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The Language Gym

By gianfranco conti, phd. co-author of 'the language teacher toolkit', 'breaking the sound barrier: teaching learners how to listen', 'memory: what every teacher should know' and of the 'sentence builders' book series. winner of the 2015 tes best resource contributor award, founder and ceo of www.language-gym.com, co-founder of www.sentencebuilders.com and creator of the e.p.i. approach., translation tasks and techniques that have significantly enhanced my teaching.

(This post was co-authored with Dylan Vinales during last week’s Garden International School professional learning afternoon)

1.Introduction: the case for translation 

In the last forty years or so, most emerging L2 methodologies have dismissed the use of translation as a counterproductive practice. In particular, the emphasis on 100 % use of the Target Language lain by CLT and other approaches has often resulted in an outright ban of the L1 from the modern language classroom, and with it, evidently, the dismissal of translation.

As I identified in a recent review of the relevant literature (Conti, 2016), translation has been out of favour for the following reasons:

• It is associated with the Grammar translation approach;
• It is assumed that L1 use in the classroom hampers L2 acquisition;
• Translation is seen by many as a mechanical transfer of meaning from one language to another – not a communicative activity;
• Translation tasks are perceived as boring;
• Translation is seen as independent of the other four skills;
• Translation takes up lots of valuable time that could be devoted to more beneficial communicative activities;
• Translation is believed to be appropriate only for training translators.

In recent years, however, theorists and researchers working in the Cognitive paradigm have been re-assessing the role of the L1 and translation as a means to support and enhance L2 acquisition. Numerous studies seem to indicate that translation does indeed provide numerous cognitive advantages in instructed L2 settings over 100% Target Language.

Consequently, as often happens in modern language education, the pendulum has swung back again and the new England-and-Wales GCSE Modern Language Exam now includes a mandatory translation module.

The most valuable advantage of translation pertains, in my opinion, to the cognitive comparison between the L2 and the L1 it promotes, which often results in noticing the gap between the two languages, thereby potentially pre-empting/correcting L1 negative transfer or, conversely, providing confirmation for L1 positive transfer. An example: last week one of my students, whilst playing one of my oral-translation games (see below) noticed that when saying ‘Il est avocat’ in French, unlike English, the indefinite article is not used. He subsequently asked me if that was the rule in French and once I confirmed, he translated the next sentence in the challenge ‘She is a teacher’ (=elle est enseignante) correctly.

In my post ‘ The case for translation in foreign language instruction’ I have written about the pros and cons of translation extensively and provided a number of important recommendations as to how to design and implement translation tasks. Hence, in the below I will not delve into a discussion of the merits of translation practice in the L2 classroom.

My position statement is that translation from and into the L2 can be effective in instructed L2 settings in scaffolding and enhancing acquisition. However, it should NOT dominate classroom practice, and should be used judiciously when dealing with less able and motivated learners . Also, I do believe that in lesson time, with novice to intermediate learners, oral translation practice should be preferred to written translation , as the development of oral fluency should be our main concern. Finally, with the few exceptions of snappy high-pace starts such as ‘quick-fire’ translation starters (see below), written translation ought to be mainly used for out-of-the classroom consolidation work, as it is time-consuming and has the potential to be boring.

In conclusion, I refer the reader to the link to my previous post for an in-depth evidence-based discussion of the benefits of translation practice; in the below, I reserve to outline the most successful translation teaching techniques I have been using over the years with novice to intermediate students . Before proceeding let me list a few caveats

Please note that in a typical less of mine:

• the translation tasks are ‘chunk-’ rather than single-words based ; although the students will have to monitor the accurate manipulation of inflected forms of individual verbs, adjectives and nouns, I do devise the to-be-translated texts as sequence of chunks and patterns rather than strings of words. This is reflected in my assessment too, which is chunk-, rather than word-based too;
• the chunks selected for inclusion in the to-be-translated texts are high-surrender value lexical items . I often include in my texts my ‘universals’ (see here if you are not familiar with this term). In this sense, my translation tasks become very valuable recycling tools, which allow my students to revisit past and present vocabulary across all units of work;
• the translation tasks below are intended to elicit output which recycle ‘chunks’ and ‘patterns’ extensively practised beforehand . In other words, the to-be-translated text contains what I call ‘ feasible output’ , i.e. output that the average student is able to translate with little support from the teacher or other reference materials in the target performance conditions. The notion of ‘feasible output’ is central to my design of any to-be-translated text  , as what puts students off translation is usually the fact that they have to consult reference materials time and again and their lack of linguistic relevance to previous learning (and I am talking about the relevance to the linguistic content – not to the topic, here).
• as it is obvious from the previous point, translation tasks are fully integrated in the instructional sequence at hand . They are not simply intended to practise translation skills; they are a means to reinforce the chunks and patterns at hand’;
• translation tasks for use at lower levels of proficiency should be designed in a way that minimizes cognitive overload . This means that with average ability students I never place more than one challenging item per sentence. For instance, if I know my students struggle with the perfect tense of verbs requiring Etre as an auxiliary I will not include in that sentence a lexical item or morphological or syntactic structure that is likely to cause divided attention.

3. My favourite translation tasks and techniques

Here are some of my favourite translation tasks and techniques. I have been using them for years with great results with my novice to intermediate students and have become integral part of my everyday instructional sequences, both in the Receptive processing stage (as L2 to L1 translation) and in the Structured production phase of my M.A.R.S. sequence.

3.1 Narrow translation

The traditional translation-practice model adopted by Modern Language teachers consists of the following phases:

1. task is assigned

2. task is executed

3. feedback on student performance is provided

After phase (3) the text is usually never to be seen again.

I devised Narrow translation (NT) to overcome the limitations of the above model. Based on the same principle as narrow reading, NT consists of three or more short to-be-translated texts that are extremely similar in terms of chunks and patterns, the differences amounting to 10-15% per cent of the text maximum. So for instance, if to-be-translated-text 1 contains the sentence ‘I live in a small town by the sea’, text 2 will contain the sentence ‘I live in a large town by a lake’, text 3 ‘I live in a small village by a river’ and text 4 ‘I live in a tiny village in the countryside’.

NT texts are short, shorter when they are meant for classroom use rather than as homework assignments and because the texts consist of chunks the students have been exposed to and have practised to death prior to the task, the students complete them quite quickly and usually accurately, which gives them a sense of achievement.

With novices or lower ability students, I usually provide alongside the to-be-translated texts 1,2 and 3 a text ‘0’ which has its L2-translation alongside. This gimmick functions as a motivational scaffold for less confident learners.

Narrow translations have been very successful with my students as they have allowed me to enhance the recycling of the target chunks many times over. They also provide me with a valuable opportunity for transferability of the target chunks and structures to a variety of linguistic contexts which are similar enough to be familiar but sufficiently different to still present a challenge. This doesn’t usually happen with traditional translation tasks whereby the student normally completes a translation, gets feedback on it, but doesn’t typically get the opportunity to have several goes at using the full range of patterns they have just practised in the translation.

In administering narrow-translation tasks I go through three phases:

(1) the texts differ from each other only in terms of lexical items in conjunction with same patterns/chunks; the verbs and tenses stay the same; so for instance, if text 1 was in the first person of the verbs used, so will be the other texts.

(2) the texts differ in terms of lexical items and the persons of the verbs used, e.g. if texts 1, 2 and 3 were in the first person singular, text 4 will be in the third singular, text 5 in the first plural, etc. (see example in figure 1 below).

(3) the differences also encompass change in tenses and the inclusion of subordinate clauses.

The moves in phases 2 and 3 are necessary at higher levels of proficiency to encourage expansion and autonomy (the ‘E’ and ‘A’ in my MARS +EARS framework).

Fig. 1 – Sample Narrow Translation Texts – The words in bold indicate the instances in which the texts differ from one another

My classes have reported learning a lot and most importantly gaining a lot of confidence in translation thanks to NT. Do bear in mind that I use NT sparingly in classroom time, I  mainly assign it as homework. If you do use NT texts in the classroom, do ensure they are quite short.

3.2 Oral translation games (OB)

3.2.1 No Snakes No Ladders (NSNL)

The no-frills (no fancy visuals, cards, etc.) oral-translation boardgame ‘No snakes no ladders’ is extremely useful and very simple to make and use. It is due its simplicity and high effectiveness that has gone viral in our Department.

It consists of a track made up of about 30 cases (see picture below). Each case contains a to-be-translated chunk that the students will have practised to death prior to the game . The chunks become increasingly difficult as the game unfolds. Figure 2 below, shows an example I used last week with a year 9 French mixed-ability class

Figure 2 – Sample No-Snakes-No-ladders game

The rules are as follows: in groups of three students (2 player + 1 referee) or five (2 teams of two players and one referee), players take turn in rolling a dice. Whichever case the player/team lands based on their dice score, they will have 10-15 seconds to translate the relative sentence(s) into the target language orally. The referee will then tell the players (with the help of the answer sheet) if their translation is correct. If the translation is correct they will have another go and casting the dice and will advance to the next case where they will have to translate the next sentence and so on. However, if their translation isn’t correct, the referee will read to them the right version twice in order for the players to attempt to memorize it for the next round when they will have another go. After the opponents’ turn the player will have another chance at casting the dice; if they answer the question they originally got wrong correct. The person who is closer to the finishing line ten minutes into the game will win.

The role of the student referee is key to the success of the game . I observed many a lesson in which teachers used similar board games without providing the answer key . How on earth are the students going to know, unless the teacher is constantly around, if their output is correct or not?

My students love it and report learning lots from it. A google slide template of the game (track and referee card) prepared by Dylan Vinales can be found here  . My pdf template can be found here .

3.2.2 Oral translation ping pong

This is a very simple totally student-centred GCSE translation revision starter or plenary which requires little preparation. I have been using it recently in the run-up to the orals and my students seemed to enjoy it.

The students work in pairs. They have a sheet with the same English sentences to translate into French, but Partner A has the translation of half the sentences (e.g. sentences 1 to 10), whereas Partner B has the translation of the other half (e.g. sentences 11 to 20).

I call it ‘Oral ping-pong translation’ because the two partners take turns in challenging each other with a sentence. After one partner has attempted the translation, his/her opponent shows him/her the correct answer and points are awarded (3 for perfect sentence, 2 for one mistake only, 1 if there are mistakes but at least the verb is correctly formed). I give the students a time limit (10 minutes); when the time is up the person with the higher score wins. Best to have people of similar ability in each pair. Figure 3 illustrates an example I made for an able year 11 group of mine. Obviously, the activity can be done in writing too.

Fig 3 – Oral ping pong partner A and partner B sheets

As a follow-up activity, I get the students to make a note of the most serious mistakes they made in their books so that I have an idea of what their problem areas are.

3.3 Find someone who with L1 (first language) cards

This game is an adaptation of the find-someone who with L2 cards I have discussed in previous posts. Each student is given (1) a grid like the one in figure 4a before, with prompts such as ‘Find someone whose father is a lawyer’; (2) a card with a number with fictitious details (e.g. my father is a lawyer).

Figure 4a . Find someone who with cards in the first language : grid with task prompts for students to fill in

Figure 4b . Find someone who with cards in the first language – cards to cut up which students will translate in answering their classmates’ questions

The students’ task is to find the people with the card which contains the details they are looking for and they must do so by asking questions in the target language. In this version, the cards are in the L1 (see figure 4, above); hence, the students need, each time they ask and are asked a question, to answer translating orally the prompts on the grid and on their card from the L1 to the L2.

So, whilst the find-someone-who version with L2 cards is mostly a receptive processing task (the only production aspect of it being reading aloud the L2 questions and answers), this version is both productive and receptive.

5. Oral Communicative Drills (OCDs)

These consist of very short L1 dialogs to translate into the L2. Again, I put students in groups of three. Two students translating their respective lines into the target language and a third students (who has the target language version of all the dialogs) giving feedback.

OCDs are not fun and students are not crazy about them. In the student voice I have carried out they usually get a rating of 3 out of 5. However, the students find them beneficial in preparing them for the less structured communicative activities that follow, In fact, this is the purpose of  these drills, to practise the target chunks and patterns in a highly structured conversation in order to prepare for less controlled tasks such as surveys, interviews or role plays.

Figure 5 . Oral communicative drills-  Students take turn translating questions/answers whilst a third student, who has the target language version of each card, listens critically and provide corrective feedback

6. Quick-fire translation starter

  I use this as a starter in nearly every lesson of mine. It requires minimum preparation and all you need is your voice, mini-whiteboards and markers. You utter sentences in the L1 or L2 and students need to translate in a fixed time limit.

I usually start with L2 sentences to translate into the L1 and then vice versa, making sure that the sentences used in the second round are pretty much the translation of the ones used in the first round or are at least very similar in structure.

An observer once noted that whilst some students manage to complete the translation easily in the time allocated, others struggle. As a way to differentiate you may want to give an extra sentence for those who finish earlier whilst extending the time for those who struggle.

7.Translation with metalinguistic cues

Translating challenging sentences from L1 to L2 can pose a massive strain on a less able or novice’s working memory executive function. As a result, some students make mistakes due both to cognitive overload and/or ineffective self-monitoring.

This technique may help a lot in this respect as it consists of cueing the students as to the presence of specific items they usually find challenging or make mistakes with whilst providing a cryptic comment in brackets that may help them getting them right by inviting caution or providing a heuristic. Take a look, for instance, at this extract from a text I gave one of my year 9 French classes last week; in my comments in brackets I provided the students with reminders as to issues I know they usually struggle with.

Yesterday we went (Etre verb) to the shopping mall. The place was (perfect tense or imperfect?) very crowded and noisy. My father and I went down (Etre verb) to the ground floor to buy a new (careful: word order) phone whilst my mother and my sister went up (Etre verb) to the top floor to buy gifts. After that I had (do not use ‘avoir’ here) an ice cream. It was (prefect tense or imperfect) delicious.

The purpose of this very valuable technique is to scaffold self-monitoring and to sensitize the students to common mistakes in their output.

8. Translation with pre-task problem identification

Whether I am about to stage oral or written translation tasks in my lessons, I do want to know what aspects of the task my students find challenging, which ones can be solved with the help of reference materials and which ones require my intervention. Moreover, I would like the students to approach the task with as high a sense of self-efficacy as possible.

A way to kill both birds with one stone is to ask them prior to the task to go through it and write on a Padlet wall, Google Doc or simply on their mini-boards what they think they will struggle with.

Then put the students in groups of three or four and ask them to work collaboratively on solving the issues flagged – do group students judiciously. If possible, provide them with access to the internet for them to do some research on the problematic items. Throughout this stage you will go around the class monitoring, providing cues and asking questions that may lead them in the right direction but never giving the solution . Do ensure all students take part in the discussions.

After this collaborative-learning phase, the students do the task. The information gathered throughout the two phases above will have provided you with very valuable information about the issues your students have with regards to the task-at-hand and about some of their learning problems. You will treasure those data and let them inform your future planning.

9. Translation with pre-task self-monitoring

This is a technique whose effectiveness I tested during my PhD. It consists of getting the students, prior to engaging in the task, to look at the most frequent mistakes they made in previous translation activities. Where do they get this information? The most time-consuming way is for them to go back to your feedback on each translation task they did before. A faster way is to ask them to keep a record on a tally sheet of their most frequent mistakes every time you provide them with corrective feedback.

Then you will ask them to use the information gathered to make up a checklist of the errors to look out for in the editing phase of the translation. A metacognitive activity.

10. Concluding remarks

Translation can be a very valuable tool, regardless of the bad press it has received over the last forty years, mainly due to its association with the Grammar Translation Method but also because of the emphasis that many emerging schools of thought place on the importance of conducting foreign language lessons entirely in the L2.

I do believe that, unless we are solely concerned with equipping our students with L2 survival skills, translation can have an enhancing effect as a proficiency booster if used judiciously and the to-be-translated texts contain feasible output , i.e. output the students are capable to translate with little assistance from reference materials or L2  experts.

The translation tasks we give our students must be relevant to prior learning. They often are not. Whilst they are losely related to the topic-in-hand they do not recycle the language we have taught our students – a very serious shortcoming. For translation practice to add to the learning process, it MUST recycle and has to be fully integrated with every single instructional sequence.

In the above I have discussed the most effective translation-teaching techniques I use in my lessons. Narrow Translation is valuable due to its recycling and scaffolding power; it massively helps consolidation whilst building learner confidence. The oral translation games, Oral Ping-Pong, No snake No ladders and Find someone who make translation enjoyable by adding a competitive element and being totally student-centred. Finally, I suggested two techniques which provide cognitive scaffolding as they are designed to support less confident learners and/or boost their chances to succeed at the task-in-hand.

To find out more about my approach to teaching get hold of the book Steve Smith and I co-authored ‘ The Language Teacher Toolkit’.

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4 thoughts on “ translation tasks and techniques that have significantly enhanced my teaching ”.

[…] By the same token, unstructured tasks will not ensure that your students will include them in their output; hence the need to provide extensive productive practice which elicits their deployment task after task, the easiest and safest way of achieving this being oral and written translation tasks involving feasible output (e.g. those discussed here). […]

[…] and many students, especially younger learners, may find them a bit tedious. In a previous post, here, I have presented a wide range of tasks I devised in order to gamify translation or simply make it […]

[…] have also used short translation tasks (e.g. narrow translations) for the very same […]

[…] A competitive translation task championed by Conti. […]

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Transcription and translation

Genes provide information for building proteins . They don’t however directly create proteins. The production of proteins is completed through two processes: transcription and translation.

Transcription and translation take the information in DNA and use it to produce proteins. Transcription uses a strand of DNA as a template to build a molecule called RNA.

The RNA molecule is the link between DNA and the production of proteins. During translation, the RNA molecule created in the transcription process delivers information from the DNA to the protein-building machines.

DNA → RNA → Protein

DNA and RNA are similar molecules and are both built from smaller molecules called nucleotides. Proteins are made from a sequence of amino acids rather than nucleotides. Transcription and translation are the two processes that convert a sequence of nucleotides from DNA into a sequence of amino acids to build the desired protein.

These two processes are essential for life. They are found in all organisms – eukaryotic and prokaryotic . Converting genetic information into proteins has kept life in existence for billions of years.

DNA and RNA

RNA and DNA are very similar molecules. They are both nucleic acids (one of the four  molecules of life ), they are both built on a foundation of nucleotides and they both contain four nitrogenous bases that pair up.

A strand of DNA contains a chain of connecting nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a sugar, and a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. There is a total of four different nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

A strand of DNA is almost always found bonded to another strand of DNA in a double helix. Two strands of DNA are bonded together by their nitrogenous bases. The bases form what are called ‘base pairs’ where adenine and thymine bond together and guanine and cytosine bond together.

Adenine and thymine are complementary bases and do not bond with the guanine and cytosine. Guanine and cytosine only bond with each other and not adenine or thymine.

There are a couple of key differences between the structure of DNA and RNA molecules. They contain different sugars. DNA has a deoxyribose sugar while RNA has a ribose sugar.

While three of their four nitrogenous bases are the same, RNA molecules the have a base called uracil (U) instead of a thymine base. During transcription, uracil replaces the position of thymine and forms complementary pairs with adenine.

Transcription

Transcription is the process of producing a strand of RNA from a strand of DNA. Similar to the way DNA is used as a template in DNA replication , it is again used as a template during transcription. The information that is stored in DNA molecules is rewritten or ‘transcribed’ into a new RNA molecule.

Sequence of nitrogenous bases and the template strand

Each nitrogenous base of a DNA molecule provides a piece of information for protein production. A strand of DNA has a specific sequence of bases. The specific sequence provides the information for the production of a specific protein.

Through transcription, the sequence of bases of the DNA is transcribed into the reciprocal sequence of bases in a strand of RNA. Through transcription, the information of the DNA molecule is passed onto the new strand of RNA which can then carry the information to where proteins are produced. RNA molecules used for this purpose are known as messenger RNA (mRNA).

A gene is a particular segment of DNA. The sequence of bases in for a gene determines the sequence of nucleotides along an RNA molecule.

Only one strand of a DNA double helix is transcribed for each gene. This strand is known as the ‘template strand’. The same template strand of DNA is used every time that particular gene is transcribed. The opposite strand of the DNA double helix may be transcribed for other genes.

RNA polymerase

An enzyme called ‘RNA polymerase’ is responsible for separating the two strands of DNA in a double helix. As it separates the two strands, RNA polymerase builds a strand of mRNA by adding the complementary nucleotides (A, U, G, C) to the template strand of DNA.

A specific set of nucleotides along the template strand of DNA indicates where the gene starts and where the RNA polymerase should attach and begin unravelling the double helix. The section of DNA or the gene that is transcribed is known as the ‘transcription unit’.

Rather than RNA polymerase moving along the DNA strand, the DNA moves through the RNA polymerase enzyme. As the template strand moves through the enzyme, it is unravelled and RNA nucleotides are added to the growing mRNA molecule.

As the RNA molecule grows it is separated from the template strand. The DNA template strand reforms the bonds with its complementary DNA strand to reform a double helix.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria , once a specific sequence of nucleotides has been transcribed then transcription is completed. This specific sequence of nucleotides is called the ‘terminator sequence’.

Once the terminator sequence is transcribed, RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA template strand and releases the RNA molecule. No further modifications are required for the mRNA molecule and it is possible for translation to begin immediately. Translation can begin in bacteria while transcription is still occurring.

Modification of mRNA in eukaryotic cells

Creating a completed mRNA molecule isn’t quite as simple in eukaryotic cells. Like prokaryotic cells, the end of a transcription unit is signalled by a certain sequence of nucleotides. Unlike prokaryotic cells, however, RNA polymerase continues to add nucleotides after transcribing the terminator sequence.

Proteins are required to release the RNA polymerase from the template DNA strand and the RNA molecule is modified to remove the extra nucleotides along with certain unwanted sections of the RNA strand. The remaining sections are spliced together and the final mRNA strand is ready for translation.

In eukaryotic cells, transcription of a DNA strand must be complete before translation can begin. The two processes are separated by the membrane of the nucleus so they cannot be performed on the same strand at the same time as they are in prokaryotic cells.

Rate of transcription

If a certain protein is required in large numbers, one gene can be transcribed by several RNA polymerase enzymes at one time. This makes it possible for a large number of proteins to be produced from multiple RNA molecules in a short time.

Translation

Translation is the process where the information carried in mRNA molecules is used to create proteins. The specific sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule provides the code for the production of a protein with a specific sequence of amino acids.

Much like how RNA is built from many nucleotides, a protein is formed from many amino acids. A chain of amino acids is called a ‘polypeptide chain’ and a polypeptide chain bends and folds on itself to form a protein.

During translation, the information of the strand of RNA is ‘translated’ from RNA language into polypeptide language i.e. the sequence of nucleotides is translated into a sequence of amino acids.

Translation occurs in ribosomes

Ribosomes are small cellular machines that control the production of proteins in cells. They are made from proteins and RNA molecules and provide a platform for mRNA molecules to couple with complimentary transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules.

Each tRNA molecule is bound to an amino acid and delivers the necessary amino acid to the ribosome. The tRNA molecules bind to the complementary bases of the mRNA molecule.

The bonded mRNA and tRNA are fed through the ribosome and the amino acid attached to the tRNA molecule is added to the growing polypeptide chain as it moves through the ribosome.

Nucleotide bases are translated into 20 different amino acids

RNA molecules only contain four different types of nitrogenous bases but there are 20 different amino acids that are used to build proteins. In order to turn four into 20, a combination of three nitrogenous bases provides the information for one amino acid.

A strand of mRNA obviously has multiple codons which provide the information for multiple amino acids. A tRNA molecule reads along one codon of the mRNA strand and collects the necessary amino acid from the cytoplasm.

The tRNA returns to the ribosome with the amino acid, binds to the complementary bases of the mRNA codon, and the amino acid is added to the end of polypeptide chain as the RNA molecules move through the ribosome.

There is a different tRNA molecule for each of the different codons of the mRNA strand. Each tRNA molecule contains three nitrogenous bases that are complementary to the three bases of a codon on the mRNA strand.

The three bases of the tRNA molecule are known as an anticodon. For example, an mRNA codon with bases UGU would have a complementary tRNA with an anticodon AGA.

The opposite end of the tRNA molecule has a site where a specific amino acid can bind to. When the tRNA recognises its complementary codon in the mRNA strand, it goes to collects its specific amino acid. The amino acid is bonded to the tRNA molecule by enzymes in the cytoplasm.

As the tRNA molecule returns with the amino acid, the anticodon of the tRNA binds to the codon of the mRNA and moves through the ribosome. Each tRNA molecule can collect and deliver multiple amino acids. One codon at a time, amino acids are brought to the ribosome and the polypeptide chain is built.

Ribosome binding sites

Ribosomes have three sites for different stages of interaction with tRNA and mRNA: the P site, A site and E site. The P site is where the ribosome holds the polypeptide chain and where the tRNA adds its amino acid to the growing chain.

The A site is where tRNA molecules bind to the codons of the mRNA strand and the E site or exit site is where the tRNA is released from the ribosome and the mRNA strand.

Translation begins when a ribosome binds to an mRNA strand and an initiator tRNA. The initiator tRNA delivers an amino acid called ‘methionine’ directly to the P site and keeps the A site open for the second tRNA molecule to bind to.

The strand of mRNA moves through the ribosome from the A site to the P site and exits at the E site. Molecules of tRNA bind to the codons of the mRNA at the A site before moving to the P site where their amino acid is attached to the end of the growing polypeptide chain.

Once tRNA molecules have released their amino acids they move into the E site and are released from the mRNA and ribosome. As one tRNA molecule moves from the P site into the E site another tRNA molecule moves from the A site into the P site and delivers the next amino acid to the polypeptide chain.

Termination of translation and modification of the polypeptide

Translation ends when a stop codon on the mRNA strand reaches the A site in the ribosome. The stop codon doesn’t have a complementary tRNA or anticodon.

Instead, a protein called a ‘release factor’ binds to the stop codon and adds a water molecule to the polypeptide chain when it moves into the P site. Once the water molecule is added to the polypeptide, the polypeptide is released from the ribosome.

It is common for multiple strands of mRNA to be translated simultaneously by multiple ribosomes. This greatly increases the rate of protein production.

A polypeptide chain must fold on itself to create its final shape as a protein. As the polypeptide is being made it is already folding into a protein. Other proteins are used to guide the polypeptide to fold into the correct shape.

Often a polypeptide chain will need to be modified before it is able to perform properly. A range of molecules, such as sugars and lipids , can be added to the polypeptide. Likewise, the polypeptide chain may be split into smaller chains or have amino acids removed.

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An Introduction to Translation Exercises and Where to Find Them

When used the right way, translation exercises can be an extraordinary help to budding language learners. They’re also a lot of fun because you get exposed to so many new things while also learning your language of choice.

Check out our ideas below to learn how to switch seamlessly between your native language and the language you’re learning .

1. Translate Your Own Diary/Journal

2. flip your social media languages, 3. translate subtitles from your favorite youtubers, 4. become a ted talks translator, 5. join the zanata translation community, how to get the most out of your translation exercises, save newly learned words in a spaced repetition system, use google translate strategically, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

If you keep a diary or journal , why not translate it?

Most people don’t realize that their very own words are some of the best things to study because they contain information that’s highly relevant to their own lives .

It’s difficult to find the vocabulary that you’ll use on a daily basis, but your journal contains vocabulary that you use frequently, so translating that diary or journal will allow you to learn those extra vocabulary words quickly and efficiently.

You also won’t have to worry about imitating someone else’s communication style and voice. Over time, you’ll notice that the act of translating your own personal writing into your target language will actually allow you to express yourself more fluidly and completely .

After you’ve translated a journal entry, you can check your work on Google Translate using the strategies discussed above.

Another great option is to submit your journal entries in your target language to HiNative for corrections and suggestions from native speakers . You can get tips on how to sound more natural, use better vocabulary or improve your grammar and colloquial language.

Keeping the theme of translating things that have personal relevance, your social media posts offer a quick, fun, relevant language exercise that’ll give you strong vocabulary and a relaxed tone of speech.

You’ve probably noticed that language textbooks and courses tend to take a formal, somewhat academic tone. As your language develops, however, it’s very advantageous to develop a personal tone like native speakers use in their daily lives, both online and offline. This allows you to connect on a more personal level with natives.

Translating your social media posts allows you to gain this relaxed tone while learning new words, structures and even some internet slang.

The great thing is that many social media sites have translation options built in , so you can easily check your work. The best way to do this is to put your Facebook in your target language, by going to Settings, Languages and then choosing your language from the top dropdown menu. Next, remove English from the “What languages do you understand?” field and input your target language.

Now, you can scroll back through your timeline and try translating your old posts (which will still appear in English). When you’re done, click the automatic translation option under the post, and Facebook will provide you with a translation into your target language that you can check against.

The added bonus of this method is that you’ll now be reading in your target language every time you log in to Facebook ! Of course, if it gets too confusing, you can always navigate back to the languages tab and put things as they were until you’re ready for another translation exercise.

YouTube is a language learner’s paradise and valuable source of varied types of vocabulary, tone and sentence structure.

Translating your personal favorite YouTubers increases your knowledge in the areas that are important to you and allows you to grow a lexicon that’ll help you in the future when you’re talking about things that you enjoy in the target language .

Translating things that are distant from you is a highly valuable and academic exercise, but translating things like subtitles from your favorite YouTubers gives you the skills that you can use every single day—not just in an academic setting.

Plus, it’s a lot of fun, so why not?

This is another exercise where you can check your work against Google Translate. However, if you’re watching very popular videos, there’s a chance that YouTube already provides captions in your target language that you can check against. Just click the gear icon to access the caption settings and choose your target language, if it’s available.

For advanced or upper-intermediate language learners who are interested in moving their language abilities in a more academic direction, TED Talks are the perfect place to start. TED Talks give you academic-level vocabulary and phraseology while still maintaining a personal tone, so it’s really an all-around, fantastic translation exercise option.

And since the organization is dedicated to spreading knowledge worldwide, there’s an existing platform for you to translate the videos and get your work corrected. TED Talks has a  well-organized video translation system on their website  that connects you with  language and translation experts who correct your target-language video transcriptions  and provide you with constructive feedback on your work.

To be accepted to start translating for TED Talks, you need to answer four questions about your foreign language skills and what motivates you to translate for TED.

Currently, there are over 30,000 translators and TED Talks is continuously looking for new transcribers.

Not interested in joining the translation team or don’t have time to translate full videos?

You can always choose videos that already have professional translations added, try translating a few minutes of speech on your own and then check your work against the translated subtitles. Just choose your target language from the drop-down menu on this page  and you’ll get English-language talks with translated subtitles available.

This tool is very different from the others on this list, but no less useful.

Zanata is a community of people who help translate one another’s documents. By translating as part of the community, you’re helping your language abilities while still helping other people out.

Language learning is better in a community, so you can always ask for help, suggestions or guidance. Zanata offers a varied mix of sources and types of documents , so you’ll stretch all corners of your vocabulary and sentence structuring abilities.

And you’ll be helping people out at the same time. It’s a win-win.

Translation practice may seem self-explanatory, but many people skip out on a few basic steps that end up hurting their progress. Here’s what you need to make sure to do when you’re using translation as a language exercise.

As you work through your translation exercises, record any new words you encounter in a vocabulary list . It’s also important that this list includes the sentences that the vocabulary words came from (I’ll explain that in a second).

After you’ve successfully completed a translation exercise, you can go back to your vocabulary list and add the words to a spaced repetition system (SRS) . SRS learning is like the flashcard method, but supercharged.

SRS programs track which words are easier or harder for you, and then use algorithms to space out the repetition of each word at just the right moment so they’ll stick in your brain. The harder words will show up more frequently, so you’re spending your memorization time more efficiently.

Anki is an SRS flashcard app where you create and organize virtual flashcards.

The flashcards can be added in different shapes and colors. You can add images, texts, audio clips or even video to Anki to magically connect the word to its meaning deep inside your brain.

FluentU takes authentic videos—like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language learning lessons.

You can try FluentU for free for 2 weeks. Check out the website or download the iOS app or Android app.

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Maybe the flashcard step just feels like extra work, but it’s actually making sure that you retain all the new words in the context of your translations. Translating an article is great, but if you immediately forget all the vocabulary you learned from it, what’s the point?

You may know that Google Translate has earned a negative reputation due to some poor translations it’s put out in the past, but these days it’s actually vastly improved thanks to Artificial Intelligence technology .

While most of the translation exercises below have built-in features to check your work, it’s important to get familiar with Google Translate as a self-check tool so you have the freedom to practice translation on any type of content.

Nevertheless, Google Translate should still be used sparingly and strategically. There are several ways to make the most of Google Translate, but I’ll give you two of the most important ones to start you off.

First, you should always give your translations context when you run them through any translation software. This allows the system to provide you with accurate word choices depending on the situation in which they were used. You can provide context by translating either a sentence or a paragraph rather than a phrase or word by itself.

Second, always pay attention to synonyms and alternative translations , provided under the primary translation. Sometimes Google Translate will choose one word out of several possible ones, so it’s very important to look at the other possibilities for the same word to find out which one fits best for the idea that you wanted to communicate.

You can turn the activity of translating interesting, relevant content into a language workout that’ll make you more comfortable, fluent and conversationally capable in your target language.

Happy translating!

If you dig the idea of learning on your own time from the comfort of your smart device with real-life authentic language content, you'll love using FluentU .

With FluentU, you'll learn real languages—as they're spoken by native speakers. FluentU has a wide variety of videos as you can see here:

FluentU App Browse Screen.

FluentU has interactive captions that let you tap on any word to see an image, definition, audio and useful examples. Now native language content is within reach with interactive transcripts.

Didn't catch something? Go back and listen again. Missed a word? Hover your mouse over the subtitles to instantly view definitions.

Interactive, dual-language subtitles.

You can learn all the vocabulary in any video with FluentU's "learn mode." Swipe left or right to see more examples for the word you’re learning.

FluentU Has Quizzes for Every Video

And FluentU always keeps track of vocabulary that you’re learning. It gives you extra practice with difficult words—and reminds you when it’s time to review what you’ve learned. You get a truly personalized experience.

Start using the FluentU website on your computer or tablet or, better yet, download the FluentU app from the iTunes or Google Play store. Click here to take advantage of our current sale! (Expires at the end of this month.)

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In the syntax directed translation, assignment statement is mainly deals with expressions. The expression can be of type real, integer, array and records. Consider the grammar The translation scheme of above grammar is given below: Production rule Semantic actions S → id :=E {p = look_up(id.name);  If p ≠ nil then  Emit (p = E.place)  Else  Error; } E → E1 + E2 {E.place = newtemp();  Emit (E.place = E1.place '+' E2.place) } E → E1 * E2 {E.place = newtemp();  Emit (E.place = E1.place '*' E2.place) } E → (E1) {E.place = E1.place} E → id {p = look_up(id.name);  If p ≠ nil then  Emit (p = E.place)  Else  Error; } The p returns the entry for id.name in the symbol table. The Emit function is used for appending the three address code to the output file. Otherwise it will report an error. The newtemp() is a function used to generate new temporary variables. E.place holds the value of E. Send your Feedback to [email protected] Help Others, Please Share Learn Latest Tutorials Transact-SQL Reinforcement Learning R Programming React Native Python Design Patterns Python Pillow Python Turtle Preparation Verbal Ability Interview Questions Company Questions Trending Technologies Artificial Intelligence Data Science Machine Learning B.Tech / MCA Data Structures Operating System Computer Network Compiler Design Computer Organization Discrete Mathematics Ethical Hacking Computer Graphics Software Engineering Web Technology Cyber Security C Programming Control System Data Mining Data Warehouse Cambridge Dictionary +Plus Meaning of assignment in English Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio It was a jammy assignment - more of a holiday really. He took this award-winning photograph while on assignment in the Middle East . His two-year assignment to the Mexico office starts in September . She first visited Norway on assignment for the winter Olympics ten years ago. He fell in love with the area after being there on assignment for National Geographic in the 1950s. act as something all work and no play (makes Jack a dull boy) idiom be at work idiom be in work idiom housekeeping in the line of duty idiom join duty idiom You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics: assignment | American Dictionary Assignment | business english, examples of assignment, collocations with assignment. These are words often used in combination with assignment . Click on a collocation to see more examples of it. Translations of assignment Get a quick, free translation! Word of the Day a day that you spend somewhere that is not your home or usual place of work It’s not really my thing (How to say you don’t like something) Learn more with +Plus Recent and Recommended {{#preferredDictionaries}} {{name}} {{/preferredDictionaries}} Definitions Clear explanations of natural written and spoken English English Learner’s Dictionary Essential British English Essential American English Grammar and thesaurus Usage explanations of natural written and spoken English Grammar Thesaurus Pronunciation British and American pronunciations with audio English Pronunciation English–Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Simplified)–English English–Chinese (Traditional) Chinese (Traditional)–English English–Dutch Dutch–English English–French French–English English–German German–English English–Indonesian Indonesian–English English–Italian Italian–English English–Japanese Japanese–English English–Norwegian Norwegian–English English–Polish Polish–English English–Portuguese Portuguese–English English–Spanish Spanish–English English–Swedish Swedish–English Dictionary +Plus Word Lists on assignment American    Noun Collocations Translations All translations To add assignment to a word list please sign up or log in. Add assignment to one of your lists below, or create a new one. {{message}} Something went wrong. There was a problem sending your report. Pronunciation THE BEST SPANISH-ENGLISH DICTIONARY Get more than a translation, written by experts, translate with confidence, spanish and english example sentences, examples for everything, regional translations, say it like a local. Making educational experiences better for everyone. Immersive learning for 25 languages Marketplace for millions of educator-created resources Fast, easy, reliable language certification Fun educational games for kids Comprehensive K-12 personalized learning Trusted tutors for 300+ subjects 35,000+ worksheets, games, and lesson plans Adaptive learning for English vocabulary Understanding Assignments What this handout is about. The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips. Basic beginnings Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well : Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment. Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful. Assignment formats Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started. An Overview of Some Kind The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example: “Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …” The Task of the Assignment Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.) “Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.” Additional Material to Think about Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic. “You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?” These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations: “Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.” Technical Details These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines. “Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.” The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do. Interpreting the assignment Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet: Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task? Who is your audience. What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas? What kind of writing style is acceptable? What are the absolute rules of the paper? Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there. Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback . Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do. Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms: Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why. define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell) explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected. compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different) contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar apply —use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen relate —show or describe the connections between things Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation. assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe) synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class: What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view? In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment? What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis. How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve. Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader. Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey. Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words. The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point. You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience . The Grim Truth With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.” So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.” Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument . What kind of evidence do you need? There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately. Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience. Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect. No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style . Technical details about the assignment The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations. Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible. Tricks that don’t work Your instructors are not fooled when you: spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper. use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read. use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt. get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task. Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study. You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Make a Gift Online Language Dictionaries '; audChoice = audChoice.replace(/ selected=["']selected["']/gm, '');var audT = document.getElementById('audT');if ((audT) && (audPref)) { //Parse the content if(audPref.indexOf(':') > -1) { var audPrefAccent = audPref.split(':')[0]; var playbackRate = audPref.split(':')[1]; } else { var audPrefAccent = audPref; var playbackRate = 1; } var re = new RegExp('( UK and possibly other pronunciationsUK and possibly other pronunciations/əˈsaɪnmənt/US:USA pronunciation: IPA and respellingUSA pronunciation: IPA/əˈsaɪnmənt/ ,USA pronunciation: respelling(ə sīn mənt) | | | | | | WordReference English-Spanish Dictionary © 2024: Inglés Español assignment (short task) encargo     tarea   His boss gave him three assignments to be completed by the end of the week.   Su jefe le dio tres encargos que debían ser terminados para el fin de semana. (work given to students) tarea     deberes   The teacher told his students to hand in their assignments by Friday.   El profesor le dijo a sus alumnos que entregaran la tarea el viernes. Inglés Español (position, longer term) designación     asignación   The sales manager moved to Chicago after his assignment there by the company.   El gerente de ventas se mudó a Chicago después de su designación en ese lugar por parte de la compañía. (act of assigning) nombramiento   The assignment of the diplomat to the Embassy in Paris was approved by senior ministers.   El nombramiento del diplomático en la embajada de París fue aprobado por los ministros. (law: transference) traspaso     transferencia : Podría tratarse también de una cesión de uso. Quizá debería haber una entrada para cada supuesto.   The assignment of the property was specified in the contract.   El traspaso de la propiedad estaba especificado en el contrato.   La transferencia de la propiedad estaba especificada en el contrato. (continuing obligation) función   His principal assignment is general maintenance.   Su función principal es el mantenimiento general. WordReference English- Spanish Dictionary © 2024: Inglés Español (law: list in appeal brief) expresión de agravios (law: property rights transfer) cesión de una patente     atribución de una patente (law: transfer) cesión de derechos (loan security) cesión en garantía (task for students) tarea     deberes Forum discussions with the word(s) "assignment" in the title: Go to Preferences page and choose from different actions for taps or mouse clicks. In other languages: French | Italian | Portuguese | Romanian | German | Dutch | Swedish | Russian | Polish | Czech | Greek | Turkish | Chinese | Japanese | Korean | Arabic Advertisements Advertisements : usa para acelerar tus búsquedas en WordReference. © 2024 WordReference.com English version any problems. assignment translation | English-French dictionary assign , alignment , assignation , astonishment of trademark 'assignment' also found in translations in French-English dictionary report ; summons operator statement of receivables Edit the entry Delete the entry Add a suggestion Add comment ! Put in pending The numbers of these documents coincide, their assignment is automatic. Les numéros de ces documents coïncident, leur affectation est automatique. They're well beyond the scope of your original assignment. Ils sont bien au-delà de la portée de votre affectation initiale. The budgetary commitment for this assignment was € 210.000. L'engagement budgétaire pour cette mission a été de 210000 €. We adapt each assignment to the unique nature of the damaged documents. Nous adaptons chaque mission à la nature spécifique des documents endommagés. The customer is authorised to collect this claim even after assignment. Le client est autorisé à recouvrer cette créance également après cession. We are authorized to inform the debtor about the assignment ourselves. Nous sommes également autorisés à signaler la cession nous-mêmes au débiteur. Sign up to add your entry Look up in Linguee Suggest as a translation of "assignment" Linguee Apps Translate as you type World-leading quality Drag and drop documents ▾ Dictionary English-French Assignment noun ( plural: assignments ) —, mission f ( plural: missions f ), attribution f, assign ( sb./sth. ) verb ( assigned , assigned ) —, attribuer v, affecter (qqn.) v, assigner qqch./qqn. v, nommer qqn. v, allouer qqch. v, mandater qqch./qqn. v, assign sb./sth. to sb./sth. verb —, assigner qqn./qqch. à qqn./qqch. v, assign sth. to sb. verb —, céder qqch. à qqn. v, account assignment n —, task assignment n —, temporary assignment n —, pin assignment n —, written assignment n —, random assignment n —, special assignment n —, new assignment n —, group assignment n —, legal assignment n —, audit assignment n —, translation assignment n —, final assignment n —, first assignment n —, assignment of tasks n —, volunteer assignment n —, priority assignment n —, value assignment n —, assignment plan n —, sales assignment n —, direct assignment n —, rights assignment n —, completed assignment n —, recruitment assignment n —, assignment procedure n —, partial assignment n —, core assignment n —, commercial assignment n —, signal assignment n —, color assignment ae n —, document assignment n —, difficult assignment n —, ad-hoc assignment n —, challenging assignment n —, ▸ wikipedia, ▾ external sources (not reviewed). due home shortly. [...] support in his . [...] ses nouvel . [...] write up t . [...] pour . [...] [...] of ownership ating charges [...] [...] [...] u ou un [...] ases to them shall be governed by the rules of procedure. . . . sually several weeks [...] ipe de [...] be for at least [...] r une [...] [...] characterisation mpurities to [...] [...] caractéris tés à [...] [...] [...] decentralisation, and asks by contract to third [...] [...] [...] forme d'une passation de marchés à des tiers pa ontrats. [...] [...] news direc ning editor [...] [...] [...] actualit sions spéciales [...] eparate generation systems for each sector. e systèmes de production distincts à chaque secteur. not easy to get [...] s facile [...] be adjusted for inflation and, if so, whether the amount will be adjusted from the valuation date or from the payment date forward. valuez si l dées seront indexées en fonction de l'inflation et, le cas échéant, si le montant sera rajusté à compter de la date de l'évaluation ou du début des versements. ld be made by way of one [...] [...] aire au [...] [...] [...] elementary level d be a reading [...] [...] [...] palier élém re un [...] [...] has dropped [...] inistres a [...] [...] [...] status and typ . [...] [...] professionnel et . [...] first perma Beauvais. emière [...] [...] takes suc ld make a [...] [...] assume aire une [...] t and transportation of personal effects. [...] [...] de voy 'allocation pour frais d'études, les frais pour congés dans les foyers, les frais de voyag es recrutements et des affectations, les primes d'affectation ais de [...] [...] fulfilling . [...] pouvoir ac . [...] mediation to his new and challen . [...] de cet érience [...] [...] was a management consultant and chaired the board of trustees of the province's largest health care corporation. e secteur public, il a été conseiller en gestion et a présidé le conseil d'administration de la plus importante société de soins de santé de la province. [...] to accept ayment in [...] [...] d'accepte ment intégral [...] [...] of a rental stream receivable unde ement. uestion is such as to interfere with the performance of the official's duties or is incompatible with the interests of the institution. ndat en question est de nature à entraver l'exercice de ses fonctions ou est incompatible avec les intérêts de son institution. [...] to your schedule . [...] à votr . This is not a good example for the translation above. The wrong words are highlighted. It does not match my search. It should not be summed up with the orange entries The translation is wrong or of bad quality. Biochemistry II Study Guides Transcription and Translation Dietary Fat Absorption Hydrolysis of Triacylglyerols βeta‐Oxidation Activation: Fatty Acid ⇄ Fatty Acyl‐CoA Transport: The Role of Carnitine Fats and Oils Fatty Acyl‐CoA: β‐Oxidation Helical Scheme Energy Yield from Fatty Acid Oxidation Odd‐Numbered Chain and Branched Fatty Acids Ketone Bodies Cholesterol Biosynthesis and Its Control Isoprenoid Compounds HMG CoA Reductase Mevalonate Squalene Squalene → Lanosterol Energy Storage Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Lanosterol → Cholesterol Synthesis of Triacylglycerols Cholesterol Transport, Uptake, Control Light Reactions Cyclic Electron Flow Z‐Scheme of Photosynthesis ATP Synthesis Described Carbohydrate Synthesis C 3 Photosynthesis Metabolic Oxidation and Reduction Overall Process of Photosynthesis Energetics of Photosynthesis Photorespiration Bacterial Nitrogenase Ammonium Utilization Further Fates of Incorporated Ammonia Reduced Nitrogen The Nitrogen Cycle 1‐Carbon Metabolism Amino Acid Biosynthesis Principles of Amino Acid Metabolism Purine and Pyrimidine Structures Salvage and Biosynthetic Pathways Pyrimidine Metabolism Deoxynucleotide Synthesis Roles of Nucleotides Exercise and Metabolism Hormonal Regulation Cyclic AMP: A Second Messenger PI System: Another Second Messenger Receptors with Kinase Activity Hormones that Affect Gene Activity Metabolic Relationships DNA Recombination and Repair DNA and RNA Structures DNA Replication Enzymes DNA and Information DNA Hybridization Restriction Enzyme Mapping DNA Mapping Southern Blotting Molecular Cloning Gene Expression Identifying Specific Library Sequences The Polymerase Chain Reaction DNA Sequence Determination RNA Functions Messenger RNA Transfer RNA Ribosomal RNA Other Information‐Processing RNAs RNA Information Transcription Defined Transcription in Prokaryotes Transcriptional Control in Bacteria The Lactose Operon—A Look at Regulation Fidelity in tRNA Aminoacylation Initiation of Protein Synthesis Termination of Translation DNA and Genomes in Eukaryotes Structure of Chromatin Chromatin Replication Reverse Transcription Eukaryotic Gene Structure Eukaryotic Information Flow Eukaryotic Transcription RNA Processing Eukaryotic Translation Eukaryotic Transcriptional Control Translational Control The synthesis of RNA is called transcription because it is simply the copying of DNA “language” into RNA. Like the transcription of spoken language into written language, the units of information (nucleotides in nucleic acids, words in speech and writing) are the same. Translation—the conversion of one language to another—is much more difficult, whether in human language or in biochemical language. Translation can't be too literal and has to preserve the context of information as well as its symbols. The information problem of biological translation is the way in which a protein sequence can be encoded by a nucleic acid sequence. The correspondence between nucleic acid information and protein information is given by the genetic code . which is a set of rules giving the correspondence between mRNA and protein sequence information. See Figure 1 . The genetic code can be thought of as a dictionary giving the equivalents for words from one language to another. However, the dictionary isn't enough. Just as the translation of one language into another requires a translator, the genetic code requires an adaptor molecule. Transfer RNA is that adaptor molecule for biological information. Secondly, the error frequency of the process must be kept to a minimum. The wrong amino acid in a protein could, in principle, lead to the death of the cell, just as the wrong word in translation of a diplomatic message could lead to a war. Both cases need a proofing mechanism to check that the information transfer is accurate. Thirdly, punctuation and reading frame selection are essential components of the process. Because the genetic code is a triplet code, two of the three “messages” in a string of nucleic acids are usually meaningless. In fact, a number of severe genetic diseases are caused by mutations that cause a “frameshifted” protein whose information is meaningless. A biological translation system must know where messages start and stop. A protein molecule's amino acid sequence determines its properties. This has been shown for many proteins, which can be denatured and then refolded to re‐form active protein tertiary structure. The biological translator thus has a somewhat easier task than the translation of human languages, because the mRNA and protein sequences are colinear. Important parts of the information don't rearrange from one language to another in contrast to the way, for example, that verbs occur at different positions in German and English sentences. The conversion of nucleic acid into protein information doesn't completely solve the problem of translation. Proteins must be targeted to their appropriate locations, either inside or outside the cell. In eukaryotes especially, proteins must be broken down at appropriate rates; some proteins have longer half‐lives than others do. These steps are all possible points for cellular control. Previous Termination of Translation Next DNA and Genomes in Eukaryotes Translation of "assignment" in Russian Suggestions, suggestions that contain assignment. Results: 14375 . Exact: 14375 . Elapsed time: 71 ms. Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. 2 Transcription, Translation Session Level Objectives (SLOs): after completing the session, students will be able to: SLO 1 . Explain w hy different genes are expres s ed at different rates , in d ifferent cells , a t d ifferent times . SLO 2. Describe the roles of mammalian RNA polymerases and key components in the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) transcription preinitiation complex, including gene promoters and transcription factors. Slo 3. describe a generic structure of a mammalian gene and its mrna transcripts, including basic gene regulatory elements and processing reactions that precede export of an mrna from nucleus to cytoplasm., slo 4. outline the major steps of protein synthesis, including the roles of mrna, trna, trna synthetases and ribosomes.. SLO 5. Describe the basic ways in which microRNA (miRNA) molecules control gene expression. SLO 6. Predict the molecular consequences of missense, nonsense, frameshift, synonymous and silent point mutations, and mutations caused by insertions, deletions, inversions, DNA expansions and amplification, in various parts of a gene or gene regulatory sequences. Introduction, common themes of information transfer. DNA — replication —> DNA — transcription —> RNA — translation —> polypeptide There are common themes in these reactions. Biological polymerization reactions always have an intrinsic directionality (polarity): In DNA replication and RNA transcription, the template strand is always read 3 ´- to – 5´ , and the nascent chain is always synthesized 5´- to -3´ . In protein synthesis (translation), the mRNA template is always read 5 ´- to -3´ , and the nascent polypept ide is always s ynt hesized N -to- C . The polymerase must be accurately positioned at a start site on the template. In each case this process is called initiation , and in each case initiation entails several regulated steps. The polymerase has an elongation cycle, which is what it sounds like. This is the major biosynthetic stage. A signal on the template signals termination of polymerization. Termination involves disassembly of the elongation machinery and the release of templates and products. This is a general framework. We will not focus on every stage for each process, but rather on key stages that illustrate important concepts. SLO 1. Explain why different genes are expressed at different rates, in different cells, at different times. Most of the mammalian genome consists of non-coding DNA. A minority (~2%) of the human genome actually serves to encode mRNAs that are used as templates for protein synthesis. A similarly small fraction of the genome encodes other varieties of biologically important RNA molecules. The fundamental question about gene expression is this: each of us has many different cell types, but only one genome. The different cell types are different because they make different proteins: muscle cells make contractile proteins; nerve cells have the enzymes needed to manufacture neurotransmitters; osteoblasts have the protein machinery needed to manufacture bone, and so on. Moreover, even a single cell type needs to make different proteins at different times: we synthesize and secrete insulin (a peptide hormone) when we eat. We remodel entire tissues and organs throughout growth, in response to injury, and during pregnancy. How does thi s happen? DNA — transcription —> RNA — translation —> polypeptide The level of any given protein is a function of competing processes: synthesis and destruction. Protein synthesis requires an mRNA template, and the abundance of the mRNA encoding any given protein is also regulated by a balance of synthesis and destruction. RNA Transcription The cell makes RNA molecules that do different things: mRNA is the template for protein synthesis (translation). tRNA and rRNA are core parts of the protein synthesis machinery. Diverse RNA molecules are involved in regulating gene expression and other processes. Examples include micro RNA ( miRNA ) and long non-coding ( lncRNA ). Many other examples are emerging. The various RNAs are made by three RNA polymerase (RNAP) enzymes: RNAP I makes most of the ribosomal rRNA — the most important part of the ribosome, the enzyme that synthesizes polypeptides. RNAP II makes all of the messenger mRNA — the templates for polypeptide synthesis. RNAP III makes transfer tRNA — the carrier of activated amino acids for polypeptide synthesis. We will focus on transcription by RNAPII, because its activity controls the levels of mRNA templates for protein synthesis. The underlying principles by which RNAP I and III operate are similar. A gene contains two kinds of sequences: The transcription unit is the DNA sequence used as a template to synthesize RNA. Regulatory sequences tell RNAP where to initiate and terminate transcription. They allow cells to control which genes are actively transcribed (“expressed”), and which are silent. These sequences can be further sub-divided: The promoter sequence directs RNAP II and associated general transcription factors to the transcriptional start site . Enhancer sequences, usually 10-30 bp in length, bind transcription factors , or activator proteins , that instruct RNA polymerase to become active at the promoter. Each gene is controlled by different enhancer elements. Different cells contain specific sets of transcription factors . This is the main basis for cell-type-specific gene regulation! Enhancers can sit right next to the promoter, or tens of thousands of base pairs distant. Enhancers are usually upstream of the promoter but they can also be embedded within the transcription unit or even downstream of it. The terminator tells RNAP that it has reached the end of the transcription unit. Sequence of Events in Transcription: Genomic DNA is packaged into chromatin . Transcription is regulated in part by how densely packaged a given gene is, and hence, how accessible its regulatory sequence elements are. Later, we will discuss how DNA packaging is controlled. To initiate transcription of a gene, RNAP II must be directed to the promoter. This is done by the General Transc r iption Factors (Figs. 5 and 6). The GTFs recognize and bind to promoter sequences. They place RNAP II at the start site. GTFs then locally melt the DNA at the promoter, separating the two DNA strands to form a transcription bubble . The GTFs are “general” transcription factors because they are always needed for initiation of transcription. However, the GTFs do not have the ability to regulate when RNAP actually initiates RNA synthesis. In other words, GTFs are necessary but not sufficient for initiation of transcription. Transcription factors that bind to regulatory promoter, so intervening DNA must loop out in order for transcription factors, coactivators, and the initiation complex (GTFs + RNAP II) to touch one another. enhancer sequences are needed to activate transcription by RNAP II and the GTFs. Activating transcription factors “talk” to RNAP II and the GTFs by binding to coactivators that touch RNAP II and the GTFs (Fig. 3). Together, these events cause the pre-initiation complex — RNAP II and the GTFs — to initiate RNA polymerization. As we will see in a later session, transcription factors can also control chromatin structure. No primer is needed for RNA synthesis. NTP s are used for RNA synthesis, not 2-deoxy dNTP s. As RNAP II elongates the nascent mRNA chain, it moves along the template strand of the transcription unit (Fig. 3). The replication bubble moves as RNAP II “crawls” along the DNA template strand. In other words, the DNA double helix melts in front of RNAP II and re- hybridizes (anneals) behind it. When RNAP II reaches a terminator sequence (Fig. 3), the newly-synthesized RNA chain is released, RNAP is removed from the template strand, and the transcription bubble collapses. The reason we care so much about the mechanics of RNAP II transcription is that this process controls which mRNA transcripts are produced, and in what abundance. This in turn controls the specific repertoire of proteins that can be made by each cell. Fig. 4 shows the regulatory sequences of genes that encode some key proteins made only in specific kinds of cells: skeletal muscle cells, heart muscle cells, and cells in the lens of the eye. Each type of DNA enhancer element sequence is recognized and bound by specific activating transcription factors — shown here by colored shapes. Humans have about 2,000 different transcription factors. By producing specific combinations of transcription factors, each cell specifies which subsets of genes are actively transcribed, and in what quantities. This concept i s so i mpor tant that it bears r epeat i ng: The specific array of transcription factors, present in a given cell, shapes that cell’s pattern of gene expression — and thus, that cell’s overall protein complement, the cell’s identity (muscle, fibroblast, neuron, etc.) and its functional characteristics. Another important point is that transcription factors are proteins. Consequently, the genes that encode tr anscri pt i on f act or s are t hemselves subject t o tr anscri pt ional r egulati on . By transcribing and translating specific transcription factors the cell can execute temporary or stable programs of gene expression in response to developmental cues and other signals, such as food or infection. Fig. 5. Positive feedback loops maintain gene expression programs. Here, an “initiator” transcription factor binds an enhancer on the gene encoding a “terminal selector” transcription factor. When this gene is transcribed and the resulting mRNA is translated, the resulting protein binds to another enhancer in its own gene, and ensures that the terminal selector gene continues to be transcribed. The terminal selector also stimulates transcription of other genes needed for specific functions. Source: PNAS 110:7101 Processing reactions that precede export of an mrna from nucleus to cytoplasm.. mRN A Pro cess ing and Ex port DNA replication and RNA transcription both occur in the cell’s nucleus. However, proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm. To serve as templates for protein synthesis, mRNA molecules must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. This occurs at a special portal in the nuclear membrane, the nuclear pore (Fig. 6). The nuclear pore is an immense molecular assemblage that precisely controls the passage of mRNA and other macromolecules into, and out of, the nucleus. This is another theme that we will encounter again and again: biosynthetic products made in one cellular organelle are shuttled to another location — as with stations on an assembly line. In the nucleus, the initial “raw” RNA transcript made by RNAP II must be processed . Only then is the mature mRNA exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it will be used as a template for protein synthesis. Later, in the cytoplasm, the 5´ cap will tell the protein synthesis machinery that the RNA bearing the cap is a messenger mRNA — a template for protein synthesis — and not some other type of RNA. The poly-A tail will signal export of the mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm. It will also control the stability (the half-life) of the mRNA once it’s in the cytoplasm. The mRNA is spliced to remove introns and ligate (join) exons together. This step is somewhat involved and extremely important, so we’ll examine it in a bit more detail. Differential mRNA splicing The maturation of a large mRNA molecule may entail dozens of splicing reactions. In different cell types, these splicing reactions may be regulated so that not every exon ends up in each final, mature mRNA molecule. Consequently, a single t r anscription unit may encode more than one mRNA variant , with each derived from a different combination of exons (Fig. 8). Differential splicing allows the ~20,000 protein-coding genes in the human genome to encode substantially more than 20,000 distinct mRNA templates and, thus, a much greater diversity of proteins. To summarize: Transcription initiation controls how many mRNA transcripts get made. Different cells have different activating transcription factors. Different genes have different enhancers that bind different transcription factors. mRNA cap addition signals that the mRNA will be a template for protein synthesis. Differential splicing controls which exons are in the mature mRNA template, and thus the sequence of the resulting polypeptide. The poly-A tail (along with other features of the mRNA) controls nuclear export and the stability of the mRNA — how long it persists in the cytoplasm. Here we summarize how polypeptide chains are synthesized and how they fold into their correct three-dimensional configurations. The notes for this section begin with two charts: first, the assignments of RNA codons to amino acids (the genetic code); second, the chemical and physical properties of the 20 regular amino acids listed by features. This table also includes the rare amino acid selenocysteine, sometimes considered as the “21st amino acid,” although it is a modification of cysteine. You do NOT need to memorize Tables 1 and 2 ! You do need to be able to apply their content. Sour ce: W ikimedia Protein Synthesis: the Genetic Code Like nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis is a template-directed process. However, in protein synthesis, the process is a bit more complicated because the template does not directly interact with the polypeptide product. How this works has never been explained more plainly than by Francis Crick, in an astonishing proposal that he made in 1955: …E a c h amino a c id would c ombin e c h e mi c all y, at a s p ec ial e n zy m e, with a s mall mol ec ul e whi c h , having a speci fi c hydr ogen- bonding sur f ace, could combi ne speci fi c all y with t he nucl eic acid t em plat e. This combination would al so suppl y t he ener gy necessary for polymerization… th e re would b e 20 different kind s of adaptor mole cu le , on e for e a ch amino acid , and 20 different enzymes to join t he amino acid to their adapt ors… We now know that the “adapter” is tRNA . Crick’s proposal was correct in every detail save one: there are 61 possible combinations of 3-base mRNA codons (see Table 1), so there are more than 20 tRNA “adapters.” This system provides the biochemical basis of the genetic code — the rules through whi ch each 3-bas e codon in an m RNA templat e speci fi es one speci fi c amino aci d. tRNA and aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzymes Each tRNA has 2 “business ends”: The anticodon pairs with the 3-base codon on the mRNA template. Look closely at the diagram (Fig. 13). Note that as in other nucleic acid hybrids, the two strands are antiparallel . The aminoacyl accept or si t e is a terminal adenosine (A) nucleotide, where the carboxyl group of the amino acid is esterified to the 3´-OH of the adenine. Note that this is a r elatively unstable, high – energy bond . It will make polypeptide elongation thermodynamically downhill, and hence favorable — exactly as predicted by Crick. Any given tRNA can (in principle) be esterified to any amino acid. However, the fidelity of tran sla tion d e p e nd s a b so lu te ly o n th e accurate ma t c h i n g o f a t RNA b ea r i n g a sp eci fi c anticodon to th e corresponding amino aci d . The job of coupling each amino acid to its corresponding tRNAs is done by 20 different enzymes: the aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (also called aaRS enzymes). This is an absolutely key point: the sp eci fi ci ty of th e geneti c cod e i s controlled by th e tRN A synth etases. In the first step, pyrophosphate (PP i ) is also released. As we saw in DNA and RNA polymerization, pyrophosphate is immediately destroyed by pyrophosphatase, making the first sub-reaction an irreversible committed step . Second, the aminoacyl group is transferred to the tRNA. The products are an aminoacyl tRNA, and AMP. Because we start with ATP, and end up with AMP and two inorganic phosphates, coupling of an amino acid to tRNA has an energetic cost of 2 ATP equivalents. The Ribosom e The “polypeptide polymerase” is the ribosome , an enormous ribonucleoprotein complex. The ribosome has two subunits . Each subunit contains both RNA and many different polypeptides. The small subunit (it is not small, just not as big as the large subunit!) is the “ decoding center .” The small subunit’s job is to match each codon on the template to a corresponding aminoacyl-tRNA. This is no easy task. There are 61 codons that specify 20 amino acids ( Table 1 ), so a large majority of the aminoacyl-tRNA molecules that enter the ribosome must be rejected. When a correct codon-anticodon interaction is detected by the small subunit, the large subunit catalyzes the peptidyltransfer reaction — the chemistry of polypeptide elongation. Remarkably, although each ribosome subunit contains both peptides and rRNA, both the decoding center within the small subunit, and the peptidyltransfer center in the large subunit, are made of ribosomal rRNA . The enzymatic core of the r ibosome is a “r ibozyme ” . This is probably a relic of the ancient origin of ribosomes at the dawn of life, in the so-called RNA world. Initiation : the polymerase — the ribosome — must be placed precisely over the start codon on the mRNA template. Elongation : this is where template-mediated polymerization of the polypeptide occurs. Termination : A stop codon is identified, triggering release of the polypeptide and removal of the ribosome from the mRNA template. Initiation of protein synthesis As with DNA replication and transcription, initiation of protein synthesis is pretty complicated. And since the frequency of initiation controls the rate of protein synthesis, this step is also highly regulated . Regulation occurs at both a global level (the cell asks how much protein synthesis it can support overall, given the available energy and resources), and for specific mRNA transcripts, which are translated with different efficiencies. Steps in translation initiation The small subunit and initiation factors crawl along the mRNA from 5´-to3´, scanning the mRNA for a start codon . In most cases the start codon is AUG . If you look at Table 1 , you’ll see that AUG encodes the amino acid methionine (Met, M). Thus, the first amino acid in a polypeptide is usually Met. Once the decoding center is accurately placed over the AUG start codon, the large subunit (in Fig. 12, the larger oval) docks onto the small subunit and mRNA, and the initiation factors fall off (dissociate). Now the elongation cycle can begin. Two additional points about translation initiation must be emphasized. First, as mentioned above, this step is highly regulated.   Initiation factors are largely responsible for this regulation. Second, the accuracy with which the ribosome’s small subunit is placed over the start codon is critical : a positional error of ± 1 or 2 nucleotides will put the mRNA transcript out – of – frame , and result in a totally different, and incorrect, polypeptide sequence. Similarly, if a mutation in the genome inserts or deletes one or two DNA bases in the coding region of a gene, the  res ulting mRNAs will contain frameshift errors . When this happens, every codon following the frameshift will be incorrectly decoded during translation. Most often this also results in early termination of synthesis. Note: There are two major, important differences in mRNA structure and translation initiation between eukaryotes (humans included) and bacteria. In bacteria, the first amino acid is u s ually a Met deriviative , fMet ( formylmethionine ). Pepti des beginning with f M et ar e recogni z ed by our innat e immune sys tem as a danger signal , b ec au se th e y c an indicate an acti ve bacterial infection. You will learn mor e about bacteria, danger signal s, and innat e immunity in the Infections and Immunity Block. Polypeptide elongation The assembled ribosome (large and small subunits) has three sites that can accommodate tRNA molecules: the A, P, and E sites. These names are shorthand for a minoacyl-tRNA, p eptidyl-tRNA, and e xit sites. It will become clearer in a moment why these names are used. The three sites are used in sequ ence. Here’s how it works (Fig. 14). At the A site, the ribosome samples incoming aminoacyl-tRNA (aa-tRNA) molecules. The r ibosome is l ooking for an aa – tRNA w ith a n a n tico d o n co rre ctly p airs w ith th e mRNA codon positioned under the A site . Dozens of incorrect aa-tRN A s are rejected for each correct match. The growing polypeptide chain, still esterified at its C (carboxyl)-terminus to a tRNA, resides in the P site. In the peptidyltransfer reaction , the nasent polypeptide is transferred from the peptidyl-tRNA sitting in the P site, to the aminoacyl residue sitting in the A site. This is counterintuitive. Inspect Fig. 14 to see how it works. A final point about energy. Two ATP equivalents used to charge each aa-tRNA. This powers the peptidyltransfer reaction. However, additional ATP equivalents are consumed during the tRNA selection and t ranslocation portions of the elongation cycle. In terms of both energy and materials, protein synthesis is very expensive. Many cell types use most of their energy on protein synthesis. SLO5. Describe the basic ways in which microRNA (miRNA) molecules control gene expression. MicroRNAs ( miRNAs ) are post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. More than 2,000 miRNAs have been annotated in human genome. 60% of all human genes are estimated to be regulated by one or more miRNA. miRNAs are short noncoding RNAs , usually about 22 nucleotides long. miRNA molecules are formed through two major pathways : Many miRNA precursors are coded as stand-alone genes, which can be transcribed by RNA polymerase II. Note that in the figure above, the miRNA is derived from a Pol II transcript with a 5´cap and 3´poly-A tail. As they are not coding sequences, miRNA precursors can also be derived from intron sequences that are embedded within other mRNA precursor transcripts. In these cases, splicing excises the intron and its miRNA from the coding exons of the mature mRNA. miRNA does not function alone. miRNAs bind to the Argonaute family of proteins in the cytoplasm. miRNA-Argonaute complexes bind to specific mRNA transcripts via complementary hybridization between the miRNA seed region, and target sequences in the 3’UTR of the targeted mRNA transcript. In most cases, miRNAs function to repress (decrease) the production of specific sets of proteins. miRNA-Argonaute-mRNA complex can repress protein expression in different ways: destabilization of the mRNA via shortening poly (A) tail; inhibition of translation initiation; cleavage and degradation of the target mRNA. Note that these mechanisms are post-transcriptional , meaning that they operate on mature mRNA molecules in the cytoplasm. In contrast, transcription factors act in the nucleus to control the rate at which different mRNA molecules are synthesized (transcribed) by RNA polymerase II. The first miRNA was discovered in the nematode C. elegan s. Studies in humans have revealed that mutations in miRNAs can cause or contribute to various human diseases. For instance, mutation in miRNA-96 is linked to hereditary progressive hearing loss, and deletion of the miR-17~92 cluster causes skeletal abnormality and growth defects. Dysregulation of miRNA function is also implicated as a causative factor in several cancers. It is important to be able to predict potential molecular consequences of various types of mutations as a foundation for understanding the physiological impacts of a genetic disorder. Missense mutation: changes a codon resulting in a different amino acid in a protein encoded by that DNA sequence. Nonsense mutation: introduces a premature stop (termination) codon in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, resulting in a truncated (shorter) polypeptide being synthesizes, as compared with the normal length. Frameshift mutation: an insertion or deletion in the DNA sequence, that is not a multiple of three, changes the translational reading frame, resulting in an incorrect product of translation. Synonymous mutation (silent or non-silent): a change in a codon does not result in a change in the amino acid encoded by the DNA sequence because of the redundancy in the genetic code. However this alteration could have other consequences to molecular processes that involve the presence of that sequence at that location in the DNA, such as transcription, splicing, mRNA export, translation and co-translational folding of the polypeptide. Consequently, a synonymous mutation  may not be a “silent” mutation, where the mutation has no effect on production of the protein or resulting phenotype of the organism. The consequence of different locations of mutations cannot be determined exactly, but predicting the effect of various locations of mutations aids understanding of the consequences of those mutations. For example, mutations in a promoter or enhancer can affect the rate of transcription while mutations within coding sequence of a protein-encoding gene can change the primary sequence of the protein product. Mutations at an exon-intron junction, as well as mutations in many coding and non-coding regions of a gene, can affect splicing of a primary RNA transcript. Insertions and deletions (collectively called “indels”) or inversions could affect many molecular processes, depending on the DNA sequence involved and the breakpoints of the lesion. Gene amplification could cause over expression of a gene product, such as the HER2 gene in breast cancer. When a repeated sequence appears as a greater number of iterations relative to normal, the primary sequence of the protein or the regulation of gene expression can be affected. Nucleotide repeat expansions such as those in Huntington disorder or Fragile X syndrome, will be discussed later in the course. Molecular Biology Copyright © by Alexey Merz; Timothy Cherry; and kullberm. All Rights Reserved. Share This Book 111 IMAGES Transcription and Translation Assignment Translation Essay Writing Help, Service, Experts in the UK Compiler Design Lec -48 -Syntax Directed Translation (SDT) for Assignment Statements by Deeba Kannan SOLVED: Assignment 20 Translation No 2 Assignment Unit 1 task 1 done COMMENTS PDF Fundamentals of Translation 1.1 Translation, translating and translation studies 2 1.2 Preliminary definition: Basic concept 3 1.3 Existing definitions of translation 11 1.4 In search of a definition 12 1.5 Equivalence and the definition of translation 16 1.6 Types of translation activity 18 1.7 Translation in a professional context 23 Exploring the Translation Assignment Exploring the Translation Assignment. 01-29-2016 07:06 AM. In Chapter 5 of An Insider's Guide to Academic Writing, my coauthors Susan Miller-Cochran,Stacey Cochran, and I explore some differing rhetorical contexts for which academics must sometimes write, including their own scholarly communities as well as some more popular communities. PDF Papers in Translation Studies Papers in Translation Studies. Edited by Sattar Izwaini. This book first published 2015. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ttar Izwaini and contributorsAll. PDF Major Paper 1: Genre Translation Your translation and reflective argument essay altogether should be 5-7 pages in total with at least 5 full pages. Use 1-inch margins and 12-point Times New Roman, double-spaced Use MLA style for both in-text citations and works cited page. Due date: Draft 1 due on 4/18 (Mon) before midnight Revised draft due on 4/25 (Mon) before midnight. Translation tasks and techniques that have significantly enhanced my 3.2 Oral translation games (OB) 3.2.1 No Snakes No Ladders (NSNL) The no-frills (no fancy visuals, cards, etc.) oral-translation boardgame 'No snakes no ladders' is extremely useful and very simple to make and use. It is due its simplicity and high effectiveness that has gone viral in our Department. PDF Classroom Translation Assessment Techniques: How Can We Tell What ... Translation courses usually make use of this type of assessment. However, it seems that these courses may have lack of criteria in details. Translation courses are being taught at universities, but no precise study has been done on the type of tests and the criteria for assessing students' translation or how translation lecturers prepare ... Transcription and Translation Transcription and translation are the two processes that convert a sequence of nucleotides from DNA into a sequence of amino acids to build the desired protein. These two processes are essential for life. They are found in all organisms - eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Converting genetic information into proteins has kept life in existence for ... An Introduction to Translation Exercises and Where to Find Them FluentU is an immersive language learning program that has flashcards as one of its main features. FluentU takes authentic videos—like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language learning lessons. You can try FluentU for free for 2 weeks. Google Translate Google's service, offered free of charge, instantly translates words, phrases, and web pages between English and over 100 other languages. Commenting on translation: implications for translator training The Major Assignment was partly inspired by assessment practices in translator training and other undergraduate units with which the coordinator had been involved, either as teacher or student. Writing One's Own Texts for Translation Assignments Abstract. The paper examines the possibility of teachers of literary and non-literary translation writing their own texts that are then given to students of translation as assignments to translate ... Compiler Translation of Assignment statements Translation of Assignment Statements. In the syntax directed translation, assignment statement is mainly deals with expressions. The expression can be of type real, integer, array and records. The p returns the entry for id.name in the symbol table. The Emit function is used for appending the three address code to the output file. ASSIGNMENT ASSIGNMENT definition: 1. a piece of work given to someone, typically as part of their studies or job: 2. a job that…. Learn more. Assignment in Spanish 1. (allocation) a. la asignación. (F) The manager is in charge of making the project assignments.El director está a cargo de la asignación de los proyectos. 2. (task) a. la tarea. (F) We have gathered the data we needed for the school assignment. Hemos reunido los datos que necesitábamos para la tarea del colegio. Translations assignment Flashcards A triangle is drawn on the coordinate plane. It is translated 4 units right and 3 units down. Which rule describes the translation? (x, y) → (x + 4, y - 3) Assume each figure shown has the same orientation. Which figure is the image of square LMNP after a translation of (x, y) → (x + 5, y - 3)? 4. Understanding Assignments What this handout is about. The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms ... assignment assignment n. (short task) encargo nm. tarea nf. His boss gave him three assignments to be completed by the end of the week. Su jefe le dio tres encargos que debían ser terminados para el fin de semana. assignment n. (work given to students) assignment translation in French The course has heavy reading assignments. Il y a beaucoup de lecture à faire pour ce cours. Translation English - French Collins Dictionary. See also: Collaborative Dictionary English-French. assignment. n. 1) la mission, 2) une attribution. assignment canadagames2011.ca. Many translated example sentences containing "assignment" - French-English dictionary and search engine for French translations. Translation Jobs Podcast Show Notes Services. Cover Letters Services. Transcripts Services. Podcast Content Services. Music Transcription Services. Press Releases Services. See more. Browse 1,457 open jobs and land a remote Translation job today. See detailed job requirements, compensation, duration, employer history, & apply today. Transcription and Translation Transcription and Translation. The synthesis of RNA is called transcription because it is simply the copying of DNA "language" into RNA. Like the transcription of spoken language into written language, the units of information (nucleotides in nucleic acids, words in speech and writing) are the same. Translation—the conversion of one ... assignment Translation of "assignment" in Russian. The new assignment must be serious. Новое задание должно быть не шуточным. Because we're doing this assignment. Потому что мы делаем это задание. Otherwise they would fail their assignment. Иначе оно перестало бы ... Transcription, Translation The notes for this section begin with two charts: first, the assignments of RNA codons to amino acids (the genetic code); second, the chemical and physical properties of the 20 regular amino acids listed by features. ... Steps in translation initiation. The ribosome small subunit (Fig. 12, small brown oval) assembles with initiation factors ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis