humanistic psychology case study

25 Humanistic Psychology Examples

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that emphasizes holistic human development, inherent human value, maximizing human flourishing, and the innate goodness of humans.

This branch emerged as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, two psychological perspectives that often failed to see the whole human and the role of freewill in human behavior.

Humanism explores a wide range of concepts in psychology, including how humans achieve motivation, self-actualization, freedom, and fulfilment.

The most prominent of humanistic psychologists is Abraham Maslow, whose hierarchy of needs remains a highly influential concept in education, leadership theory, counseling, social work, sociology, and other social sciences fields.

Below are some key humanistic psychology concepts.

Humanistic Psychology Examples

1. Hierarchy of Needs : The Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory comprising five levels of human needs, depicted in a pyramid, from basic (physiological) to more complex (self-actualization). Developed by Abraham Maslow, this theory is foundational in humanistic psychology, emphasizing the individual’s journey toward self-actualization. See the image below:

2. Self-Actualization : Self-actualization refers to the realization or fulfillment of one’s talents, potential, and abilities. Abraham Maslow posited self-actualization as the highest level in his Hierarchy of Needs, representing the pursuit of personal growth, self-discovery, and self-improvement (Compton, 2018).

3. Person-Centered Therapy: Person-Centered Therapy is a therapeutic approach focusing on the individual’s subjective experience, emphasizing empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence (Cooper & McLeod, 2011). Carl Rogers developed this approach, which is fundamental to humanistic psychology, to facilitate personal growth and self-actualization.

4. Unconditional Positive Regard : Unconditional Positive Regard is the total acceptance and non-judgmental valuing of an individual, regardless of their behavior. Rogers introduced this concept as a crucial component of Person-Centered Therapy to foster a safe therapeutic environment for personal growth (Proctor, Tweed & Morris, 2016).

5. Congruence : Congruence refers to the alignment between one’s self-image and actual experience (Cooper & McLeod, 2011). Rogers identified congruence as essential for psychological well-being and a goal of Person-Centered Therapy.

6. Self-Concept : Self-concept is an individual’s perception of themselves, formed through experience and interaction with the environment (Lopez, 2012). This concept is central to humanistic psychology as it influences the individual’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and is shaped by and shapes personal growth.

7. Self-Esteem : Self-esteem is an individual’s overall evaluation of their worth and the feelings associated with that assessment (Cooper & McLeod, 2011). In humanistic psychology, self-esteem is considered a key component of mental well-being and personal development.

8. Self-Worth: Self-worth refers to the value one assigns to oneself, influencing one’s belief in their inherent dignity and deservingness. This concept is integral to humanism, as it impacts the individual’s motivation, behavior, and personal growth (Rowan & Glouberman, 2017; Smith, 2017).

9. Intrinsic Motivation : Intrinsic motivation is the drive to engage in activities for their inherent satisfaction and enjoyment, rather than for external rewards (Neto, 2015). For humanists, intrinsic motivation is believed to be a driving force for personal growth and self-actualization.

10. Free Will : Definition: Free will is the ability of individuals to make choices and decisions independent of external influence or fate. One of the differentiating factors of humanism is that it believes all humans have free will, unlike behaviorism (Rowan & Glouberman, 2017).

11. Personal Growth : Personal growth involves the development and enhancement of one’s self-awareness, knowledge, skills, and overall well-being. It represents the individual’s ongoing process of self-improvement and self-actualization (Compton, 2018).

12. Self-Determination : Self-determination is the ability of an individual to make their own choices and control their own life. Ryan and Deci (2005) popularized this term, emphasizing that self-determination is essential for personal growth and fulfillment.

13. Peak Experiences: Definition: Peak experiences are moments of intense joy, creativity, fulfillment, and a sense of transcending the ordinary. Abraham Maslow described peak experiences as moments that provide insight into self-actualization and human potential (D’Souza & Gurin, 2016).

14. Actualizing Tendency: The actualizing tendency is the innate drive in all organisms to grow, develop, and realize their full potential. Carl Rogers proposed this concept as the foundational motive driving individuals toward self-actualization and personal growth (Schneider, Pierson & Bugental, 2014).

15. Fully Functioning Person: A fully functioning person is someone who is in the process of self-actualization, living in harmony with their feelings and experiences (Proctor, Tweed & Morris, 2016). Carl Rogers developed this concept to describe individuals who are open to experience, living existentially, and continually growing.

16. Non-Directive Therapy: Non-directive therapy is a counseling approach where the therapist refrains from directing the client, instead facilitating their self-exploration. Developed by Carl Rogers, this approach is foundational to Person-Centered Therapy, emphasizing the client’s capacity for self-healing (Proctor, Tweed & Morris, 2016).

17. Positive Psychology : Positive psychology is the scientific study of human flourishing and the factors that contribute to a fulfilling and meaningful life (Lopez, 2012). Positive psychology is rooted in humanistic psychology, focusing on strengths, well-being, and the pursuit of happiness.

18. Holistic Approach: The holistic approach involves considering the whole person, including their mind, body, emotions, and environment, in understanding human behavior (Rowan & Glouberman, 2017). Humanism adopts a holistic approach to understand the individual’s subjective experience and promote well-being.

19. Self-Exploration: Self-exploration is the process of examining and understanding one’s own thoughts, feelings, motivations, and behaviors. Self-exploration is seen as a means to achieve self-awareness, personal growth, and self-actualization (Compton, 2018; D’Souza & Gurin, 2016).

20. Self-Transcendence: Self-transcendence refers to the experience of going beyond the self, connecting with something greater, and realizing a higher purpose (Compton, 2018; Schneider, Pierson & Bugental, 2014). Maslow later added self-transcendence to his Hierarchy of Needs, representing the pursuit of spiritual and transcendent goals.

21. Mindfulness: Mindfulness is the practice of maintaining non-judgmental awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences in the present moment (Schneider, Pierson & Bugental, 2014). Mindfulness aligns with humanistic psychology’s emphasis on present experience, self-awareness, and personal growth.

22. Human Potential: Human potential refers to the capabilities and capacities that individuals possess, which can be developed and realized through personal growth (Lopez, 2012). The exploration and realization of human potential are central themes in many humanistic texts.

23. Autonomy: Autonomy is the capacity of an individual to make decisions and act according to their values and beliefs, independent of external control. Autonomy is seen as a fundamental aspect of human nature and a prerequisite for personal growth and self-actualization (D’Souza & Gurin, 2016; Smith, 2017).

24. Existential Anxiety: Existential anxiety arises from confronting the fundamental uncertainties and existential concerns of human existence, such as death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness (Chavatel, 2022). Humanistic and existential psychologists explore existential anxiety as a natural part of the human condition.

25. Growth Needs vs Deficiency Needs: Growth needs are motivated by the desire to develop and realize one’s potential, while deficiency needs arise from the lack of essential elements for survival and well-being. Abraham Maslow, in his Hierarchy of Needs, distinguished between deficiency needs (such as physiological and safety needs) and growth needs (such as esteem and self-actualization), with the latter representing higher-level aspirations in humanistic psychology (Compton, 2018).

More Guides on Humanism:

• Humanist Theory in Education: An Overview
• The Humanistic Theory of Personality: An Overview

Chavatel, W. (2022). Revelatory Anxiety and Dissociative Disorders: An Existential-Humanistic Approach.  Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 00221678221138385. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/00221678221138385

Cooper, M., & McLeod, J. (2011). Person-centered therapy: A pluralistic perspective.  Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies ,  10 (3), 210-223. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14779757.2011.599517

Compton, W. C. (2018). Self-actualization myths: What did Maslow really say?.  Journal of Humanistic Psychology . doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167818761929

D’Souza, J., & Gurin, M. (2016). The universal significance of Maslow’s concept of self-actualization.  The Humanistic Psychologist ,  44 (2), 210. doi: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-28070-007

Lopez, S. J. (2012). The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology . New York: Wiley.

Proctor, C., Tweed, R., & Morris, D. (2016). The Rogerian fully functioning person: A positive psychology perspective.  Journal of Humanistic Psychology ,  56 (5), 503-529.

Rowan, J. & Glouberman, D. (2017). Psychology: Humanistic or Human? (pp. 3-9) In: Kalisch, D., Maidman, J., & House, R. (Eds.). Humanistic Psychology: Current Trends and Future Prospects . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Neto, M. (2015). Educational motivation meets Maslow: Self-actualisation as contextual driver .  Journal of Student Engagement: Education Matters ,  5 (1), 18-27.

Schneider, K. J., Pierson, J. F., & Bugental, J. F. (Eds.). (2014).  The handbook of humanistic psychology: Theory, research, and practice . Sage Publications. Smith, M. B. (2017).  Values, self and society: Toward a humanist social psychology . Routledge.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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Carl Rogers Humanistic Theory and Contribution to Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist best known for his views on the therapeutic relationship and his theories of personality and self-actualization.

Rogers (1959) believed that for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure ), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Without these qualities, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied.

Person-Centered Therapy

Rogers developed client-centered therapy (later re-named ‘person-centered’), a non-directive therapy, allowing clients to deal with what they considered important, at their own pace.

This method involves removing obstacles so the client can move forward, freeing him or her for normal growth and development. By using non-directive techniques, Rogers assisted people in taking responsibility for themselves.

He believed that the experience of being understood and valued gives us the freedom to grow, while pathology generally arises from attempting to earn others’ positive regard rather than following an ‘inner compass’.

Rogers recorded his therapeutic sessions, analyzed their transcripts, and examined factors related to the therapy outcome. He was the first person to record and publish complete cases of psychotherapy .

Rogers revolutionized the course of therapy. He took the, then, radical view that it might be more beneficial for the client to lead the therapy sessions rather than the therapist; as he says, ‘the client knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been buried’ (Rogers, 1961). 

Personality Development

Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept .  This is “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.”

Carl Rogers’ self-concept is a central theme in his humanistic theory of psychology. It encompasses an individual’s self-image (how they see themselves), self-esteem (how much value they place on themselves), and ideal self (the person they aspire to be).

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person.  The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud’s psyche .  The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. 

Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal self.  The closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.

Discrepancies between self-concept and reality can cause incongruence, leading to psychological tension and anxiety. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. 

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:

Self-worth (or self-esteem ) is the value or worth an individual places on themselves. It’s the evaluative aspect of self-concept, influenced by the individual’s perceived successes, failures, and how they believe others view them.

High self-esteem indicates a positive self-view, while low self-esteem signifies self-doubt and criticism.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self-image refers to individuals’ mental representation of themselves, shaped by personal experiences and interactions with others.

It’s how people perceive their physical and personality traits, abilities, values, roles, and goals. It’s their understanding of “who I am.”

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on our inner personality.

At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves in the world.

Self-image vs. Real self

The self-image can sometimes be distorted or based on inaccurate perceptions . In contrast, the real self includes self-awareness of who a person truly is.

The real self represents a person’s genuine current state, including their strengths, weaknesses, and areas where they might struggle.

The ideal self is the version of oneself that an individual aspires to become.

It includes all the goals, values, and traits a person deems ideal or desirable. It’s their vision of “who I want to be.”

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties.

According to Rogers, congruence between self-image and the ideal self signifies psychological health.

If the ideal self is unrealistic or there’s a significant disparity between the real and ideal self, it can lead to incongruence, resulting in dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and even mental health issues.

Therefore, as per Rogers, one of the goals of therapy is to help people bring their real self and ideal self into alignment, enhancing their self-esteem and overall life satisfaction.

Positive Regard and Self Worth

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth.

How we think about ourselves and our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance to psychological health and the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and self-actualization.

Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low.  To Carl Rogers (1959), a person with high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people.

A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.

Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Unconditional positive regard is a concept in psychology introduced by Carl Rogers, a pioneer in client-centered therapy.

Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accept and loves the person for what he or she is, and refrain from any judgment or criticism. 

Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.

Unconditional positive regard can be used by parents, teachers, mentors, and social workers in their relationships with children, to foster a positive sense of self-worth and lead to better outcomes in adulthood.

For example

In therapy, it can substitute for any lack of unconditional positive regard the client may have experienced in childhood, and promote a healthier self-worth.

The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.

People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others, especially their parents, in childhood.

Examples of unconditional positive regard in counseling involve the counselor maintaining a non-judgmental stance even when the client displays behaviors that are morally wrong or harmful to their health or well-being.

The goal is not to validate or condone these behaviors, but to create a safe space for the client to express themselves and navigate toward healthier behavior patterns.

This complete acceptance and valuing of the client facilitates a positive and trusting relationship between the client and therapist, enabling the client to share openly and honestly.

Limitations

While simple to understand, practicing unconditional positive regard can be challenging, as it requires setting aside personal opinions, beliefs, and values.

It has been criticized as potentially inauthentic, as it might require therapists to suppress their own feelings and judgments.

Critics also argue that it may not allow for the challenging of unhelpful behaviors or attitudes, which can be useful in some therapeutic approaches.

Finally, some note a lack of empirical evidence supporting its effectiveness, though this is common for many humanistic psychological theories (Farber & Doolin, 2011).

Conditional Positive Regard

Conditional positive regard is a concept in psychology that refers to the expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or approved way.

In other words, this positive regard, love, or acceptance is conditionally based on the individual’s behaviors, attitudes, or views aligning with those expected or valued by the person giving the regard.

According to Rogers, conditional positive regard in childhood can lead to conditions of worth in adulthood, where a person’s self-esteem and self-worth may depend heavily on meeting certain standards or expectations.

These conditions of worth can create a discrepancy between a person’s real self and ideal self, possibly leading to incongruence and psychological distress.

Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct.

Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s).

For example, if parents only show love and approval when a child gets good grades or behaves in ways they approve, the child may grow up believing they are only worthy of love and positive regard when they meet certain standards.

This may hinder the development of their true self and could contribute to struggles with self-esteem and self-acceptance.

At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.

Congruence & Incongruence

A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and the experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.

Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence.

The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.

According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self.

The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

Incongruence is “a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience.

As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings.

A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will defend himself because the truth hurts.

Self Actualization

The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism (Rogers, 1951, p. 487).

Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. “As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves.”

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, which is the tendency to self-actualize – i.e., to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of “human-beingness” we can.

According to Rogers, people could only self-actualize if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self-regard).  This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents when they were children).

Self-actualization is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be). If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualization to take place.

The environment a person is exposed to and interacts with can either frustrate or assist this natural destiny. If it is oppressive, it will frustrate; if it is favorable, it will assist. 

Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough.

However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality.  Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative.

They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process.  Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.

This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).

Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing.

In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve.

It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

• Open to experience : both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).
• Existential living : in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).
• Trust feelings : feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.
• Creativity : creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences.
• Fulfilled life : a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences.

For Rogers, fully functioning people are well-adjusted, well-balanced, and interesting to know. Often such people are high achievers in society.

Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the achievement of any one person.

Carl Rogers Quotes

The very essence of the creative is its novelty, and hence we have no standard by which to judge it. (Rogers, 1961, p. 351)

I have gradually come to one negative conclusion about the good life. It seems to me that the good life is not any fixed state. It is not, in my estimation, a state of virtue, or contentment, or nirvana, or happiness. It is not a condition in which the individual is adjusted or fulfilled or actualized. To use psychological terms, it is not a state of drive-reduction , or tension-reduction, or homeostasis. (Rogers, 1967, p. 185-186)

The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction not a destination. (Rogers, 1967, p. 187)

Unconditional positive regard involves as much feeling of acceptance for the client’s expression of negative, ‘bad’, painful, fearful, defensive, abnormal feelings as for his expression of  ‘good’, positive, mature, confident, social feelings, as much acceptance of ways in which he is inconsistent as of ways in which he is consistent. It means caring for the client, but not in a possessive way or in such a way as simply to satisfy the therapist’s own needs. It means a caring for the client as a separate person, with permission to have his own feelings, his own experiences’ (Rogers, 1957, p. 225)

Frequently Asked Questions

How did carl rogers’ humanistic approach differ from other psychological theories of his time.

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach differed from other psychological theories of his time by emphasizing the importance of the individual’s subjective experience and self-perception.

Unlike behaviorism , which focused on observable behaviors, and psychoanalysis , which emphasized the unconscious mind, Rogers believed in the innate potential for personal growth and self-actualization.

His approach emphasized empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in therapeutic relationships, aiming to create a supportive and non-judgmental environment where individuals could explore and develop their true selves.

Rogers’ humanistic approach placed the individual’s subjective experience at the forefront, prioritizing their unique perspective and personal agency.

What criticisms have been raised against Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach to psychology?

Critics of Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach to psychology argue that it lacks scientific rigor and empirical evidence compared to other established theories.

Some claim that its emphasis on subjective experiences and self-perception may lead to biased interpretations and unreliable findings. Additionally, critics argue that Rogers’ approach may overlook the influence of external factors, such as social and cultural contexts, on human behavior and development.

Critics also question the universal applicability of Rogers’ theories, suggesting that they may be more relevant to certain cultural or individual contexts than others.

How has Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach influenced other areas beyond psychology?

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach has had a significant impact beyond psychology, influencing various areas such as counseling, education, leadership, and interpersonal relationships.

In counseling, his emphasis on empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening has shaped person-centered therapy and other therapeutic approaches. In education, Rogers’ ideas have influenced student-centered learning, fostering a more supportive and individualized approach to teaching.

His humanistic principles have also been applied in leadership development, promoting empathetic and empowering leadership styles.

Moreover, Rogers’ emphasis on authentic communication and understanding has influenced interpersonal relationships, promoting empathy, respect, and mutual growth.

What is the current relevance of Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach in modern psychology?

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach maintains relevance in modern psychology by emphasizing the importance of individual agency, personal growth, and the therapeutic relationship.

It continues to inform person-centered therapy and other humanistic therapeutic modalities. Rogers’ focus on empathy, acceptance, and authenticity resonates with contemporary approaches that prioritize the client’s subjective experience and self-determination.

Additionally, his ideas on the role of positive regard and the creation of a safe, non-judgmental environment have implications for various domains, including counseling, education, and interpersonal relationships.

The humanistic approach serves as a reminder of the significance of the individual’s unique perspective and the power of empathetic connections in fostering well-being and growth.

• Bozarth, J. D. (1998). Person-centred therapy: A revolutionary paradigm . Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books
• Farber, B. A., & Doolin, E. M. (2011). Positive regard .  Psychotherapy ,  48 (1), 58.
• Mearns, D. (1999). Person-centred therapy with configurations of self.  Counselling, 10(2), 125±130.
• Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory . London: Constable.
• Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change .  Journal of consulting psychology ,  21 (2), 95.
• Rogers, C. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology: A study of a science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the person and the social context . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Rogers, C. R. (1961). On Becoming a person: A psychotherapists view of psychotherapy . Houghton Mifflin.
• Rogers, C. R., Stevens, B., Gendlin, E. T., Shlien, J. M., & Van Dusen, W. (1967). Person to person: The problem of being human: A new trend in psychology. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press.
• Wilkins, P. (1997). Congruence and countertransference: similarities and differences.  Counselling, 8(1), 36±41.
• Wilkins, P. (2000). Unconditional positive regard reconsidered .  British Journal of Guidance & Counselling ,  28 (1), 23-36.

Humanistic Psychology’s Approach to Wellbeing: 3 Theories

That sounds quite nice, doesn’t it? Let’s repeat that again.

Humans are innately good.

Driving forces, such as morality, ethical values, and good intentions, influence behavior, while deviations from natural tendencies may result from adverse social or psychological experiences, according to the premise of humanistic psychology.

What does it mean to flourish as a human being? Why is it important to achieve self-actualization? And what is humanistic psychology, anyway?

Humanistic psychology has the power to provide individuals with self-actualization, dignity, and worth. Let’s see how that works in this article.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free . These creative, science-based exercises will help you learn more about your values, motivations, and goals and will give you the tools to inspire a sense of meaning in the lives of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the humanistic psychology approach, brief history of humanistic psychology, 10 real-life examples in therapy & education, popular humanistic theories of wellbeing, humanistic psychology and positive psychology, 4 techniques for humanistic therapists, 4 common criticisms of humanistic psychology, fascinating books on the topic, more resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Humanistic psychology is a holistic approach in psychology that focuses on the whole person. Humanists believe that a person is “in the process of becoming,” which places the conscious human experience as the nucleus of psychological establishment.

Humanistic psychology was developed to address the deficiencies of psychoanalysis , psychodynamic theory , and behaviorism . The foundation for this movement is understanding behavior by means of human experience.

This entity of psychology takes a phenomenological stance, where personality is studied from an individual’s subjective point of view.

Key focus of humanistic psychology

The tenets of humanistic psychology, which are also shared at their most basic level with transpersonal and existential psychology, include:

• Humans cannot be viewed as the sum of their parts or reduced to functions/parts.
• Humans exist in a unique human context and cosmic ecology.
• Human beings are conscious and are aware of their awareness.
• Humans have a responsibility because of their ability to choose.
• Humans search for meaning, value, and creativity besides aiming for goals and being intentional in causing future events (Aanstoos et al., 2000).

In sum, the focus of humanistic psychology is on the person and their search for self-actualization .

At this time, humanistic psychology was considered the third force in academic psychology and viewed as the guide for the human potential movement (Taylor, 1999).

The separation of humanistic psychology as its own category was known as Division 32. Division 32 was led by Amedeo Giorgi, who “criticized experimental psychology’s reductionism, and argued for a phenomenologically based methodology that could support a more authentically human science of psychology” (Aanstoos et al., 2000, p. 6).

The Humanistic Psychology Division (32) of the American Psychological Association was founded in September 1971 (Khan & Jahan, 2012). Humanistic psychology had not fully emerged until after the radical behaviorism era; however, we can trace its roots back to the philosophies of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.

Husserl spurred the phenomenological movement and suggested that theoretical assumptions be set aside, and philosophers and scientists should instead describe immediate experiences of phenomena (Schneider et al., 2015).

Who founded humanistic psychology?

The first phase of humanistic psychology, which covered the period between 1960 to 1980, was largely driven by Maslow’s agenda for positive psychology . It articulated a view of the human being as irreducible to parts, needing connection, meaning, and creativity (Khan & Jahan, 2012).

The original theorists of humanistic theories included Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May, who postulated that behaviorism and psychoanalysis were inadequate in explaining human nature (Schneider et al., 2015).

Prior to these researchers, Allport, Murray, and Murphy had protested the reductionist movement, including the white laboratory rat as a method for comparing human behavior (Schneider et al., 2015). Influential women in the development of this branch of psychology included Frieden and Criswell (Serlin & Criswell, 2014).

Carl Rogers’s work

Carl Rogers developed the concept of client-centered therapy , which has been widely used for over 40 years (Carter, 2013). This type of therapy encourages the patient toward self-actualization through acceptance and empathetic listening by the therapist. This perspective asserts that a person is fully developed if their self is aligned with their organism (Robbins, 2008).

In other words, a fully functioning person is someone who is self-actualized. This concept is important, as it presents the need for therapy as a total experience.

Rogers’s contribution assisted the effectiveness of person-centered therapy through his facilitation of clients reaching self-actualization and fully functional living. In doing so, Rogers focused on presence, congruence, and acceptance by the therapist (Aanstoos et al., 2000).

The Humanistic Theory by Carl Rogers – Mister Simplify

The human mind is not just reactive; it is reflective, creative, generative, and proactive (Bandura, 2001). With this being said, humanistic psychology has made major impacts in therapeutic and educational settings.

Humanistic psychology in therapy

The humanistic, holistic perspective on psychological development and self-actualization provides the foundation for individual and family counseling (Khan & Jahan, 2012). Humanistic therapies are beneficial because they are longer, place more focus on the client, and focus on the present (Waterman, 2013).

Maslow and Rogers were at the forefront of delivering client-centered therapy as they differentiated between self-concept as understanding oneself, society’s perception of themselves, and actual self. This humanistic psychological approach provides another method for psychological healing and is viewed as a more positive form of psychology. Rogers “emphasized the personality’s innate drive toward achieving its full potential” (McDonald & Wearing, 2013, p. 42–43).

Other types of humanistic-based therapies include:

• Logotherapy is a therapeutic approach aimed at helping individuals find the meaning of life. This technique was created by Victor Frankl, who posited that to live a meaningful life, humans need a reason to live (Melton & Schulenberg, 2008).
• Gestalt Therapy’s primary aim is to restore the wholeness of the experience of the person, which may include bodily feelings, movements, emotions, and the ability to creatively adjust to environmental conditions. This type of therapy is tasked with providing the client with awareness and awareness tools (Yontef & Jacobs, 2005). This includes the use of re-enactments and role-play by empowering awareness in the present moment.
• Existential Therapy aims to aid clients in accepting and overcoming the existential fears inherent in being human. Clients are guided in learning to take responsibility for their own choices. Rather than explaining the human predicament, existential therapy techniques involve exploring and describing the conflict.
• Narrative Therapy is goal directed, with change being achieved by exploring how language is used to construct and maintain problems. The method involves the client’s narrative interpretation of their experience in the world (Etchison & Kleist, 2000).

Humanistic psychology has developed a variety of research methodologies and practice models focused on facilitating the development and transformation of individuals, groups, and organizations (Resnick et al., 2001).

The methodologies include narrative, imaginal, and somatic approaches. The practices range from personal coaching and organizational consulting through creative art therapies to philosophy (Resnick et al., 2001).

Humanistic approach in education

The thoughts of Dewey and Bruner regarding the humanistic movement and education greatly affect education today. Dewey proclaimed that schools should influence social outcomes by teaching life skills in a meaningful way (Starcher & Allen, 2016).

Bruner was an enthusiast of constructivist learning and believed in making learners autonomous by using methods such as scaffolding and discovery learning (Starcher & Allen, 2016).

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Resnick et al., 2001) asserts that there are eight different types of intelligence: linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. In education, it is important for educators to address as many of these areas as possible.

These psychologists soon set the tone for a more intense focus on humanistic skills, such as self-awareness, communication, leadership ability, and professionalism. Humanistic psychology impacts the educational system with its perspectives on self-esteem and self-help (Khan & Jahan, 2012; Resnick et al., 2001).

Maslow extended this outlook with his character learning (Starcher & Allen, 2016). Character learning is a means for obtaining good habits and creating a moral compass. Teaching young children morality is paramount in life (Birhan et al., 2021).

In concentrating on these aspects, the focus is placed on the future, self-improvement, and positive change. Humanistic psychology rightfully provides individuals with self-actualization, dignity, and worth.

Silvan Tomkins theorized the script theory, which led to the advancement of personality psychology and opened the door to many narrative-based theories involving myths, plots, episodes, character, voices, dialogue, and life stories (McAdams, 2001).

Tomkins’s affect theory followed this theory and explains human behavior as falling into scripts or patterns. It appears as though this theory’s acceptance led to many more elements of experience being considered (McAdams, 2001).

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs has contributed much to humanistic psychology and impacts mental and physical health . This pyramid is frequently used within the educational system, specifically for classroom management purposes. In the 1960s and 1970s, this model was expanded to include cognitive, aesthetic, and transcendence needs (McLeod, 2017).

Maslow’s focus on what goes right with people as opposed to what goes wrong with them and his positive accounts of human behavior benefit all areas of psychology.

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Although humanistic psychology and positive psychology share the basic ideas of psychological wellbeing – the intent to achieve individual human potential and a humanistic framework – their origins are quite different (Medlock, 2012). Humanistic psychology adds two important elements to the establishment of positive psychology: epistemology and its audience (Taylor, 2001).

Humanistic psychology and positive psychology share many overlapping thematic contents and theoretical presuppositions (Robbins, 2008).

Much of the work in positive psychology was developed from the work in humanistic psychology (Medlock, 2012). Positive psychology was also first conceived by Maslow in 1954 and then further discussed in an article by Martin Seligman (Shourie & Kaur, 2016).

Seligman’s purpose for positive psychology was to focus on the characteristics that make life worth living as opposed to only studying the negatives, such as mental illness (Shrestha, 2016).

Congruence refers to both the intra- and interpersonal characteristics of the therapist (Kolden et al., 2011).

This requires the therapist to bring a mindful genuineness and conscientiously share their experience with the client.

Active listening

Active listening helps to foster a supportive environment. For example, response tokens such as “uh-huh” and “mm-hmm” are effective ways to prompt the client to continue their dialogue (Fitzgerald & Leudar, 2010).

Looking at the client, nodding occasionally, using facial expressions, being aware of posture, paraphrasing, and asking questions are also ways to maintain active listening.

Reflective understanding

Similar to active listening, reflective understanding includes restating and clarifying what the client is saying. This technique is important, as it draws the client’s awareness to their emotions, allowing them to label. Employing Socratic questioning would ensure a reflective understanding in your practice (Bennett-Levy et al., 2009).

Unconditional positive regard

Unconditional positive regard considers the therapist’s attitude toward the patient. The therapist’s enduring warmth and consistent acceptance shows their value for humanity and, more specifically, their client.

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Some may assert that humanistic psychology is not exclusively defined by the senses or intellect (Taylor, 2001).

Humanistic psychology was also once thought of as a touchy-feely type of psychology. Instead, internal dimensions such as self-knowledge, intuition, insight, interpreting one’s dreams, and the use of guided mental imagery are considered narcissistic by critics of humanistic psychology (Robbins, 2008; Taylor, 2001).

Further, studying internal conditions, such as motives or traits, was frowned upon at one time (Polkinghorne, 1992).

Aanstoos et al. (2000) note Skinner’s thoughts concerning humanistic psychology as being the number one barrier in psychology’s stray from a purely behavioral science. Religious fundamentalists were also opposed to this new division and referred to people of humanistic psychology as secular humanists.

Humanistic psychology is sometimes difficult to assess and has even been charged as being poor empirical science (DeRobertis, 2021). That is because of the uncommon belief that the outcome should be driven more by the participants rather than the researchers (DeRobertis & Bland, 2021).

If you find this topic intriguing and want to find out even more, then take a look at the following books.

1. Becoming an Existential-Humanistic Therapist: Narratives From the Journey – Julia Falk and Louis Hoffman

If you’re interested in becoming an existential-humanistic psychologist or counselor, you may want to refer to this collection of therapists and counselors who have already made this journey.

Perhaps you are a student who is considering pursuing this direction in psychology.

Regardless, this book contains reflective exercises for individuals considering pursuing a career as an existential-humanistic counselor or therapist, as well as exercises for current therapists to reflect on their own journey.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy – Carl Rogers

If your intent is to explore client-centered therapy more in depth, you may want to pick up this book by one of humanistic psychology’s founders.

In this text, Rogers sheds light on this important therapeutic encounter and human potential.

3. Man’s Search for Meaning – Viktor Frankl

Also by one of humanistic psychology’s founders, Man’s Search for Meaning provides an explanation of Logotherapy.

With his actual horrific experiences in Nazi concentration camps, Frankl declares that humans’ primary drive in life is not pleasure, but the discovery and pursuit of what they personally find meaningful.

If you’re interested in learning more about the history of humanistic psychology, our article The Five Founding Fathers and a History of Positive Psychology would be an excellent reference, as the roots of humanistic and positive psychology are entangled.

In humanistic psychology, self-awareness and introspection are important. Try using our Self-Awareness Worksheet for Adults to learn more about yourself and increase your self-knowledge.

Journaling is an effective way to boost your internal self-awareness. Try using this Gratitude Journal and Who Am I? worksheet as starting points.

Perhaps you would benefit from our science and research-driven 17 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises . Use them to help others choose directions for their lives in alignment with what is truly important to them.

17 Tools To Encourage Meaningful, Value-Aligned Living

This 17 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises [PDF] pack contains our best exercises for helping others discover their purpose and live more fulfilling, value-aligned lives.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Humanistic psychology is a total package because it encompasses legends of the field, empirical research, strong philosophical foundations, and arts and literature connections (Bargdill, 2011).

Some may refute this statement, but prior to humanistic psychology, there was not an effective method for truly understanding humanistic issues without deviating from traditional psychological science (Kriz & Langle, 2012).

Humanistic psychology offers a different approach that can be used to positively impact your therapeutic practice or enhance your classroom practice. We hope you find these theories and techniques helpful in facilitating self-actualization, dignity, and worth in your clients and students.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free .

• Aanstoos, C. M., Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). A history of division 32: Humanistic psychology. In D. A. Dewsbury (Ed.). History of the divisions of APA (pp. 85–112). APA Books.
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• Birhan, W., Shiferaw, G., Amsalu, A., Tamiru, M., & Tiruye, H. (2021). Exploring the context of teaching character education to children in preprimary and primary schools. Social Sciences & Humanities Open , 4 (1), 100171.
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• DeRobertis, E. M. (2021). Epistemological foundations of humanistic psychology’s approach to the empirical. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology . Advance online publication.
• DeRobertis, E. M., & Bland, A. M. (2021). Humanistic and positive psychologies: The continuing narrative after two decades. Journal of Humanistic Psychology .
• Etchison, M., & Kleist, D. M. (2000). Review of narrative therapy: Research and utility. The Family Journal , 8 (1), 61–66.
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• Serlin, I. A., & Criswell, E. (2014). Humanistic psychology and women. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. Pierson, & J. F. T. Bugental (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 27–40). SAGE.
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• Yontef, G., & Jacobs, L. (2005). Gestalt therapy. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies  (pp. 299–336).

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How Humanistic Psychology Can Help You Live a Better Life

Hallmarks include an emphasis on free will and human potential

Other Types of Humanism

• How to Use It
• Possible Pitfalls

While many approaches to psychology tend to focus on problematic behaviors and mental health conditions, one approach takes a more positive approach. Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization.  

Rather than concentrating on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being.

Keep reading to learn more about the historical roots of this perspective, as well as some of the important concepts that have emerge from humanistic psychology. We'll also explore some ways that you can use the humanistic approach to help life a more positive and fulfilling life.

A Brief Background of Humanistic Psychology

This area of psychology emerged during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which had dominated psychology during the first half of the century.  Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior, while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior.

Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into account the role of personal choice.

However, it is not necessary to think of these three  schools of thought  as competing elements. Each  branch of psychology  has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and behavior.

Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic view of the individual.

Humanism is a philosophy that stresses the importance of human factors rather than looking at religious, divine, or spiritual matters. Humanism is rooted in the idea that people have an ethical responsibility to lead lives that are personally fulfilling while at the same time contributing to the greater good of all people.

Humanism places human values and dignity front and center. According to this approach, people can resolve problems through science and reason. Rather than looking to religious traditions, humanism focuses on helping people live well, achieve personal growth, and make the world a better place.

The term "humanism" is often used more broadly, but it is also significant in several different fields, including psychology.

Religious Humanism

Some religious traditions incorporate elements of humanism as part of their belief systems. Examples of religious humanism include Quakers, Lutherans, and Unitarian Universalists. 

Secular Humanism

Secular humanism rejects all religious beliefs, including the existence of the supernatural. This approach emphasizes the importance of logic, the scientific method, and rationality in understanding the world and solving human problems. 

Uses for Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology focuses on each individual's potential. Concepts like personal growth and self-actualization are hallmarks of the humanistic approach.

The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.

Humanistic psychology also suggests that people possess personal agency and that they are motivated to use this free will to pursue things that will help them achieve their full potential as human beings.

The need for fulfillment and personal growth is a key motivator of all behavior. People are continually looking for new ways to grow, to become better, to learn new things, and to experience psychological growth and self-actualization.

Some of the ways that humanistic psychology is applied within the field of psychology include:

• Humanistic therapy : Several different types of psychotherapy have emerged rooted in humanist principles. These include client-centered therapy, existential therapy, and Gestalt therapy . 
• Personal development : Because humanism focuses the importance of self-actualization and reaching one's full potential, it can be used as a tool of self-discovery and personal development.
• Social change : Another important aspect of humanism is improving communities and societies. For individuals to be healthy and whole, it is important to develop societies that foster personal well-being and provide social support.

Impact of Humanistic Psychology

The humanist movement had an enormous influence on the course of psychology and contributed new ways of thinking about mental health. It offered a new approach to understanding human behaviors and motivations and led to the development of new techniques and approaches to psychotherapy .

Some of the major ideas and concepts that emerged as a result of the humanistic psychology movement include an emphasis on things such as:

• Client-centered therapy : An approach to therapy in which a therapist takes a non-directive, non-judgmental role
• Free will: The ability to act autonomously to make independent choices that are freely chosen
• Fully functioning person : An individual who has reached their full potential and is living an open and authentic life
• Hierarchy of needs : A theory that describes five levels of needs that motivate human behavior
• Peak experiences : Transcendent moments marked by feelings of awe, joy, and wonder
• Self-actualization: Reaching your full potential as an individual
• Self-concept : The image we have of ourselves, including our unique characteristics, behaviors, and talents
• Unconditional positive regard : Showing total acceptance for another person without judgment

How to Apply Humanistic Psychology

Some tips from humanistic psychology that can help people pursue their own fulfillment and actualization include:

• Discover your own strengths
• Develop a vision for what you want to achieve (having a vision board can help!)
• Consider your own beliefs and values
• Pursue experiences that bring you joy and develop your skills
• Learn to accept yourself and others
• Focus on enjoying experiences rather than just achieving goals
• Keep learning new things
• Pursue things that you are passionate about
• Maintain an optimistic outlook

One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the individual. This school of psychology gives people more credit for controlling and determining their state of mental health.

It also considers environmental influences. Rather than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment with influencing our experiences.

Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential through therapy.

Potential Pitfalls of Humanistic Psychology

While humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare, and other areas, it has not been without some criticism.

For example, the humanist approach is often seen as too subjective. The importance of individual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's assessment of their experience.

Another major criticism is that observations are often unverifiable; there is no accurate way to measure or quantify these qualities. This can make it more difficult to conduct research and design assessments to measure hard-to-measure concepts.

History of Humanistic Psychology

The early development of humanistic psychology was heavily influenced by the works of a few key theorists, especially Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Other prominent humanist thinkers included Rollo May and Erich Fromm.

In 1943, Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human Motivation" published in  Psychological Review. Later during the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss developing a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to psychology.

They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity, individuality, and related topics were the central themes of this new approach. In 1951, Carl Rogers published "Client-Centered Therapy," which described his humanistic, client-directed approach to therapy. In 1961, the  Journal of Humanistic Psychology  was established.

It was also in 1961 that the  American Association for Humanistic Psychology  was formed, and by 1971, humanistic psychology became an APA division.

In 1962, Maslow published "Toward a Psychology of Being," describing humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis, respectively.

Today, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many disciplines including other branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements, and other areas. For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on humanist influences.

The goals of humanism are just as relevant today as they were in the 1940s and 1950s, Humanistic psychology continues to empower individuals, enhance well-being, push people toward fulfilling their potential, and improve communities all over the world.

Schneider KJ, Pierson JF, Bugental JFT. The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Theory, Research, and Practice . Thousand Oaks: CA: SAGE Publications; 2015.

Thibault GE. Humanism in medicine: What does it mean and why is it more important than ever?   Acad Med . 2019;94(8):1074-1077. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000002796

Maslow AH. A theory of human motivation .  Psychological Review. 1943;50(4):370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346

Joseph S. How humanistic is positive psychology? Lessons in positive psychology from Carl Rogers' person-centered approach-It's the social environment that must change .  Front Psychol . 2021;12:709789. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.709789

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Case study: Musings on ‘John,’ his glasses, and existential-humanistic psychotherapy

“John” came to psychotherapy complaining of anxiety, dark moods, and difficulty connecting with others. A slight man, John wore glasses and made little eye contact with me in our our first meeting. When he did make eye contact though, I could not help but notice that he squinted, as if straining to see me.

He quickly detailed a laundry list of things in his life left undone for a number of vague reasons that, to me, were circular and hard to follow. He had not yet filed his divorce papers from a separation four years ago. He left a graduate program and owed the school money. He had been unemployed for several years and needed to find work. He wanted to smoke less marijuana. He needed to be more assertive with a friend, etc. From our first session, John struck me as an incredibly bright individual whose will had atrophied over the years.

Conventional (i.e., medical-model, treatment-focused) thinking in psychotherapy might say something like, “John is depressed, likely because of a chemical dysfunction in his brain. One of his primary symptoms is amotivation . Because he is depressed, he is unable to attend to the matters required of him (e.g., divorce papers, school loans).

While I do not wholly discount this reasoning, as a psychotherapist trained in existential-humanistic psychotherapy, I have a simultaneous, yet different perspective. Irvin Yalom suggested clients often present to psychotherapy feeling disappointed with the way they are living their lives. They experience existential guilt for making decisions that led to only partial fulfillment or complete denial of their potential. This guilt often manifests as depression, anxiety, or a combination of the two. With this in mind, we might say that John’s depression did not cause his lack of motivation, but his lack of motivation—his repeated decision to not act when an action was required—has led to his current depressed state.

Yalom also suggested that the work of psychotherapy is, in part, to re-engage the will of our clients so that they may live more fully within natural human limitations we all face. Additionally, existential-humanistic psychotherapy holds that the client will bring his or her way of being in the world into the consulting room. These ideas came to life when, several sessions into our work together, John began to make more eye contact (a good sign, I thought) and I commented on his squinting.

“Yes, yes,” he said. “It is a real problem. I got these bifocals two years ago and I’ve never been able to see with them.”

“You have gone two years with glasses that don’t help you see?” I asked, somewhat shocked.

“Yes,” he said. “And I think it really contributes to my mood. But there’s nothing I can do about it.”

“How’s that?”

“Well, I suppose I could do something about it,” he responded. “They just don’t fit right and never worked from the start.”

“How often have you thought about doing something about it?” I asked.

“I think about it all the time!” he said. “It drives me crazy, not being able to see.”

As this exchange continued, John attempted to move on to other topics several times. However, I found myself slightly obsessed with his glasses. It seemed like such an important symbol for his struggle to self-motivate. Having worn glasses myself, I found it hard to imagine how John could go so long not seeing clearly. Over and over, I brought us back to the glasses in the here-and-now, gently nudging him to deepen into what it was like for him to have this problem that drove him crazy but not to do anything about it. Although I immediately wanted to help him develop a plan to remedy the situation, I fought the impulse, opting instead to stay in John’s dilemma of inaction with him. I realized that to move too quickly would have been to impose my will on John, rather than waiting for John to come to his own willful action.

Now the reader might expect that I am going to finish this post by writing that John eventually bought new glasses and no longer strains to see me in my office. However, no such luck. What I can say is that John and I have discussed his glasses in subsequent sessions and, at his suggestion, have even discussed options (read choices) available to him to find new glasses. At the same time, in subtle ways, connections between his glasses and other domains of his life replete with unfinished business have been made. All of this feels like progress to me. However, conventional psychology, driven by behavioral outcomes, might argue otherwise. Perhaps it might argue that if I am going to use John’s glasses and his lack of motivation to get a new pair as any kind of indicator at all, then our work has not yet served him. After all, he still can’t see well.

As an existential-humanistic therapist, I guess I see it differently.

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• A-Level Psychology Revision Notes >

The Humanistic approach -A-Level Psychology

The humanistic approach:.

-an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self determination.

Table of Contents

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors and act as active agents.Humanistic psychologists reject scientific models that establish general principles of human behaviour as everyone is unique.

Self-actualisation:

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential.All four lower levels have to be met for self-actualisation to occur.Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled ,satisfied,and goal orientated.

The self,congruence and conditions of worth:

Rogers argued that for personal growth to occur an individual’s self(the way they see themselves)has to be in congruence with their ideal self.If the gap is too big ,the person will experience incongruence and negative feelings meaning that self-actualisation can’t be reached.

Conditions of worth-when a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children.

Evaluation:

Cultural bias-the humanistic approach would be applicable to individualist cultures more than to collectivist cultures which may not easily identify with the ideas of humanistic psychology.

Not reductionist-Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components,instead they advocate holism(the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person).This approach has more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.

The Humanistic approach is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the unique experiences and potential for growth of the individual. It suggests that people have free will and are capable of making choices that can lead to personal growth and self-actualization.

The key figures associated with the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

The Humanistic approach differs from other psychological perspectives in A-Level Psychology, such as the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches, by emphasizing the subjective experiences of the individual and their potential for self-growth and self-actualization, rather than focusing on unconscious processes or external stimuli.

Some practical applications of the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology include person-centered therapy, which emphasizes the importance of the therapist-client relationship and the client’s self-exploration, and positive psychology, which focuses on promoting well-being and resilience through interventions such as gratitude journaling and mindfulness meditation.

Studying the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology can benefit you by providing you with a deeper understanding of human behavior and the human experience, and by equipping you with practical skills for promoting personal growth and well-being. Additionally, knowledge of the Humanistic approach may be useful for those considering careers in counseling or mental health.

You can apply the Humanistic approach in your own life by focusing on your personal growth and self-actualization, and by making choices that align with your values and goals. This might involve practicing self-reflection, setting realistic goals for yourself, and seeking out opportunities for personal development and self-expression.

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Existential-Humanistic Case Conceptualization and Treatment Planning: Rationale, Approach, and Limitations

2019, Second World Congress of Existential Therapy

Existential-Humanistic therapists historically have been resistant to engaging in case conceptualization and treatment planning. This resistance is rooted in a philosophical and practical critique of the purpose and implications of engaging in these processes. While there are good reasons to avoid case conceptualization and treatment planning, there are also practical limitations with avoiding these practices, including challenges in training settings as well as implications for receiving third party reimbursement and practicing in certain contexts. This presentation will begin with a critique of case conceptualization and treatment planning, highlighting risks and problems inherent in this process. Next, the presentation will provide an overview on research conducted to develop an existential-humanistic approach to case conceptualization and treatment planning, including a discussion of the limitations that were previously identified and how they are addressed in the existential-humanistic approach.

Related Papers

Louis Hoffman

Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology (EBPP) is the new zeitgeist in evaluating the effectiveness and appropriateness of different modalities of psychotherapy. Although many existential-humanistic therapists and scholars are critical of EBPP, it is important to take seriously the issues of accountability in therapy practice. Certainly, EBPP is a significant improvement from prior models and alternatives, such as the empirically supported treatments. The purpose of this paper is threefold. First, we challenge existential-humanistic psychology to find ways to authentically engage in the professional dialogues about EBPP, outcomes in psychotherapy, and the need for accountability. In particular, it is essential that we actively engaged in defining what it means to be an evidence-based approach to psychotherapy. Second, we advocate for a particular understanding of EBPP that challenges some of the current definitions being employed yet is consistent with the criteria established by the original American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice (2006) appointed by Ron Levant during his term as president of the American Psychological Association. Shortly after this task force published its original document in the American Psychologist, Wampold, Goodheart, and Levant (2007) warned that it would be easy for the definitions of EBPP to regress to the old, more restrictive models of evaluating psychotherapy practice. Indeed, this is what has often occurred. We maintain that it is essential for existential-humanistic psychologists not to merely respond critically to the idea of EBPP, but to also be active in offering alternative models for evaluating psychotherapy practices and be engaged in creating inclusive approaches to understanding EBPP that are robust enough to be appropriate for evaluating a wide range of therapy practices seeking diverse therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we argue that existential-humanistic therapy can rightly be considered an evidence-based practice even when utilizing rather conservative interpretations of what this means. Hoffman, L. Dias, J., & Choi Soholm, H. (2012, August). Existential-humanistic therapy as a model for evidence-based practice. In S. Rubin (Chair), Evidence in support of existential-humanistic psychology: Revitalizing the ‘third force.’ Symposium presented at the 120th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.

International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy

William Follette

Wiley World Handbook of Existential Therapy

A case study is presented here to give the reader a vivid, lived experience of how E-H therapy actually unfolds between clients and therapists. The case by Orah Krug and her client Mimi illustrates how E-H therapists: a) develop responsiveness to clients' feelings, experiences and protective patterns, b) develop collaborative and safe therapeutic relationships with clients, c) assess client motivation, level of functioning and capacity for presence and c) work with levels of self-protections and associated wounds by focusing on process over content. The case also illustrates how E-H therapists attain the goals of expanded experiential awareness and real therapeutic change by cultivating genuine encounters in which both clients and therapists are personally and relationally present. E-H therapists cultivate presence to three dimensions of experience and process: a) the personal or subjective dimensions of both client and therapist, (i.e., a focus on "self"), b) the interpersonal or relational dimension, (i.e., a focus on the "in-between" field of client and therapist), and c) the ontological or cosmological dimension, (i.e., an existential focus on "the world"). Being present to all three dimensions of experience and process is crucial-all three dimensions are "actual" in the present moment and provide entry into the feelings and world of the client. Without presence there may be intellectual, behavioral or physiological change but not necessarily the sense of agency or personal involvement that "whole-bodied" transformation requires.

World Handbook of Existential Therapy

A concise summary and analysis of the methods and practice of Existential-Humanistic and Existential-Integrative Therapy.

Clinical psychology & psychotherapy

Antonio Pascual-Leone

Emotion-focused therapy (EFT) has increasingly made use of case conceptualization. The current paper presents a development in the case conceptualization approach of EFT. It takes inspiration from recent research on emotion transformation in EFT. The case conceptualization presented here can guide the therapist in listening to the client's narrative and in observing the client's emotional presentation in sessions. Through observing regularities, the therapist can tentatively determine core emotion schemes' organizations, triggers that bring about the emotional pain, the client's self-treatment that contributes to the pain, the fear of emotional pain that drives avoidance and emotional interruption strategies. The framework recognizes global distress, into which the client falls, as a result of his or her inability to process the underlying pain, the underlying core pain and the unmet needs embedded in it. This conceptual framework then informs therapists as to which ...

Martin Milton

Person-centered & Experiential Psychotherapies

Siebrecht Vanhooren

This study examined which themes therapists identify as existential and explored what happens when therapists engage with their clients’ existential concerns. Over two simultaneous studies, 19 participants were interviewed about working with existential themes. The first study consisted of experienced person-centered and existential psychotherapists and the second study of counselors or therapists working in a setting that would evoke existential themes. The data were first analyzed separately for both groups using Consensual Qualitative Research. Subsequently, a general cross analysis was conducted to achieve a meta-synthesis. Four existential themes were identified: Death and boundaries of life; Freedom, choice and responsibility; Connection and isolation; and Meaning and meaninglessness. In addition to providing a descriptive model of these themes, this study suggests that existential training might help therapists notice more implicit existential dynamics in the therapeutic process. Furthermore, engaging with clients’ existential concerns might make therapists more aware of their own existential reality which would help them to relate to existential themes differently. Experienced therapists can identify existential themes in their clients’ stories. However, specific existential training and personal reflection can deepen therapists’ openness towards existential issues and expand insight in existential processes.

Journal of Psychotherapy Integration

Kirk Schneider

Although probably all psychotherapists and counselors care for the lives of their clients, not every therapist is invested in helping their clients make sense of their existence. Departing from the question if clients are actually bringing their existential concerns to therapy, studies actually show that a significant proportion of clients brings their ultimate concerns to the consultation room. However, therapists do not always feel comfortable with the existential concerns of their clients. Therapists seem to underestimate their clients’ existential needs. Furthermore, therapists and counselors report that the existential concerns of clients can be overwhelming and evoke an existential quest in therapists. Existential empathy, or the capacity to resonate with the client’s existential concerns and to communicate this empathy, could be enlarged in therapists in order to help clients find different avenues to be with their human condition. Inspired by Tillich, Rank, and Rogers, grounding in ‘being’ is suggested to help therapists being fully present with the clients’ ultimate concerns.

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Humanistic Psychology (humanism)

Humanism incorporates a variety of therapeutic techniques, including Rogerian ( person-centered ) therapy, and often emphasizes a goal of self-actualization . 

The Development of Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology vs. the medical model, humanistic psychology in therapy.

• Humanism's Contributions to Psychology

Limitations of Humanistic Psychology

Humanism arose in the late 1950s as a “third force” in psychology, primarily in response to what some psychologists viewed as significant limitations in the behaviorist and psychoanalytic schools of thought. Behaviorism was often criticized for lacking focus on human consciousness and personality and for  being deterministic, mechanistic, and over-reliant on animal studies. Psychoanalysis was rejected for its strong emphasis on unconscious and instinctive forces and for being  deterministic, as well.

After receiving sponsorship from Brandeis University, The American Association for Humanistic Psychology was founded in 1961. Other major contributors to the development of humanistic psychology were Carl Rogers , Gordon Allport , James Bugental, Charlotte Buhler , Rollo May , Gardner Murphy , Henry Murray, Fritz Perls , Kirk Schneider, Louis Hoffman, and Paul Wong.

Some fundamental assumptions of humanistic psychology include: 

• Experiencing (thinking, sensing, perceiving, feeling, remembering, and so on) is central.
• The subjective experience of the individual is the primary indicator of behavior.
• An accurate understanding of human behavior cannot be achieved by studying animals.
• Free will exists, and individuals should take personal responsibility for self-growth and fulfillment. Not all behavior is determined.
• Self-actualization (the need for a person to reach maximum potential) is natural.
• People are inherently good and will experience growth if provided with suitable conditions, especially during childhood.
• Each person and each experience is unique, so psychologists should treat each case individually, rather than rely on averages from group studies.

One of the basic principles of humanistic psychology is the belief that focus on an individual is more beneficial and informative than a focus on groups of individuals with similar characteristics. Humanism also stresses the importance of subjective reality as a guide to behavior.

The medical model assumes that behavioral, emotional, and psychological issues are often consequences of physical problems; thus, a medical approach to treatment should be taken. While this may be true of some conditions that result from physical damage, such as a traumatic brain injury , it can be problematic to apply a medical model to all mental health concerns . 

Some of the most obvious differences between mental and physical health issues lie in the nature and treatment of concerns. Mental health difficulties, unlike physical problems, often improve when the individual experiencing the difficulty speaks about what is wrong or talks through the issue. Further, physical illness may occur as a result of physiochemical interactions or the activity of pathogens, while mental health issues are often closely linked to interpersonal relationships.

Supporters of the medical model might view individuals experiencing mental health concerns as “patients” who have an “illness” that can be “diagnosed” and “cured” after specific “symptoms” are identified. However, humanistic psychologists believe that each individual is a unique, valuable social being who is often best assisted through genuine person-to-person relationships. Rather than focusing on specific symptoms, supporters of the humanistic approach emphasize issues such as self-understanding, positive self-regard, and self-growth, with the aim of helping each individual by addressing and treating the whole person. 

Humanistic psychologists typically refrain from using techniques that foster objective study, such as non-participant observation and scientific experimentation.  As humanistic therapists tend to believe that reducing human nature to mere numbers robs it of its richness, they are more likely to use qualitative methods of study, such as unstructured interviews and participant observation .

Unstructured interviews allow the therapist to gain access to an individual’s thoughts and experiences without directing the session toward any particular topics or ideas. Participant observation, which requires that the therapist take part in the study, facilitates the formation of personal relationships and allows the therapist the opportunity to get direct feedback from the person in therapy. Other forms of qualitative data collection include the analysis of biographies, diaries, and letters. 

Humanistic psychology integrates multiple therapeutic techniques , such as Carl Rogers' person-centered therapy, which is also known as "Rogerian therapy." Humanism suggests that a person is created with a distinct priority of needs and drives and that each person must rely on a personal sense of inner wisdom and healing. Psychologists who practice this method of therapy take a non-pathological approach, targeting productive, adaptive, and beneficial traits and behaviors of an individual in treatment.

Humanism’s Contributions to Psychology

The humanistic approach has made several significant contributions to the field of psychology. It presented a new approach to understanding human nature, new methods of data collection in human behavioral studies, and a broad range of psychotherapy techniques that have been shown to be effective. Some of the major concepts and ideas that emerged from the humanistic movement include:

• Hierarchy of needs
• Person-centered therapy
• Unconditional positive regard
• Self-concept
• Self-actualization
• Peak experiences
• Fully-functioning person

Humanism has inspired many contemporary modes of therapy, and most therapists value Rogerian principles such as unconditional positive regard , even if they do not identify themselves as proponents of the humanistic approach.  This value-oriented approach views humans as inherently driven to maximize their creative choices and interactions in order to gain a heightened sense of liberty, awareness, and life-affirming emotions, and t he therapist and person in therapy cooperate in order to set therapeutic goals and work to reach the established milestones that may help promote positive change. Self-actualization is often considered to be central to this approach.

Humanistic psychology stresses the inherent value of human beings and focuses on their ability and willingness to maintain dignity while growing in self-respect and competence. This value orientation is considered to be responsible for the creation of various other therapy models that utilize interpersonal skills for the purpose of maximizing one’s life experience.

Humanism’s reliance on the subjective experiences of individuals may make it difficult to objectively measure, record, and study humanistic variables and features. The emphasis on gathering qualitative data makes it almost impossible to measure and verify any observations made in therapy. Not only might it be challenging to compare one set of qualitative data with another, the overall lack of quantitative data means that key theories cannot be supported by empirical evidence.

Other criticisms of the approach include its lack of effectiveness in treating severe mental health issues and the generalizations made about human nature, as well as the complete rejection of some important behaviorist and psychoanalytic concepts. For example, although humanistic psychology holds that animal studies are useless in the study of human behavior, some animal studies have led to concepts that are applicable to people. Additionally, humanistic psychology focuses exclusively on free will and the conscious mind, but research does show that the unconscious mind plays a significant role in human psychology.

References:

• Association of Humanistic Psychology. (1991).  Historic review of humanistic psychology.  Retrieved from http://www.ahpweb.org/about/ history/what-is-humanistic- psychology.html
• Sammons, A. (n.d.).  The humanistic approach: The basics.  Retrieved from http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/ newResources/approaches/AS_ AQB_approaches_ HumanisticBasics.pdf
• University College London. (n.d.).  Basic competencies for humanistic psychological therapies.  Retrieved from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/clinical- psychology/CORE/Humanistic_ Competences/basic_humanistic_ competences.pdf
• Wong, P. T. P. (2014).  Humanistic theories.  Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/ humanistic-theories-2

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Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychologists emphasise looking at individuals as a whole, considering a range of influences on them and trying to explain healthy, ‘normal’ growth in humans.

Free will: Other approaches to psychology are determinist to a greater or lesser extent, believing that human behaviour id shaped or determined by influences such as biology, learning, upbringing and so on. Humanistic psychology suggests that humans actually have free will over their actions- the ability to make genuine free choices over their actions. Therefore, it rejects the attempts by other approaches to establish general laws of behaviour, suggesting that human behaviour is unpredictable and that each person is unique, as everyone makes their own choices in life.

Self-actualisation: Maslow believed that humans have a ‘hierarchy of needs’ which need to be met in order to be satisfied, and develop as a person. The most basic needs are physiological (food, water and so on), followed by safety and security (having a home and family), love and belongingness, (having friends and positive relationships with family members), self-esteem (self-confidence and respect of others), and finally self-actualisation (creativity and spontaneity). Self-actualisation is the ability of humans to develop and achieve their potential. If the other, more basic needs are not met, then the person cannot self-actualise any may become unhappy or depressed as a result.

The self and congruence: Rogers suggested that in order to grow and develop, there must be congruence (equivalence) between a person’s concept of self- the person they perceive themselves as- and their ideal self- the person they would like to be. If there is too big a gap between these, the person experiences incongruence and will not be able to self-actualise, therefore possibly becoming anxious and depressed.

Client-centred therapy: Developed by Rogers, this aims to achieve congruence in the client, who takes an active role in the therapy. The cause of incongruence may have been a lack of unconditional positive regard from parents- this means that the person’s parents attached ‘conditions of worth’ to them- setting conditions on their love. For example, telling them they will only love them if they achieve something (good exam results). This creates psychological problems for the person. In the therapy, the therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard, along with empathy and genuineness, to try and reduce the incongruence between the client’s concept of self and ideal self.

Evaluation:

• This approach is more holistic than many others, as it considers a range of influences on a person and does not try to explain behaviour in simplistic terms. This is a strength as it better represents the complexity of human behaviour.
• Humanistic psychology is a more positive approach than others, as it is optimistic and focused on personal growth and development. People are seen as essentially good, and able to better themselves. This is more optimistic than, for example, Freud’s theory.
• The approach is not very scientifically rigorous, as concepts such as the self and congruence are hard to test empirically. This weakens the approach, as it lacks scientific credibility.

Views on Development

• Psychodynamic approach: clear and coherent (psychosexual stages)
• Cognitive approach: explains child development- going through stages- and development of schema
• Biological approach: development is due to physical development, e.g. brain growth and complexity
• Humanistic approach: parents have a role in development. The self can be developed throughout life
• Learning approaches (behaviourism, SLT): learning happens in the same way at any stage of life (no account of development)

Nature vs Nurture

(Behaviour is innate vs behaviour due to environment)

• Learning approaches (behaviourist, SLT): support nurture. Humans are ‘blank slates’ and are products of learning and upbringing
• Biological approach: supports nature. Behaviour caused by physiological processes affected by genes
• Psychodynamic approach: supports nature (innate drives and instincts) and nurture (role of upbringing- psychosexual stages)
• Humanistic approach: supports nature (natural tendency to self-actualise) and nurture (relationship with parents and others)
• Cognitive approach: supports nature (biological processing abilities) and nurture (development of schema through environment)

Reductionism vs Holism

(Breaking down behaviour into parts that can be studied vs considering a range of factors on behaviour)

• Behaviourist approach: very reductionist- behaviour due to stimulus-response
• Social learning approach: slightly less reductionist, as does consider cognition
• Biological approach: very reductionist- explaining behaviour in terms of levels of chemicals, brain structure
• Psychodynamic approach: quite reductionist- behaviour due to primitive drives, but does consider upbringing and other factors
• Cognitive approach: accused of machine reductionism- treating humans as if they were computers. Although, does consider how cognitions affect learning and interact with other influences
• Humanistic approach: holistic. Considers a range of influences on an individual person

Determinism vs Free Will

(Behaviour determined by factors outside of someone’s control vs behaviour is due to conscious free choice)

• Behaviourist approach: determinist (‘hard determinism’). Behaviour due to learning processes outside of our control
• Biological approach: determinist (‘hard determinism’). Behaviour due to brain structure, genes, neurotransmitter, outside of our control
• Psychodynamic approach: psychic determinism (‘hard determinism’)- behaviour due to unconscious drives and instincts outside of our control
• Cognitive approach: determinist (‘soft determinism’)- behaviour guided by existing schema and stage of development, but there is some choice over thoughts
• Social learning approach: reciprocal determinism (‘soft determinism’)- behaviour guided by learning, but some choice over which actions we choose to perform
• Humanistic approach: free will. Behaviour is down to the conscious free choice of the individual

Explanations of Abnormal Behaviour

The approaches explain that abnormal behaviour is due to:

• Behaviourist approach: faulty learning (negative behaviour has been reinforced somehow). Can be treated by ‘unlearning’- counter-conditioning.
• Social learning approach: negative/dysfunctional role models.
• Psychodynamic approach: childhood trauma, unresolved unconscious conflicts, overuse of defence mechanisms. Can be treated by uncovering and resolving repressed conflicts through psychotherapy.
• Cognitive approach: faulty/irrational thought processes. Can be treated by CBT, in which negative thoughts are challenged.
• Humanistic approach: incongruence between concept of self and ideal self, inability to self-actualise. Can be treated through achieving congruence through client-centred therapy.
• Biological approach: imbalance of hormones/neurotransmitters, genetic inheritance, faulty brain structure/workings. Can be treated through drug therapy.

Idiographic vs Nomothetic

(Studying and explaining individual behaviour through case studies vs studying large groups to establish general laws)

• Learning approaches (behaviourist, SLT): nomothetic
• Cognitive approach: nomothetic (although does use case studies as evidence)
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Psychological Theories

What are psychological theories.

Psychological theories are systematic explanations of human mental processes and behaviors, developed through both empirical research and field observation. These theories provide frameworks for understanding how and why people think, feel, and act the way they do, and guide both academic research and practical applications in areas like therapy, education, marketing, and public policy.

The Basic Idea

If you’ve ever snoozed your alarm and then been late to work or school, you may look back and ask yourself: why did I do that? Maybe your bus driver saw you running for the bus and chose to keep on driving, and you ask yourself: what was going through his mind? Or maybe the day turned out okay, because you came home to your loving partner, and you thought to yourself: why am I so compatible with this person but not others? To begin unpacking these questions and more, we can turn to psychological theories to help us understand ourselves and the people around us.

Psychological theories are systematic frameworks for understanding, predicting, and explaining human behavior and mental processes. These theories include everything from cognitive theories , which focus on mental processes such as perception and memory, to behavioral theories , which examine the relationship between stimuli and responses. Although there are many ways to explain how and why we are the way we are, it is the constant testing and refining of different psychological theories that guides research and helps us to consistently improve our understanding of humans—both within academia and beyond. 

Most Influential Psychological Theories: 

• Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud): Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and uses concepts like the id, ego, superego, and psychosexual stages of development.
• Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner): Emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, including classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget): Explains how children's thinking evolves as they grow, identifying four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational).
• Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow): Emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the importance of personal growth and free will. This also includes Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Rogers' client-centered therapy.
• Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Proposes that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling, rather than solely through direct reinforcement and uses reciprocal determinism, where behavior, personal factors, and the environment interact and influence each other.

The world makes much less sense than you think. The coherence comes mostly from the way your mind works. – Daniel Kahneman

Cognition: Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.

Psychoanalysis: A therapy developed aimed at exploring the unconscious mind to understand and treat psychological disorders.

Positive Reinforcement : In behaviorism, the process of encouraging or establishing a pattern of behavior by offering a reward when the desired behavior is exhibited.

Montessori Method: An educational approach developed by Dr. Maria Montessori that emphasizes self-directed learning, hands-on activities, creativity, and a love for learning and collaborative play in a child-centered environment.

Herzberg's Motivation Theory: Also known as the two-factor theory, this theory proposes that job satisfaction is influenced by two distinct sets of factors: hygiene factors and motivator factors. Hygiene factors pertain to external conditions such as the workplace environment and salary, while motivator factors are typically intangible elements like receiving recognition or opportunities for personal growth.

As long as there have been humans, there have been questions about why we think and act the way we do. There have likely been countless theories developed throughout time that we have no written record of, such as those developed by native peoples. For many, the known history of psychological theories goes back to ancient philosophical inquiries about the human mind and behavior. Early thinkers like Plato and Aristotle laid the groundwork for understanding the mind's complexities, focusing on issues of perception, memory, and motivation. Hundreds of years later, the 17th century marked a significant shift with the rise of empiricism, championed by philosophers like John Locke who proposed that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. This idea laid the foundation for later psychological theories that emphasize the role of the environment in shaping behavior. 1

The formal birth of psychology as a scientific discipline is often credited to Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. Wundt's work marked the beginning of experimental psychology, where he used introspection to explore the structure of the conscious mind. His approach, known as structuralism, aimed to break down mental processes into their most basic components. Around the same time, William James in the United States was developing his own approach called functionalism, which focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior in helping individuals adapt to their environment. These early schools of thought laid the groundwork for more complex psychological theories. 1

The early 20th century saw the emergence of several influential psychological theories that have shaped the field as we know it today. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory introduced the idea of the unconscious mind and the role of early childhood experiences in shaping personality (he’s the guy who you usually picture talking to a patient while they lay on a couch, discovering a repressed memory). While Freud's ideas were revolutionary, they were (and still are) controversial, spurring the development of alternative theories. Behaviorism, led by John Watson and later B.F. Skinner, rejected the introspective methods of the past and focused instead on observable behavior, emphasizing the role of environmental stimuli in shaping actions. Behaviorism dominated psychology from the 1920s to the 1950s, particularly in the United States, influencing everything from education to advertising. 1

Toward the mid-20th century emerged a cognitive revolution, as cognitive psychologists began challenging the behaviorist movement by reintroducing the importance of mental processes. Pioneers like Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky argued that studying internal cognitive processes (like thinking, memory, and language) was crucial for a complete understanding of behavior. This shift led to the development of cognitive psychology, which remains one of the most prominent areas of the field today. Additionally, humanistic psychology, which was considered more of a ‘counter-movement’ to behaviorism, emerged during this time, with figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. All of these diverse perspectives have contributed to a more comprehensive and multifaceted understanding of human behavior, continuing to influence psychological research and practice today. 2

Plato (c. 427-347 BCE) : Greek philosopher from Athens known for his works on philosophy and the mind, including the theory of forms and the allegory of the cave.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) : Greek philosopher from Stagira who studied under Plato and is renowned for his contributions to logic, metaphysics, and psychology, particularly his theory of the soul.

John Locke (1632-1704) : English philosopher, often called the "father of liberalism," known for his theory of empiricism, which posits that knowledge is derived from sensory experience.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) : German psychologist, often regarded as the "father of modern psychology," who established the first psychology laboratory and developed the theory of structuralism.

William James (1842-1910) : American philosopher and psychologist, known as the "father of American psychology," who founded the school of functionalism and authored the first psychology textbook, The Principles of Psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) : Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the unconscious mind, psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms.

John B. Watson (1878-1958) : American psychologist, best known for founding behaviorism, which focuses on the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) : American psychologist and behaviorist, known for developing the theory of operant conditioning and his work on reinforcement and punishment.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) : Swiss psychologist, famous for his theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children's thinking evolves through distinct stages.

Noam Chomsky (b. 1928) : American linguist, philosopher, and cognitive scientist, known for his theory of universal grammar and his critique of behaviorism in language acquisition.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) : American psychologist, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, known for his client-centered therapy and emphasis on self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) : American psychologist, best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory that outlines the stages of human motivation from basic needs to self-actualization.

Consequences

The impact of psychological theories extends far beyond academic research; scientifically understanding our own thoughts and behavior has influenced almost all aspects of modern life, shaping practices in education, marketing, public policy, and business.

In the realm of education, psychological theories have revolutionized teaching and learning methodologies. For example, certain developmental theories have provided educators with insights into how children think and learn at different stages. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children progress through specific stages of cognitive growth, with each stage characterized by distinct thinking patterns. 3 Understanding these stages allows teachers to adjust their teaching strategies to better match the cognitive capacity of their students. 

Meanwhile, Lev Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development explains the gap between what a student can learn on their own versus with help. This theory posits that the role of education is to provide children with experiences that are in their proximal development stage, encouraging and advancing individual learning through social interaction. Students can solve problems independently, applying knowledge from conversations with peers and teachers to gradually develop the skills to perform tasks without direct help. 4 Understanding this theory has helped shape the role of teachers in the classroom; sometimes, it’s more about putting students in a situation where they can teach themselves to succeed rather than being explicitly taught. 

For better or worse, psychological theories have also left a huge mark on the field of marketing and consumer behavior. Behaviorism, with its focus on conditioning and reinforcement, has been particularly influential in understanding and shaping consumer habits. Marketers have applied principles of operant conditioning to design reward systems—like loyalty programs or memberships—that encourage repeat purchases by reinforcing desired behaviors. The understanding of cognitive biases, such as the availability heuristic and the framing effect , has also allowed many marketers to craft persuasive messages that influence buyer decision-making. All of these psychological insights have helped businesses increase sales and foster brand loyalty—potentially misleading or even taking advantage of customers. 

Public policy

Public policy is another major area where psychological theories have had significant consequences. Understanding human behavior has helped policymakers create more effective campaigns to improve public health, environmental protection, education systems, and programs that better address social issues such as poverty and crime. The application of small interventions that capitalize on our biases in a nonrestrictive way (often referred to as “ nudging ”), has gained prominence in recent years. This approach, popularized by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein, is based on the idea that small changes in the way choices are presented can have a substantial impact on behavior, like automatically enrolling employees in retirement savings plans, with the option to opt-out. A change as simple as this has been shown to dramatically increase participation rates in retirement plans. 

Organizations

If you’re in a traditional workplace, you may have experienced the influence of psychological theories in your office without realizing it. Organizational behavior and human resource management have been hugely shaped by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Both of these theories have changed how companies understand and manage employee motivation and satisfaction. Maslow’s theory suggests that employees (and all humans) are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs like food and water and progressing to self-actualization. Thus, companies that recognize and address these needs by providing a safe working environment, opportunities for social interaction, and chances for personal growth, are more likely to foster a motivated and productive workforce (perhaps this is why having free coffee and snacks in the office is so motivating?). Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which distinguishes between hygiene factors (e.g., salary, work conditions) and motivators (e.g., recognition, achievement), has also guided organizations in designing jobs and work environments to maximize employee satisfaction. 

Controversies

Psychological theories, while important to our understanding of human behavior, are theories, not facts. We can still only speculate and make educated guesses as to how and why our brains function the way they do. Many of the theories we’ve previously developed haven’t withstood the test of time, or at least not without serious criticism.

Psychoanalytic Theory

One of the most contentious figures in psychology is Freud, whose psychoanalytic theory has faced huge criticism. Although Freud's focus on the unconscious mind and his theories of psychosexual development were groundbreaking at the time, they were also largely unscientific and overly deterministic. Critics argue that many of Freud’s ideas, such as the Oedipus complex (briefly, that boys are repressing attraction to their moms and jealousy of their fathers’ genitals) and the emphasis on sexual drives, lack empirical support and are difficult if not impossible to test systematically. His theories have also been accused of being culturally biased, reflecting the patriarchal and sexually repressive values of his time, which are largely not applicable (or at least hopefully less so) today. 

Behaviorism 

Behaviorism, another major psychological theory, has also faced significant criticism, particularly for its reductionist approach. Watson and Skinner’s theory focuses exclusively on observable external behaviors and their environmental conditioning, largely ignoring the importance of internal mental processes like emotion. To no surprise, humans have a lot going on under the surface, and not taking this into account can be problematic. That’s because we are much more than machines reacting directly to the environment around us, and internal or unobservable processes (like our preferences, hunger, hormones, and social upbringing) can have dramatic influences on the way we react to stimuli. This critique helped propel the cognitive revolution to take into account the other missing piece of the puzzle: the mind. 

Cognitive Theory

Enter cognitive psychology, which has also been criticized for its heavy reliance on computational models of the mind, which can oversimplify the complexities of human cognition—after all, the brain is not a computer. Since these models usually compare the mind to a computer processing information, they’ve also been accused of neglecting the emotional, social, and cultural factors that influence thought and behavior. Thus, cognitive psychology, just like behaviorism before it, tends to focus on “universal” principles—when, of course, there are huge individual differences among people, places, and cultures. 

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged as a response to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis to introduce a more optimistic view of human nature—but hasn’t escaped its share of criticisms. While prominent figures like Rogers and Maslow emphasized the potential for personal growth and self-actualization, proposing that people are inherently good and capable of achieving their full potential, many critics argue that this perspective is overly idealistic. Much like Freud’s psychoanalysis, it can be incredibly hard to test humanistic psychology empirically which can make it even harder to find acceptance from the scientific community. Also, due to the focus on the individual’s growth and self-fulfillment, it can be easy to overlook the social and structural factors that limit personal development; essentially, the individual is responsible for their own shortcomings or inadequacies, ignoring systemic issues like poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to education.

Cultural Context

Much of the existing psychology research is on a WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) population, which has raised concerns about the generalizability of its findings to non-WEIRD populations. All theories involve some sort of bias, and no population will ever be truly representative. The role of psychological theories in perpetuating or challenging societal norms is a controversial subject because, while the field has contributed to understanding and reducing prejudice, critics argue that some research in social psychology specifically can inadvertently reinforce stereotypes or fail to account for cultural and contextual differences. 

For example, the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs discussed earlier posits that individuals prioritize their needs in a specific order, starting with basic physiological needs and moving up through safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. This model aligns well with WEIRD cultures, which tend to emphasize individualism and personal achievement since cultural values prioritize personal growth and self-fulfillment. However, in more collectivist cultures, where community, family, and social harmony are often prioritized over individual needs, Maslow’s hierarchy doesn’t fit quite as well. In addition, studies that categorize people into rigid social groups based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status may unintentionally perpetuate the very biases they aim to study. These critiques have led to a growing recognition of the need for more culturally sensitive research and a broader, more inclusive approach to studying behavior.

Behavioral Psychology in Education

Behavioral psychology—particularly the principles of operant conditioning—has been instrumental in shaping modern educational practices. Operant conditioning, a theory developed by Skinner, posits that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it. Specifically, reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while punishment decreases it. This approach can be applied to classroom management when teachers try to promote positive behavior that leads to academic achievement.

For instance, many schools implement reward systems like tokens or points that use positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior like completing homework on time, participating in class discussions, or staying silent during reading times. Usually, these tokens are traded in for rewards like extra recess time, which can help keep kids motivated. We can also see how punishment systems like detention or extra homework can be used to discourage unwanted or disruptive behavior. All of these systems are designed based on our understanding of different psychological theories, from how we best learn to which tools are appropriate for which ages, and have informed interventions for students with special needs, behavioral disorders, or learning disabilities. 

The Montessori Method is an educational approach that is based on principles from Piaget’s developmental psychology and Vygotsky’s zone of proximal learning principles. Montessori classrooms emphasize self-directed learning, hands-on activities, and collaborative play, giving kids the chance to explore their environment at their own pace and in their own way. Educational materials are designed to support the children’s developmental stages and foster independence, curiosity, and a love of learning: key components of the developmental theory.

Psychological Theories in Therapy 

One of the most direct applications of psychological theories is in the field of clinical psychology, where theories of human behavior and mental processes have informed the development of many therapeutic techniques. For example, many people are familiar with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) , as it’s one of the most widely used therapeutic approaches today. This type of therapy is grounded in cognitive theory by helping individuals identify and change distorted thinking patterns that lead to negative emotions and behaviors. This theory-based approach has proven effective in treating a variety of psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD. 5

Understanding psychological theories is crucial for developing effective therapeutic approaches to provide the foundational knowledge needed to comprehend complex mechanisms underlying mental health issues. These theories can offer structured frameworks that guide therapists in assessing, diagnosing, and treating various psychological conditions and help them address the specific needs of individuals. Since so much of the work is built on tested theory, treatment can be both scientifically grounded and practically effective.

Related TDL Content

How might behavioral science transform education.

With so much discussion about the impact of psychological theories on education, it’s important to understand some of the biggest challenges in education reform and how they can be improved. 

Financial Planning Education That Puts Humans First

Another important application is looking at how we use psychological theory to shape our financial decisions, and how banks use these same understandings for themselves. 

• Cherry, K. (2023, May 17). A Brief History of Psychology Through the Years . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/a-brief-history-of-psychology-through-the-years-2795245  
• Wikipedia contributors. (2023, August 7). Cognitive revolution . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_revolution
• Cherry, K. (2023, July 20). Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
• McLeod, S. (2023). Zone of Proximal Development . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/zone-of-proximal-development.html  
• Gaudiano, B. A. (2008). Cognitive-behavioural therapies: achievements and challenges. Evidence-based mental health, 11(1), 5-7.

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Annika completed her Masters at the London School of Economics in an interdisciplinary program combining behavioral science, behavioral economics, social psychology, and sustainability. Professionally, she’s applied data-driven insights in project management, consulting, data analytics, and policy proposal. Passionate about the power of psychology to influence an array of social systems, her research has looked at reproductive health, animal welfare, and perfectionism in female distance runners.

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Law and Crime

What does a murder staged as a suicide look like, case study: sandra birchmore's death may offer clues to a murder staged as a suicide..

Posted August 30, 2024 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

• In 2021, twenty-three-year-old Sandra Birchmore was found dead with a backpack strap around her neck.
• She was three months pregnant and looking forward to being a mom.
• While her death was intially ruled a suicide, ex-police detective Mathew Farwell was just indicted.

This week marks a turn for Sandra Birchmore 's family. On February 4, 2021, the day when the twenty-three-year-old was found dead in her apartment. She was sitting on the floor in a reclined position with a duffle bag strap tied around her neck and connected to her closet doorknob. Her phone lay just inches from her body. She had been dead for three days and was three months pregnant. By early May, the investigation was complete; the manner of death ruled a suicide.

Fortunately, in January 2021, a friend of Birchmore contacted the Stoughton Police Department to report Detective Mathew Farwell's ongoing sexual exploitation of Sandra Birchmore; it allegedly started when she was fifteen, making it a crime in Massachusetts. The two had met when she was a twelve-year-old member of the police explorer's club, and he was a police officer volunteer; three years later, he took her virginity.

On August 28, 2024, thirty-eight-year-old now-ex-police detective, husband, and father Matthew Farwell was federally indicted in Sandra's death, accused of strangling her and then staging her murder as a suicide. It took three and a half years, an internal affairs investigation, a civil suit, and federal assistance, but justice may be finally coming.

Clues to a Staged Suicide

Every seasoned homicide detective will tell you that every unexpected death should be investigated as a homicide until proven otherwise. The 99.9 percent who are honest will also tell you this is rarely possible. So, when faced with what initially appears to be a suicide, here are a few questions that are most likely to help investigators hone in on a crime scene that has been staged:

1. Is there a viable alternative explanation?

Which is more likely: the suicide of a twenty-three-year-old in the early stages of a planned pregnancy with aspirations of being a teacher or the murder of a twenty-three-year-old whose secrets could potentially destroy the career and family of a selfish and controlling abuser? Farwell's wife was getting ready to deliver their third child. Not only would his law enforcement career be over if it came to light that he had used his police authority to take advantage of a trusting teen , he could face criminal charges for statutory rape.

2. Was the deceased making plans?

• Birchmore wanted this baby. She had planned this pregnancy with Farwell's initial consent. But she had made it clear to friends and family that, Farwell's involvement or not, she would be mothering this child. She had an OBGYN appointment scheduled for February 10, 2021.
• Birchmore had been making calls to schedule a newborn photo shoot. She had recently been texting friends about obtaining baby clothes. At 8:25 PM on February 1, just hours before her estimated time of death, Birchmore performed a Google search for "Cubby Kids" furniture.
• Birchmore had dreams of becoming a teacher and had taken steps toward meeting that career goal.

3. Was the victim in a violent relationship?

Multiple witnesses reported that Farwell had become physically aggressive with Birchmore in the weeks leading up to her death, particularly when discussing her pregnancy. One friend noted that Birchmore had described Farwell putting her in a headlock and grabbing her phone; another described an incident during which Farwell allegedly pushed Birchmore to the ground after she showed him a sonogram. Her therapist also reported that Birchmore had talked about being shoved by Farwell.

4. What do friends and family say?

Yes, some families indeed have a hard time accepting a loved one's suicide. No, it's not true that most survivors of suicide loss cling to the belief that their family member has been murdered. When the family of an alleged suicide says their loved one would never commit suicide and has a definite suspect in mind, it's worth taking a second look.

• None of Birchmore's friends or family members interviewed believed she was suicidal . Her therapist had a session with Birchmore on January 31, 2021 - the day before her death. During this session, Person 7 screened for depression and suicidal ideation and found no signs of either. Multiple witnesses described Birchmore as excited about her pregnancy and plans.

5. Are there inconsistencies between the initial hypothesis/explanation and the physical evidence?

• When family members entered Birchmore's apartment after her death, they found laundry in progress - wet clothes in the washing machine and dry clothes in the dryer. People who die by suicide do not pause to do so in the middle of routine household chores.
• Investigators found Birchmore's necklace nearby, broken with a large clump of hair caught in the chain. This finding raises the possibility of a struggle.
• Her phone, typically described as her "third hand" by friends, showed no activity after 9:13 PM on February 1, despite being found near her body.
• Dr. William Smock , an expert consulted in the case, noted several inconsistencies with suicide by hanging: The fracture of Birchmore's hyoid bone, which is uncommon in seated hanging; a pattern imprint on Birchmore's chest consistent with blunt force trauma ; and abrasions on Birchmore's nose, which is consistent with suffocation attempts

6. Are people behaving out of character?

• In the week before Birchmore's death, Farwell had asked her for a key to her apartment, a change from his previous stance that keeping a key was a bad idea. He also began examining the closets and spaces of her living quarters, behaving unusually enough for Sandra to mention it to a friend.
• Birchmore commented to more than one friend that Farwell had suddenly become nicer to her a week before she died.
• Surveillance footage showed Farwell entering Birchmore's building on February 1 at 9:14 PM wearing a face mask, despite witnesses stating he typically resisted wearing face masks during the pandemic.

The Bottom Line

Sandra Birchmore's death was staged as a simple suicide. In reality, it was much more complex than the initial ruling suggested. The evidence pointing to homicide after Sandra's death underscores the importance of thorough investigation in cases of suspicious deaths, particularly where there's a history of domestic violence or sexual exploitation.

Investigative bias , an incomplete initial assessment, lack of specialized training, resource constraints, or special courtesy can all contribute to a premature conclusion. For law enforcement, this case highlights the critical need to look beyond surface appearances and consider the full context of a victim's life, relationships, and recent behaviors when investigating a potential suicide.

Joni E. Johnston , Psy.D , is a clinical/forensic psychologist, private investigator, author, and host of the YouTube channel and podcast "Unmasking a Murderer."

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