–92. doi: 10.1037/a0024286. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 57. Sansone RA, Sansone LA. The relationship between borderline personality and obesity. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2013;10:36–40. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 58. Cortese S, Ramos Olazagasti MA, Klein RG, Castellanos FX, Proal E, Mannuzza S. Obesity in men with childhood ADHD: A 33-year controlled, prospective, follow-up study. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1731–8. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-0540. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 59. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Tomasi D, Baler R. Food and drug reward: Overlapping circuits in human obesity and addiction. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012;11:1–24. doi: 10.1007/7854_2011_169. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 60. Kenny PJ. Reward mechanisms in obesity: New insights and future directions. Neuron. 2011;24(69):664–79. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.016. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 61. Stice E, Figlewicz DP, Gosnell BA, Levine AS, Pratt WE. The contribution of brain reward circuits to the obesity epidemic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;37(9 Pt A):2047–58. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.001. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 62. Vanbuskirk KA, Potenza MN. The treatment of obesity and its co-occurrence with substance use disorders. J Addict Med. 2010;4:1–10. doi: 10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181ce38e7. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 63. Markowitz S, Friedman MA, Arent SM. Understanding the relation between obesity and depression: Causal mechanisms and implications for treatment. Clin Psychol Sci Pract. 2008;15:1–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• 64. Hansen T, Ingason A, Djurovic S, Melle I, Fenger M, Gustafsson O, et al. At-risk variant in TCF7L2 for type II diabetes increases risk of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;70:59–63. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.031. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 65. Venkatasubramanian G, Chittiprol S, Neelakantachar N, Naveen MN, Thirthall J, Gangadhar BN, et al. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 abnormalities in antipsychotic-naive schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:1557–60. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07020233. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 66. DE Hert M, Schreurs V, Vancampfort D, VAN Winkel R. Metabolic syndrome in people with schizophrenia: A review. World Psychiatry. 2009;8:15–22. doi: 10.1002/j.2051-5545.2009.tb00199.x. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 67. Agarwal SM, Venkatasubramanian G. Metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia: Theoretical, clinical and translational perspectives. Indian J Psychol Med. 2013;35:117–20. doi: 10.4103/0253-7176.116231. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 68. Lamberti JS, Olson D, Crilly JF, Olivares T, Williams GC, Tu X, et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among patients receiving clozapine. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1273–6. doi: 10.1176/ajp.2006.163.7.1273. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 69. Grover S, Nebhinani N, Chakrabarti S, Avasthi A, Kulhara P. Metabolic syndrome among patients receiving clozapine: A preliminary estimate. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43:591–5. doi: 10.4103/0253-7613.84979. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• View on publisher site
• Collections

Similar articles

Cited by other articles, links to ncbi databases.

• Download .nbib .nbib
• Format: AMA APA MLA NLM

Add to Collections