theoretical analysis in research

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Theoretical Research: Definition, Methods + Examples

Research is the careful study of a particular research problem or concern using the scientific method. A theory is essential for any research project because it gives it direction and helps prove or disprove something. Theoretical basis helps us figure out how things work and why we do certain things.

Theoretical research lets you examine and discuss a research object using philosophical ideas and abstract theoretical structures.

In theoretical research, you can’t look at the research object directly. With the help of research literature, your research aims to define and sketch out the chosen topic’s conceptual models, explanations, and structures.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

This blog will cover theoretical research and why it is essential. In addition to that, we are going to go over some examples.

What is the theoretical research?

Theoretical research is the systematic examination of a set of beliefs and assumptions.

It aims to learn more about a subject and help us understand it better. The information gathered in this way is not used for anything in particular because this kind of research aims to learn more.

All professionals, like biologists, chemists, engineers, architects, philosophers, writers, sociologists, historians, etc., can do theoretical research. No matter what field you work in, theoretical research is the foundation for new ideas.

It tries to answer basic questions about people, which is why this kind of research is used in every field of knowledge.

For example , a researcher starts with the idea that we need to understand the world around us. To do this, he begins with a hypothesis and tests it through experiments that will help him develop new ideas. 

What is the theoretical framework?

A theoretical framework is a critical component in research that provides a structured foundation for investigating a specific topic or problem. It encompasses a set of interconnected theories, existing theories, and concepts that guide the entire research process. 

The theoretical framework introduces a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. Also, the theoretical framework strengthens the research’s validity and specifies the key elements that will be explored. Furthermore, it connects different ideas and theories, forming a cohesive structure that underpins the research endeavor.

A complete theoretical framework consists of a network of theories, existing theories, and concepts that collectively shape the direction of a research study. 

The theoretical framework is the fundamental principle that will be explored, strengthens the research’s credibility by aligning it with established knowledge, specifies the variables under investigation, and connects different aspects of the research to create a unified approach.

Theoretical frameworks are the intellectual scaffolding upon which the research is constructed. It is the lens through which researchers view their subject, guiding their choice of methodologies, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. By incorporating existing theory, and established concepts, a theoretical framework not only grounds the research but also provides a coherent roadmap for exploring the intricacies of the chosen topic.

Benefits of theoretical research

Theoretical research yields a wealth of benefits across various fields, from social sciences to human resource development and political science. Here’s a breakdown of these benefits while incorporating the requested topics:

Predictive power

Theoretical models are the cornerstone of theoretical research. They grant us predictive power, enabling us to forecast intricate behaviors within complex systems, like societal interactions. In political science, for instance, a theoretical model helps anticipate potential outcomes of policy changes.

Understanding human behavior

Drawing from key social science theories, it assists us in deciphering human behavior and societal dynamics. For instance, in the context of human resource development, theories related to motivation and psychology provide insights into how to effectively manage a diverse workforce.

Optimizing workforce

In the realm of human resource development, insights gleaned from theoretical research, along with the research methods knowledge base, help create targeted training programs. By understanding various learning methodologies and psychological factors, organizations can optimize workforce training for better results.

Building on foundations

It doesn’t exist in isolation; it builds upon existing theories. For instance, within the human resource development handbook, theoretical research expands established concepts, refining their applicability to contemporary organizational challenges.

Ethical policy formulation

Within political science, theoretical research isn’t confined to governance structures. It extends to ethical considerations, aiding policymakers in creating policies that balance the collective good with individual rights, ensuring just and fair governance. 

Rigorous investigations

Theoretical research underscores the importance of research methods knowledge base. This knowledge equips researchers in theory-building research methods and other fields to design robust research methodologies, yielding accurate data and credible insights.

Long-term impact

Theoretical research leaves a lasting impact. The theoretical models and insights from key social science theories provide enduring frameworks for subsequent research, contributing to the cumulative growth of knowledge in these fields.

Innovation and practical applications

It doesn’t merely remain theoretical. It inspires innovation and practical applications. By merging insights from diverse theories and fields, practitioners in human resource development devise innovative strategies to foster employee growth and well-being.

Theoretical research method

Researchers follow so many methods when doing research. There are two types of theoretical research methods.

• Scientific methods
• Social science method 

Let’s explore them below:

Scientific method

Scientific methods have some important points that you should know. Let’s figure them out below:

• Observation: Any part you want to explain can be found through observation. It helps define the area of research.
• Hypothesis: The hypothesis is the idea put into words, which helps us figure out what we see.
• Experimentation: Hypotheses are tested through experiments to see if they are true. These experiments are different for each research.
• Theory: When we create a theory, we do it because we believe it will explain hypotheses of higher probability.
• Conclusions: Conclusions are the learnings we derive from our investigation.

Social science methods

There are different methods for social science theoretical research. It consists of polls, documentation, and statistical analysis.

• Polls: It is a process whereby the researcher uses a topic-specific questionnaire to gather data. No changes are made to the environment or the phenomenon where the polls are conducted to get the most accurate results. QuestionPro live polls are a great way to get live audiences involved and engaged.
• Documentation: Documentation is a helpful and valuable technique that helps the researcher learn more about the subject. It means visiting libraries or other specialized places, like documentation centers, to look at the existing bibliography. With the documentation, you can find out what came before the investigated topic and what other investigations have found. This step is important because it shows whether or not similar investigations have been done before and what the results were.
• Statistic analysis : Statistics is a branch of math that looks at random events and differences. It follows the rules that are established by probability. It’s used a lot in sociology and language research. 

Examples of theoretical research

We talked about theoretical study methods in the previous part. We’ll give you some examples to help you understand it better.

Example 1: Theoretical research into the health benefits of hemp

The plant’s active principles are extracted and evaluated, and by studying their components, it is possible to determine what they contain and whether they can potentially serve as a medication.

Example 2: Linguistics research

Investigate to determine how many people in the Basque Country speak Basque. Surveys can be used to determine the number of native Basque speakers and those who speak Basque as a second language.

Example 3: Philosophical research

Research politics and ethics as they are presented in the writings of Hanna Arendt from a theoretical perspective.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

From our above discussion, we learned about theoretical research and its methods and gave some examples. It explains things and leads to more knowledge for the sake of knowledge. This kind of research tries to find out more about a thing or an idea, but the results may take time to be helpful in the real world. 

This research is sometimes called basic research. Theoretical research is an important process that gives researchers valuable data with insight.

QuestionPro is a strong platform for managing your data. You can conduct simple surveys to more complex research using QuestionPro survey software.

At QuestionPro, we give researchers tools for collecting data, such as our survey software and a library of insights for any long-term study. Contact our expert team to find out more about it.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Theoretical Framework
• Purpose of Guide
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Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounded assumptions or predictions of behavior. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework encompasses not just the theory, but the narrative explanation about how the researcher engages in using the theory and its underlying assumptions to investigate the research problem. It is the structure of your paper that summarizes concepts, ideas, and theories derived from prior research studies and which was synthesized in order to form a conceptual basis for your analysis and interpretation of meaning found within your research.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (December 2018): 44-53; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013; Varpio, Lara, Elise Paradis, Sebastian Uijtdehaage, and Meredith Young. "The Distinctions between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework." Academic Medicine 95 (July 2020): 989-994.

Importance of Theory and a Theoretical Framework

Theories can be unfamiliar to the beginning researcher because they are rarely applied in high school social studies curriculum and, as a result, can come across as unfamiliar and imprecise when first introduced as part of a writing assignment. However, in their most simplified form, a theory is simply a set of assumptions or predictions about something you think will happen based on existing evidence and that can be tested to see if those outcomes turn out to be true. Of course, it is slightly more deliberate than that, therefore, summarized from Kivunja (2018, p. 46), here are the essential characteristics of a theory.

• It is logical and coherent
• It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions [i.e., it is not an open-ended statement]
• It has a domain where it applies
• It has clearly described relationships among variables
• It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
• It comprises of concepts, themes, principles, and constructs
• It must have been based on empirical data [i.e., it is not a guess]
• It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
• It must be clear and concise
• Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
• Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and understood within multiple contexts
• Its assertions or predictions are relevant, and if applied as predicted, will result in the predicted outcome
• The assertions and predictions are not immutable, but subject to revision and improvement as researchers use the theory to make sense of phenomena
• Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
• Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict a future

Given these characteristics, a theory can best be understood as the foundation from which you investigate assumptions or predictions derived from previous studies about the research problem, but in a way that leads to new knowledge and understanding as well as, in some cases, discovering how to improve the relevance of the theory itself or to argue that the theory is outdated and a new theory needs to be formulated based on new evidence.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

• An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
• The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
• Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
• Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
• The theoretical framework adds context around the theory itself based on how scholars had previously tested the theory in relation their overall research design [i.e., purpose of the study, methods of collecting data or information, methods of analysis, the time frame in which information is collected, study setting, and the methodological strategy used to conduct the research].

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (2018): 44-53; Omodan, Bunmi Isaiah. "A Model for Selecting Theoretical Framework through Epistemology of Research Paradigms." African Journal of Inter/Multidisciplinary Studies 4 (2022): 275-285; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

• Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
• Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
• Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
• List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
• Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.

• Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
• Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
• Means for identifying and defining research problems,
• Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
• Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
• Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
• Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
• Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
• Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

• What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
• Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

• Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
• Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories . As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.
• The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.
• You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Other Disciplines

An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Yet Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis. About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis. Slideshare presentation.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis will likely include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings.

Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:

• Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions or circumstances or the passage of time,
• The study reveals a finding that is incompatible with what the theory attempts to explain or predict, or
• Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without taking into consideration specific factors revealed from your analysis [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs , religion, social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

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Home » Theoretical Framework – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Theoretical Framework – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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Theoretical Framework

Definition:

Theoretical framework refers to a set of concepts, theories, ideas , and assumptions that serve as a foundation for understanding a particular phenomenon or problem. It provides a conceptual framework that helps researchers to design and conduct their research, as well as to analyze and interpret their findings.

In research, a theoretical framework explains the relationship between various variables, identifies gaps in existing knowledge, and guides the development of research questions, hypotheses, and methodologies. It also helps to contextualize the research within a broader theoretical perspective, and can be used to guide the interpretation of results and the formulation of recommendations.

Types of Theoretical Framework

Types of Types of Theoretical Framework are as follows:

Conceptual Framework

This type of framework defines the key concepts and relationships between them. It helps to provide a theoretical foundation for a study or research project .

Deductive Framework

This type of framework starts with a general theory or hypothesis and then uses data to test and refine it. It is often used in quantitative research .

Inductive Framework

This type of framework starts with data and then develops a theory or hypothesis based on the patterns and themes that emerge from the data. It is often used in qualitative research .

Empirical Framework

This type of framework focuses on the collection and analysis of empirical data, such as surveys or experiments. It is often used in scientific research .

Normative Framework

This type of framework defines a set of norms or values that guide behavior or decision-making. It is often used in ethics and social sciences.

Explanatory Framework

This type of framework seeks to explain the underlying mechanisms or causes of a particular phenomenon or behavior. It is often used in psychology and social sciences.

Components of Theoretical Framework

The components of a theoretical framework include:

• Concepts : The basic building blocks of a theoretical framework. Concepts are abstract ideas or generalizations that represent objects, events, or phenomena.
• Variables : These are measurable and observable aspects of a concept. In a research context, variables can be manipulated or measured to test hypotheses.
• Assumptions : These are beliefs or statements that are taken for granted and are not tested in a study. They provide a starting point for developing hypotheses.
• Propositions : These are statements that explain the relationships between concepts and variables in a theoretical framework.
• Hypotheses : These are testable predictions that are derived from the theoretical framework. Hypotheses are used to guide data collection and analysis.
• Constructs : These are abstract concepts that cannot be directly measured but are inferred from observable variables. Constructs provide a way to understand complex phenomena.
• Models : These are simplified representations of reality that are used to explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

How to Write Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is an essential part of any research study or paper, as it helps to provide a theoretical basis for the research and guide the analysis and interpretation of the data. Here are some steps to help you write a theoretical framework:

• Identify the key concepts and variables : Start by identifying the main concepts and variables that your research is exploring. These could include things like motivation, behavior, attitudes, or any other relevant concepts.
• Review relevant literature: Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature in your field to identify key theories and ideas that relate to your research. This will help you to understand the existing knowledge and theories that are relevant to your research and provide a basis for your theoretical framework.
• Develop a conceptual framework : Based on your literature review, develop a conceptual framework that outlines the key concepts and their relationships. This framework should provide a clear and concise overview of the theoretical perspective that underpins your research.
• Identify hypotheses and research questions: Based on your conceptual framework, identify the hypotheses and research questions that you want to test or explore in your research.
• Test your theoretical framework: Once you have developed your theoretical framework, test it by applying it to your research data. This will help you to identify any gaps or weaknesses in your framework and refine it as necessary.
• Write up your theoretical framework: Finally, write up your theoretical framework in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate terminology and referencing the relevant literature to support your arguments.

Theoretical Framework Examples

Here are some examples of theoretical frameworks:

• Social Learning Theory : This framework, developed by Albert Bandura, suggests that people learn from their environment, including the behaviors of others, and that behavior is influenced by both external and internal factors.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with basic physiological needs at the bottom, followed by safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization at the top. This framework has been used in various fields, including psychology and education.
• Ecological Systems Theory : This framework, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, suggests that a person’s development is influenced by the interaction between the individual and the various environments in which they live, such as family, school, and community.
• Feminist Theory: This framework examines how gender and power intersect to influence social, cultural, and political issues. It emphasizes the importance of understanding and challenging systems of oppression.
• Cognitive Behavioral Theory: This framework suggests that our thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes influence our behavior, and that changing our thought patterns can lead to changes in behavior and emotional responses.
• Attachment Theory: This framework examines the ways in which early relationships with caregivers shape our later relationships and attachment styles.
• Critical Race Theory : This framework examines how race intersects with other forms of social stratification and oppression to perpetuate inequality and discrimination.

When to Have A Theoretical Framework

Following are some situations When to Have A Theoretical Framework:

• A theoretical framework should be developed when conducting research in any discipline, as it provides a foundation for understanding the research problem and guiding the research process.
• A theoretical framework is essential when conducting research on complex phenomena, as it helps to organize and structure the research questions, hypotheses, and findings.
• A theoretical framework should be developed when the research problem requires a deeper understanding of the underlying concepts and principles that govern the phenomenon being studied.
• A theoretical framework is particularly important when conducting research in social sciences, as it helps to explain the relationships between variables and provides a framework for testing hypotheses.
• A theoretical framework should be developed when conducting research in applied fields, such as engineering or medicine, as it helps to provide a theoretical basis for the development of new technologies or treatments.
• A theoretical framework should be developed when conducting research that seeks to address a specific gap in knowledge, as it helps to define the problem and identify potential solutions.
• A theoretical framework is also important when conducting research that involves the analysis of existing theories or concepts, as it helps to provide a framework for comparing and contrasting different theories and concepts.
• A theoretical framework should be developed when conducting research that seeks to make predictions or develop generalizations about a particular phenomenon, as it helps to provide a basis for evaluating the accuracy of these predictions or generalizations.
• Finally, a theoretical framework should be developed when conducting research that seeks to make a contribution to the field, as it helps to situate the research within the broader context of the discipline and identify its significance.

Purpose of Theoretical Framework

The purposes of a theoretical framework include:

• Providing a conceptual framework for the study: A theoretical framework helps researchers to define and clarify the concepts and variables of interest in their research. It enables researchers to develop a clear and concise definition of the problem, which in turn helps to guide the research process.
• Guiding the research design: A theoretical framework can guide the selection of research methods, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures. By outlining the key concepts and assumptions underlying the research questions, the theoretical framework can help researchers to identify the most appropriate research design for their study.
• Supporting the interpretation of research findings: A theoretical framework provides a framework for interpreting the research findings by helping researchers to make connections between their findings and existing theory. It enables researchers to identify the implications of their findings for theory development and to assess the generalizability of their findings.
• Enhancing the credibility of the research: A well-developed theoretical framework can enhance the credibility of the research by providing a strong theoretical foundation for the study. It demonstrates that the research is based on a solid understanding of the relevant theory and that the research questions are grounded in a clear conceptual framework.
• Facilitating communication and collaboration: A theoretical framework provides a common language and conceptual framework for researchers, enabling them to communicate and collaborate more effectively. It helps to ensure that everyone involved in the research is working towards the same goals and is using the same concepts and definitions.

Characteristics of Theoretical Framework

Some of the characteristics of a theoretical framework include:

• Conceptual clarity: The concepts used in the theoretical framework should be clearly defined and understood by all stakeholders.
• Logical coherence : The framework should be internally consistent, with each concept and assumption logically connected to the others.
• Empirical relevance: The framework should be based on empirical evidence and research findings.
• Parsimony : The framework should be as simple as possible, without sacrificing its ability to explain the phenomenon in question.
• Flexibility : The framework should be adaptable to new findings and insights.
• Testability : The framework should be testable through research, with clear hypotheses that can be falsified or supported by data.
• Applicability : The framework should be useful for practical applications, such as designing interventions or policies.

Advantages of Theoretical Framework

Here are some of the advantages of having a theoretical framework:

• Provides a clear direction : A theoretical framework helps researchers to identify the key concepts and variables they need to study and the relationships between them. This provides a clear direction for the research and helps researchers to focus their efforts and resources.
• Increases the validity of the research: A theoretical framework helps to ensure that the research is based on sound theoretical principles and concepts. This increases the validity of the research by ensuring that it is grounded in established knowledge and is not based on arbitrary assumptions.
• Enables comparisons between studies : A theoretical framework provides a common language and set of concepts that researchers can use to compare and contrast their findings. This helps to build a cumulative body of knowledge and allows researchers to identify patterns and trends across different studies.
• Helps to generate hypotheses: A theoretical framework provides a basis for generating hypotheses about the relationships between different concepts and variables. This can help to guide the research process and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Facilitates communication: A theoretical framework provides a common language and set of concepts that researchers can use to communicate their findings to other researchers and to the wider community. This makes it easier for others to understand the research and its implications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Theoretical Framework

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under study exists.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013.

Importance of Theory

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

• An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
• The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
• Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
• Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework . College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research . Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

• Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
• Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
• Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
• List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
• Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.

• Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
• Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
• Means for identifying and defining research problems,
• Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
• Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
• Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
• Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
• Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
• Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

• What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
• Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

• Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
• Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks , concepts, models, or theories . As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.
• The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.
• You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework . College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article . Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research . Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Elsewhere

A growing and increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand specific research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be fully engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem, or if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found in some way to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Yet Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis . About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis . Slideshare presentation.

Still Another Writing Tip

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis may include an expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings. Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:

• Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions or circumstances,
• The study reveals a finding that is significantly incongruent with what the theory attempts to explain or predict, or
• Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without taking into consideration specific factors [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs , religion, social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

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Grounded theory research: A design framework for novice researchers

Ylona chun tie.

1 Nursing and Midwifery, College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia

Melanie Birks

Karen francis.

2 College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Australia, Hobart, TAS, Australia

Background:

Grounded theory is a well-known methodology employed in many research studies. Qualitative and quantitative data generation techniques can be used in a grounded theory study. Grounded theory sets out to discover or construct theory from data, systematically obtained and analysed using comparative analysis. While grounded theory is inherently flexible, it is a complex methodology. Thus, novice researchers strive to understand the discourse and the practical application of grounded theory concepts and processes.

The aim of this article is to provide a contemporary research framework suitable to inform a grounded theory study.

This article provides an overview of grounded theory illustrated through a graphic representation of the processes and methods employed in conducting research using this methodology. The framework is presented as a diagrammatic representation of a research design and acts as a visual guide for the novice grounded theory researcher.

Discussion:

As grounded theory is not a linear process, the framework illustrates the interplay between the essential grounded theory methods and iterative and comparative actions involved. Each of the essential methods and processes that underpin grounded theory are defined in this article.

Conclusion:

Rather than an engagement in philosophical discussion or a debate of the different genres that can be used in grounded theory, this article illustrates how a framework for a research study design can be used to guide and inform the novice nurse researcher undertaking a study using grounded theory. Research findings and recommendations can contribute to policy or knowledge development, service provision and can reform thinking to initiate change in the substantive area of inquiry.

Introduction

The aim of all research is to advance, refine and expand a body of knowledge, establish facts and/or reach new conclusions using systematic inquiry and disciplined methods. 1 The research design is the plan or strategy researchers use to answer the research question, which is underpinned by philosophy, methodology and methods. 2 Birks 3 defines philosophy as ‘a view of the world encompassing the questions and mechanisms for finding answers that inform that view’ (p. 18). Researchers reflect their philosophical beliefs and interpretations of the world prior to commencing research. Methodology is the research design that shapes the selection of, and use of, particular data generation and analysis methods to answer the research question. 4 While a distinction between positivist research and interpretivist research occurs at the paradigm level, each methodology has explicit criteria for the collection, analysis and interpretation of data. 2 Grounded theory (GT) is a structured, yet flexible methodology. This methodology is appropriate when little is known about a phenomenon; the aim being to produce or construct an explanatory theory that uncovers a process inherent to the substantive area of inquiry. 5 – 7 One of the defining characteristics of GT is that it aims to generate theory that is grounded in the data. The following section provides an overview of GT – the history, main genres and essential methods and processes employed in the conduct of a GT study. This summary provides a foundation for a framework to demonstrate the interplay between the methods and processes inherent in a GT study as presented in the sections that follow.

Glaser and Strauss are recognised as the founders of grounded theory. Strauss was conversant in symbolic interactionism and Glaser in descriptive statistics. 8 – 10 Glaser and Strauss originally worked together in a study examining the experience of terminally ill patients who had differing knowledge of their health status. Some of these suspected they were dying and tried to confirm or disconfirm their suspicions. Others tried to understand by interpreting treatment by care providers and family members. Glaser and Strauss examined how the patients dealt with the knowledge they were dying and the reactions of healthcare staff caring for these patients. Throughout this collaboration, Glaser and Strauss questioned the appropriateness of using a scientific method of verification for this study. During this investigation, they developed the constant comparative method, a key element of grounded theory, while generating a theory of dying first described in Awareness of Dying (1965). The constant comparative method is deemed an original way of organising and analysing qualitative data.

Glaser and Strauss subsequently went on to write The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (1967). This seminal work explained how theory could be generated from data inductively. This process challenged the traditional method of testing or refining theory through deductive testing. Grounded theory provided an outlook that questioned the view of the time that quantitative methodology is the only valid, unbiased way to determine truths about the world. 11 Glaser and Strauss 5 challenged the belief that qualitative research lacked rigour and detailed the method of comparative analysis that enables the generation of theory. After publishing The Discovery of Grounded Theory , Strauss and Glaser went on to write independently, expressing divergent viewpoints in the application of grounded theory methods.

Glaser produced his book Theoretical Sensitivity (1978) and Strauss went on to publish Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (1987). Strauss and Corbin’s 12 publication Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques resulted in a rebuttal by Glaser 13 over their application of grounded theory methods. However, philosophical perspectives have changed since Glaser’s positivist version and Strauss and Corbin’s post-positivism stance. 14 Grounded theory has since seen the emergence of additional philosophical perspectives that have influenced a change in methodological development over time. 15

Subsequent generations of grounded theorists have positioned themselves along a philosophical continuum, from Strauss and Corbin’s 12 theoretical perspective of symbolic interactionism, through to Charmaz’s 16 constructivist perspective. However, understanding how to position oneself philosophically can challenge novice researchers. Birks and Mills 6 provide a contemporary understanding of GT in their book Grounded theory: A Practical Guide. These Australian researchers have written in a way that appeals to the novice researcher. It is the contemporary writing, the way Birks and Mills present a non-partisan approach to GT that support the novice researcher to understand the philosophical and methodological concepts integral in conducting research. The development of GT is important to understand prior to selecting an approach that aligns with the researcher’s philosophical position and the purpose of the research study. As the research progresses, seminal texts are referred back to time and again as understanding of concepts increases, much like the iterative processes inherent in the conduct of a GT study.

Genres: traditional, evolved and constructivist grounded theory

Grounded theory has several distinct methodological genres: traditional GT associated with Glaser; evolved GT associated with Strauss, Corbin and Clarke; and constructivist GT associated with Charmaz. 6 , 17 Each variant is an extension and development of the original GT by Glaser and Strauss. The first of these genres is known as traditional or classic GT. Glaser 18 acknowledged that the goal of traditional GT is to generate a conceptual theory that accounts for a pattern of behaviour that is relevant and problematic for those involved. The second genre, evolved GT, is founded on symbolic interactionism and stems from work associated with Strauss, Corbin and Clarke. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that relies on the symbolic meaning people ascribe to the processes of social interaction. Symbolic interactionism addresses the subjective meaning people place on objects, behaviours or events based on what they believe is true. 19 , 20 Constructivist GT, the third genre developed and explicated by Charmaz, a symbolic interactionist, has its roots in constructivism. 8 , 16 Constructivist GT’s methodological underpinnings focus on how participants’ construct meaning in relation to the area of inquiry. 16 A constructivist co-constructs experience and meanings with participants. 21 While there are commonalities across all genres of GT, there are factors that distinguish differences between the approaches including the philosophical position of the researcher; the use of literature; and the approach to coding, analysis and theory development. Following on from Glaser and Strauss, several versions of GT have ensued.

Grounded theory represents both a method of inquiry and a resultant product of that inquiry. 7 , 22 Glaser and Holton 23 define GT as ‘a set of integrated conceptual hypotheses systematically generated to produce an inductive theory about a substantive area’ (p. 43). Strauss and Corbin 24 define GT as ‘theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered and analysed through the research process’ (p. 12). The researcher ‘begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from the data’ (p. 12). Charmaz 16 defines GT as ‘a method of conducting qualitative research that focuses on creating conceptual frameworks or theories through building inductive analysis from the data’ (p. 187). However, Birks and Mills 6 refer to GT as a process by which theory is generated from the analysis of data. Theory is not discovered; rather, theory is constructed by the researcher who views the world through their own particular lens.

Research process

Before commencing any research study, the researcher must have a solid understanding of the research process. A well-developed outline of the study and an understanding of the important considerations in designing and undertaking a GT study are essential if the goals of the research are to be achieved. While it is important to have an understanding of how a methodology has developed, in order to move forward with research, a novice can align with a grounded theorist and follow an approach to GT. Using a framework to inform a research design can be a useful modus operandi.

The following section provides insight into the process of undertaking a GT research study. Figure 1 is a framework that summarises the interplay and movement between methods and processes that underpin the generation of a GT. As can be seen from this framework, and as detailed in the discussion that follows, the process of doing a GT research study is not linear, rather it is iterative and recursive.

Research design framework: summary of the interplay between the essential grounded theory methods and processes.

Grounded theory research involves the meticulous application of specific methods and processes. Methods are ‘systematic modes, procedures or tools used for collection and analysis of data’. 25 While GT studies can commence with a variety of sampling techniques, many commence with purposive sampling, followed by concurrent data generation and/or collection and data analysis, through various stages of coding, undertaken in conjunction with constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling and memoing. Theoretical sampling is employed until theoretical saturation is reached. These methods and processes create an unfolding, iterative system of actions and interactions inherent in GT. 6 , 16 The methods interconnect and inform the recurrent elements in the research process as shown by the directional flow of the arrows and the encompassing brackets in Figure 1 . The framework denotes the process is both iterative and dynamic and is not one directional. Grounded theory methods are discussed in the following section.

Purposive sampling

As presented in Figure 1 , initial purposive sampling directs the collection and/or generation of data. Researchers purposively select participants and/or data sources that can answer the research question. 5 , 7 , 16 , 21 Concurrent data generation and/or data collection and analysis is fundamental to GT research design. 6 The researcher collects, codes and analyses this initial data before further data collection/generation is undertaken. Purposeful sampling provides the initial data that the researcher analyses. As will be discussed, theoretical sampling then commences from the codes and categories developed from the first data set. Theoretical sampling is used to identify and follow clues from the analysis, fill gaps, clarify uncertainties, check hunches and test interpretations as the study progresses.

Constant comparative analysis

Constant comparative analysis is an analytical process used in GT for coding and category development. This process commences with the first data generated or collected and pervades the research process as presented in Figure 1 . Incidents are identified in the data and coded. 6 The initial stage of analysis compares incident to incident in each code. Initial codes are then compared to other codes. Codes are then collapsed into categories. This process means the researcher will compare incidents in a category with previous incidents, in both the same and different categories. 5 Future codes are compared and categories are compared with other categories. New data is then compared with data obtained earlier during the analysis phases. This iterative process involves inductive and deductive thinking. 16 Inductive, deductive and abductive reasoning can also be used in data analysis. 26

Constant comparative analysis generates increasingly more abstract concepts and theories through inductive processes. 16 In addition, abduction, defined as ‘a form of reasoning that begins with an examination of the data and the formation of a number of hypotheses that are then proved or disproved during the process of analysis … aids inductive conceptualization’. 6 Theoretical sampling coupled with constant comparative analysis raises the conceptual levels of data analysis and directs ongoing data collection or generation. 6

The constant comparative technique is used to find consistencies and differences, with the aim of continually refining concepts and theoretically relevant categories. This continual comparative iterative process that encompasses GT research sets it apart from a purely descriptive analysis. 8

Memo writing is an analytic process considered essential ‘in ensuring quality in grounded theory’. 6 Stern 27 offers the analogy that if data are the building blocks of the developing theory, then memos are the ‘mortar’ (p. 119). Memos are the storehouse of ideas generated and documented through interacting with data. 28 Thus, memos are reflective interpretive pieces that build a historic audit trail to document ideas, events and the thought processes inherent in the research process and developing thinking of the analyst. 6 Memos provide detailed records of the researchers’ thoughts, feelings and intuitive contemplations. 6

Lempert 29 considers memo writing crucial as memos prompt researchers to analyse and code data and develop codes into categories early in the coding process. Memos detail why and how decisions made related to sampling, coding, collapsing of codes, making of new codes, separating codes, producing a category and identifying relationships abstracted to a higher level of analysis. 6 Thus, memos are informal analytic notes about the data and the theoretical connections between categories. 23 Memoing is an ongoing activity that builds intellectual assets, fosters analytic momentum and informs the GT findings. 6 , 10

Generating/collecting data

A hallmark of GT is concurrent data generation/collection and analysis. In GT, researchers may utilise both qualitative and quantitative data as espoused by Glaser’s dictum; ‘all is data’. 30 While interviews are a common method of generating data, data sources can include focus groups, questionnaires, surveys, transcripts, letters, government reports, documents, grey literature, music, artefacts, videos, blogs and memos. 9 Elicited data are produced by participants in response to, or directed by, the researcher whereas extant data includes data that is already available such as documents and published literature. 6 , 31 While this is one interpretation of how elicited data are generated, other approaches to grounded theory recognise the agency of participants in the co-construction of data with the researcher. The relationship the researcher has with the data, how it is generated and collected, will determine the value it contributes to the development of the final GT. 6 The significance of this relationship extends into data analysis conducted by the researcher through the various stages of coding.

Coding is an analytical process used to identify concepts, similarities and conceptual reoccurrences in data. Coding is the pivotal link between collecting or generating data and developing a theory that explains the data. Charmaz 10 posits,

codes rely on interaction between researchers and their data. Codes consist of short labels that we construct as we interact with the data. Something kinaesthetic occurs when we are coding; we are mentally and physically active in the process. (p. 5)

In GT, coding can be categorised into iterative phases. Traditional, evolved and constructivist GT genres use different terminology to explain each coding phase ( Table 1 ).

Comparison of coding terminology in traditional, evolved and constructivist grounded theory.

Adapted from Birks and Mills. 6

Coding terminology in evolved GT refers to open (a procedure for developing categories of information), axial (an advanced procedure for interconnecting the categories) and selective coding (procedure for building a storyline from core codes that connects the categories), producing a discursive set of theoretical propositions. 6 , 12 , 32 Constructivist grounded theorists refer to initial, focused and theoretical coding. 9 Birks and Mills 6 use the terms initial, intermediate and advanced coding that link to low, medium and high-level conceptual analysis and development. The coding terms devised by Birks and Mills 6 were used for Figure 1 ; however, these can be altered to reflect the coding terminology used in the respective GT genres selected by the researcher.

Initial coding

Initial coding of data is the preliminary step in GT data analysis. 6 , 9 The purpose of initial coding is to start the process of fracturing the data to compare incident to incident and to look for similarities and differences in beginning patterns in the data. In initial coding, the researcher inductively generates as many codes as possible from early data. 16 Important words or groups of words are identified and labelled. In GT, codes identify social and psychological processes and actions as opposed to themes. Charmaz 16 emphasises keeping codes as similar to the data as possible and advocates embedding actions in the codes in an iterative coding process. Saldaña 33 agrees that codes that denote action, which he calls process codes, can be used interchangeably with gerunds (verbs ending in ing ). In vivo codes are often verbatim quotes from the participants’ words and are often used as the labels to capture the participant’s words as representative of a broader concept or process in the data. 6 Table 1 reflects variation in the terminology of codes used by grounded theorists.

Initial coding categorises and assigns meaning to the data, comparing incident-to-incident, labelling beginning patterns and beginning to look for comparisons between the codes. During initial coding, it is important to ask ‘what is this data a study of’. 18 What does the data assume, ‘suggest’ or ‘pronounce’ and ‘from whose point of view’ does this data come, whom does it represent or whose thoughts are they?. 16 What collectively might it represent? The process of documenting reactions, emotions and related actions enables researchers to explore, challenge and intensify their sensitivity to the data. 34 Early coding assists the researcher to identify the direction for further data gathering. After initial analysis, theoretical sampling is employed to direct collection of additional data that will inform the ‘developing theory’. 9 Initial coding advances into intermediate coding once categories begin to develop.

Theoretical sampling

The purpose of theoretical sampling is to allow the researcher to follow leads in the data by sampling new participants or material that provides relevant information. As depicted in Figure 1 , theoretical sampling is central to GT design, aids the evolving theory 5 , 7 , 16 and ensures the final developed theory is grounded in the data. 9 Theoretical sampling in GT is for the development of a theoretical category, as opposed to sampling for population representation. 10 Novice researchers need to acknowledge this difference if they are to achieve congruence within the methodology. Birks and Mills 6 define theoretical sampling as ‘the process of identifying and pursuing clues that arise during analysis in a grounded theory study’ (p. 68). During this process, additional information is sought to saturate categories under development. The analysis identifies relationships, highlights gaps in the existing data set and may reveal insight into what is not yet known. The exemplars in Box 1 highlight how theoretical sampling led to the inclusion of further data.

Examples of theoretical sampling.

Thus, theoretical sampling is used to focus and generate data to feed the iterative process of continual comparative analysis of the data. 6

Intermediate coding

Intermediate coding, identifying a core category, theoretical data saturation, constant comparative analysis, theoretical sensitivity and memoing occur in the next phase of the GT process. 6 Intermediate coding builds on the initial coding phase. Where initial coding fractures the data, intermediate coding begins to transform basic data into more abstract concepts allowing the theory to emerge from the data. During this analytic stage, a process of reviewing categories and identifying which ones, if any, can be subsumed beneath other categories occurs and the properties or dimension of the developed categories are refined. Properties refer to the characteristics that are common to all the concepts in the category and dimensions are the variations of a property. 37

At this stage, a core category starts to become evident as developed categories form around a core concept; relationships are identified between categories and the analysis is refined. Birks and Mills 6 affirm that diagramming can aid analysis in the intermediate coding phase. Grounded theorists interact closely with the data during this phase, continually reassessing meaning to ascertain ‘what is really going on’ in the data. 30 Theoretical saturation ensues when new data analysis does not provide additional material to existing theoretical categories, and the categories are sufficiently explained. 6

Advanced coding

Birks and Mills 6 described advanced coding as the ‘techniques used to facilitate integration of the final grounded theory’ (p. 177). These authors promote storyline technique (described in the following section) and theoretical coding as strategies for advancing analysis and theoretical integration. Advanced coding is essential to produce a theory that is grounded in the data and has explanatory power. 6 During the advanced coding phase, concepts that reach the stage of categories will be abstract, representing stories of many, reduced into highly conceptual terms. The findings are presented as a set of interrelated concepts as opposed to presenting themes. 28 Explanatory statements detail the relationships between categories and the central core category. 28

Storyline is a tool that can be used for theoretical integration. Birks and Mills 6 define storyline as ‘a strategy for facilitating integration, construction, formulation, and presentation of research findings through the production of a coherent grounded theory’ (p. 180). Storyline technique is first proposed with limited attention in Basics of Qualitative Research by Strauss and Corbin 12 and further developed by Birks et al. 38 as a tool for theoretical integration. The storyline is the conceptualisation of the core category. 6 This procedure builds a story that connects the categories and produces a discursive set of theoretical propositions. 24 Birks and Mills 6 contend that storyline can be ‘used to produce a comprehensive rendering of your grounded theory’ (p. 118). Birks et al. 38 had earlier concluded, ‘storyline enhances the development, presentation and comprehension of the outcomes of grounded theory research’ (p. 405). Once the storyline is developed, the GT is finalised using theoretical codes that ‘provide a framework for enhancing the explanatory power of the storyline and its potential as theory’. 6 Thus, storyline is the explication of the theory.

Theoretical coding occurs as the final culminating stage towards achieving a GT. 39 , 40 The purpose of theoretical coding is to integrate the substantive theory. 41 Saldaña 40 states, ‘theoretical coding integrates and synthesises the categories derived from coding and analysis to now create a theory’ (p. 224). Initial coding fractures the data while theoretical codes ‘weave the fractured story back together again into an organized whole theory’. 18 Advanced coding that integrates extant theory adds further explanatory power to the findings. 6 The examples in Box 2 describe the use of storyline as a technique.

Writing the storyline.

Theoretical sensitivity

As presented in Figure 1 , theoretical sensitivity encompasses the entire research process. Glaser and Strauss 5 initially described the term theoretical sensitivity in The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Theoretical sensitivity is the ability to know when you identify a data segment that is important to your theory. While Strauss and Corbin 12 describe theoretical sensitivity as the insight into what is meaningful and of significance in the data for theory development, Birks and Mills 6 define theoretical sensitivity as ‘the ability to recognise and extract from the data elements that have relevance for the emerging theory’ (p. 181). Conducting GT research requires a balance between keeping an open mind and the ability to identify elements of theoretical significance during data generation and/or collection and data analysis. 6

Several analytic tools and techniques can be used to enhance theoretical sensitivity and increase the grounded theorist’s sensitivity to theoretical constructs in the data. 28 Birks and Mills 6 state, ‘as a grounded theorist becomes immersed in the data, their level of theoretical sensitivity to analytic possibilities will increase’ (p. 12). Developing sensitivity as a grounded theorist and the application of theoretical sensitivity throughout the research process allows the analytical focus to be directed towards theory development and ultimately result in an integrated and abstract GT. 6 The example in Box 3 highlights how analytic tools are employed to increase theoretical sensitivity.

Theoretical sensitivity.

The grounded theory

The meticulous application of essential GT methods refines the analysis resulting in the generation of an integrated, comprehensive GT that explains a process relating to a particular phenomenon. 6 The results of a GT study are communicated as a set of concepts, related to each other in an interrelated whole, and expressed in the production of a substantive theory. 5 , 7 , 16 A substantive theory is a theoretical interpretation or explanation of a studied phenomenon 6 , 17 Thus, the hallmark of grounded theory is the generation of theory ‘abstracted from, or grounded in, data generated and collected by the researcher’. 6 However, to ensure quality in research requires the application of rigour throughout the research process.

Quality and rigour

The quality of a grounded theory can be related to three distinct areas underpinned by (1) the researcher’s expertise, knowledge and research skills; (2) methodological congruence with the research question; and (3) procedural precision in the use of methods. 6 Methodological congruence is substantiated when the philosophical position of the researcher is congruent with the research question and the methodological approach selected. 6 Data collection or generation and analytical conceptualisation need to be rigorous throughout the research process to secure excellence in the final grounded theory. 44

Procedural precision requires careful attention to maintaining a detailed audit trail, data management strategies and demonstrable procedural logic recorded using memos. 6 Organisation and management of research data, memos and literature can be assisted using software programs such as NVivo. An audit trail of decision-making, changes in the direction of the research and the rationale for decisions made are essential to ensure rigour in the final grounded theory. 6

This article offers a framework to assist novice researchers visualise the iterative processes that underpin a GT study. The fundamental process and methods used to generate an integrated grounded theory have been described. Novice researchers can adapt the framework presented to inform and guide the design of a GT study. This framework provides a useful guide to visualise the interplay between the methods and processes inherent in conducting GT. Research conducted ethically and with meticulous attention to process will ensure quality research outcomes that have relevance at the practice level.

Declaration of conflicting interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Article contents

Qualitative data analysis and the use of theory.

• Carol Grbich Carol Grbich Flinders University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.554
• Published online: 23 May 2019

The role of theory in qualitative data analysis is continually shifting and offers researchers many choices. The dynamic and inclusive nature of qualitative research has encouraged the entry of a number of interested disciplines into the field. These discipline groups have introduced new theoretical practices that have influenced and diversified methodological approaches. To add to these, broader shifts in chronological theoretical orientations in qualitative research can be seen in the four waves of paradigmatic change; the first wave showed a developing concern with the limitations of researcher objectivity, and empirical observation of evidence based data, leading to the second wave with its focus on realities - mutually constructed by researcher and researched, participant subjectivity, and the remedying of societal inequalities and mal-distributed power. The third wave was prompted by the advent of Postmodernism and Post- structuralism with their emphasis on chaos, complexity, intertextuality and multiple realities; and most recently the fourth wave brought a focus on visual images, performance, both an active researcher and an interactive audience, and the crossing of the theoretical divide between social science and classical physics. The methods and methodological changes, which have evolved from these paradigm shifts, can be seen to have followed a similar pattern of change. The researcher now has multiple paradigms, co-methodologies, diverse methods and a variety of theoretical choices, to consider. This continuum of change has shifted the field of qualitative research dramatically from limited choices to multiple options, requiring clarification of researcher decisions and transparency of process. However, there still remains the difficult question of the role that theory will now play in such a high level of complex design and critical researcher reflexivity.

• qualitative research
• data analysis
• methodologies

Theory and Qualitative Data Analysis

Researchers new to qualitative research, and particularly those coming from the quantitative tradition, have often expressed frustration at the need for what appears to be an additional and perhaps unnecessary process—that of the theoretical interpretation of their carefully designed, collected, and analyzed data. The justifications for this process have tended to fall into one of two areas: the need to lift data to a broader interpretation beyond the Monty Pythonesque “this is my theory and it’s my very own,” to illumination of findings from another perspective—by placing the data in its relevant discipline field for comparison with previous theoretical data interpretations, while possibly adding something original to the field.

“Theory” is broadly seen as a set of assumptions or propositions, developed from observation or investigation of perceived realties, that attempt to provide an explanation of relationships or phenomena. The framing of data via theoretical imposition can occur at different levels. At the lowest level, various concepts such as “role,” “power,” “socialization,” “evaluation,” or “learning styles” refer to limited aspects of social organization and are usually applied to a specific group of people.

At a more complex level, theories of the Middle Range, identified by Robert Merton to link theory and practice, are used to build theory from empirical data. These tend to be discipline specific and incorporate concepts plus variables such as “gender,” “race,” or “class.” Concepts and variables are then combined into meaningful statements, which can be applied to more diverse social groups. For example, in education an investigation of student performance could emphasize such concepts as “safety,” “zero bullying,” “communication,” and “tolerance,” with variables such as “race” and “gender” to lead to a statement that good microsystems and a focus on individual needs are necessary for optimal student performance.

The third and most complex level uses the established or grand theories such as those of Sigmund Freud’s stages of children’s development, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, or Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems, which have been widely accepted as meaningful across a number of disciplines and provide abstract explanations of the uniformity of aspects of social organization, social behavior, and social change.

The trend in qualitative research regarding the application of chosen levels of theory has been generally either toward theory direction/verification or theory generation, although the two are often intertwined. In the first, a relevant existing theory is chosen early and acts as a point of critical comparison for the data to be collected. This approach requires the researcher to think theoretically as s/he designs the study, collects data, and collates it into analytical groupings. The danger of theory direction is that an over focus on a chosen theoretical orientation may limit what the researcher can access or “see” in the data, but on the upside, this approach can also enable the generation of new theoretical aspects, as it is rare that findings will fall precisely within the implications of existing statements. Theory generation is a much looser approach and involves either one or a range of relevant levels of theory being identified at any point in the research process, and from which, in conjunction with data findings, some new combination or distillation can enhance interpretation.

The question of whether a well-designed study should negate the need for theoretical interpretation has been minimally debated. Mehdi and Mansor ( 2010 ) identified three trends in the literature on this topic: that theory in qualitative research relates to integrated methodology and epistemology; that theory is a separate and additional element to any methodological underpinnings; and that theory has no solid relationship with qualitative research. No clear agreement on any of these is evident. Overall, there appears to be general acceptance that the process of using theory, albeit etically (imposed) or emically (integrated), enhances outcomes, and moves research away from being a-theoretical or unilluminated by other ideas. However, regarding praxis, a closer look at the issue of the use of theory and data may be in order. Theoretical interpretation, as currently practiced, has limits. To begin with, the playing field is not level. In the grounded theory tradition, Glaser and Strauss ( 1967 ) were initially clear that in order to prevent undue influence on design and interpretation, the researcher should avoid reviewing the literature on a topic until after some data collection and analysis had been undertaken. The presumption that most researchers would already be well versed in theory/ies and would have a broad spectrum to draw on in order to facilitate the constant comparative process from which data-based concepts could be generated was found to be incorrect. Glaser ( 1978 ) suggested this lack could be improved at the conceptual level via personal and professional reflexivity.

This issue became even more of a problem with the advent of practice-led disciplines such as education and health into the field of qualitative research. These groups had not been widely exposed to the theories of the traditional social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy, although in education they would have been familiar with John Dewey’s concept of “pragmatism” linking learning with hands-on activity, and were more used to developing and using models of practice for comparison with current realities. By the mid- 20th century , Education was more established in research and had moved toward the use of middle range theories and the late 20th-century grand theorists: Michel Foucault, with his emphasis on power and knowledge control, and Jurgen Habermas, with his focus on pragmatism, communication, and knowledge management.

In addition to addictive identification with particular levels of theory and discipline-preferred theories and methods, activity across qualitative research seems to fall between two extremes. At one end it involves separate processes of data collection and analysis before searching for a theoretical framework within which to discuss the findings—often choosing a framework that has gained traction in a specific discipline. This “best/most acceptable fit” approach often adds little to the relevant field beyond repetition and appears somewhat forced. At the other extreme there are those who weave methods, methodologies, data, and theory throughout the whole research process, actively critiquing and modifying it as they go, usually with the outcome of creating some new direction for both theory and practice. The majority of qualitative research practice, however, tends to fall somewhere between these two.

The final aspect of framing data lies in the impact of researchers themselves, and the early- 21st-century emphasis is on exposing relevant personal frames, particularly those of culture, gender, socioeconomic class, life experiences such as education, work, and socialization, and the researcher’s own values and beliefs. The twin purposes of this exposure are to create researcher awareness and encourage accountability for their impact on the data, as well as allowing the reader to assess the value of research outcomes in terms of potential researcher bias or prejudice. This critical reflexivity is supposed to be undertaken at all stages of the research but it is not always clear that it has occurred.

Paradigms: From Interactionism to Performativity

It appears that there are potentially five sources of theory: that which is generally available and can be sourced from different disciplines; that which is imbedded in the chosen paradigm/s; that which underpins particular methodologies; that which the researcher brings, and that which the researched incorporate within their stories. Of these, the paradigm/s chosen are probably the most influential in terms of researcher position and design. The variety of the sets of assumptions, beliefs, and researcher practices that comprise the theoretical paradigms, perspectives, or broad world views available to researchers, and within which they are expected to locate their individual position and their research approach, has shifted dramatically since the 1930s. The changes have been distinct and identifiable, with their roots located in the societal shifts prompted by political, social, and economic change.

The First Wave

The Positivist paradigm dominated research, largely unquestioned, prior to the early 20th century . It emphasized the distancing of the researcher from his/her subjects; researcher objectivity; a focus on objective, cause–effect, evidence-based data derived from empirical observation of external realities; experimental quantitative methods involving testing hypotheses; and the provision of finite answers and unassailable future predictions. From the 1930s, concerns about the limitations of findings and the veracity of research outcomes, together with improved communication and exposure to the worldviews of other cultures, led to the advent of the realist/post-positivist paradigm. Post-positivism, or critical realism, recognized that certainty in proving the truth of a hypothesis was unachievable and that outcomes were probably limited to falsification (Popper, 1963 ), that true objectivity was unattainable and that the researcher was most likely to impact on or to contaminate data, that both qualitative and quantitative approaches were valuable, and that methodological pluralism was desirable.

The Second Wave

Alongside the worldwide political shifts toward “people power” in the 1960s and 1970s, two other paradigms emerged. The first, the Interpretivist/Constructivist, focused on the social situations in which we as humans develop and how our construction of knowledge occurs through interactions with others in these contexts. This paradigm also emphasized the gaining of an understanding of the subjective views or experiences of the participants being researched, and recognized the impact of the researcher on researcher–researched mutually constructed realities. Here, theory generation is the preferred outcome to explain the what, how, and why of the findings. This usually involves the development of a conceptual model, forged from both the data gained and from the application/integration of relevant theory, to provide explanations for and interpretations of findings, together with a new perspective for the field/discipline.

The second paradigm, termed the Critical/Emancipatory, focused on locating, critiquing, and changing inequalities in society. The identification of the location of systemic power discrepancies or systematic power misuse in situations involving gender, sexuality, class, and race is expected to be followed by moves to right any oppression discovered. Here, the use of theory has been focused more on predetermined concept application for “fit.” This is because the very strong notion of problematic societal structures and power inappropriately wielded have been the dominant underpinnings.

In both the Interpretive and Critical paradigms, researcher position shifted from the elevated and distant position of positivism, to one of becoming equal with those being researched, and the notion of researcher framing emerged to cover this shift and help us—the readers—to “see” (and judge) the researcher and her/his processes of data management more clearly.

The Third Wave

In the 1980s, the next wave of paradigmatic options—postmodernism and poststructuralism—emerged. Postmodernism, with its overarching cultural implications, and poststructuralism, with its focus on language, severely challenged the construction, limitations, and claims to veracity of all knowledge and in particular the use of theory derived from siloed disciplines and confined research methods. Regardless of whether the postmodern/poststructural label is attached to grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, action, or evaluative designs, one general aspect that prevails is a focus on language. Language has become viewed as dubious, with notions of “slippage”—the multiple meanings of individual words, and “difference”—the difference and deferral of textual meaning (Derrida, 1970 , 1972 ), adding complexity. Double coding, irony, and juxtaposition are encouraged to further identify meaning, and to uncover aspects of social organization and behavior that have been previously marginalized or made invisible by existing discourses and discursive practices. Texts are seen as complex constructions, and intertextuality is favored, resulting in multiply constructed texts. The world is viewed as chaotic and unknowable; individuals are no longer seen as two dimensional—they are viewed as multifaceted with multiple realities. Complex “truths” are perceived as limited by time and context, requiring multiple data sets and many voices to illuminate them, and small-scale focused local research is seen as desirable. The role of researcher also changed: the politics of position and self-reflexivity dominate and the researcher needs to clearly expose past influences and formerly hidden aspects of his/her life. S/he inhabits the position of an offstage or decentered facilitator, presenting data for the reader to judge.

Theory is used mainly at the conceptual level with no particular approach being privileged. The researcher has become a “bricoleur” (Levi-Strauss, 1962 ) or handyman, using whatever methods or theories that are within reach, to adapt, craft, and meld technological skills with mythical intellectual reflection in order to create unique perspectives on the topic. Transitional interpretations dominate, awaiting further challenges and deconstruction by the next researcher in the field.

The need for multifaceted data sets in the 1990s led inevitably to a search for other research structures, and mixed and multiple methods have become topical. In crossing the divide between qualitative and quantitative approaches, the former initially developed its own sub-paradigms: pragmatist (complimentary communication and shared meanings) and transformative/emancipatory (inequalities in race, class, gender, and disability, to be righted). An increasing focus on multiple methods led to the advent of dialectics (multiple paradigm use) and critical realism (the acceptance of divergent results) (Shannon-Baker, 2016 ). The dilemmas of theory use raised by these changes include whether to segregate data sets and try to explain disparate outcomes in terms of diversity using different theories; whether to integrate them through a homogeneous “smoothing” process—one theory fits all, in order to promote a singular interpretation; or whether to let the strongest paradigm—in terms of data—dominate the theoretical findings.

The Fourth Wave

During the early 21st century , as the third wave was becoming firmly established, the Performative paradigm emerged. The incorporation of fine art–based courses into universities has challenged the prescribed rules of the doctoral thesis, initially resulting in a debate—with echoes of Glaser and Strauss—as to whether theory, if used initially, is too directive, thereby potentially contaminating the performance, or whether theory application should be an outcome to enhance performances, or even whether academic guidelines regarding theory use need to be changed to accommodate these disciplines (Bolt, 2004 ; Freeman, 2010 ; Riley & Hunter, 2009 ). Performativity is seen in terms of “effect,” a notion derived from John Austin’s ( 1962 ) assertion that words and speech utterances do not just act as descriptors of content, they have social force and impact on reality. Following this, a productive work is seen as capable of transforming reality (Bolt, 2016 ). The issue most heard here is the problem of how to judge this form of research when traditional guidelines of dependability, transformability, and trustworthiness appear to be irrelevant. Barbara Bolt suggests that drawing on Austin’s ( 1962 ) terms “locutionary” (semantic meaning), “illocutionary” (force), and “perlocutionary” (effect achieved on receivers), together with the mapping of these effects in material, effective, and discursive domains, may be useful, despite the fact that mapping transformation may be difficult to track in the short term.

During the second decade of the 21st century , however, discussions relating to the use of theory have increased dramatically in academic performative research and a variety of theoreticians are now cited apart from John Austin. These include Maurice Merleu-Ponty ( 1945 and the spatiality of lived events; Jacques Derrida ( 1982 ) on iterability, simultaneous sameness, and difference; Giles Deleuze and Felix Guatarri ( 1987 ) on rituals of material objects and transformative potential; Jean-Francois Lyotard ( 1988 ) on plurality of micro narratives, “affect,” and its silent disruption of discourse; and Bruno Latour ( 2005 ) with regard to actor network theory—where theory is used to engage with rather than to explain the world in a reflective political manner.

In performative doctoral theses, qualitative theory and methods are being creatively challenged. For example, from the discipline of theater and performance Lee Miller and Joanne/Bob Whalley ( 2010 ) disrupt the notion of usual spaces for sincere events by taking their six-hour-long performance Partly Cloudy, Chance of Rain , involving a public reaffirmation of their marriage vows, out of the usual habitats to a service station on a highway. The performance involves a choir, a band, a pianist, 20 performers dressed as brides and grooms, photographers, a TV crew, an Anglican priest, plus 50 guests. The theories applied to this event include an exploration of Marc Auge’s ( 1992 ) conception of the “non-place”; Mikhail Bakhtin’s ( 1992 ) concepts of “dialogism” (many voices) together with “heteroglossia” (juxtaposition of many voices in a dialogue); and Ludwig Wittgenstein’s ( 1953 ) discussion of the “duck rabbit”—once the rabbit is seen (participatory experience) the duck (audience) is always infected by its presence. This couple further challenged the guidelines of traditional doctoral theses by successfully negotiating two doctoral awards for a joint piece of research

A more formal example of a doctoral thesis (Reik, 2014 ) using traditional qualitative approaches has examined at school level the clash of paradigms of performative creative styles of teaching with the neoliberalist focus on testing, curriculum standardization, and student outcomes.

Leah Mercer ( 2012 ), an academic in performative studies, used the performative paradigm in her doctoral thesis to challenge and breach not only the methodological but also the theoretical silos of the quantitative–qualitative divide. The physics project is an original work using live performances of personal storytelling with video and web streaming to depict the memories, preoccupations, and the formative relationship of two women, an Australian and an American, living in contemporary mediatized society. Using scientific theory, Mercer explores personal identity by reframing the principles of contemporary physics (quantum mechanics and uncertainty principle) as aesthetic principles (uncertainty and light) with the physics of space (self), time (memory), light (inspiration), and complementarity (the reconciliation of opposites) to illuminate these experiences.

The performative paradigm has also shifted the focus on the reader, developed in postmodernism, to a broader group—an active audience. Multi-methods have been increased to include symbolic imagery, in particular visual images, as well as sound and live action. The researcher’s role here is often that of performer within a cultural frame, creating and investigating multiple realities and providing the link between the text/script and the audience/public. Theory is either minimized to the level of concepts or used to break through the silos of different disciplines to integrate and reconcile aspects from long-lasting theoretical divides.

In these chronological lines of paradigm shifts, changes in researcher position and changes in the application of theory can clearly be seen. The researcher has moved out of the shadows and into the mainstream; her/his role has shifted from an authoritarian collector and presenter of finite “truths” to a creator and often performer of multiple and disparate data images for the audience to respond to. Theory options have shifted from direction and generation within existing perspectives to creative amalgamations of concepts from disciplines previously rarely combined.

Methodologies: From Anthropology to Fine Arts

It would be a simple matter if all the researcher had to contend with was siting oneself in a particular paradigm/s. Unfortunately, not only have paradigms shifted in terms of researcher position and theoretical usage but so also have methodological choices and research design. One of the most popular methodologies, ethnography, with its roots in classical anthropology and its fieldwork-based observations of action and interaction in cultural contexts, can illustrate the process of methodological change following paradigm shift. If a researcher indicates that he/she has undertaken an ethnographic study, the reader will be most likely to query “which form?”: classical?, critical?, auto?, visual?, ethno drama?, cyber/net?, or performative? The following examples from this methodology should indicate how paradigm shifts have resulted in increasing complexity of design, methods, and interpretive options.

In c lassical ethnography the greatest borrowing is from traditional anthropology in terms of process and tools, and this can be seen with the inclusion of initial time spent in the setting to learn the language of the culture and to generally “bathe” oneself in the environment, often with minimal data collection. This process is supposed to help increase researcher understanding of the culture and minimize the problem of “othering” (treating as a different species/alien). Then a fairly lengthy amount of time is usually spent in the cultural setting either as an observer or as a participant observer to collect as much data as is relevant to answer the research question. This is followed by a return to post-check whether the findings previously gathered have stood the test of time. The analytical toolkit can involve domain analysis, freelists, pilesorts, triads and taxonomies, frame and social network, and event analysis. Truncated mini-ethnographies became more common as time became an issue, but these can still involve years of managing descriptive data, often collected by several participating researchers as seen in Douglas, Rasmussen, and Flanagan’s ( 1977 ) study of the culture of a nudist beach. Shorter versions undertaken by one researcher, for example Sohn ( 2015 ), have explored strategies of teacher and student learning in a science classroom. Theoretical interpretation can be by conceptual application for testing, such as Margaret Mead’s ( 1931 ) testing of the concept of “adolescence”—derived from American culture—in Samoan culture, or, more generally, by concept generation. The latter can be seen in David Rozenhan’s ( 1973 ) investigation of the experience of a group of researcher pseudo-patients admitted to hospitals for the mentally ill in the United States. The main concepts generated were labeling, powerlessness, and depersonalization.

De-colonial ethnography recognizes the “othering” frames of colonial and postcolonial research and takes a position that past colonial supremacy over Third World countries persists in political, economic, educational, and social constructions. Decolonizing requires a critical examination of language, attitudes, and research methods. Kakal Battacharya ( 2016 ) has exposed the micro-discourses of the continuing manifestation of colonial power in a parallel narrative written by a South Asian woman and a white American male. Concepts of colonialism and patriarchy, displayed through the discourses exposed, provide a theoretical critique.

Within critical ethnography , with its focus on power location and alleviation of oppression, Dale Spender ( 1980 ) used structured and timed observations of the styles, quality, and quantity of interaction between staff and students in a range of English classrooms. The theory-directive methodological frames of feminism and gender inequality were applied to identify and expose the lesser time and lesser quality of interaction that teachers had with female students in comparison with that assigned to male students. Widespread distribution of these results alerted education authorities and led to change, in some environments, toward introducing single-sex classrooms for certain topics. This was seen as progress toward alleviating oppressive behaviors. This approach has produced many excellent educational studies, including Peter Willis ( 1977 ) on the preparation of working-class kids for working-class jobs; Michele Fine ( 1991 ) on African American and Latino students who dropped out of a New York high school; Angela Valenzuela ( 1999 ) on emigrant and other under-achievers in American schools; Lisa Patel ( 2013 ) on inclusion and exclusion of immigrants into education; and Jean Anyon ( 1981 ) on social stratification of identical curriculum knowledge in different classrooms

A less concept-driven and more descriptive approach to critical ethnography was emphasized by Phil Carspecken’s hermeneutic approach ( 1996 ), which triggered a move toward data-generated theoretical concepts that could then be used to challenge mainstream theoretical positions.

Post-critical ethnography emphasizes power and ideology and the social practices that contribute to oppression, in particular objectivity, positionality, representation and reflexivity, and critical insufficiency or “antipower.”

Responsibility is shifted to the researcher for the world they create and critique when they interpret their research contexts (Noblit, Flores, & Murillo, 2004 ).

Autoethnography emerged from the postmodern paradigm, with its search for different “truths” and different relationships with readers, and prompted an emphasis on personal experience and documentation of the self in a particular cultural context (Ellis, 2004 ). In order to achieve this, the researcher has to inhabit the dual positions of being the focus of activities, feelings, and emotions experienced in the setting while at the same time being positioned distantly—observing and recording the behaviors of the self in that culture. Well-developed skills of critical reflexivity are required. The rejection of the power-laden discourses/grand theories of the past and the emphasis on transitional explanations has resulted in minimal theorizing and an emphasis on data display, the reader, and the reader’s response. Open presentations of data can be seen in the form of narrative storytelling, or re-presentations in the form of fiction, dramatic performances, and poetry. Carolyn Ellis ( 2004 ) has argued that “story is theory and theory is story” and our “making sense of stories” involves contributing to a broader understanding of human existence. Application/generation of concepts may also occur, and the term “Critical Autoethnography” has been used (Hughes & Pennington, 2017 ), particularly where experiences of race, class, or gender inequality are being experienced. Jennifer Potter ( 2015 ) used the concept “whiteness of silence” to introduce a critical race element into her autoethnographic experience of black–white racial hatred experiences within a university class on African American communication in which she was a student.

Visual ethnography uses a variety of tools, including photography, sketches, movies, social media, the Web and virtual reality, body art, clothing, painting, and sculpture, to demonstrate and track culture. This approach has been available for some time both as a methodology in its own right and as a method of data collection. An example of this approach, which mixes classical and visual ethnography, is Philippe Bourgois and Jeff Schonberg’s 12-year study of two dozen homeless heroin injectors and crack smokers living under a freeway overpass in San Francisco ( 2009 ). Their data comprised extensive black and white photos, dialogue, taped conversations, and fieldwork observation notes. The themes of violence, race relations, family trauma, power relations, and suffering were theoretically interpreted through reworked notions of “power” that incorporated Pierre Bourdieu’s ( 1977 , 1999 ) concepts of “symbolic violence”—linking observed practices to social domination, and “habitus”—an individual’s personal disposition comprising unique feelings and actions grounded in biography and history; Karl Marx’s “lumpen” from “lumpenproletariat” ( 1848 ), the residual class—the vagrants and beggars together with criminal elements that lie beneath the labor force; and Michel Foucault’s “biopower” ( 1978 , 2008 )—the techniques of subjugation used by the state on the population, and “governmentality” ( 1991 )—where individuals are disciplined through institutions and the “knowledge–power” nexus. The ideas of these three theorists were used to create and weave a theory of “lumpen abuse” to interpret the lives of the participants.

Ethno Drama involves transforming the results from an ethnographic study into a performance to be shared, for example the educational experiences of children and youth (Gabriel & Lester, 2013 ). The performance medium can vary from a film (Woo, 2008 ), an article presented in dramatic form (Carter, 2014 ), or more usually a play script to be staged for an audience in a theater (Ethno Theater). One of the main purposes is to provide a hearing space for voices that have been marginalized or previously silenced. These voices and their contexts can be presented by research participants, actors, or the research team, and are often directed at professionals from the field. Audience-based meetings to devise recommendations for further action may follow a performance. Because of the focus on inequality, critical theory has been the major theoretical orientation for this approach. The structure of the presentation invites audiences to identify situations of oppression, in the hope that this will inform them sufficiently to enable modification of their own practices or to be part of the development of recommendations for future change.

Lesnick and Humphrie ( 2018 ) explored the views of identity of LGBTQ+ youth between 14 and 24 years of age via interviews and online questionnaires, the transcriptions of which were woven into a script that was performed by actors presenting stories not congruent with their own racial/gender scripts in order to challenge audience expectations and labels. The research group encouraged the schools where they performed to structure discussion groups to follow the school-located performances. The scripts and discussions revealed and were lightly interpreted through concepts of homelessness, racism, and “oppression Olympics”—the way oppressed people sometimes view one another in competition rather than in solidarity. These issues were found to be relevant to both school and online communities. Support for these young people was discovered to be mostly from virtual sources, being provided by dialogues within Facebook groups.

Cyber/net or/virtual ethnographies involve the study of online communities within particular cultures. Problems which have emerged from the practice of this approach include; discovery of the researcher lurking without permission on sites, gaining prior permission which often disturbs the threads of interaction, gaining permission post–data collection but having many furious people decline participation, the “facelessness” of individuals who may have uncheckable multiple personas, and trying to make sense of very disparate data in incomplete and non-chronological order.. There has been acceptance that online and offline situations can influence each other. Dibbell ( 1993 ) demonstrated that online sexual violence toward another user’s avatar in a text-based “living room” reduced the violated person to tears as she posted pleas for the violator to be removed from the site. Theoretical interpretation at the conceptual level is common; Michel Foucault’s concept of heterotopia ( 1967 , 1984 ) was used to explain such spatio-temporal prisons as online rooms. Heterotropic spaces are seen as having the capacity to reflect and distort real and imagined experiences.

Poststructural ethnography tracks the instability of concepts both culturally and linguistically. This can be demonstrated in the deconstruction of language in education (Lather, 2001 ), particularly the contradictions and paradoxes of sexism, gender, and racism both in texts and in the classroom. These discourses are implicated in relations of power that are dynamic and within which resistance can be observed. Poststructuralism accepts that texts are multiple, as are the personas of those who created them, and that talk such as that which occurs in a classroom can be linked with knowledge control. Walter Humes ( 2000 ) discovered that the educational management discourses of “community,” “leadership,” and “participation” could be disguised by such terms as “learning communities” and “transformational leadership.” He analyzed the results with a conceptual framework derived from management theory and policy studies and linked the findings with political power.

Performative ethnography , from the post-postmodern paradigm, integrates the performances of art and theater with the focus on culture of ethnography (Denzin, 2003 ). A collaborative performance ethnography (van Katwyk & Seko, 2017 ) used a poem re-presenting themes from a previous research study on youth self-harming to form the basis of the creation of a performative dance piece. This process enabled the researcher participants to explore less dominant ways of knowing through co-learning and through the discovery of self-vulnerability. The research was driven by a social justice-derived concern that Foucault’s notion of “sovereignty” was being implemented through a web of relations that commodified and limited knowledge, and sanctioned the exploitation of individuals and communities.

This exploration of the diversity in ethnographic methods, methodologies, and interpretive strategies would be repeated in a similar trek through the interpretive, critical, postmodern, and post-postmodern approaches currently available for undertaking the various versions of grounded theory, phenomenology, feminist research, evaluation, action, or performative research.

Implications of Changes for the Researcher

The onus is now less on finding the “right” (or most familiar in a field) research approaches and following them meticulously, and much more on researchers making their own individual decisions as to which aspects of which methodologies, methods and theoretical explanations will best answer their research question. Ideally this should not be constrained by the state of the discipline they are part of; it should be equally as easy for a fine arts researcher to carry out a classical ethnography with a detailed theoretical interpretation derived from a grand theorist/s as it would be for a researcher in law to undertake a performative study with the minimum of conceptual insights and the maximum of visual and theoretical performances. Unfortunately, the reality is that trends within disciplines dictate publication access, thereby reinforcing the prevailing boundaries of knowledge.

However, the current diversity of choice has indeed shifted the field of qualitative research dramatically away from the position it was in several decades ago. The moves toward visual and performative displays may challenge certain disciplines but these approaches have now become well entrenched in others, and in qualitative research publishing. The creativity of the performative paradigm in daring to scale the siloed and well-protected boundaries of science in order to combine theoretical physics with the theories of social science, and to re-present data in a variety of newer ways from fiction to poetry to researcher performances, is exciting.

Given that theoretical as well as methodological and methods’ domains are now wide open to researchers to pick and choose from, two important aspects—justification and transparency of process—have become essential elements in the process of convincing the reader.

Justification incorporates the why of decision-making. Why was the research question chosen? Why was the particular paradigm, or paradigms, chosen best for the question? Why were the methodology and methods chosen most appropriate for both the paradigm/s and research question/s? And why were the concepts used the most appropriate and illuminating for the study?

Transparency of process not only requires that the researcher clarifies who they are in the field with relation to the research question and the participants chosen, but demands an assessment of what impact their background and personal and professional frames have had on research decisions at all stages from topic choice to theoretical analysis. Problems faced in the research process and how they were managed or overcome also requires exposition as does the chronology of decisions made and changed at all points of the research process.

Now to the issue of theory and the question of “where to?” This brief walk through the paradigmatic, methodological, and theoretical changes has demonstrated a significant move from the use of confined paradigms with limited methodological options to the availability of multiple paradigms, co-methodologies, and methods of many shades, for the researcher to select among Regarding theory use, there has been a clear move away from grand and middle range theories toward the application of individual concepts drawn from a variety of established and minor theoreticians and disciplines, which can be amalgamated into transitory explanations. The examples of theoretical interpretation presented in this article, in my view, very considerably extend, frame, and often shed new light on the themes that have been drawn out via analytical processes. Well-argued theory at any level is a great enhancer, lifting data to heights of illumination and comparison, but it could equally be argued that in the presence of critical researcher reflexivity, complex, layered, longitudinal, and well-justified design, meticulous analysis, and monitored audience response, it may no longer be essential.

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Research Writing and Analysis

• NVivo Group and Study Sessions
• SPSS This link opens in a new window
• Statistical Analysis Group sessions
• Using Qualtrics
• Dissertation and Data Analysis Group Sessions
• Defense Schedule - Commons Calendar This link opens in a new window
• Research Process Flow Chart
• Research Alignment Chapter 1 This link opens in a new window
• Step 1: Seek Out Evidence
• Step 2: Explain
• Step 3: The Big Picture
• Step 4: Own It
• Step 5: Illustrate
• Annotated Bibliography
• Literature Review This link opens in a new window
• Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
• How to Synthesize and Analyze
• Synthesis and Analysis Practice
• Synthesis and Analysis Group Sessions
• Problem Statement
• Purpose Statement
• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Quantitative Research Questions
• Qualitative Research Questions
• Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data
• Analysis and Coding Example- Qualitative Data
• Thematic Data Analysis in Qualitative Design
• Dissertation to Journal Article This link opens in a new window
• International Journal of Online Graduate Education (IJOGE) This link opens in a new window
• Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning (JRIT&L) This link opens in a new window

Designing the Theoretical Framework

What is it.

• A foundational review of existing theories. 
• Serves as a roadmap or blueprint for developing arguments and supporting research.
• Overview of the theory that the research is based on.
• Can be made up of theories, principles, and concepts.

What does it do?

• Explains the why and how of a particular phenomenon within a particular body of literature.
• Connects the research subject with the theory.
• Specifies the study’s scope; makes it more valuable and generalizable.
• Guides further actions like framing the research questions, developing the literature review, and data collection and analyses.

What should be in it?

• Theory or theories that the researcher considers relevant for their research, principles, and concepts.

Theoretical Framework Guide

• Theoretical Framework Guide Use this guide to determine the guiding framework for your theoretical dissertation research.

Making a Theoretical Framework

How to make a theoretical framework.

• Specify research objectives.
• Note the prominent variables under the study.
• Explore and review the literature through keywords identified as prominent variables.
• Note the theories that contain these variables or the keywords.
• Review all selected theories again in the light of the study’s objectives, and the key variables identified.
• Search for alternative theoretical propositions in the literature that may challenge the ones already selected.
• Ensure that the framework aligns with the study’s objectives, problem statement, the main research question, methodology, data analysis, and the expected conclusion.
• Decide on the final framework and begin developing.

Example Framework

• Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation This link offers an example theoretical framework.

Additional Framework Resources

Some additional helpful resources in constructing a theoretical framework for study:.

• https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/theoretical-framework/
• https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/theoretical-framework-example/
• https://www.projectguru.in/how-to-write-the-theoretical-framework-of-research/

Theoretical Framework Research

The term conceptual framework and theoretical framework are often and erroneously used interchangeably (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). A theoretical framework provides the theoretical assumptions for the larger context of a study, and is the foundation or ‘lens’ by which a study is developed. This framework helps to ground the research focus understudy within theoretical underpinnings and to frame the inquiry for data analysis and interpretation.  The application of theory in traditional theoretical research is to understand, explain, and predict phenomena (Swanson, 2013).

Casanave, C.P.,& Li,Y.(2015). Novices’ struggles with conceptual and theoretical framing in writing  dissertations and papers for publication. Publications,3 (2),104-119.doi:10.3390/publications3020104

Grant, C., & Osanloo, A. (2014). Understanding, Selecting, and Integrating a Theoretical Framework in Dissertation Research: Creating the Blueprint for Your “House. ” Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research, 4(2), 12–26

Swanson, R. (2013). Theory building in applied disciplines . San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: Theoretical Framework

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists.

Importance of Theory

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your  research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are taking.

The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways .

• An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
• The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
• Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
• Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

By virtue of its application nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges of a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

• Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
• Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, what factors contribute to the presumed effect?
• Review related literature to find answers to your research question.
• List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
• Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint (framework) that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered, understanding concepts and variables according to the given definitions, and building knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To the end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.*

• Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
• Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
• Means for identifying and defining research problems,
• Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
• Way of telling us that certain facts among the accumulated knowledge are important and which facts are not,
• Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
• Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
• Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining boundaries of their profession, and
• Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

*Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, you are expected to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism theory, which categorizes perceived differences between nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the growing split between southern and northern Sudan that may likely lead to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Given this, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as the answer to two basic questions:

• What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
• Why is your approach a feasible solution? [I could choose to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among Ethnic Conflict Theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

In writing this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

• Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
• Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks , concepts, models, or theories . There will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the framework you've chosen is the appropriate one.
• The present tense is used when writing about theory.
• You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitiations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory does not explain a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research. Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Elsewhere

A growing and increasingly important trend in the social sciences is to think about and attempt to understand specific research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories you've read about in a particular class, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbants in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be fully engaged in the research topic.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Never leave the theory hanging out there in the Introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you introduce should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the analysis and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose fit the research problem, or if appropriate, was inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Still Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in everyday use. However, the difference between them in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis . About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis . Slideshare presentation.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Why do chinese women experience gamophobia psychoanalytic theory assisted discourses analysis.

• Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Social media is currently abuzz with discussions about the topic of women’s gamophobia in China. Nevertheless, there is few research investigating gamophobia from a psychological perspective. This study utilizes content analysis and sentiment analysis to examine and analyze 879 individuals’ texts about gamophobia on Little Red Book and uses psychoanalytic theory, which is centered on comprehending and interpreting the psychological processes of the human mind, to investigate the elements that contribute to women’s gamophobia, aiming to address this knowledge gap. This investigation revealed that gamophobia might exert physical, psychological, and several other effects on individuals. This study employs a psychoanalytic framework and concludes that the rise of independent consciousness, many unhappy marriages in their environment, anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family relationships, pursuit of personal and professional development, original family issues, changing perceptions of aging care, the media effect, the concept of parenthood, and criteria for choosing a life partner are the nine primary factors contributing to women’s gamophobia. To address the societal issues and outcomes resulting from a fear of marriage, it is advisable for those who experience this phobia to examine their negative defensive mechanisms and prioritize rational thinking in their mindset. Moreover, the Government should establish a social atmosphere that ensures women are neither influenced nor constrained by the media. Furthermore, promote holistic family education to bolster the self-awareness and prospective family comprehension of young individuals. Finally, government departments should also offer promotion and supporting measures to help assuage women’s concerns about marriages.

1 Introduction

Gamophobia refers to the fear or worry that arises while considering marriage, establishing a long-term relationship, or making a commitment to another person ( Obeid et al., 2020 ). The marriage rate is a significant metric for evaluating society’s progress since it exhibits a substantial correlation with factors such as population growth and crime reduction ( Rader, 2010 ; Liu et al., 2023 ). China is currently undergoing a persistent decline in its marriage rate. In 2022, China experienced a significant decline in its marriage rate, hitting its lowest level in 37 years. According to the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the PRC, all together, there were only 6.833 million couples who were officially married in 2022. Regarding geographical disparities, economically affluent regions exhibit a comparatively reduced marriage rate. Beijing contributed 1.34% to the overall national marriage rate in 2022, while Shanghai accounted for 1.05% and Tianjin represented a mere 1%. As a reaction to the persistent decline in marriage rates, the Chinese government has implemented a range of policies in an effort to alleviate this tendency. Currently, there are 32 provinces and cities, including Sichuan, Hebei, and Shanghai, that have been explicitly designated as “experimental zones for reforming marriage customs.” The intention of these zones is to tackle outdated marriage practices, such as lavish wedding banquets and exorbitant dowries, in order to assist young individuals in developing a more appropriate perspective on marriage. On special events like “520” (homophonic I love you in Chinese), “Tanabata” (Chinese Valentine’s Day), and “Valentine’s Day” that occur on weekends, civil affairs agencies in numerous locations extend their operating hours to facilitate the registration of marriages for newlywed couples. On May 18, 2023, the State Council authorized the expansion of the “cross-province marriage registration” pilot project to meet the increasing needs of mainland citizens who had moved. “Cross-province marriage registration” was put into effect in 21 provinces.

Although the government is actively working to update and modernize the legislation pertaining to the marriage law, concerns around marriage have become a contentious subject of public perception. The topic of “gamophobia” has garnered significant attention on social media, amassing a combined total of over 100 million views. An example of such platform is Little Red Book, a Chinese social media platform that bears similarities to Instagram and Pinterest. Users of Little Red Book can share their own experiences and interact with other users by posting short videos and images. However, unlike Instagram and Pinterest, Little Red Book allows its users to opt for complete anonymity by using their account. During registration, Little Red Book system assigns each user a number, such as 123,456, by default. If desired, users have the option to change this number to a username of their choice. Indeed, several users also choose to preserve their anonymity and evade identification from those who have firsthand acquaintance with on Little Red Book. This implies that users will have a greater sense of independence while sharing material on the social media, as they will not have to be concerned about being evaluated by others, such as coworkers and family members. Anonymity promotes individuals to authentically showcase their true lives instead of participating in a fabricated act. Therefore, after a span of just 10 years, beginning in 2013, Little Red Book has risen to become the second most popular social media application in China. The latest data shows that the Monthly Active Users (MAU) of Little Red Book has exceeded 260 million. The core user demographic comprises mostly young girls, accounting for around 80 percent of the total user base, generally falling between the age range of 18 to 35. The prevalent motif of a “gamophobia” on Little Red Book partially mirrors the psychological condition, perplexity, or distress experienced by many young women while facing the reality of marriage.

In a study conducted by iResearch in 2020, it was found that just 14% of people indicated a positive inclination toward marriage and a sense of eagerness for getting married. Conversely, 36% of respondents reported apprehension toward marriage, specifically due to certain unfavorable societal perceptions linked with it. Based on the 2022–2023 Report on Chinese Men and Women’s Attitudes toward Marriage, more than 36% of unmarried adults encounter marriage-related anxiety ( iResearch, 2023 ). The highest proportion of marriage anxiety is observed among persons born after 1990 in this category. In addition, a study by Youth Culture Observe IP on the opinions of Chinese youth regarding marriage revealed that 77% of them believe they are unfit for marriage, while 54.2% are indifferent to the institution of marriage and neither actively oppose nor support it. Furthermore, gamophobia is not limited to China. Based on the U.S. Census Bureau (2020) , the marriage rate in the United States has reached its lowest level in 150 years, which was 9.8 per 1,000 individuals in 1990. Nevertheless, the rate has declined to 6 by 2021 ( Statista Research Department, 2023 ). South Korea exhibits a notable degree of unease toward marriage, as seen in the fact that the total count of newlywed couples in 2022 amounts to slightly over one million. There was a decrease of over 30 percent in comparison to the year 2015. In addition, 46% of couples who entered into their first marriage did not have any offspring ( Yonhap News Agency of Korea, 2022 ). These findings indicate that the general societal issue of fear toward marriage has become prevalent on a global level.

The increasing prevalence of fear of marriage poses a huge challenge to China’s social norms and social development. Nationally, China’s marriage rate drops to 4.8 percent in 2022, below the world average of 5.4 percent. In terms of the age structure of the population, China’s age at first marriage has been significantly delayed. In 1990, it was 22.87 years old, of which 23.59 years were for men and 22.15 years for women. The average age of first marriage was 28.67 years old in 2020, of which 29.83 years old for men and 27.95 years old for women. There has been a 6-year increase in the average age at which people get married over a period of 30 years ( Marriage Industry Insights, 2023 ). In Chinese traditional society, those who remain unmarried after reaching the age of 30 often encounter verbal censure from their older family members. Now it is normal. Notably, the average age at which individuals experience their first romantic love has consistently decreased throughout time. Specifically, the average age decreased from 21.2 years old in the post-1970s generation to 17.4 years old in the post-2000s generation ( Century Jiayuan, 2023 ). There appears to be a divergence in the comprehension of affection across different generations. The present-day Chinese youth’s perception of marriage has diverged from the goals and anticipations of traditional Chinese families and society. Which variables have influenced this deviation? What are the consequences of people and society experiencing dread or aversion toward marriage? In order to alleviate the anxiety experienced by young individuals when it comes to marriage, it is essential to perform a thorough scientific investigation of both the phenomenon of gamophobia and the specific demographic group affected. This evaluation will hold considerable academic importance and practical value in improving comprehension and reducing the anxiety surrounding marriage among young individuals.

Curis and Susman (1994) categorized the reasons for this fear into ten distinct groups: fear of loss sense of self, identity, and emotional engulfment; fear of loss of control or being controlled; fear of reenactment or duplication of the aversive parental marriage; fear of financial losses and complications related to inheritance; worry about underperforming in the marriage and the potential consequences of divorce; unease about aging and physical decline in the presence of their partners; fear of their own dependence and vulnerability; apprehension about betrayal, rejection, and abandonment; reluctance to take on the responsibilities of family and marriage; and a lack of self-assurance and belief in one’s ability to achieve a happy marriage independently. According to Kefalas et al. (2011) , women with higher education place a greater emphasis on their careers than on getting married and starting a family. Cohabitation has emerged as a viable option for many young individuals as an alternative to marriage ( Willoughby and Carroll, 2012 ). Due to the absence of official acknowledgment of living together, both individuals do not need to worry about domestic chores. This enables them to dedicate more time and focus to their personal interests and enjoy the freedom of being single. The 2012 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) data showed a notable rise in the percentage of cohabitation, increasing from 3% in 1982 to 11% from 2006 to 2010 ( Copen et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, cohabitation does not act as a precursor to marriage. Many young people hold the view that marriage is not a mandatory component of life and that choosing not to marry can be a conscious decision ( Dai and Chilson, 2022 ). Empirical data suggests that less than 25% of young individuals of both genders who cohabit ultimately enter into matrimony ( Schoen et al., 2007 ). In addition, as society progresses, the pace of work and daily life continues to escalate. Modern everyday life is characterized by work pressure, information overload, emotional strain, financial pressure, and other comparable concerns. The notable upsurge in daily life stress has led to a considerable rise in the mental health burden that many people are currently bearing. According to Lancet, in 2021, the global prevalence of clinical depression will surpass 246 million individuals. Moreover, the prevalence of female individuals affected is approximately twice that of males ( COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators, 2021 ). Psychopathology suggests that clinical depression leads to reduced motivation and lower commitment to personal relationships, resulting in a feeling of separation from marital partnerships ( Obeid et al., 2020 ).

In China, the attitude toward marriage is closely connected to the practical aspects of one’s life. The high occurrence of pragmatic difficulties, such as extravagant housing expenses, employment barriers, educational impediments for children, pension obligations, healthcare worries, and restricted social interaction, has resulted in an increased feeling of anxiety among young adults. Intense societal pressure discourages young adults from getting married ( Lin, 2019 ). Moreover, the correlation between technology and capital in the media sector has led to the commercialization of women’s concerns, transforming them into a show driven by financial gain ( Cao and Dai, 2022 ). In order to garner greater attention in the media, many content creators willingly perpetuate binary gender boundaries. It reinforces the division between genders in reality and undermines women’s desires for authentic marriage ( Wu, 2020 ). The study on marriage among Generation Z adolescents demonstrates a significant negative correlation between their amount of online involvement and their desire to get married. Furthermore, it was observed that women belonging to Generation Z exhibit a greater degree of apprehension toward marriage when compared to men ( Lan et al., 2023 ).

In the Chinese cultural setting, marriage entails a woman’s obligation to join the man’s family, which unavoidably involves navigating the dynamics of his familial relationships. Additionally, the woman assumes the responsibility and potential challenges associated with parenting. Hence, comprehending women’s gamophobia is an essential requirement for resolving the issue. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of research on women’s discourse regarding fear of marriage, with the majority of studies examining conversations between males and females collectively. Furthermore, the fear of marriage is a social and psychological issue. However, upon reviewing the existing literature, it is evident that there is a dearth of research on the micro-psychological aspects of this fear. Most studies primarily concentrate on analyzing the effects at the macro-social level. Hence, in contrast to prior research, this paper’s potential addition is evident in two aspects: (1) This study aims to examine the factors contributing to women’s apprehension about marriage, offering a female viewpoint and empirical evidence to analyze the issue of gamophobia and address the declining marriage rate. (2) Elucidating and scrutinizing the issue of women’s fear toward marriage through the lens of a social psychology study, thus enhancing the investigation into this matter.

2 Materials and methods

The widespread adoption of communication technology has deeply infiltrated the daily lives of the general population through various forms of media. Media has evolved beyond being a neutral entity and now has the power to influence society ( Yu and Geng, 2021 ). Social media is essential in the media ecosystem as it removes geographical constraints, allowing people from various social groups to access information and express their emotions. This phenomenon alters the nature of public space, makes it more intimate, and erases the clear boundary between the individual and society. Meyrowitz’s investigation in No sense of place reveals that the electronic realm has blurred the boundaries between the physical world and the virtual world. There has been a discernible rise in the prevalence of emotional problems that were formerly regarded as personal in recent years. This encompasses the proactive dissemination of insignificant, day-to-day, personal adverse sentiments and anecdotes on social media platforms. An instance of this can be seen in the discussion surrounding the concept of “gamophobia.” Yin and Meng (2018) found that social media users are more likely to pay closer attention to fearful and unpleasant emotions. The presence of anxious and negative public attitudes is not limited just to the domain of social media public opinion but also affects the perception of marriage among young individuals in reality. Moreover, individuals communicate their opinions on the Internet, bypassing the influence of interviewers and having more freedom in articulating their emotions. Thus, this work employs a research methodology that integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigate the discourse of people who have gamophobia. This study seeks to clarify the primary factors and outcomes of Chinese women’s reluctance toward marriage from a social psychology standpoint. In addition, it proposes strategies to alleviate women’s concerns about marriage, promoting personal welfare and social unity.

2.1 Data collecting

This study utilizes Little Red Book as the research platform and employs Python to extract the textual content related to four prevalent topics of gamophobia: “gamophobia” (110 million views), “do not want to get married” (54.244 million views), “everyday gamophobia” (17.304 million views), and “fear of marriage in the post-90s generation” (13.735 million views). The aim is to examine the variables that impact the apprehension toward marriage among females. The choice of Little Red Book as the data source platform is predicated on two factors: (1) The user base of Little Red Book is significant and actively involved. The site has a total of 260 million users who are active on a monthly basis, with 69 million individuals who regularly share material. (2) The user demographics of Little Red Book are remarkable, since the majority (80.06%) consists of women, and a significant percentage (70%) comprises those born in the 1990s. This is in line with the research focus of this paper, which centers on single women.

Additionally, this study did not utilize a traditional search engine. Conversely, the study sample consisted of statements that were popular and garnered over 10 likes. The selection of the screening sample was based on the number of likes, since a higher number of likes signifies a higher level of recognition for the content of the text ( Yao et al., 2021 ). The Python extraction process retrieves many data elements, such as keywords, title, tweet details, likes, favorites, comments, shares, hashtags, posting address, posting time, genre, author, author’s profile, gender, and author’s address. By implementing Python de-weighting, excluding likes, conducting gender screening, and manually eliminating tweets unrelated to the issue, we have acquired a grand total of 879 texts that are both highly liked and of exceptional quality. These texts have received a total of 782,800 likes, 167,000 favorites, 140,200 comments, and 71,800 shares. The data covers the time period from November 27, 2020, to August 27, 2023.

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalytic theory, a prominent field of psychology established by Jewish Austrian neurologist Freud Sigmund in the early 20th century, Psychoanalytic theory forms the basis of modern social psychology, focusing primarily on the examination of human psychological activities. Therefore, this study utilizes psychoanalytic theory to investigate the phenomenon of gamophobia among contemporary Chinese women.

2.2.2 Content analysis

This study primarily employs the content analysis approach to encode and analyze 879 texts. Subsequently, it utilizes a combination of psychoanalysis theory to develop research conclusions, ultimately pinpointing the crucial components of Chinese young women’s gamophobia. The process is separated into three distinct steps: firstly, a classification system is established; secondly, statistical analysis is conducted on the features of the content; and finally, suggestions are made based on the conclusions drawn from the study.

2.2.3 Sentiment analysis

Sentiment analysis has become an essential technique for understanding the emotional components of data. Sentiment analysis is based on analyzing the frequency of words. In order to improve the understanding of text, the first step is to use the ROSTCM6 software to carry out word segmentation. This involves applying a specific vocabulary filter to exclude unimportant phrases such as “of” and “and.” Manually incorporate synonyms for self-love, such as love yourself, love of self, and self-love. Gooseeker, uses the given material to identify positive and negative emotions. Gooseeker as a tool of analysis, employs its established syntactic conventions and computational algorithms to calculate emotional values for words, as well as evaluate emotional inclinations. Upon identifying negative emotional words, the texts were manually classified according to their semantic meaning. Data is provided to understand the impact of gamophobia in young females.

3 Factors and repercussions of women’s gamophobia

After analyzing the content of the 879 text materials and considering the purpose of the study, it has been ascertained that Chinese women’s gamophobia can be attributed to the following nine factors:

3.1 Rise of independent consciousness

ID 17: My parents still think it’s abnormal not to get married, but now I enjoy the life. Despite the occasional despondency over a broken light bulb high above, a new piece of furniture I cannot put together, or a large bucket of water I bought that I struggled to lift, But it is free. Have time to think, have enough energy to study, and cook a big meal to treat myself. It is a life experience; try to make money, do good exercise, maintain a good state of mind, have a healthy body, and really feel happy already. (emphasizes the value of personal autonomy) ID 100: I really do not like the idea of getting married and having kids because it’s a very heavy thing to do. It means that you have to integrate into another family and share your private space, and especially after having children, it seems that you will definitely sacrifice yourself. Although the above concessions and sacrifices may also be accompanied by joy and happiness, often they are actually big gambles. Because marriage is really a neutral word that can elevate your life like never before, but it also has the potential to plunge your life into unimaginable predicaments. (fear of losing self-boundaries) ID 127: 26 years old. My life has no mother-in-law and daughter-in-law relationship, no endless cooking, I can work without burden, I can see music festivals, go to the sea, go crazy, and enjoy without worry. Such a life, I do not want to get married. I hate to get married; I love to be free and easy on myself. (enjoying freedom) ID 197: I have spent my life first becoming myself and then playing the important role of a full-time daughter! I do not want to get married! (loves myself)

3.2 Many unhappy marriages in their environment

ID 104: My friend and her husband fight every day over money to get a divorce, and I am very resistant to getting married. (financial problems) ID 208: At home, I heard a child crying loudly in the hallway, just to go out to see several neighbors in the coaxing of the child. The child seems to be two or three years old, not wearing shoes. Then, when the child’s mother went out to pick up a delivery, the child’s father also left after mom went out, leaving the child at home by himself. The child opened the door to come out (see too many accidents; really glad that the child did not go out the window). Neighbors said the child cried for almost an hour; his parents’ phones could not be reached; after a while, the child’s mother rushed back; she was completely unaware of the situation, but also by the neighbors a scolding. (men’s lack of parental responsibility) ID 526: a couple. Woman: This dress is still wet, right? It was washed last night. The man did not say anything. Woman: Today will be cold, so you should wear a jacket. The man still did not say. Inside me, it is the man of thirty or forty years old, not a three- or four-year-old baby. Really just suffocating, more fear of marriage day. (family trivia) ID 527: A sister said that she has to take her children to school in the morning, then come to work. When off work, she needs to buy food, cook, do the dishes, mop the floor, and then do the laundry. Then her husband came home to eat dinner and play with the phone and computer. I am afraid of marriage. (Men lack family responsibilities).

3.3 Anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family dynamics

ID 423: The possibility of experiencing conflicts and strains with my mother-in-law and daughter-in-law after being married strongly discourages me from getting married. (concern about the interactions and relationship with a mother-in-law) ID 524: Love and marriage are separate. When it comes to marriage and one’s family, it is necessary to make a conscious effort to actively participate in their matters, which can be rather tiring. (Prefer maintaining a specific amount of separation).

3.4 Original family issues

ID 471: I went to my grandparents’ house for dinner, and as soon as I walked in the door, I saw my dad playing cards with my grandpa, my younger uncle playing his phone on the couch, and my grandma working in the kitchen all by herself. My mom and I sat down for 2 min and then went to help my grandma. (paternal machismo) ID 493: I’m 29 years old, and I finally bought my own house, which is not very big, but I’m glad I’m on my own. I grew up with an incomplete family, and my mom’s unfortunate marriage has made me fearful of marriage. Sometimes I envy my friends who are happily married. But I have no confidence. (parental failed marriage) ID 556: As a result of my parents’ pressure, I am currently adamantly opposed to matchmaking and apprehensive about marriage. (parents pushing for marriage)

3.5 Pursuit of personal and professional development

ID 112: loss of job and possible job advancement opportunities, or competitiveness in choosing a new job. (loss of competitiveness in the workplace) ID 539: If I give birth, I will lose my job, and I will become a disgruntled woman at home, and I do not have much hope for marriage when I think about it. (fear of losing job)

3.6 Changing perceptions of aging care

ID 134: Simply configure an insurance policy for myself to increase protection, but also let mom and dad have medical insurance. I can use the “insurance” to cover my own old age. (commercial insurance for protection) ID 301: I’ll be 24 in a few months. From now on, I will take care of my body and make money to live in a good nursing agency so that I can maintain a good quality of life when I grow old. (earn money for own retirement)

3.7 Media effect

ID 520: I just read that a man yelled at his wife, who just had a cesarean. The next article says that the man yelled at his wife, who was seven weeks pregnant. It is possible to get married just to find a free nanny who can do the childcare, laundry, and cooking, plus earn money. No, modern women should seek equality in inequality and realize their value in all aspects. (negative marriage messages on social media)

3.8 Concepts of parenthood

ID 499: Whenever I see children on bicycles or playing with a ball in the park, I cannot help staying away from them. I really do not like children at all. Do not try to persuade me (I do not like children). ID 536: I cannot be a good parent myself. (parenting worries) ID 824: I was born in 1994. I think DINK is really good. But most guys cannot accept not having kids. I’m afraid to get married because I do not want to have kids. (I do not want to have kids). ID 919: I’m afraid of pregnancy. Especially the belly cannot be retracted; a belly full of stretch marks, horrible contractions, and bloated milk. (fertility worries)

3.9 Criteria for choosing a life partner

ID 77: I want sincerity and favoritism, but this is full of hypocritical boys. (insincere) ID 125: He only comforts me: “do not think too much.” Daily communication is about eating. No emotional intelligence, and it does not provide any emotional value. But, my family always tells me that marriage is realistic. (unable to provide emotional value)

This article analyzes and assesses 879 case texts and concludes that the reasons behind Chinese women’s uneasiness toward marriage can be categorized into nine distinct groups (see Figure 1 ): the rise of independence consciousness, many unhappy marriages in their environment, the anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family relationships, original family issues, the pursuit of personal and professional development, the changing perception of aging care, media effect, the concept of parenthood, and the criteria for choosing a life partner. Gamophobia has detrimental effects on many women, resulting in individual psychological distress and pressures. Even women who have planned for marriage also have concerns, leading to a significant amount of psychological stress.

Figure 1 . Factors of women’s gamophobia.

ID 10: I was looking forward to going home for New Year’s Eve, but when I think of the blind date, it’s still good to think that I might not be able to go back for New Year’s Eve this year. A little afraid. ID 37: My family introduced me to a blind date. I do not want to go out to see people. ID 328: The closer I get to marriage, the more I do not want to get married. Am I the only one like this? ID 337: My mom told me to see a psychiatrist. There are no more unmarried people like my age, and my parents are ashamed of me. They say now I’m a leftover woman. Do I really need to find someone to marry now? I do not even dare to breathe at home. ID 430: I think it’s good to be alone! Now I do not even want to talk to boys.

These detrimental effects do not occur in isolation. Among the 879 replies that were analyzed, psychological stress, worries, numbness, insecurity, panic, rebelliousness, and terror, was reported a total of 575 times. The occurrence of social distress, characterized by aversion toward social outings and blind dates, as well as a diminished level of social interests, was explicitly referenced a total of 66 times. Furthermore, there were 109 instances where individuals indicated subsequent consequences such as aversion to marriage, apprehension toward marriage, the dissolution of relationships, and episodes of crying. Clearly, the fear or anxiety over getting married may have a big negative impact on a person’s mental health. A noteworthy aspect is that Chinese society recognizes gamophobia as a moral infraction, and the sense of fearing marriage is regarded as a negative emotion ( Zhu, 2008 ).

However, the discourse around apprehensions about marriage encompasses more than just unfavorable implications. It also includes feminist concepts like self-assurance, autonomy, and self-love among Chinese young women.

ID 28: I’m really happy to be 28! Although my pockets are empty and my money is spent on renting a house and drinking and eating, A lot of people my age choose to get married and have babies; they have their happiness. I have my own happiness. ID 73: Just respect yourself in the moment, even if you cannot prepare for it for the rest of your life. ID 109: I have worked for the college entrance exams, felt the joy of going to college, experienced the dilemma of entering the workplace, and gloated over the small achievements of my career. I have left my hometown and had the honor of enjoying the beautiful scenery of my country, and I have also set foot on overseas land to struggle in a new environment. I know that there are all kinds of people in the world, colorful lives, and countless possibilities. Standing on the shoulders of my parents, I have worked hard and struggled a little bit to become the person I am today. I know how hard it was for my parents, and I know how hard it was for me. I know more clearly what I will lose than what I may gain from marriage. ID 144: 27 years old is really much better than 18 years old; feel the freedom like never before; go wherever you want; only need to consider your own happiness or not happiness to make decisions; live freedom! I do not want to get married!

Although the positive emotions did not surpass the bad repercussions, certain factors such as self-assurance, self-esteem, autonomy, self-congruence, authenticity, and joy were mentioned a total of 343 times. Nevertheless, it is apparent that many women view their hesitation toward marriage not as a negative emotion but rather as a purposeful choice to control their own lives. Figure 2 presents a statistical chart that depicts the impact of the fear of marriage.

Figure 2 . Repercussions of women’s gamophobia.

4 Psychoanalytic analysis of the factors and repercussions of women’s gamophobia

Psychoanalysis, developed by Freud, is a complete framework that elucidates the formation of personality and provides a psychotherapy approach. It includes ideas such as the theory of the unconscious mind, personality, sexual desires, the theory of dream interpretation, and the defense mechanism of repression. According to Freud, the formation of personality is rooted in libido and defensive instincts. The psychologist’s objective is to understand this inherent urge. Irrespective of whether an individual’s innate abilities are operating at an unconscious, preconscious, or conscious level, they generate energy and guide behavior. As Freud pointed out, personality can be divided into three separate components: id, ego, and superego. Id is the main source of all cognitive energy and represents a portion of the unconscious mind. Id’s functions in terms of the pleasure principle and strives for instant enjoyment. As a result, id might be described as basic, inherent, or essential. The role of the id is more prominent during one’s childhood. The ego, a constituent of consciousness, acts as a suppressor and controller of “id” and protects from potential harm. As humans grow older, they gain the wisdom to avoid acting on impulse. The superego is the pinnacle of the personality, embodying the ultimate standard and upholding ethical principles. It offers direction to the ego and enforces limitations on the id. As individuals develop, they gradually adhere to moral, educational, and legal standards. Freud proposed that defensive mechanisms consist of many techniques such as repression, negation, projection, regression, isolation, displacement, rationalization, compensation, sublimation, humor, and reaction formation. The defensive mechanism primarily serves as a safeguarding function of the ego. Individuals often face a dilemma as they navigate between tangible reality and their ambitions, leading to internal struggles and inconsistencies. The ego resolves these conflicts and contradictions to accommodate the superego while also satisfying the id’s wishes. The objective of this approach is to diminish anxiety, mitigate distress, and surmount psychological obstacles. This study utilizes Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to elucidate the factors that contribute to Chinese women’s gamophobia, as well as the resulting outcomes, as illustrated in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Psychoanalytic theory examines Chinese women’s gamophobia.

According to Freud, human beings have two primary instincts: “Eros” (libe instinct) and “Thanators” (defense instinct). “Eros” pertains to the innate propensity of human beings to partake in actions that yield gratification and evade those that induce distress. “Thanators” relates to the inherent need for self-preservation and safeguarding. In the era of new media, diverse sorts of multimedia, including images, video, animations, and others, are employed to convey negative news items concerning marriage. This enables users to engage in a more immersive encounter with “symbolic reality.” These symbolic realities have a cultivation effect on female users, reinforcing a gloomy picture of marriage. Multiple researchers have confirmed the cultivation effect of media in their studies, demonstrating that the accumulation of negative news broadcasts about marriage in the media leads women to disenchant marriages ( Zhang and Xiao, 2008 ; Dai and Lv, 2021 ). When women are unable to find a suitable partner, this, along with their failure to find a compatible marriage, activates their inherent need to safeguard themselves from harm. A joke that circulated online, “Abstaining from marriage and not having children will result in eternal youth” and “Abstaining from marriage and not having children will protect one from harm,” may seem humorous, but they also function as a way for women to instinctively set a fear-driven limit on marriage.

4.2 Ego and reaction formation: resistance to patriarchy

Autotheory is rooted in feminist and queer theory ( Fournier, 2021 ). The process stems from personal direct experiences, disregards prejudiced assumptions, and its examination cannot be separated from specific texts or activities ( Sweet, 2021 ). Therefore, in the field of autotheory, many scholars use the conflicting effects of tools such as mirrors and selfies as evidence for the existence of the self ( Gu, 2022 ). The competing influence emerges due to the discrepancy between the self-expressed through the tools and the genuine self, in accordance with the concept of ego in psychoanalytic theory. This concept aims to regulate the conflict between the id and the superego. This research is an analysis of how individuals who have concerns about marriage utilize autotheory on the social media platform Little Red Book (performative writing and social media interactions), and it reveals a keen awareness of the existence of patriarchy.

According to data from China’s seventh population census, the male population in China comprises 51.24%, while the female population comprises 48.76%. Although the overall female population is smaller than the male population, Since 2009, the number of women enrolling in master’s degree programs in China has surpassed that of men. The total enrollment of master’s degree programs in 2019 was 447,000, with female students comprising 55.1% of this figure ( China Education Online, 2021 ). the progress of women’s education, challenging the traditional Chinese concept of male supremacy and female subjugation in marital unions as well. Upon inspection of the case text, it becomes evident that conventional factors such as family background and financial stability are no longer the primary determinants for women when selecting a partner in the present era. Women in the contemporary era prioritize emotional value, sincerity, commitment to agreements, self-worth, autonomy, and self-focus. The frequent use of phrases like “freedom” and “self” in the texts implies that women aspire to achieve emotional and marital satisfaction by cultivating their individual spirits. However, a sizable portion of men in China continue to adhere to traditional heterosexual norms and the machismo mentality, which makes them uncomfortable with the idea of marriage as feminism advocates. The divergence in viewpoints between males and females regarding marriage is a notable element that contributes to women’s unease toward marriage.

4.3 Rationalizations to explain dissatisfaction within a marriage

By creating justifications that appear logical, people use rationalization as a defense mechanism to protect themselves from setbacks. Additionally, they minimize behaviors and reasons that deviate from societal norms in order to free themselves. Marriage and family have always held significant value in traditional Chinese households and society, reflecting their goals and expectations. Expressing fear of marriage deviates from the traditional Chinese cultural emphasis on this institution, which prioritizes adherence to these principles. Therefore, the fear or unease regarding marriage is considered a violation of society and moral norms ( Zhu, 2008 ). In order to alleviate their anxiety about not being married, many women try to hide their fear by emphasizing the rational reasoning that “even if those in their social circle do get married, most of them are unlikely to experience true happiness.” Therefore, some women may not have an innate fear of marriage but instead have concerns about not finding a compatible mate or being overwhelmed by the significant financial obligations that come with marriage. As a result, individuals link their problems to a fear of marriage and take defensive actions to protect themselves. According to a well-known saying, people often embrace a Confucian philosophy when they are happy and a Taoist philosophy when they are unhappy. Rationalization, on the other hand, is a philosophical methodology that entails adjusting to the trials and conditions of existence.

4.4 “Regression” and “isolation” as coping mechanisms for anxiety

Regression refers to the phenomenon when an individual, faced with irritation, stress, or fear, returns to a former stage of conduct that they had previously acquired during their earlier life. Regression, in contemporary psychoanalytic theory, refers to the reemergence of actions and experiences that occurred during the early childhood period, specifically between the ages of 0 and 6. Marriage apprehension frequently emerges as individuals reach the age at which they are anticipated to enter into matrimony. Parents’ demands that their children find a compatible partner and their refusal to accept anyone who does not live up to their expectations are the main causes of anxiety. Consequently, individuals may revert to a state like that of a kid, displaying heightened sensitivity, a tendency to cry, and a desire to seek emotional relief from their intense fear. Certain individuals choose to retreat, much like an ostrich burying its head in the sand, in order to evade the confrontation of conflict and rage. They isolate themselves as a means to mitigate the anguish they experience. As the wedding date approaches, those individuals who possess a phobia of marriage feel a sense of fear, like facing a powerful opponent. Nevertheless, they are unsure about how to tackle this matter and consequently resort to becoming emotionally unstable with their partners or possibly ending the relationship entirely.

4.5 A repression-upbringing environment

Freud defines repression as the unconscious process of suppressing conflicting or unsuitable emotions and upsetting occurrences from the conscious mind into the preconscious realm. Although the conscious mind may not be cognizant of it, repression endures as an emotion in the preconscious. Based on the case texts, it is evident that certain individuals with a fear of marriage were raised in households where the father displayed male chauvinistic behavior and the mother exhibited traits of patience, quarrelsomeness, and indifference. A dysfunctional family may instill in a child the conviction that marriage is an unpleasant and terrible struggle. Furthermore, this negative perspective on marriage continues to exist even as one ages, simply shifting to the preconscious level of the mind. As children develop, the unsuccessful marriages of their parents unintentionally influence their viewpoints on love and marriage. As a result, when these young individuals enter into relationships with their own partners, they may naturally experience feelings of uncertainty, doubt, and even a reduced sense of their own value and unease toward the interactions between genders. Their choice to refrain from marriage or evade long-term marital obligations is motivated by their “repression.”

4.6 Anxiety impedes a vocation and self-care

Displacement, also known as alleviation, is the use of a symbolic object or behavior to counteract something unpleasant and maintain a positive mental state. The case text reveals that individuals who fear marriage often redirect and project their anxiety and discomfort onto work-related difficulties. Furthermore, the notion of “rear sons for help in old age” has transitioned to embracing one’s own aging process. The concerns about getting married are balanced by the potential risk of not having a support system in old age, which can be reduced by using commercial pension insurance and other preventive measures. The “China Women’s Pension and Risk Management White Paper” [ Fudan Development Institute (Manulife-Sinochem), 2020 ] reveals a consistent upward trend in the proportion of women’s yearly earnings allocated toward commercial pension insurance. The current rate stands at 5.89% and is expected to increase to 8.87% in the future.

4.7 Imbalance in the relationship between id, ego, and superego

Based on the case text, the study identifies an imbalance between “Id,” “Ego,” and “Superego,” notably a dominance of the “Id” over the “Superego.” This perspective on marital fear argues that marriage is a type of disadvantage and bondage. When individuals engage in the legal agreement of marriage, they must accept the possibility of becoming parents, dealing with new family relationships, handling household duties, and taking on the responsibility of raising children. The laws and responsibilities linked to these marriages generate apprehension, self-questioning, and a feeling of incongruity with one’s own aspirations in individuals who are afraid of making a commitment. Hence, they hold the belief that remaining single or cohabiting is more conducive to comfort than entering into marriage. This discrepancy becomes evident when they choose to renounce marriage.

5 Conclusion and suggestions

In recent times, feminism has begun to gain momentum and evolve in China. The expansion can be linked to factors such as the enhancement of women’s economic status, expanded availability of ideological education, and the impact of media communication. Consequently, the standing of women’s voices has experienced an unprecedented enhancement. Little Red Book, a prominent social media platform in China, consistently showcases the authentic viewpoints of young women to the public. Hence, this study holds practical and theoretical importance as it investigates the current perspectives on marriage among young women through the observation and analysis of their apprehension toward marriage expressed on Little Red Book. It also aims to provide tailored interventions and services based on the findings.

Firstly, it is crucial to first understand their defense mechanisms and then provide suitable solutions. Individuals should refrain from explicitly attributing the defects in other people’s lives to their life partner, despite the unpleasant sentiments expressed by their parents and friends. Individuals can openly express their concerns and fears to their partner and work together to cultivate a deep emotional connection rooted in trust. By embracing this strategy, you can shield yourself from trivial hardships in your environment and the media and effectively strengthen yourself against the harmful effects originating from your family heritage.

Moreover, according to the feminist viewpoint presented by Japanese sociologist Chizuko Ueno, feminism essentially involves unconstrained independence and the pursuit of personal satisfaction, regardless of one’s wishes or constraints ( Ueno and Reiko, 2023 ). Women have the option to choose marriage willingly, and their choice to abstain from it should not lead to prejudice or ill-treatment toward individuals who have misgivings about getting married. Hence, it is imperative for the government to take proactive and deliberate steps to guide the general population in progressively overcoming the limitations imposed by outdated gender norms through media. This includes dispelling the notion that women’s higher education levels are primarily responsible for changes in marriage patterns. It is vital to give women the proper respect and allow them the independence to marry and have children. According to the research samples, Chinese women who experience apprehension toward marriage have realized that marriage phobia is not intrinsically detrimental. Furthermore, they have acknowledged that an individual’s marital status has no bearing on their overall optimistic perspective on life. By actively striving to improve their own growth and development while implementing appropriate risk management and protective measures, individuals can also achieve happiness.

Additionally, education is the process of equipping oneself with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively navigate and succeed in the future. Consequently, it is crucial for universities to offer compulsory family education programs to their students, specifically focusing on assisting young males in gaining a deeper comprehension of their familial duties and goals. As college students transition into the marriage phase and become parents, their skills in family education will be beneficial for their future married life. By cultivating a positive mental foundation for the future, it significantly enhances the propensity of young women getting married.

Ultimately, government should prolong parental leave to mitigate the strain on women throughout the production period. Simultaneously, broaden the scope of community childcare services and enhance the caliber of vital public services, such as the accessibility of newborn and childcare facilities. The relevant government ministries should supervise firms in establishing an equitable promotion structure to prevent the marginalization of married women. Subsequently, the availability of social support may relieve women’s concerns about marriage.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

JC: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author (s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: gamophobia, Chinese young women, social media, psychoanalytic theory, discourses analysis

Citation: Chang JN (2024) Why do Chinese women experience gamophobia? Psychoanalytic theory assisted discourses analysis. Front. Psychol . 15:1357795. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1357795

Received: 18 December 2023; Accepted: 19 March 2024; Published: 03 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Chang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Joanna Nian Chang, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.