apa topics research papers

Topic Guide - Developing Your Research Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development

APA 7th Edition

• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• 10. Proofreading Your Paper
• Writing Concisely
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Study
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography
• About APA 7th Edition
• Formatting Your APA Paper
• In-Text Citations

This guide is a general overview of the American Psychological Association (APA) Style for references and citations. Be sure to consult the  Publication Manual of the APA  or the  APA Style website  for detailed standards and procedures.

The American Psychological Association (APA) updated its style manual in the fall of 2019. This resource page presents important components of the seventh editions. It reflects the most recent printing of the manual as of January 2020. The provided videos are broken into small bytes of less than 10 minutes each; presenting the various aspects of properly writing in APA 7th style (i.e. Cover page, citations, references etc)

How do I format my APA 7th Edition paper?

The information provided below will assist you in properly formatting your paper according to the apa 7th edition standards.  please note that papers that are being written for publication will require additional formatting components.  please check with your professor to ensure that you are meeting all requirements for your specific class and project., general overview .

Watch the video below to learn how to format your APA 7th Edition paper including:

• Acceptable Font and Font Size
• How to add page numbers
• How to Format the Title Page 
• Spacing Requirements for Main Body and Reference List

Sample Paper 

What does an example apa 7th edition paper look like , hanging indent , how do i make a hanging indent in word.

1.  Highlight  the citation with your cursor. 

2.  Right-click. 

3. Select  Paragraph .

4. Under Indentation, select Special and  Hanging .

Student Title Page

How do i format a student title page.

Please note that papers for publication will require some different elements.  Please check with your professor to inquire about the specific guidelines of your assignment or project.  Students should follow any specific instructions provided by their individual instructors when it comes to formatting their title page. Unless instructed otherwise, these are the different components of the student title page:

• Affiliation (University and School/Department)
• Course Number and Name
• Instructor Name
• Assignment Due Date
• Page Number (Upper Right Hand Corner)

Running Head 

How do i format a running head.

Please note that papers for publication will require a running head.  Please check with your professor to inquire about the specific guidelines of your assignment or project.  Students should follow any specific instructions provided by their individual instructors when it comes to formatting their papers. 

How do I format an abstract?

Please note that papers for publication will require an abstract.  Please check with your professor to inquire about the specific guidelines of your assignment or project.  Students should follow any specific instructions provided by their individual instructors when it comes to formatting their papers. 

• APA Word Paper Template Download and use this Word document as a template for your paper!

In-text Citations

When you reference someone else's words or thoughts, use an  in-text citation  in the body of your paper. Watch the video below to learn more. 

Basic Format: (Author's Last Name(s) or Organization, Year).

How do I format my citations?

The information provided below will assist you in properly formatting your in-text citations according to the APA 7th Edition standards.  Please note that the type of citation (for a quote, paraphrase or summary) and the number of authors in a work being cited will determine the format of your in-text citation.

I'm using..., a direct quote .

If you're quoting the exact words of someone else, introduce the quote with an in-text citation in parentheses. You must inlcude the page number(s) when incorporating a direct quote; place the page number directly after the quote. Any sentence punctuation goes after the closing parenthesis.

• According to Brown (2019), "Direct quote" (p. 1021).
• Brown (2019) found that "Direct quote" (p. 1021).
• [Some other introduction] "Direct quote" (Brown, 2019, p. 1021).

If you're directly quoting more than 40 words, use a  blockquote . Block quotes don't need quotation marks. Instead, indent the text 1/2" as a visual cue that you are citing. The in-text citation in parentheses goes after the punctuation of the quote.

Shavers (2007) study found the following:

While research studies have established that socioeconomic status influences disease incidence, severity and access to healthcare, there has been relatively less study of the specific manner in which low SES influences receipt of quality care and consequent morbidity and mortality among patients with similar disease characteristics, particularly among those who have gained access to the healthcare system. (p. 1021)

Tip:  Use direct quotes sparingly! Focus on summarizing the findings from multiple research studies. In the sciences and social sciences, only use the exact phrasing or argument of an individual when necessary.

A Summary or Paraphrase 

Paraphrasing or summarizing the main findings or takeaways from a research article is the preferred method of citing sources in an APA paper. Always include the last name of the author(s) and the year of the article, so your reader can find the full citation in the reference list.

According to Shavers (2007), limitations of studying socioeconomic status in research on health disparities include difficulties in collecting data on socioeconomic status and the complications of classifying women, children, and employment status.

A Source with One Author 

A source with two authors , a source with three or more authors , a source with a group author .

Include the complete citation at the end of your paper in the  reference  section. References are organized by the author's last name in alphabetic (A-Z) order. Use a hanging indent to separate each list item. Watch the video below to learn more.

Basic Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date). Title of the work.  Source   where you can retrieve the work . URL or DOI if available

Reference Examples

I'm citing a...

• Author(s). Note: List each author's last name and initial as Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. Use an ampersand (&) before the final author's name. Read more from the APA Style website if there are 21 or more authors.
• Title of the article. Note: For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g. articles, chapter), use sentence case. Only the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns are capitalized.
• Title of the Journal , Note: Italicize and capitalize each word in the journal.
• Volume Note: Italicize the journal volume. If there is no issue, include a comma before the page range.
• (Issue), Note: If there is a issue number in addition to a volume number, include it in parentheses.
• Page range.
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier) Read more about DOIs from the APA Style wesbite.

Ashing‐Giwa, K. T., Padilla, G., Tejero, J., Kraemer, J., Wright, K., Coscarelli, A., Clayton, S., Williams, I., & Hills, D. (2004). Understanding the breast cancer experience of women: A qualitative study of African American, Asian American, Latina and Caucasian cancer survivors. Psycho‐Oncology , 13 (6), 408-428. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.750

• Author(s). Note: List each author's last name and initials as Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. Use an ampersand (&) before the final author's name.
• (Year, Month Date). Note: You do not need to abbreviate the month.
• Title of the Newspaper or Publication. Note: Italicize and capitalize each word in the publication.

Kennedy, M. (2018, October 15). To prevent wildfires, PG&E pre-emptively cuts power to thousands in California. NPR . https://www.npr.org/2018/10/15/657468903/to-prevent-wildfires-pg-e-preemptively-cuts-power-to-thousands-in-california

• Title of the book. Note: For works that stand alone (e.g. books, reports), italicize the title. Only capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns.
• (Edition). Note: If there is an edition or volume, include it in parentheses and use abbreviations of ed. or vol.
• Publisher. Note: You do not need to include the publisher location or databases where you retrieved it. You should include the DOI or URL if applicable and available.

Schmidt, N. A., & Brown, J. M. (2017). Evidence-based practice for nurses: Appraisal and application of research (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.

• Author(s). Note: List each chapter author's last name and initials as Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. Use an ampersand (&) before the final author's name.
• Title of the chapter. Note: For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g. articles, chapter), use sentence case. Only the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns are capitalized.
• In Editor(s), Note: List each editor's last name and initials as A. A. Editor, B. B. Editor, & C. C. Editors, include (Ed.) or (Eds.) in parentheses, and end with a comma.
• Title of the book Note: For works that stand alone (e.g. books, reports), italicize the title. Only capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns.
• (pp.xx-xx).

McCormack, B., McCance, T., & Maben, J. (2013). Outcome evaluation in the development of person-centred practice. In B. McCormack, K. Manley, & A. Titchen (Eds.), Practice development in nursing and healthcare (pp. 190-211). John Wiley & Sons.

• Author(s). Note: List each author's last name and initials as Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. If there is no author, spell out the name of the organization or site.
• (Year, Month Date). Note: Provide as specific a date as is available, but may be only the year. If there is no date use (n.d.).
• Title of page or section. Note: Italicize the title of the page.
• Source. Note: Usually the official name of the website. If the source would be the same as the author, you can omit the source to avoid repetition.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, August 22). Preventing HPV-associated cancers . https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/hpv/basic_info/prevention.htm/

• Author(s). Note: List each author's last name and initials as Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. If there is no author, spell out the name of the organization that published the report.
• (Year, Month Date). Note: Provide as specific a date as is available.
• Title of the report or document. Note: For works that stand alone (e.g. books, reports), italicize the title. Only capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns.
• Source. Includes the names of parent agencies or other organizations not listed in the group author name here.

Los Angeles County Deptartment of Public Health. (2017, January). Key indicators of health by service planning area . http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/ha/

• Author. Note: List the author's last name and initials as Author, A. A. There is usually only one author for a thesis or dissertation, you don't need to include any faculty advisers.
• Title of the dissertation or thesis [Doctoral dissertation or Master's thesis, Name of University]. Note: For works that stand alone (e.g. books, dissertations, theses), italicize the title. Only capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns. The title page will indicate whether it's a Doctoral dissertation or Master's thesis and list the name of the university granting the degree.
• Source. Note: Include the name of the database or institutional repository where you can access the work (e.g. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, PQDT Open, CSU ScholarWorks) here.
• URL Note: Include if available.

Valentin, E. R. (2019, Summer). Narcissism predicted by Snapchat selfie sharing, filter usage, and editing [Master's thesis, California State University Dominguez Hills]. CSU ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/theses/3197xm925?locale=en

Check out more examples for citing dissertations and theses on the APA Style site .

Citing a letter, photograph, text document, graphic material, or ephemera? Consult the  Gerth Archives APA Citation Guide for Archival Materials .

7TH EDITION CHANGES 

This guide serves to review the changes that were made to the APA 7th Edition Publication Manual.  This is not an exhaustive list but rather a collection of differences that have been identified by the library faculty and staff.  Please feel free to contact us if you have noticed a change that is not listed here.

All standards appearing on this page are from the new 7th Edition Style Manual.  

• 6th edition: Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal change. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
• 7th edition: Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal change. Simon & Schuster.
• 6th edition: (Taylor, Kotler, Johnson, & Parker, 2018)
• 7th edition: (Taylor et al., 2018)
• 6th edition: Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., … Lee, L. H. (2018).
• 7th edition: Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S. T., Lewis, F., Lee, L. H., Cox, G., Harris, H. L., Martin, P., Gonzalez, W. L., Hughes, W., Carter, D., Campbell, C., Baker, A. B., Flores, T., Gray, W. E., Green, G., … Nelson, T. P. (2018).
• 6th edition: doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
• 7th edition: https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
• 6th edition: Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127
• 7th edition: Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127
• 6th edition: Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and satellites [Kindle version]. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
• 7th edition: Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and satellites. Springer Nature. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
• 6th edition: A researcher’s career depends on how often he or she is cited.
• 7th edition: A researcher’s career depends on how often they are cited.
• 6th edition: The poor
• 7th edition: People living in poverty
• 6th edition: People over 65 years old
• 7th edition: People in the age range of 65 to 75 years old
• 6th edition: APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun they
• 7th edition: APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun “they”

LEVELS OF HEADING

Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style

STYLE GUIDE

SAMPLE REFERENCE PAGE

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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The Provision of Information and Incentives in School Assignment Mechanisms

Research on centralized school assignment mechanisms often focuses on whether parents who participate in specific mechanisms are likely to truthfully report their preferences or engage in various costly strategic behaviors. However, a growing literature suggests that parents may not know enough about the school options available to them to form complete preference rankings. We develop a simple model that explains why it is not surprising that many participants in school assignment mechanisms possess limited information about the schools available to them. We then discuss policies that could improve both the information that participants bring to school assignment mechanisms and the quality of the schools in their choice sets.

More Research From These Scholars

Early predictors of racial disparities in criminal justice involvement, heterogeneous impacts of sentencing decisions, aiming for efficiency rather than proficiency.

Immigration's Effect on US Wages and Employment Redux

In this article we revive, extend and improve the approach used in a series of influential papers written in the 2000s to estimate how changes in the supply of immigrant workers affected natives' wages in the US. We begin by extending the analysis to include the more recent years 2000-2022. Additionally, we introduce three important improvements. First, we introduce an IV that uses a new skill-based shift-share for immigrants and the demographic evolution for natives, which we show passes validity tests and has reasonably strong power. Second, we provide estimates of the impact of immigration on the employment-population ratio of natives to test for crowding out at the national level. Third, we analyze occupational upgrading of natives in response to immigrants. Using these estimates, we calculate that immigration, thanks to native-immigrant complementarity and college skill content of immigrants, had a positive and significant effect between +1.7 to +2.6\% on wages of less educated native workers, over the period 2000-2019 and no significant wage effect on college educated natives. We also calculate a positive employment rate effect for most native workers. Even simulations for the most recent 2019-2022 period suggest small positive effects on wages of non-college natives and no significant crowding out effects on employment.

We are grateful for Rebecca Brough for her research assistance and suggestions. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Summary of Harper Lee’s ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’

This essay about Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” explores its enduring significance as a literary masterpiece, depicting the town of Maycomb, Alabama, during the 1930s. Through the lens of racial prejudice and moral complexities, it into the trial of Tom Robinson, a black man falsely accused of raping Mayella Ewell, shedding light on the injustices ingrained in society. The narrative intertwines themes of innocence, compassion, and the loss thereof, urging readers to confront uncomfortable truths and strive for justice in an imperfect world.

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? conclusion, to “kill mockingbird” remains an ill-timed masterpiece, powerful precept patient fight for justice and equality in society. Through his research injustice, increase, and complications human nature moral racial high, readers new appeals, to contrast he trues bulky and to move one yields processing authority compassion and compassion. Because scout chaffinch navigates waters Maycomb spoiled, she goes for a walk a dessert mention high patient search for a true and justice in the imperfect world.

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MIT scientists tune the entanglement structure in an array of qubits

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Entanglement is a form of correlation between quantum objects, such as particles at the atomic scale. This uniquely quantum phenomenon cannot be explained by the laws of classical physics, yet it is one of the properties that explains the macroscopic behavior of quantum systems.

Because entanglement is central to the way quantum systems work, understanding it better could give scientists a deeper sense of how information is stored and processed efficiently in such systems.

Qubits, or quantum bits, are the building blocks of a quantum computer. However, it is extremely difficult to make specific entangled states in many-qubit systems, let alone investigate them. There are also a variety of entangled states, and telling them apart can be challenging.

Now, MIT researchers have demonstrated a technique to efficiently generate entanglement among an array of superconducting qubits that exhibit a specific type of behavior.

Over the past years, the researchers at the Engineering Quantum Systems ( EQuS ) group have developed techniques using microwave technology to precisely control a quantum processor composed of superconducting circuits. In addition to these control techniques, the methods introduced in this work enable the processor to efficiently generate highly entangled states and shift those states from one type of entanglement to another — including between types that are more likely to support quantum speed-up and those that are not.

“Here, we are demonstrating that we can utilize the emerging quantum processors as a tool to further our understanding of physics. While everything we did in this experiment was on a scale which can still be simulated on a classical computer, we have a good roadmap for scaling this technology and methodology beyond the reach of classical computing,” says Amir H. Karamlou ’18, MEng ’18, PhD ’23, the lead author of the paper.

The senior author is William D. Oliver, the Henry Ellis Warren professor of electrical engineering and computer science and of physics, director of the Center for Quantum Engineering, leader of the EQuS group, and associate director of the Research Laboratory of Electronics. Karamlou and Oliver are joined by Research Scientist Jeff Grover, postdoc Ilan Rosen, and others in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and of Physics at MIT, at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, and at Wellesley College and the University of Maryland. The research appears today in Nature .

Assessing entanglement

In a large quantum system comprising many interconnected qubits, one can think about entanglement as the amount of quantum information shared between a given subsystem of qubits and the rest of the larger system.

The entanglement within a quantum system can be categorized as area-law or volume-law, based on how this shared information scales with the geometry of subsystems. In volume-law entanglement, the amount of entanglement between a subsystem of qubits and the rest of the system grows proportionally with the total size of the subsystem.

On the other hand, area-law entanglement depends on how many shared connections exist between a subsystem of qubits and the larger system. As the subsystem expands, the amount of entanglement only grows along the boundary between the subsystem and the larger system.

In theory, the formation of volume-law entanglement is related to what makes quantum computing so powerful.

“While have not yet fully abstracted the role that entanglement plays in quantum algorithms, we do know that generating volume-law entanglement is a key ingredient to realizing a quantum advantage,” says Oliver.

However, volume-law entanglement is also more complex than area-law entanglement and practically prohibitive at scale to simulate using a classical computer.

“As you increase the complexity of your quantum system, it becomes increasingly difficult to simulate it with conventional computers. If I am trying to fully keep track of a system with 80 qubits, for instance, then I would need to store more information than what we have stored throughout the history of humanity,” Karamlou says.

The researchers created a quantum processor and control protocol that enable them to efficiently generate and probe both types of entanglement.

Their processor comprises superconducting circuits, which are used to engineer artificial atoms. The artificial atoms are utilized as qubits, which can be controlled and read out with high accuracy using microwave signals.

The device used for this experiment contained 16 qubits, arranged in a two-dimensional grid. The researchers carefully tuned the processor so all 16 qubits have the same transition frequency. Then, they applied an additional microwave drive to all of the qubits simultaneously.

If this microwave drive has the same frequency as the qubits, it generates quantum states that exhibit volume-law entanglement. However, as the microwave frequency increases or decreases, the qubits exhibit less volume-law entanglement, eventually crossing over to entangled states that increasingly follow an area-law scaling.

Careful control

“Our experiment is a tour de force of the capabilities of superconducting quantum processors. In one experiment, we operated the processor both as an analog simulation device, enabling us to efficiently prepare states with different entanglement structures, and as a digital computing device, needed to measure the ensuing entanglement scaling,” says Rosen.

To enable that control, the team put years of work into carefully building up the infrastructure around the quantum processor.

By demonstrating the crossover from volume-law to area-law entanglement, the researchers experimentally confirmed what theoretical studies had predicted. More importantly, this method can be used to determine whether the entanglement in a generic quantum processor is area-law or volume-law.

“The MIT experiment underscores the distinction between area-law and volume-law entanglement in two-dimensional quantum simulations using superconducting qubits. This beautifully complements our work on entanglement Hamiltonian tomography with trapped ions in a parallel publication published in Nature in 2023,” says Peter Zoller, a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Innsbruck, who was not involved with this work.

“Quantifying entanglement in large quantum systems is a challenging task for classical computers but a good example of where quantum simulation could help,” says Pedram Roushan of Google, who also was not involved in the study. “Using a 2D array of superconducting qubits, Karamlou and colleagues were able to measure entanglement entropy of various subsystems of various sizes. They measure the volume-law and area-law contributions to entropy, revealing crossover behavior as the system’s quantum state energy is tuned. It powerfully demonstrates the unique insights quantum simulators can offer.”

In the future, scientists could utilize this technique to study the thermodynamic behavior of complex quantum systems, which is too complex to be studied using current analytical methods and practically prohibitive to simulate on even the world’s most powerful supercomputers.

“The experiments we did in this work can be used to characterize or benchmark larger-scale quantum systems, and we may also learn something more about the nature of entanglement in these many-body systems,” says Karamlou.

Additional co-authors of the study are   Sarah E. Muschinske, Cora N. Barrett, Agustin Di Paolo, Leon Ding, Patrick M. Harrington, Max Hays, Rabindra Das, David K. Kim, Bethany M. Niedzielski, Meghan Schuldt, Kyle Serniak, Mollie E. Schwartz, Jonilyn L. Yoder, Simon Gustavsson, and Yariv Yanay.

This research is funded, in part, by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the U.S. Army Research Office, the National Science Foundation, the STC Center for Integrated Quantum Materials, the Wellesley College Samuel and Hilda Levitt Fellowship, NASA, and the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.

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• Quantum computing
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