shakespeare persuasive speech

The Shakespearean Student

For shakespeare lovers of any age.

Close Reading: Friends, Romans, Countrymen

Today I’m going to do an analysis of one of the most famous speeches in all of Shakespeare: Antony’s Funeral Speech in Act III, Scene ii of Julius Caesar, commonly known as the “Friends, Romans, Countrymen” speech.

I. Given Circumstances

Antony is already in a very precarious position. His best friend Julius Caesar was murdered by the senators of Rome. Antony wants vengeance, but he can’t do so by himself. He’s also surrounded by a mob, and Brutus just got them on his side with a very convincing speech. They already hate Antony and Caesar. His goal- win them back. Here is a clip of Brutus (James Mason) speaking to the crowd from the Joseph Mankewitz movie version of Julius Caesar:

So the stakes are very high for Antony: If he succeeds, the crowd will avenge Caesar, and Antony will take control of Rome. If he fails, he will be lynched by an angry mob.

II. Textual Clues

If you notice in the text of the speech below, Antony never overtly says: “Brutus was a liar and a traitor, and Caesar must be avenged,” but that is exactly what he gets the crowd to do. So how does he get them to do so, right after Brutus got them on his side?

Antony . You gentle Romans,— 1615 Citizens . Peace, ho! let us hear him. Antony . Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones; 1620 So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest— 1625 For Brutus is an honourable man; So are they all, all honourable men— Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; 1630 And Brutus is an honourable man. He hath brought many captives home to Rome Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: 1635 Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 1640 Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honourable man. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. 1645 You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him? O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, 1650 And I must pause till it come back to me. First Citizen . Methinks there is much reason in his sayings. Julius Caesar Act III, Scene ii.

The two main methods Shakespeare uses to infuse Antony’s speech with powerful persuasive energy are the way he writes the verse, and his command of rhetoric.

The greatest gift Shakespeare ever gave his actors was to write his plays in blank verse. It not only tells you which words are important to stress, it gives you clues about the character’s emotional journey; just as a person’s heartbeat can indicate their changes in mood, a subtle change in verse often betrays the character’s pulse and state of mind. Antony uses his own emotions and his powers of persuasion to manipulate the crowd, so his verse helps show how he changes the pulse of the Roman mob.

I could write a whole post on the verse in this page, which I don’t need to do, since The Shakespeare Resource Center did it for me: http://www.bardweb.net/content/readings/caesar/lines.html What I will do is draw attention to some major changes in the verse and put my own interpretations on how Antony is using the verse to persuade the crowd:

The first line of the speech grabs your attention. It is not a standard iambic pentameter line, which makes it rhythmically more interesting. In the movie version, Marlin Brando as Antony shouts each word to demand the crowd to just lend him their attention for a little while. He uses the verse to emphasize Antony’s frustration.
“The Evil that men do, lives after them”- Notice that the words evil and men are in the stressed position. Antony might be making a subconscious attempt to say Brutus and the other evil men who took the life of Caesar are living, when they deserve to die.
“ If it were so..” Again, Antony might be making a subtle jab at the conspirators. Brutus said Caesar was ambitious and Antony agrees that ambition is worthy of death, but he also adds an If, to plant the seeds of doubt in the crowd’s minds. To drive it home, the word if is in the stressed position, making it impossible for the crowd to not consider the possibility that Caesar wasn’t ambitious, and thus, didn’t deserve to be murdered.

B. Rhetoric

One reason why this speech is so famous is its clever use of rhetoric, the art of persuasive speaking. Back in ancient Rome, aristocrats like Antony were groomed since birth in the art of persuasive speech. Shakespeare himself studied rhetoric at school, so he knew how to write powerful persuasive speeches. Here’s a basic breakdown of the tactics Antony and Shakespeare use in the speech:

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

The three basic ingredients of any persuasive speech are Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. Ethos is an appeal to the audience based on the speaker’s authority. Pathos is an appeal to the emotions of the crowd, and Logos is an appeal to facts and or reason. Both Brutus and Antony employ these three rhetorical tactics, but Antony doesn’t just appeal to his audience, he manipulates them to commit mutiny and mob rule.

Logos Antony has very few facts or logical information in his speech. His major argument is that again, since Caesar wasn’t ambitious, (which is very hard to prove), his death was a crime. Antony cites as proof the time Cæsar refused a crown at the Lupercal, but since that was a public performance, it’s hardly a reliable indication of Caesar’s true feelings.

You see logos as a rhetorical technique all the time whenever you watch a commercial citing leading medical studies, or a political debate where one person uses facts to justify his or her position. If you look at Hillary Clinton during the 2016 Presidental Debate, she frequently cited statistics to back up her political positions

Ethos is an argument based on the speaker’s authority. Brutus’ main tactic in his speech is to establish himself as Caesar’s friend and Rome’s. He says that he didn’t kill Caesar out of malice, but because he cared more about the people of Rome.

BRUTUS: If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of Caesar’s, to him I say, that Brutus’ love to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: –Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. JC, III.ii.

Antony employs the exact same tactics, establishing himself as Caesar’s friend and telling the crowd that, as Caesar’s friend, Antony believes that Caesar did not deserve his murder. His use of Ethos therefore, helps Antony refute Brutus’ main claim.

Again, the 2016 debate is another excellent way of showing ethos in action. Hillary Clinton and Brutus frequently cited their political experience and their strength of character to justify their views. There’s an excellent article that examines Hillary’s use of Ethos in her political rhetoric: https://eidolon.pub/hillary-clintons-rhetorical-persona-9af06a3c4b03

Pathos is the most frequently used rhetorical tactic: the appeal to emotion. Donald Trump uses this constantly, as you can see in this clip from the 2016 debate:

https://youtu.be/wMuyBOeSQVs

Pathos is bit more of a dirty trick than Ethos and Logos, which is why Brutus doesn’t use it much. As scholar Andy Gurr writes:

Brutus is a stern philosopher and thinker. His faith in reason fails to secure the crowd from Antony’s disingenuous appeal to their affections, which uses sharp sarcasm and some twisted facts.

Antony’s major appeals to emotion:

His grief over losing Caesar
His painting of Cæsar as a generous, faithful friend
Shaming the crowd for not mourning Caesar’s death
Appeal to piety by showing the body funeral reverence.
His use of Caesar’s bloody body and mantle to provoke outrage from the citizens.
His use of Caesar’s will to make the crowd grateful to Caesar, and furious at Brutus.

Rhetorical Devices

If Ethos, Pathos, and Logos are the strategies of rhetorical arguments, rhetorical devices are the artillery. If you check out the website Silva Rhetoricae, (The Forest Of Rhetoric), you can read about the hundreds of individual rhetorical devices that politicians have used in speeches and debates since ancient history. I will summarize here the main ones Antony uses over and over again in “Friends, Romans, Countrymen.” For another more compete analysis, click here: https://eavice.wordpress.com/2011/02/05/jv-rhetorical-devices-in-antonys-funerary-speech-from-shakespeares-julius-caesar/

Irony The way Antony keeps repeating “Brutus is an honorable man,” is a particularly sinister form of irony, which here means to imply the opposite of what you have said to mock or discredit your opponent. The irony is that the more Antony repeats this idea that Brutus is honorable, the more the crowd will question it. If Brutus were truly honorable, he would not need Antony to remind them. Of course, Brutus can still be honorable whether Anthony mentions it or not, but this repetition, coupled with Antony’s subtle rebuttals Of Brutus’ arguments, manages to shatter both Brutus’ motives, and his good name, at least in the eyes of his countrymen.
Antimetabole is the clever use of the same word in two different ways. Antony manages to work it in twice in this speech:
“If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievou sly hath Caesar answer’d it.”
“You all did love him once, not without cause : What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?”
Rhetorical question This is the most famous rhetorical device which by the way in Antony’s day would have been known as Erotema. Antony asks a series of questions designed to refute the notion that Caesar was ambitious, from his mercy to his captives, to Caesar’s tenderness to the poor, and of course his refusal to take the crown during the Lupercal. Each question calls Brutus’ claims into question and seeds doubt in the crowd.

Performance Notes with link to Globe performance

https://youtu.be/1RL8Wg-b8k

Unlike most Shakespearean plays, with Julius Caesar, we have an eyewitness account of how the play was originally performed. Swiss student Thomas Platter wrote a long description of watching the play at the original Globe Theatre in 1599. This is a translation that I found on The Shakespeare Blog:

On September 21st after lunch, about two o’clock, I and my party crossed the water, and there in the house with the thatched roof witnessed an excellent performance of the tragedy of the first Emperor Julius Caesar, with a cast of some fifteen people; when the play was over they danced very marvellously and gracefully together as is their wont, two dressed as men and two as women… Thus daily at two in the afternoon, London has sometimes three plays running in different places, competing with each other, and those which play best obtain most spectators. The playhouses are so constructed that they play on a raised platform, so that everyone has a good view. There are different galleries and places, however, where the seating is better and more comfortable and therefore more expensive. For whoever cares to stand below only pays one English penny, but if he wishes to sit he enters by another door, and pays another penny, while if he desires to sit in the most comfortable seats which are cushioned, where he not only sees everything well, but can also be seen, then he pays yet another English penny at another door. And during the performance food and drink are carried round the audience, so that for what one cares to pay one may also have refreshment. The actors are most expensively costumed for it is the English usage for eminent Lords or Knights at their decease to bequeath and leave almost the best of their clothes to their serving men, which it is unseemly for the latter to wear, so that they offer them for sale for a small sum of money to the actors. Thomas Platter, 1599, reprinted from: http://theshakespeareblog.com/2012/09/thomas-platters-visit-to-shakespeares-theatre/

So the conclusions we can draw based on Platter’s account include that Antony was standing on a mostly bare stage with a thatched roof, raised slightly off the ground. We can also guess that, since the merchants were selling beer, fruits, and ale, that the audience might have been drunk or throwing things at the actors.

As Platter notes, and this page from Shakespeare’s First Folio confirms, there were only 15 actors in the original cast, so Shakespeare’s company didn’t have a huge cast to play the gigantic crowd in the Roman street. In all probability, the audience is the mob, and Antony is talking right to them when he calls them “Friends, Romans, Countrymen.” I believe that the audience was probably encouraged to shout, chant, boo, cheer, and become a part of the performance which is important to emphasize when talking about how to portray this scene onstage. A director can choose whether or not to make the audience part of the action in a production of Julius Caesar , which can allow the audience to get a visceral understanding of the persuasive power of politicians like Brutus and Antony. Alternatively, the director can choose instead to have actors play the crowd, and allow the audience to scrutinize the crowd as well as the politicians.

In conclusion, the reason this speech is famous is Shakespeare did an excellent job of encapsulating the power of persuassive speech that the real Antony must have had, as he in no small way used that power to spur the Roman crowd to mutiny and vengeance, and began to turn his country from a dying republic into a mighty empire.

If you liked this post, please consider signing up for my online class where I cover the rhetorical devices in Julius Caesar and compare them with several other famous speeches. Register now at http://www.outschool.com

◦ Interview with Patterson Joseph and Ray Fearon RSC: https://youtu.be/v5UTRSzuajo

1. Annotated Julius Caesar: https://sites.google.com/site/annotatedjuliuscaesar/act-3/3-2-57-109

2. Folger Shakespeare Library: Julius Caesar Lesson Plan: https://teachingshakespeareblog.folger.edu/2014/04/29/friends-romans-teachers-send-me-your-speeches/

3. Silva Rhetoric http://rhetoric.byu.edu/

3. Rhetoric in Marc Antony Speech

https://www.google.com/amp/s/eavice.wordpress.com/2011/02/05/jv-rhetorical-devices-in-antonys-funerary-speech-from-shakespeares-julius-caesar/amp/

4. Shakespeare Resource Center: http://www.bardweb.net/content/readings/caesar/lines.html

Aubrey Whitlock

The language of persuasion.

The Language of Persuasion (from Study Guide by Cass Morris)

Through the use of rhetorical devices (or figures of speech ), Shakespeare provides a map to help an actor figure out how to play a character and to communicate the story of the play to the audience. These devices may provide clues to meaning, may indicate how a character’s mind works, or may audibly point the audience towards important concepts in a character’s speech. Rhetoric is one of many tools an actor can use to discover playable moments in a speech or in dialogue. For example, a character who uses ellipsis, leaving out part of a sentence to force the other characters or audience members to complete it in their minds, might be forging a bond, or he might simply be in a hurry.

Julius Caesar includes one of Shakespeare’s most famous explorations of rhetoric: Antony’s “Friends, Romans, Countrymen” speech, an elaborate ploy in which Antony coaxes the plebeian mob from animosity to sympathy. Act Three, scene two is a verbal battle; Brutus first wins the plebeians over to his side, and Antony must conquer their good opinions for himself.

In this activity, your students will compare Brutus’s exoneration to Antony’s funeral oration, performing a rhetorical analysis of each and determining why Antony’s speech is ultimately more successful than Brutus’s. This examination will include not only the R.O.A.D.S. categories, but also an examination of logos, pathos, and ethos, the three forms of persuasive appeal.

Step #1: Logos, Pathos, and Ethos

Aristotle wished that all communication could take this form, but, owing to the frailties of human nature, he conceded the need for pathos and ethos.
Does logos always have to be truthful? Or can a speaker create a very rational, very logical argument using false information? Or twist truthful facts into a misleading interpretation?
You may wish to discuss common logical fallacies ( see http://www.theskepticsguide.org/resources/logicalfallacies.aspx for a guide)
Make a list of all the different emotions your students think it might be helpful to call on in a persuasive argument.
What does a speaker need to know about his audience in order to use pathos effectively?
Make a list of different ways a speaker might credential herself (introduction by another trusted person, talking about her background herself, a bio in an event program, etc).
How can a speaker get an audience to trust him if they don’t already know who he is? How does presentation (dress, accent, posture, etc) play into the qualifications of ethos?
When have they seen others use these methods of appeal? (Politicians, characters in movies, etc)
When have they themselves needed to use them? (Running for class office, job interviews, college applications, etc)
When have they ever seen these forms of appeal fail to persuade an audience?

Activity: Brutus’s Exoneration & Antony’s Funeral Oration

Remind them of the circumstances Brutus is facing: He has made himself the public face of a group of conspirators who just murdered the ruling dictator of Rome, a man who was hated by much of the aristocracy but extremely popular with the army and with the common people.
Remind them of the circumstances Antony is facing: Brutus has just convinced the crowd that he was right to kill Caesar, because Caesar was a tyrant who would have been the death of all freedom for all Roman citizens. Brutus has also, however, given Antony leave to speak Caesar’s eulogy, and has bid the plebeians to listen to what he has to say. Antony also enters with Caesar’s body, which at the moment is still covered-up.
What does Brutus have working against him at the beginning of the scene?
What does Antony have working against him at the beginning of the scene?
What do they have working in their favor?
If you were in this situation, what approach might you take?

Just like Brutus and Antony, modern politicians use rhetoric to attempt to influence the minds and hearts of voters. Ask your students when they have heard a politician try to excuse himself for something, like Brutus does. When have they heard a politician try to change their minds about something, like Antony does? For further exploration, have your students examine campaign speeches and public addresses with an eye for rhetoric used for persuasion or emotional appeal. You might consider Martin Luther King Jr’s “I have a dream” speech, stump speeches from current or past elections, or presidential addresses on important events such as 9-11, Hurricane Katrina, or the Gulf Oil Spill. Or read our recent blog post on the rhetoric of Hermione in the Winter’s Tale and other contemporary women forced to testify in open forums.

Understanding the language of persuasion empowers students to think critically about how these appeals are used on them, and how they can in turn use them for their own benefit. Want our annotated copies of Brutus and Antony’s speeches for your classroom? Sign up for our monthly Education Newsletter ! You can also purchase our Julius Caesar Study Guide here .

Aubrey Whitlock is the ASC Education Associate and ASCTC Camp Life Coordinator.

Shakespeare – Module 4: Famous Monologues and Soliloquies – 1 of 3

Objective: To explore Shakespeare’s use of monologue and the power of rhetoric .

Now we’ve looked at some of the key techniques used by Shakespeare in his plays, it’s time to look at a few of the really famous speeches made by some of his characters. You may already know what a monologue is, especially if you remember this clip from an infamous film…

If you want to get technical about it, you can break the word down into a prefix (mono) and a suffix (logue). ‘Mono’ meaning alone and ‘logue’ meaning speak; therefore a monologue is to speak alone. In a play, this is where one character speaks for an extended amount of time. Rhetoric is the word to describe effective or persuasive speech. Therefore, a monologue full of rhetoric is a persuasive or powerful speech by one person. Phew!

Task 1: Monologues in Shakespeare are hugely important and often lead to dramatic scenes. Therefore, they are full of language techniques and carefully chosen vocabulary. Write down a bullet point list of as many persuasive techniques as you can (You may like to use the acronym HADAFORREST to help you remember them) that Shakespeare might have used in some of his monologues.

UK needs a 'forest running length of Britain to mark Queen's 70 ...

Hyperbole (exaggeration) – Billions of people use buses in Bristol each day.

Anecdote (a short story used to support an idea) I catch the bus every morning.

Direct Address – You need to use ‘green’ transport.

Alliteration – B uses are b oring and b usy.

Facts and statistics – There was a 10% rise in bus usage last year.

Opinion – I don’t like riding the bus.

Rhetorical Question – Isn’t it obvious that we should be walking and cycling more ?

Repetition – Avoid using cars. Avoid using buses. Avoid polluting the world.

Emotive Language – The terrified trees are struggling to breathe.

Superlatives – The best thing we can do is work together.

Triplets (rule of three) – By working together, we can help the world survive, thrive and keep it alive!

Task 2: Watch the video summary of ‘Julius Caesar.’ Make a list of 10-15 bullet points summarising the key moments in the play.

Now that you know the story of ‘Julius Caesar,’ we are going to focus on the speech made by Mark Antony at Caesar’s funeral. Remember, Brutus has made a speech before Mark Antony explaining his reasons for killing Caesar; the crowd are initially angry at Caesar’s death but then decide that Brutus was right to kill him (for the good of Rome). Mark Antony’s speech starts by praising Brutus but slowly turns the crowd against him, eventually leading to the downfall of Brutus and all the others that took part in Caesar’s murder.

Task 3: Read Mark Antony’s speech (below) and write down a bullet point list of 5 key things that he says in his speech. (on the left hand side is the speech in old Shakespearean English, on the right is the speech in modern English).

Old Shakespearean English

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interrèd with their bones.
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious.
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath Caesar answered it.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest—
For Brutus is an honorable man;
So are they all, all honorable men—
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me.
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is an honorable man.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome
Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill.

Modern English

Friends, Romans, countrymen, give me your attention.
I have come here to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do is remembered after their deaths,
but the good is often buried with them.
It might as well be the same with Caesar.
The noble Brutus told you that Caesar was ambitious.
If that’s true, it’s a serious fault,
and Caesar has paid seriously for it.
With the permission of Brutus and the others—
for Brutus is an honorable man; they are all honorable men—
I have come here to speak at Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, he was faithful and just to me.
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
and Brutus is an honorable man.
He brought many captives home to Rome
whose ransoms brought wealth to the city.

Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept.
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff.
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is an honorable man.
You all did see that on the Lupercal
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
And, sure, he is an honorable man.
I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,
But here I am to speak what I do know.
You all did love him once, not without cause.
What cause withholds you then to mourn for him?
O judgment! Thou art fled to brutish beasts,
And men have lost their reason.
Bear with me.
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
And I must pause till it come back to me.

Is this the work of an ambitious man?
When the poor cried, Caesar cried too.
Ambition shouldn’t be so soft.
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
and Brutus is an honorable man.
You all saw that on the Lupercal feast day
I offered him a king’s crown three times,
and he refused it three times. Was this ambition?
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.
And, no question, Brutus is an honorable man.
I am not here to disprove what Brutus has said,
but to say what know. You all loved him once,
and not without reason. Then what reason holds you back
from mourning him now?
Men have become brutish beasts and lost their reason!
Bear with me. My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
and I must pause until it returns to me.

Task 4: Re-read Mark Antony’s speech and pick out three words/ phrases that stand out to you. Explain, in clear paragraphs why they stand out to you and what the effect is on the audience. In the next box, you will find some sentence starters to help you write ideas into clear paragraphs. e.g. “friends” makes it sound like Mark Antony is equal to the common people in the crowd. This would make them respect him.

Challenge: Identify language techniques used by Shakespeare (Triplet, repetition, etc). e.g. The phrase “friends, Romans, countrymen” is a triplet which emphasises how proud Mark Antony is to call the crowd of common people his equals.

Mark Antony explains that…
This is shown when it says “…”
This gives the impression that…
This would make the audience feel … because…
CHALLENGE: The technique … is used to show that… because…

So, there we have it, one of Shakespeare’s most famous monologues, in a play that has more betrayal than an episode of the the Kardashians. Who would have thought that Shakespeare’s plays could be so full of intrigue, death and violence? Next time, we’re lightening the mood with a visit to a monologue from one of Shakespeare’s comedies!

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To help you look at any scene in Julius Caesar and begin to analyse it, it’s important to ask questions about how it's written and why.

Shakespeare’s plays are driven by their characters and every choice that’s made about words, structure and rhythm tells you something about the person, their relationships or their mood in that moment. You should always try and ask yourself, like actors do, why is the character saying what they are saying or doing what they are doing? What is their motive?

Just like Detectives, we need to look for clues to help us answer those questions each time and below you can find some interrogation techniques we use to analyse text, introduced by the actors that use them.

Analysing Rhetorical Language

The language of rhetoric, or persuasive speaking, is very important in Julius Caesar. Both in Shakespeare’s time and in Ancient Rome, public speaking and the ability to move a crowd was a highly valued skill, particularly in politics.

In this video, you can hear RSC actor, Alex Waldmann talk about Brutus’ use of rhetoric in his speech to the crowd at Caesar’s funeral in Act 3 Scene 2. It is a good idea to keep a list of where these skills are used in Julius Caesar. Here is a list of rhetorical features to look for:

Both Brutus and Antony go head to head in Act 3 Scene 2. Watch Paterson Joseph, playing Brutus, and Ray Fearon, playing Antony, in the 2012 production to see the two characters' different uses of rhetoric in action.

Questions to consider

How do Antony and Brutus each use repetition and antithesis? Ask yourself:

Does Brutus’ use of repetition make him easier or harder to listen to? Which of his words stand out as a result of being repeated? Repetition usually helps to plant ideas in the minds of the people listening. If you write down all the words that Brutus repeats more than others, what would you think his speech was about?
How does Antony talk about Brutus? How many times does he repeat the words ‘honourable man’ and how does the meaning of this statement change each time he uses it?
How many examples of antithesis can you find in Brutus’ speech? Looking back at the first video, what does Alex Waldmann do in performance to make these opposites stand out?

Showing emotion or inspiring emotion in your audience is an important skill for a public speaker. Thinking about these two speakers, ask yourself:

What does Antony say and do in this speech to move the crowd emotionally?
At what moments do you think Brutus or Antony show emotion of their own? How are you able to tell? Which of them feels more emotionally charged and what is the impact of that?
Look at Antony’s speech in the text and think about his use of repetition, antithesis and emotion. Just as Alex thinks about in the first video, when talking about Brutus, can you imagine how an actor playing Antony might perform this speech?

Using Alex’s points on rhetoric, we’ve started to look at how Antony persuades and moves the mob/crowd in his Act 3 Scene 2 speech. See if you can complete the grid and finish four points which explain how he uses language to get the crowd to agree with him.

Explanation

Evidence Select an option

Explanation Click text to edit

Evidence Click text to edit

Point Click text to edit

What else can I do to explore Antony’s language?

Try applying these same strategies to all of Antony’s lines to reveal any changes in his language and behaviour. Pay attention to any soliloquies he has, as these moments can reveal a character’s true thoughts.
Think about how many modern examples you know of great rhetorical speeches. How is political speaking changing? Is rhetoric still important? You can also watch Mark Thompson, the CEO of the New York Times, talking about rhetoric in the modern media and consider why Antony’s speech to the people is so crucial.
Compare how Antony speaks to the conspirators after the murder to how he addresses Caesar’s body after they leave. Notice his choice of words. What do they reveal about where his loyalties and true feelings lie?
Continue exploring and comparing the two speeches we have looked at in Act 3 Scene 2. What do they say about Antony and Brutus’ relationships to the common man?

Analysing Caesar's Language

Caesar only has 5% of the lines in Julius Caesar but his words leave a lasting impression. At the start of the play, Caesar returns after a military triumph to a divided Rome. Some people want him crowned king, others fear his ambition will make him a tyrant if crowned. Ignoring many warnings to his safety, Caesar is murdered in public by people he trusts. A lot of conflicting things are said about Caesar by other characters. He is accused of being ‘weak’, ‘feeble’, ’ambitious’ and ‘superstitious’ by his enemies and considered ‘mighty’, ‘great’ and ‘sweet’ by his friends. By examining how Caesar speaks, particularly about himself, we can create a better picture of who the character really is.

In this video, watch RSC actor, Alex Waldmann explain what the threat of Caesar means to Brutus.

Can you find any evidence of this dangerous ambition in the things Caesar actually says?

In this video, Mark Quartley shares some of the things he looks for to help understand how a character is feeling in a speech. The example he is using is a monologue from The Tempest but you can look for the same clues in Julius Caesar.

After watching, read Caesar’s words from Act 3 Scene 1, just before he is murdered. In this scene, Caesar is hearing petitions outside the Capitol. What do you notice about how Caesar speaks that reveals his character? As you read, see if you can notice the things Mark tells us to look out for:

Word choice

What are the key images that stand out for you in Caesar’s speech? What visual pictures do they suggest in your mind and how does that help you see Caesar as he sees himself?
How different is the way Caesar speaks to that of the other men? What does this say about his position compared to them?
How regular is the metre or number of syllables in his lines? Can you spot any irregularities and if so, what might they reveal about how Caesar is feeling?
What words that he uses stand out to you? What does this tell you about how Caesar wants to affect the people around him?

Using Mark's strategies, we’ve started to look at the language Caesar uses in Act 3 Scene 1. See if you can complete the grid and finish four points which explain what Caesar’s words reveal about him and his ambition.

What else can I do to explore Caesar's language?

Examine how Caesar speaks to others in Act 3 Scene 1. What does it tell you about his opinion of the men around him? How many times does he interrupt people and is he really listening to what they have to say?
What do you notice in the same scene if you emphasise the first and last word of each of his lines? Try applying these same strategies to the other lines Caesar has in the play. Consider how Caesar’s language changes in different moments in the play and what this might reflect about how he feels at those moments.
Look at how Shakespeare introduces Caesar and the first things that are said about him in Act 1. We hear lots of different opinions about his style of leadership and his ability as a leader. Try collecting this evidence together, looking at the language that is used to create a picture of him. What kind of ruler was Caesar?

Analysing the Imagery

As with all of Shakespeare’s plays, there are lots of types of imagery used in Julius Caesar. It’s a great idea to keep a list of the key quotes and imagery used in each act.

Here are three types of imagery that come up a lot in Julius Caesar:

Blood Imagery

Many characters use images of blood throughout Julius Caesar, emphasising the ideas of sacrifice and butchery. Calphurnia has dreams featuring a war in the heavens ‘Which drizzled blood upon the Capitol’ (2:2) and a statue of Caesar which ‘like a fountain with an hundred spouts, / Did run pure blood; and many lusty Romans / Came smiling and did bathe their hands in it.’ (2:2) This second image becomes real when Brutus tells his fellow conspirators to bathe their ‘hands in Caesar’s blood /Up to the elbows’ (3:1)
How many examples of blood imagery can you find in the play and what does it reveal about the character who uses it? Why do you think Shakespeare draws on this imagery?

Natural Imagery

The unnatural behaviour of weather and animals feature strongly in this play. Many are seen as omens of bad things to come, as Casca says: ‘I met a lion, / Who glared upon me and went surly by / Without annoying me.’ (1:2)
Characters are also compared to beasts and animals, giving insights to how they are perceived by others. Cassius talks of Caesar in Act 1 Scene 3, saying ‘I know he would not be a wolf / But that he sees the Romans are but sheep; / He were no lion, were not Romans hinds.’
A violent storm begins Act 3 with Casca commenting ‘never till now, / Did I go through a tempest dropping fire.’ (3:1) Cassius also likens fate to a ship in a storm, saying ‘Why now, blow wind, swell billow, and swim bark! / The storm is up, and all is on the hazard.’ (5:1)
How many examples of natural imagery or references to the weather can you find in the play and why do you think Shakespeare uses so many of them? How do they affect the mood of the scene?

Sickness Imagery

Physical illness and sickness are really important in Julius Caesar as they often draw attention to the state of a character’s mind and even the state of Rome itself. In Act 1 Scene 2, Cassius talks about the physical weaknesses of Caesar. When Casca enters, he says ‘He fell down in the marketplace and foamed at mouth and was speechless.’ (1:2) The plot to kill Caesar is also offered as a remedy to cure a sick man when Ligarius braves his illness to visit Brutus. In this scene Brutus describes the assassination plot as ‘A piece of work that will make sick men whole’ (2:1) and Ligarius replies ‘But are not some whole that we must make sick?’, hinting that he knows Caesar must die.
Take a closer look at the extract from Act 2 Scene 1 on this page to explore how Portia uses the imagery of sickness in her appeal to Brutus. Why do you think Shakespeare uses this language so much here? Why is it effective to connect physical illness to an illness of the mind?

Thinking about Act 2 Scene 1, we’ve started to look at what the imagery of sickness and word choices in the scene tell us about Portia and Brutus. See if you can complete the grid below and create three points which explain what this language shows us about their relationship at this point in the play.

Analysing the Themes

As with all Shakespeare’s plays, there are lots of themes that appear in Julius Caesar. It’s a great idea to keep a list of key quotes and examples of these themes in each act as you go through the play, looking at where they come up.

Here are three themes to look out for:

Theme of Superstition

Superstition appears in Julius Caesar from the very start of the play. Within moments of Caesar’s first appearance, he is hailed by a Soothsayer who delivers an ominous warning, saying ‘Beware the ides of March.’ (1:2) Caesar’s very first action in the play is to position his wife close to Antony during a race, thinking it will break her ‘barren curse’, and in Act 2 Scene 2 Calphurnia's dreams prompt Caesar to order a sacrifice to the gods.
There is a surge of omens leading up to Caesar’s murder and both Casca and Calphurnia see significance in so many of them happening at once. Even the cynical Cassius gets superstitious after losing confidence during the battle in Act 5 Scene 1. Which of these signs and omens appear more than others?
See how many references to omens and signs you can find in the play and make note of who says them and their reaction. What does it say about the characters? Who believes in omens and who doesn’t? Who changes their mind about them during the action of the play?

Theme of Ambition

Ambition is the source of most of the conflict in Julius Caesar. Cassius and Brutus are convinced that Caesar is driven by ambition. Brutus describes him as ‘a serpent’s egg’ which ‘hatch’d, would, as his kind, grow mischievous.’ (2:1). Look closely at what Caesar actually says and does in the play. If allowed to become king, do you think Caesar would abuse his power?
Examine how Cassius speaks about Caesar. He tells Brutus that he ‘was born as free as Caesar; so were you.’ (1:2). He describes himself as ‘A wretched creature’ who must bow if ‘Caesar carelessly but nod on him.’(1:2) Do his words reveal more about Cassius than Caesar? Notice what Caesar says about Cassius. How ambitious do you think Cassius is to get his own way? What ambitions do the other conspirators have and how far does this motivate them? Does Brutus have an ambition?
See how many references to ambition you can find in the play. Caesar is not the only character to show ambition. Look particularly at Antony’s path to success throughout the action. What does this reveal about him?

Theme of Loyalty

Loyalty is very important in Julius Caesar as it creates a lot of suspense and drama. Many characters put their trust in people who seem loyal and trustworthy but are not. Antony believes Cassius is loyal, telling Caesar ‘he’s not dangerous; / He is a noble Roman, and well given’ (1:2). Caesar puts his trust in each of the conspirators, who make a show of loyalty before betraying him, calling him ‘Most high, most mighty, and most puissant Caesar’ (3:1). With his dying breath, Caesar even recognises his most loyal friend as his murderer, asking ‘Et tu, Brute?’ (3:1) and showing surprise at Brutus' betrayal. The loyalty between Brutus and Cassius is also tested many times before their deaths. Note how many times they call each other ‘brother’ throughout the play. What kind of relationship do you think they have? Is their loyalty to each other or something else?
See how many references to loyalty you can find in the play. Which characters are particularly valued by others for being trustworthy? Who considers themselves loyal?

Teacher Notes

The following activities will help you to explore the art of rhetoric and persuasive speaking with students.

Rhetoric Activities (2012)

The activities can be found on pages 11-16 and look at different aspects of rhetoric using Antony’s speech in Act 3 Scene 1.

You can also print the PEE grids from each of the sections on this page to help students explore the language of central characters and some of the imagery used in more detail.

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A Short Analysis of Mark Antony’s ‘Friends, Romans, countrymen’ Speech

By Dr Oliver Tearle (Loughborough University)

Mark Antony’s ‘Friends, Romans, countrymen’ speech from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is a masterclass of irony and the way rhetoric can be used to say one thing but imply something quite different without ever naming it . Mark Antony delivers a funeral speech for Julius Caesar following Caesar’s assassination at the hands of Brutus and the conspirators, but he is only allowed to do so as long as he does not badmouth the conspirators for their role in Caesar’s death.

Antony’s references to Brutus as an honourable man subtly and ingeniously show that Brutus is anything but honourable, while also serving to show that Caesar was not the ambitious man Brutus has painted him to be.

The best way to analyse this key speech from the play is to go through it, summarising it section by section.

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.

Mark Antony has ‘read the room’ and knows the mood among the crowd: they still support the assassination of Julius Caesar and so side with Brutus and the other conspirators.

Mark Antony treads carefully, brilliantly going against their expectations and reassuring him that he is simply there to deliver a funeral oration, not to take the dead general’s side (it’s worth remembering that Julius Caesar was a general, not an emperor: although he was called Caesar, he wasn’t ‘a’ Caesar, the name given to later emperors of Rome in his honour).

The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones;

Daniell notes helpfully that these lines, which have become much more famous thanks to Shakespeare’s play, are proverbial and their sentiment (albeit with different wording) predate Shakespeare.

The meaning is obvious enough: when people die, the bad things they did often stick in people’s memories, while their good deeds are forgotten. As Antony goes on to say, ‘So let it be with Caesar’.

Immediately, then, he is cleverly saying that he is happy for everyone to focus on Caesar’s bad points and forget the good the man did; but in referring to the latter, he is subtly reminding them that Caesar did good as well as evil things. (By the way, a note on scansion or metre: because Mark Antony is addressing the crowd using blank verse or unrhymed iambic pentameter , ‘interred’ should be pronounced as three syllables, not two.)

So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it.

Mark Antony now takes up Brutus’ words about Julius Caesar and responds to them. He doesn’t contradict Brutus, but instead uses the subjunctive ‘If’: ‘If it were so’. He refuses to say that Caesar was ambitious, but grants that if it were true, it was a terrible fault.

The purpose of this is to cast doubt on the very idea that Caesar was ambitious (supposedly the very reason for his assassination), but in such a way that doesn’t rub the crowd (which still supports Brutus) up the wrong way. He then goes on to point out, however, that if Caesar was ambitious, he’s now dead, so has ‘answer’d’ or paid the penalty for his fault.

Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest– (For Brutus is an honourable man; So are they all, all honourable men) Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.

Mark Antony makes a performative gesture to Brutus’ supposed generosity in letting him, Mark Antony, speak at Caesar’s funeral. He says that such generosity is a sign of Brutus’ honour: he, and the rest of the conspirators, are ‘honourable men’.

He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man.

Antony now slowly begins to ease in some praise for Caesar, but keeps it personal to him, rather than making grand, universal statements about Caesar’s good qualities: he was his friend, and faithful and just to him . But then, Brutus says Caesar was ambitious, and Brutus is honourable, so ‘I guess I was wrong (but I know I’m not)’. Obviously this last bit is implied, not spoken aloud – but that’s what Mark Antony is building towards.

He hath brought many captives home to Rome Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?

Let’s look at what Caesar did: he took many enemies prisoner and brought them here to Rome, and these captives’ ransoms, when paid, helped to make Rome rich. Does this seem ‘ambitious’ behaviour to you?

When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man.

When the poor of the city suffered, Caesar wept with pity for them. Hardly the actions of an ambitious man, who should be harder-hearted than this! But Brutus says Caesar was ambitious, and Brutus is honourable, so … it must be true … right? Note how Antony continues to sow the seeds of doubt in the crowd’s mind.

You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honourable man.

Antony reminds the Romans that at the festival of Lupercalia (held in mid-February, around the same time as our modern Valentine’s Day; so just a month before Caesar was assassinated), he publicly presented Julius Caesar with a crown, but Caesar refused it three times (remember, he was ‘just’ a general, a military leader: not an emperor). Again, Antony appeals to the crowd: does this seem like the action of an ambitious man?

I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know.

Although he clearly is disproving what Brutus claimed of Caesar, Antony maintains that this isn’t his aim: he’s merely telling the truth based on what he knows of Caesar.

You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?

Antony reminds the crowd of Romans that they all loved Caesar once too, and they had reasons for doing so: Caesar was clearly a good leader. So why do they now not mourn for him in death? (Note Antony’s skilful use of ‘cause’ twice here: they loved Caesar with good cause, but what cause is responsible for their failure to shed a tear at his passing?)

O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me.

Observe the clever pun on Brutus’ name in ‘brutish beasts’: Antony stops short of calling Brutus a beast, but it’s clear enough that he thinks the crowd has been manipulated with violent thugs and everyone has lost their ability to think rationally about Caesar. The mob spirit has been fomented and everyone has made Caesar, even in death, the target of their hatred.

Mark Antony brings his ‘Friends, Romans, countrymen’ speech, a masterly piece of oratory, to a rousing end with an appeal to personal emotion, claiming that seeing Rome so corrupted by hatred and blinded by unreason has broken his heart. He concludes, however, with a final line that offers a glimmer of hope, implying that if Rome would only recover itself, he would be all right again.

You can watch Damian Lewis reciting this famous speech here .

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2 thoughts on “A Short Analysis of Mark Antony’s ‘Friends, Romans, countrymen’ Speech”

We are going into drama soon and will be studying this speech. You have brought to my attention aspects I had noticed, even though I have taught it for years. Thanks!

Thanks for the comment, Pam – that’s praise indeed! I hope you have a fruitful discussion :)

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Act 3, scene 2.

Brutus explains to the people that the cause of Caesar’s assassination was the preservation of the Roman Republic from Caesar’s ambition to be king. Mark Antony, bringing in Caesar’s body, refutes Brutus’s charge of ambition against Caesar, displays Caesar’s wounds, and reveals that Caesar had made the common people his heirs. Inflamed by Antony’s words, the people set off to attack the conspirators. A servant then informs Antony that Octavius Caesar, Antony’s ally, has come to Rome and that Brutus and Cassius have been forced to flee.

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Celebrating the 400th Anniversary of Shakespeare's First Folio

Making Shakespeare: The First Folio Key Art

William Shakespeare died at 52 in Stratford-upon-Avon on April 1616 and was buried two days later. His career spanned merely 28 years (give or take), and of his writings, 19 plays had been published in various states of completion during his life. Considering that today, he is credited with having written twice that many scripts and over 150 sonnets and poems, that was barely a third of his output preserved when he died. The next seven years were a struggle to collect all of Shakespeare's works in one place and put them together in a single volume. Three years after Shakespeare's death, a preliminary copy with several false title pages and dates came out, a scandal known as the "False Folio" affair. Steven Knight and Sarah Lancashire are currently dramatizing all of this in a new TV limited series due out in 2024 .

However, seven years after the playwright passed, on November 8, 1623, Mr. William Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies , now referred to as the "First Folio" of William Shakespeare's plays in modern scholarship, was registered. It is considered one of the most influential books of literature ever published, alongside Dante 's Divine Comedy and Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales . It is the most influential book of plays published, and upon reaching its 400th birthday, a pillar of the United Kingdom's main export: Culture.

Shakespeare only wrote plays for three decades, but his stories have entertained and influenced audiences worldwide for four centuries. Here are some of his best writings, read by the best actors the U.K. has to offer.

Judi Dench, 'Sonnet 29'

No one knows when Shakespeare wrote most of his sonnets; it is assumed they were written privately, never meant for publishing, but one numbered so low was probably early on. They're also truly beautiful stuff, as Dame Judi Dench reminded everyone recently on The Graham Norton Show .

David Tennant as Hamlet in 'Hamlet'

No one entirely agrees when Hamlet was written, but it is accepted as one of Shakespeare's earliest works. (There's a whole Ur-Hamlet theory if you're really into tumbling down a rabbit hole.) The "To Be or Not To Be" speech is The Shakespeare Speech; there's no avoiding it, ignoring i t, or skipping it, so you might as well have David Tennant do it. This is from the 2009 BBC version where he starred with Patrick Stewart , by the way, which is worth tracking down just for that.

Kenneth Branagh as Henry V in 'Henry V'

There was a time when Kenneth Branagh was not a man who rated himself over-highly and really was the hottest actor out of the U.K., the kind who could turn a Shakespeare film into a box office hit. His 1989 war film Henry V (which he starred in alongside then-wife Emma Thompson and a host of British A-listers) was the start of a slew of Shakespeare plays he directed starring himself and Thompson, and the best of the lot by miles and miles.

Ashley Thomas as Shylock in 'The Merchant of Venice'

The Merchant of Venice is one of Shakespeare's early works from the 1590s that sits undated; it's also one that's pretty controversial since it's about anti-semitism while also being pretty anti-semitic. The updated BBC take on this Shylock speech as part of its updating Shakespeare for Gen Z is an eye opener, though as celebrity Ashley Thomas turns the famous Shylock speech into something that any minority living in the U.K. can relate to.

Gwendoline Christie as Titania in 'A Midsummer's Night Dream'

A Midsummer's Night Dream was written in 1595, and is probably the most famous of all of Shakespeare's comedies. It's sort of his peak mistaken identity everyone-sleeps-with-everyone-fairies-and-elves-and-magic-oh-my silliness. Plus it's got a play within a play! What more could you ask for?

Patrick Stuart as John of Gaunt in 'Richard II'

Everything about The Hollow Crown and The Hollow Crown: Wars of the Roses cycle from the BBC is just chefs kiss, but none quite so much as Richard II , with Ben Whishaw in the title role. Sadly, his "This Sceptred Isle" speech is not on YouTube, but his scene wit h Patrick Stuart as John of Gaunt is, and it's just as remarkable, a moment of British Shakespeare royalty passing the torch.

Zawe Ashton as Jacques in 'As You Like It'

Shakespeare's most famous soliloquy begins, "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players." The line is actually from As You Like It , which was estimated to have been first written in 1599 or 1600. Technically classified as a comedy, it really is a dramedy before the term was invented, and it's one of those that has no recorded performances in Shakespeare's lifetime and literally only exists because it was found and published in the First Folio.

Ian McKellen as Richard III in 'Richard III'

Shakespeare's entire history cycle of plays was written in the 1590s, spanning from Henry IV Part 1 through the rarely done Edward III . The most popular ones are Henry V and Richard III , which have standalone films outside The Hollow Crown cycle. But none were quite as popular as Ian McKellen 's Nazi take on Richard III , which was released in 1995, and cemented him in the American mind as one of the leading Shakespearean actors of the day prior to The Lord of the Rings .

Damian Lewis as Antony in 'Julius Caesar'

Julius Caesar is technically a tragedy, not a history play, written in 1599 but not published until the First Folio. Anthony's speech at Caesar's burial is one of the playwright's most famous monologues, along with Caesar's final line, "Et tu, Brute?"

Ashley Waters as Romeo in 'Romeo & Juliet'

Romeo & Juliet is one of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies, the star-crossed lovers that will never die. It's also kind of hard to make believable for modern audiences, as it really does require one to get into the mindset of the modern teenager. However, the street gang setting o f West Side Story is one of the most successful remakes, which is why this BBC reset of the original with Ashley Walters as Romeo as a lovestruck hoodie works so well.

Joanna Lumley as Viola in 'Twelfth Night'

Of all Shakespeare's comedies, Twelfth Night wins the award for the most crossed-dressed, and if it were written today, it would probably lose points for massive amounts of queer-baiting without delivering. However, it also has some of the best and funniest speeches as people realize the blindingly obvious has happened and have to act totally surprised about it. Now that's comedy.

Riz Ahmed as Edmund in 'King Lear'

King Lear is technically billed under the tragedy banner rather than a history play, and was first performed for King James I in 1606. Though the title role is the one that gets all the attention, Riz Ahmed's performance as the oft-overlooked villain of the story, Edmund, is really worth a watch.

Great Performances

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Ani Bundel has been blogging professionally since 2010. A DC native, Hufflepuff, and Keyboard Khaleesi, she spends all her non-writing time taking pictures of her cats. Regular bylines also found on MSNBC, Paste, Primetimer, and others.

A Woman's Place Is In Your Face. Cat Approved. Find her on BlueSky and other social media of your choice: @anibundel.bsky.social

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Poems & Poets

Speech: “ Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears ”

(from Julius Caesar , spoken by Marc Antony) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones; So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest– For Brutus is an honourable man; So are they all, all honourable men– Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. He hath brought many captives home to Rome Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honourable man. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him? O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me.

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Greatest Shakespeare speeches?

Simon Callow reciting his favourite speech from Henry V

Thinking about my favourite Shakespeare speeches has been a pleasant diversion for a damp and blowy bank holiday weekend. It started when a neighbour kindly gave me a press cutting about Simon Callow’s new TV series on Sky Arts 1 and 2. You can watch extracts from the show here .

Well, what are my favourite speeches? I soon realised I was building two different lists, one of speeches which I enjoy reading, and another of speeches linked in my mind to a particular performance. It’s the first of these that I’m looking at today. I’ve giving just the first line of the speech, and if you want to read the whole thing I’m including a link to the scene, taken from the MIT’s online text.

1. Hamlet , Act 2 Scene 2

What a piece of work is a man!

I remember loving this speech when I had to study it at school, but Hamlet is so full of big soliloquies that this speech, part of a scene with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, is often overshadowed. This speech features in both the lists I mentioned, Simon Russell Beale’s masterly performance of it seen on a National Theatre tour.

2. Julius Caesar , Act 3 Scene 2

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;

A brilliantly constructed speech in which Shakespeare builds up the argument using rhetorical devices he would have learned at school. Wily Marc Antony damns Brutus and the other conspirators while appearing to praise them, eventually whipping the populace into a frenzy.

3. Twelfth Night , Act 2 Scene 4

My father had a daughter loved a man.

I love the rhythm of that first line, and the subtlety of the way Viola tries to tell Orsino that she’s in love with him.

4. Richard II , Act 5 Scene 5

I have been studying how I may compare …

In prison, and deposed, Richard plays with ideas of rejection, desperation and loss.

5. Henry V , Act 4 Scene 1

Upon the king! Let us our lives, our souls …

We all know the rousing speeches in Henry V, but this much quieter one is made on the night before the Battle of Agincourt. The king admits to feeling the heavy weight of his responsibilities.

6. King John , Act 3 Scene 4

Grief fills the room up of my absent child

This speech, expressing a mother’s grief on the loss of a child is one of the most intense expressions of emotion in Shakespeare.

7. The Winter’s Tale , Act 2 Scene 1

There may be in the cup

A spider steeped…

The image of the spider, unseen in the cup, could be said to argue that what you don’t know doesn’t hurt you.

8. Macbeth , Act 2 Scene 1

Is this a dagger which I see before me?

This bloodcurdling speech is made just before Macbeth commits the murder of his king. The imaginary dagger Macbeth sees shows that he is not simply a villain, but a man whose ambition overwhelms his conscience.

9. The Tempest , Act 3 Scene 2

Be not afeard; the isle is full of noises

Shakespeare gives some of the most beautiful lines in the play to the least civilised person on the island. In the past Caliban has been portrayed as a monster or a figure of fun, but nowadays there is much more sympathy for him not least because of this speech.

10. Romeo and Juliet , Act 2 Scene 2

Thou know’st the mask of night is on my face …

The whole of the balcony scene is beautiful, but here Juliet speaks with complete honesty about her feelings for Romeo

This is just my personal list. I’d love to hear about your favourites!

6 Responses to Greatest Shakespeare speeches?

I do so agree about ‘Upon the King’. It’s relatively easy to get away with a less than ideal ‘Once more…’ or the Crispin’s Day speech, but for me ‘Upon the king’ is a true measure of any Henry V (character, not play) and quite a few decent kings have fallen at this hurdle. When they get it right, the sense of isolation and loneliness can be unbearable and, for me, it far exceeds any soliloquy in Hamlet, or Richard II in prison. But I am biased – my favourite play, and character.

It’s interesting that you have separate lists of Listen and Read speeches as I have to admit that rarely do I get any real satisfaction from reading the great speeches, however superb.

Phew, so glad you approve this choice! It’s brilliantly set up, with the argument with the soldiers immediately preceding it, isn’t it? How interesting that you get so much more from watching and listening than reading! I love reading!

Just a few, otherwise this comment will be longer than your post, Sylvia!!

“Upon the king” is definitely on my list too. Plus all the Chorus speeches with perhaps the one at the beginning of Act 4 as first choice – http://shakespeare.mit.edu/henryv/henryv.4.0.html . The line “A little touch of Harry in the night” always make my spine tingle.

In similar vein (kings weighed down by their responsibilities), I love “How many thousand of my poorest subjects are at this hour asleep” from Henry IV Part 2.

Spoilt for choice in Richard II and I would probably make the same choice as you but I’m going for the sheer rage of Richard in “Yet know my master, God omnipotent….”, the second part of a long speech.

And Hotspur’s short and fiery outburst “By heaven, methinks it were an easy leap to pluck bright honour from the pale-faced moon…” in Henry IV Part 1.

The power and drama of “Ye elves of hills…” from The Tempest, undiminished by the fact that he pinched it from Ovid!

I’ll save a Hamlet choice until you do your Listen list!

Thanks for your reply, I hoped it might get people thinking. I went with pretty well the first ten that came to mind as I knew if I thought about it I’d be sunk! It’s a fun game, isn’t it? I did the listen list at the same time, and I’ll be posting it in a couple of weeks. I’ve just been checking The Essential Shakespeare Live and Encore recordings and I’m pleased to see that three of my faves are there.

I love all the history plays particularly Henry V which is full of great speeches, not just St. Crispins day speech, what about the chorus at the start. My other great favourite is Henry IV pt.1 and especially Falstaff’s “Honour” speech is unbeatable. Brilliant stuff Sylvia keep it up.

Thanks. Yes I agree the Honour speech is great. Too many wonderful speeches to include more than a few!

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Shakespeare's Othello and the Power of Language

Painting of Othello weeping over Desdemona's body. Oil on canvas, ca. 1857.

Wikimedia Commons

"I am not what I am." ( Othello, 1.1.65)

Despite Iago's confession to Rodrigo, he continues to trust this two-faced "confidante" who swears "by Janus," and who sows doubt, destruction and despair in the paths of all he encounters. How? How is Iago able to convince one and all that he is, as he is constantly called, "honest Iago" ?

Much of the answer must lie in Iago's skillful manipulation of rhetorical skills. A puppeteer of the psyche, Iago pulls the strings of those who should know better with a battery of verbal weapons. In his soliloquies and dialogues he reveals himself to the audience to be a master of connotative and metaphoric language, inflammatory imagery, emotional appeals, well-placed silences, dubious hesitations, leading questions, meaningful repetition, and sly hints. Indeed, Iago is so good at lying that he is able to convince even himself that he has the soundest of reasons to destroy Othello, Desdemona, and Cassio.

Iago's convincing rhetoric clearly reveals what a powerful-and dangerous-tool language can be, especially when used by the eloquent, but unscrupulous, individual. In this lesson, students explore the basis of Iago's persuasive power by analyzing his astonishing command of rhetoric and figurative language. The diverse set of activities below include short group performances, writing exercises, and the guided use of online dictionaries and concordances to study Shakespeare's language.

Guiding Questions

Is loyalty a fault?

What is a tragic hero?

Can order come from chaos?

How is the "other" constructed?

Learning Objectives

Analyze dialogue for what is and is not stated to determine motive, meaning, and characteristics of the players.

Analyze the text to determine the importance of figurative language and metaphors to character and plot development.

Evaluate the extent to which Othello is a tragic hero.

Lesson Plan Details

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.1. Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.2. Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.3. Analyze how and why individuals, events, or ideas develop and interact over the course of a text.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.4. Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone.

Folger Shakespeare Library digital text for Othello
appeals to reason, emotions, and character (logos, pathos, ethos)
repetition (of specific words and ideas)
Other terms, not mentioned on this website but also useful for the study of Othello , include image, connotative language , and leading questions .
By giving their attention to Iago's rhetorical skills, students will see how he uses language to create a convincing, albeit deceptive, identity for himself; Iago also creates equally untrue identities for others, resulting in a fateful-if not fatal-outcome for all concerned. One strategy for helping students to focus on the details of Iago's language would be to provide them with a handout of the key rhetorical terms to be used throughout the reading of Othello. Or, if the technology is available at your school, you could display Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric via computer and LCD projector to the class (with the webpage displayed, just click on the words that the students will need to know).
Othello as a stranger in a strange land: In order to understand how and why Iago's rhetoric might work so effectively against Othello, students should also be made aware of the powerful General's vulnerability: he is a Moor in an alien society, first in the city of Venice and then on the isle of Cyprus. In short, Othello is an "other," and the fact that he is a Moor surrounded by Italians and Cypriots only emphasizes his difference.

But what is a Moor and what did it mean to be a Moor in Shakespeare's time? In helping the students answer these questions, the teacher could refer to these websites:

1. A remarkable resource maintained by the University of Toronto, the Early Modern English Dictionary Database (EMEDD) makes accessible the contents of dictionaries, glossaries, grammars, and encyclopedias published in England from 1500 to 1660.

2. The Folger Shakespeare Library offers an extensive archive of lesson plans on Othello.

3. Chicago's Shakespeare Theatre essay, "1604 and All That ," along with Washington DC's Shakespeare Theatre Company's A Cultural Context for Othello , and the Folger Shakespeare Library's "American Moor," provide insights into what it meant to be a moor in Shakespeare's time.

For definitions of "Moor" contemporary with Shakespeare, go first to the EMEDD , where one discovers a whole host of definitions from 1550-1598. Among these definitions is the following: "a blacke Moore, or man of Ethiope … a Moore or blackeman, and it signifieth also the mulberie tree." A useful follow up to the EMEDD comes from the Internet Public Library's American Heritage Dictionary , which offers the narrower modern definition of "Moor" as "1. a member of a Muslim people of mixed Berber and Arab descent, now living chiefly in northwest Africa. 2. One of the Muslims who invaded Spain in the 8th century and established a civilization in Andalusia that lasted until the late 15th century."
Lastly, students should be introduced to the Roman god Janus. It is the image of Janus that Shakespeare clearly associates with Iago to emphasize and cast a negative slant on Iago's "two-faced" speech. According to Bullfinch's Mythology , Janus was the porter of heaven. He opens the year and January. the first month, is named in honor of him. In this way, Janus is the guardian deity of doorways and gates, and is commonly represented with two heads, because every door looks two ways. Learn more about the god, Janus and his month of January from the Internet Sacred Texts Archive . Visual aids such as this image from the Vatican Museum should help students better understand Iago's Janus-like nature as a man who speaks from two sides of his face; or as a student once commented, with a "forked tongue." Further materials related to Janus can be located on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource, Perseus Project .

Activity 1. Act I, scene 1, lines 86–91, 108–112 In-Class acting and discussion of Othello

Before introducing this activity, download and copy the worksheet, "Zounds, sir, you're robbed," available here as a .pdf file. This worksheet will be used by student groups to complete an analysis of Iago's language in the first scene of the play.
For the two cited passages from Act 1, scene 1 , students will analyze Iago's description of Desdemona's flight with Othello to her unknowing father, Brabantio. Have 3 students enact and read aloud the roles of Roderigo, Iago, and Brabantio. Divide the rest of the class into 2 groups. As the scene is acted and read aloud, group 1 should make a list of the metaphors and images that Iago associates with Othello and Desdemona. This group should also characterize these images. Group 2 should determine what rhetorical appeals are used here and why.
When the actors have completed their readings, have group 1 use the worksheet 1, "Zounds, sir, you're robbed," to list the metaphors that Iago uses to describe Othello and Desdemona. As a class, discuss the images and ask, "what makes them so offensive-especially to the father of the daughter being described?" Why doesn't Iago just say, "Desdemona has married the noble general, Othello"? Furthermore, how does Iago characterize Desdemona's and Othello's relationship? Through his eyes, is their relationship one of love or lust? And how would this point of view affect Brabantio, a proud father of a much-cherished daughter? Group 2 should then state what rhetorical appeals Iago makes to Brabantio. Does Iago use appeals of pathos, ethos, or logos? Which lines show these appeals? The entire class should discuss what psychological effects Iago's words have on Brabantio.
Conclude the class by asking the students how they view Iago, Desdemona, Othello, and Brabantio as based on what they have read and discussed.

Activity 2. Four key passages: 1.1.41–65; I.i.8-33; I.3.368–386; 2.1.268–294 "Knavery's plain face is never seen till used."

Either as an in-class exercise or as homework, you can ask students to examine Iago's speech to Roderigo ( 1.1. 41–65 ) for what he says about himself and how he describes himself. Students should translate and rewrite what Iago says into modern English.

Also, ask students to examine and write down Iago's reasons for wishing to appear false to Othello (see especially 1.1.8–33 ; I.3.368–386 ; and 2.1.268–294 ). What are the reasons? Is there any evidence for these reasons? If not, how does Iago use words to convince himself that he is completely justified in destroying Othello? That is, does Iago use any rhetorical devices to convince himself that he is in the right?

Students' written work can form the basis for the next class discussion.

Activity 3. Act 1, scene 3, lines 381–82 "The Moor is of a free and open nature, / That thinks men honest that but seem to be so."

This activity involves research and written class work for 4 groups of students. Before dividing students into groups, initiate a class discussion with the following observation and question: The characters in the play refer to Iago as "honest." What do we mean today when we say someone is honest?
After a discussion of what "honest" means in today's society, divide the students up into four groups. Each group must answer in writing the following question: What did it mean to be "honest" in Shakespeare's time? The groups will consult the Lexicons of Early Modern English Database ( LEME ) to find the meaning(s) of "honest." (Hint: the word may have a different meaning for a man and for a woman.)
Each group should also be assigned to trace one character's "honesty" throughout the play. For example, one group should have Iago, another Othello, another Cassio, and still another Desdemona.

Activity 4. Act III, scene 3, 92: "Chaos is come again" Act III, scene 3, 93–280: Iago preys upon Othello

Either as an in-class exercise or as a homework assignment, students can use worksheet 2, "Chaos is Come Again," to keep a running count of the number of times Iago uses repetition, leading questions, hesitation, intimation, and rhetorical appeals to unsettle Othello's mind in 3.3.93–280 . For each device, students should note the effect it is having on Othello's state of mind.
In class, the teacher should focus on Iago's introduction of the words "jealousy," "cuckold" and "monster" into his rhetoric. It would be useful for the teacher to find the definitions of these words in the Lexicons of Early Modern English Database ( LEME ) and to share the definitions with the students either through a handout or by a computer/LCD hook up. It would also be interesting for the teacher to run a concordance search for the number of times the above words are used in the play and who says them.

After sharing the definitions of "jealousy," "cuckold," and "monster" with the class, and after noting their prevalence in the play, begin discussion with the following questions: How do these words affect a man such as Othello? Does Iago use other words that would also alarm him?

Activity 5. Act III, scene 3, line 452: "O, blood, blood, blood!" Act III, scene 3, lines 338–480: The effect of Iago's rhetoric on Othello Act IV, scene 1, line 19–45: driving Othello to madness

In-class work with Handout

Use the worksheet 3 , in class for student groups. Each group should use the sheet to record their responses to the following questions:

In 3.3.338–480 , which lines show that Othello is still a rational human being, but one torn by doubt? Which lines show that Othello has turned into the "green-eyed monster" of which Iago told him? In 3.3.338–480 , identify the rhetorical devices that Iago uses to make sure that Othello is ensnared in his web of deceit. In 3.3.338–480 , identify also Othello's weaknesses that allow him to fall for Iago's evil persuasion. In 4.1.19–45 , what are the hypothetical situations Iago imagines between a woman and a man (namely Desdemona and Cassio)? What images does Iago use to torment Othello? Which of Othello's many insecurities do these images affect? What is the result of Iago's language?

Activity 6. Act V, scene 2, line 300: "Demand me nothing; what you know, you know" Act V, scene 2, line 337–338: "When you shall these unlucky deeds relate,/ Speak of me as I am" (V, 2,) Act V, scene 2, lines 296–301 and 334–352

At the end of the play Iago discovers that even his verbal sparring cannot save him, he resorts to silence: "Demand me nothing. What you know, you know. From this time forth I never will speak word" ( 5.2. 302–303 ). Ironically, it is his refusal to speak that inevitably enmeshes him in his own web of deceit; it is his silence that elicits Othello's tragic recognition of his crime and of what he has become. Indeed, in terms of eloquence, Othello-not Iago—has the final word.

In class, reread the passages cited above. Why does Iago choose silence in lines 296–301? Does Othello's final speech redeem him? Examine the speech for the metaphors and images he uses. To what extent has Othello become a tragic hero.

Activity 7. Pulling it all together-the Written and the Spoken Word

Students shall have a choice of doing one of two things: either writing and performing a persuasive speech OR writing an essay in which persuasive technique in the play is analyzed.

Iago 1 will address Emilia and ply her with as many persuasive appeals he can think of to convince her to hand over the handkerchief.
After Iago 1 finishes brief parts of his plea, Iago 2 will, after Iago 1 speaks, tell the class exactly what he is trying to do as his "good face" speaks. In other words, Iago 2, the truth-teller, reveals what really lies behind Iago 1's blandishments. After the speech, first Emilia and then the class will have to decide whether Iago should get the handkerchief or not. Both Emilia and the class will have to state their reasons for handing over the handkerchief or not.
The Desdemona Defense Speech . In this speech the students will each pretend to be Desdemona. In the play, she did not effectively deter Othello from altering his misguided opinion that she is a whore; inevitably, her failure frustrates many students who say, "If she just spoke up for herself things will be different!". In the students' speeches, they need to come up with the words, arguments, and appeals that could convince a jealous man that his wife is innocent. These speeches may also be performed for the class.
The power of language . As seen throughout the play, Iago persuades people to do his will. In your essay, write a thesis that states exactly what it is Iago achieves—or tries to achieve—through his use of persuasive language. Then use specific examples from the text to show how Iago achieves or fails to achieve those goals.
Honesty . Earlier in our study of the play, we discussed the various meanings of "honest" and saw how that word applied to Iago, Othello, Cassio, and Desdemona. In an essay, discuss why honesty-or the reputation for being honest or the lack of honesty-is so important in Shakespeare's Othello .
For further evidence of Iago's successful persuasive techniques, one might also profitably examine Iago's interactions with Roderigo (see 1.3. 297-364 ) and with Michael Cassio (see 2.3.239-302 ). (The irony of Iago's stand on reputation, in his speech to Cassio, is that it is the exact opposite of what he does throughout the play; here as elsewhere, he relies firmly on his reputation as being an "honest" man).
Further study of Iago as being an uncharacteristically compelling villain would be interesting to pursue. See Gilchrist, K. J. Approximations: Iago as a Plautine leno (from West Virginia Shakespeare and Renaissance Association Selected Papers (SRASP) , Volume 20, 1997), a link on Mr. Shakespeare and the Internet . In this essay, Gilchrist argues that Iago's literary heritage may be traced back to Plautus' leno or pimp figure, as well as to Plautus' agelast , a non-laugher or kill-joy, someone who cannot enjoy life or the fact that others might be happy and successful. The article induces useful speculation about how Iago's greedy obsession with sex, money, and jealousy might explain his ill will towards Cassio, Othello, and Desdemona. The article is useful primarily for teachers who might wish to ask their students why Iago behaves as he does. Is he simply evil? Are there explanations for his behavior? Do explanations even matter?

Selected EDSITEment Websites

EDSITEment's " A Teacher's Guide for Shakespeare "

MIT Shakespeare Homepage
The Plays of William Shakespeare
Lexicons of Early Modern English Database ( LEME )
Gilchrist, K. J. Approximations: Iago as a Plautine leno
Teaching Shakespeare
Bulfinch's Mythology
American Heritage Dictionary

Materials & Media

Shakespeare's "othello": worksheet 1 - "zounds, sir, you're robbed", shapkespeare's othello: worksheet 2 - "chaos is come again", shakespeare's "othello": worksheet 3 – "o, blood, blood, blood", related on edsitement, shakespeare's julius caesar: leadership and a global stage, "not of an age, but for all time": teaching shakespeare, hamlet and the elizabethan revenge ethic in text and film, shakespeare's romeo and juliet : ‘you kiss by the book’.

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Convincing the Masses: Rhetoric in Julius Caesar

Introduction.

“For who so firm that cannot be seduced?” --Cassius [I,ii,305]

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, is a key skill for my sophomore English students to develop as it requires them to make connections between the classroom and the world surrounding them. This necessitates that they come to a deeper understanding of figures of speech and how they affect readers, how they are used to persuade, and how to use them oneself to effectively communicate. Rhetoric surrounds them every day as they interact with advertisements, political speeches, media coverage of current events, movies, art, and the classroom. While my students are quite savvy viewers and are aware that many images they see may be altered, they seem less critical of the written and spoken word. My unit seeks to develop in my students the ability to think critically, read analytically and speak and write effectively and convincingly. By exploring the connections among the speaker, the audience, and the subject within the given context, I hope to give my students the tools that will enable them to be aware of how those interconnections are played out in their daily lives. The analysis and use of the arts of rhetoric will empower my students to be better citizens, better communicators and more successful in their pursuits.

By teaching the fundamentals of rhetoric, I hope to create an awareness of its prevalence in advertising and political speeches, an appreciation for the power of language, and a sense that students can potentially harness that power. I want my students not only to become skilled at identifying rhetoric, but also to become proficient in using the art to strengthen their critical reading skills, speaking and writing. I plan to build on their understanding of logos, ethos and pathos, as Aristotle divided the parts of persuasive speech in his Rhetoric , while also strengthening their observation of basic rhetorical strategies like repetition, structure, symbolism, defining, describing, etc. While some time will be devoted to the classical canon of rhetoric - invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery- I do not intend to cover the tropes and figures in detail. My true aim is to develop critical thinking skills, utilizing challenging classroom activities to engage their interest and encourage civic engagement.

A number of different texts and video clips will be utilized to create a rich and comprehensive exploration of the use of rhetoric in modernity, but William Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar will serve as my foundation text. This drama is based upon the historical figure Julius Caesar, who returns to Rome as a triumphant hero only to be considered a potential threat to the republic as a result of his consolidation of power. Several senators, led by his friend Marcus Brutus, conspire to assassinate him. After the bloody deed, Mark Antony masterfully turns the people against the conspirators and a vicious struggle for power ensues. Although the semantically dense language is a challenge, grappling with the text develops close reading skills and challenges students to really excel and perform in a rigorous manner. Students will carefully read the text with a focus on characters and themes, using a variety of activities.

Demographics

Oak Grove High School encompasses a population of just under two thousand students who represent diverse ethnicities as part of the East Side Union High School District. 43% of our students are considered socioeconomically disadvantaged , as they qualify for the free and reduced lunch program, and our graduation rate is improving at 82.3%. Our struggles to graduate our population are evident: we are considered a Program Improvement site due to low Annual Yearly Progress, and the Degrees of Reading Power test reveals that approximately 45% of our incoming freshmen read at, or below, a sixth grade level.

In addition, our school is located in an area known for having an incredibly high cost of living, which often necessitates that our students contribute to the household finances by working. Additionally, parental supervision is often minimal, as the economy requires both parents to work. 56.4% of our students identify as Latino/Mexican and these students are especially at risk because many will be the first family members to earn a high school diploma, and often must do so with limited access to technology and even internet access in an area known for heavy gang activity.

The Common Core State Standards are in their second year of implementation in California, and the pragmatic approach to developing students who are able to engage in complex critical thinking activities is a challenge to implement. In the past, speaking and listening skills were largely limited in the classroom as they were not assessed in state testing, and they consumed valuable time that needed to be spent on basic reading comprehension and other skills. The Common Core has allowed us to become more holistic practitioners and I hope my unit allows our students to translate classroom skills to real world applications that benefit them personally, civically, and academically.

Rhetoric and Rigor

Julius Caesar could be viewed as an exploration of the uses and abuses of rhetoric as characters persuade one another most eloquently to engage in or excite violence. Using Julius Caesar as a foundation text, my students will learn about rhetorical devices. As we decode the text and explore themes and characters central to the historical play, students will engage in a variety of activities that enable them to truly understand the differing perspectives that lead so many men to assassinate their leader and the turmoil that ensues. One of the focuses at my school has been to require students to provide evidence from the text for any responses they provide in class. This play will afford students ample practice in finding textual evidence to cite as there are distinct rhetorical styles evident, as well as sharply contrasting points of view, which allow for students to explore passages and interpret the text differently. Grappling with facts in an attempt to gain a perspective or synthesize ideas is a valuable mental exercise, and even if the students forget the facts, they retain the value of the intellectual struggle.

Content Objectives

My sophomores will have been introduced to Shakespeare in their freshman year through the text of Romeo and Juliet , so while the rigor of this unit is great, it is not their first encounter with the Bard. Additionally, the unit will not occur in isolation of their other academic courses. The English II students are required to concurrently enroll in World History, which focuses on Rome for the first six weeks of instruction, making this the ideal time for me to teach this unit. Beyond creating interdisciplinary connections between their classes, it creates a more authentic learning experience and precludes the necessity of providing background historical information about Rome and Julius Caesar.

Concerning Rhetoric

Aristotle’s rhetoric.

Greek philosopher Aristotle offered three means to persuade your audience: ethos, pathos, and logos. 1 While ethos is said to translate to ethics, it really suggests the modern sense of image in that the speaker is relying upon their authority to convince the audience based upon our impression of their character. Considering ethos from both the perspective of analyzing how advertising or political rhetoric is meant to impact the audience, but also how a writer can use word choice and style to create their own ethos, is imperative. Logos, or logical argument, traditionally utilizes syllogisms, yet an exploration of inductive and deductive reasoning, logical fallacies and what exactly makes for effective reasoning will be a more appropriate for my purposes. The emotion aroused in audience, or pathos, is crucial to persuasion. Negative emotions such as anger, fear and insecurity are the most effective and prevalent in modern advertising and politics. 2

The Five Canons of Rhetoric

After determining the audience and context for an appeal, Cicero felt effective persuasion necessitated consideration of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. 3 Familiarity with these canons is necessary to both craft a speech and to properly analyze the rhetoric of others. Invention tailors an approach for the audience and context: What is the most appropriate appeal and which words will one use to effectively convey that appeal? Arrangement requires the establishment of the credibility of the speaker via ethos, and then the use of pathos or logos to pursue the argument using a structure suitable for the audience and context; traditionally this order is: introduction, statement and proof, conclusion. Style is the choice of appropriate rhetorical techniques and figures of speech and of the construction of the argument, and may include diction, grammar, rhythm and metaphor. Memory is not necessarily rote recall of the words, but a familiarity with the speech that allows the content to seem natural and fluid upon delivery and can support or erode ethos. Delivery of the appeal includes body language and intonation, which profoundly affect ethos and the subconscious reaction to the appeal. Several famous speeches will be analyzed as both a text and a performance to familiarize students with these terms.

Produced in 1599, the play Julius Caesar is based on Sir Thomas North’s 1579 translation of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans , which Shakespeare undoubtedly used to create his account. 4 While Julius Caesar could be considered a political revenge tragedy, it is hardly a biographical narrative. The content relating to his many military exploits and success as a general and politician is eliminated from the play as Shakespeare focuses on the end of his life and the turmoil that ensued after his murder. It is thought-provoking to contrast the historical figure documented by Plutarch with the leader in the play. Interestingly, Plutarch clearly states that Caesar was ambitious, the crime for which he was assassinated. “But the chiefest cause that made him mortally hated was the covetous desire he had to be called king.” 5

The historical figure is a physically robust and mentally astute leader , whereas Shakespeare’s portrayal seems to evince a weaker individual. One example of this might be Cassius’ tale of Caesar needing to be rescued while swimming whereas Plutarch’s account demonstrates him to be a vigorous and accomplished swimmer. Plutarch cites that during the war in Alexandria Caesar:

leaping into the sea, with great hazard saved himself by swimming. It is said that then, holding divers books in his hand, he did never let them go, but kept them always upon his head above water, and swam with the other hand, notwithstanding that they shot marvelously at him.” 6

Is this description of a man in the midst of a battle leaping into the sea while holding books above his head compatible with Cassius’ account, wherein it is Cassius who emerges as brave, strong and heroic?

Caesar said to me, “Dar’st thou, Cassius, now Leap in with me into this angry flood And swim to yonder point?” Upon the word, Accoutered as I was, I plunged in And bad him follow. So indeed he did. The torrent roared, and we did buffet it With lusty sinews, throwing it aside, And stemming it with hearts of controversy. But ere we could arrive the point proposed, Caesar cried, “Help me, Cassius, or I sink.” [I,ii,102-111]

The fact that Cassius positions himself as the first to enter the Tiber having been dared, and then must encourage Caesar to follow him into the water is an interesting juxtaposition. He then demonstrates a huge ego when he compares himself to Aeneas as he saves Caesar from drowning. This tale is wholly believed by Brutus, along with other claims that Caesar was a physically weak, deaf, epileptic who demonstrates a superstitious nature and a vacillating opinion driven by a need for sycophantic devotion. 7 This older Caesar is markedly different from the historical figure represented by Plutarch, but it is exaggerated so greatly by Cassius as to make his jealousy evident. Perhaps “Shakespeare weakens Caesar physically in order to suggest that his bodily vulnerabilities exemplify his psychological and moral failings.”

Similarly, Antony and Brutus are characterized differently by Shakespeare than the historical annals of Plutarch might suggest. Plutarch even suggests that Brutus is the illegitimate son of Julius Caesar and Harold Bloom contends that Shakespeare does not allude to this relationship as it “would have given Brutus too personal a motive for letting himself be seduced into Cassius’s conspiracy.” 9

Elizabethan Theater

It may be useful to provide a sketch of the Elizabethan theater, where the common people clamored to see repertory performances in the afternoons in venues that could pack in up to 3000 theatergoers. There was no intermission, but the crowd did not sit attentively and quietly for three hours: they ate, talked and gambled. The nobility and upper middle class would sit in the galleries while the commoners, or groundlings, stood in the courtyard directly in front of the stage. As audience will be key to the reception of the funeral speeches, students should really be encouraged to visualize the theater and the proximity of the groundlings, whom Shakespeare transforms into the plebeians themselves being swayed by first Brutus and then Antony. The plebeians are easily swayed by effective oratory; thus, they are manipulated by Antony into a dangerous mob. This fickle responsiveness to rhetoric should serve as a warning to each of us that we too might easily fall victim to persuasive rhetoric. Brutus and Antony’s speeches not only sway the plebeians at the Forum, Shakespeare’s rhetoric is aimed at us as well.

While the play is typically considered to be one of Shakespeare’s histories, the very title, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar begs the question, ‘whose tragedy?’ Given that the titular character is murdered in the third act, students must consider whether the tragedy is the loss of innocence that Brutus undergoes as politics and morals collide. In common with the Histories, however, concern over the throne, given that Queen Elizabeth was a female monarch with no progeny, is also a feature of Julius Caesar . Shakespeare may have had the English monarchy in mind as he wrote of this hero of the Roman Republic, whose sanctioned authority was tragically undermined when he was assassinated, leading to instability in the Republic. The stability of his reign was followed by turmoil, which may further evince tragedy as in a larger sense Rome fell into chaos and war. 10 Given that Shakespeare demonstrated an awareness of how his works supported the legitimacy of the Tudors, and specifically the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the revenge for the untimely death of this iconic figure may reflect the fear of civil insurrection many Elizabethans harbored. The titular character may only appear in three scenes, but his immortality is attained through his achievements and our acknowledgement that the Roman Republic is headed for decline after these triumphs. 11 Until her death in 1603, the play may have served as an argument for stability and civil harmony in that the social upheaval that preceded Queen Elizabeth and ominously loomed during her reign and the question of legitimate rule was always present in the minds of the people.

Some of the skill building activities include using “Letter from the Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King, Jr., to instruct students on the most basic application of logos, ethos and pathos by highlighting the text in three different colors. They will watch a clip of the “I Have a Dream Speech” to focus not only on text, but also on the cadence and power of sound devices. As we review the literary devices (simile, metaphor, alliteration, onomatopoeia, personification, hyperbole) and elements (genre, point of view, tone, audience, purpose, etc.) they were introduced to as freshmen, students will begin to apply these skills in a new manner. Students will view Nancy Duarte’s TED talk, “The Secret Structure of Great Talks” as it refers to Aristotle’s Rhetoric and analyzes the “I Have a Dream Speech” as well as a contemporary speech by Steve Jobs. Students will practice annotation while deepening their understanding of rhetoric as they read “Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade.” ELL students and at-risk students will benefit from high interest activities designed to simultaneously create the appropriate academic language to discuss rhetoric as well as develop an awareness of its prevalence in advertising and politics. Some clips of YouTube will be viewed together with an activity wherein students view Super Bowl advertisements and categorize the types of persuasion each employs.

Once a foundation for understanding and appreciating the power and fundamentals of rhetoric has been laid, students will engage with the text of Julius Caesar . During the process of parsing out the play together, students will be led to note the relationship between rhetoric and power as Caesar is able to express his will and his word is obeyed without question. Likewise, students will note how Cassius employs the use of rhetorical questions to sway Brutus towards seeing Caesar as a threat to Rome and liberty. The moment when Antony deceives the conspirators through clever double speak in order to address the people will be carefully analyzed to demonstrate the power words have to sway men's hearts and minds. Most notable of the speeches will be Brutus and Antony's funeral speeches, which sway the crowd's opinion back and forth. Comparisons of the delivery of these speeches in notable films will also be introduced by means of exploring the art of public speaking and effective speaking strategies. The moral ambiguity of several characters will also be a key point of discussion. It is only after we have read, viewed and closely examined key passages from the play that I will invite students to engage in a Socratic seminar that will address key questions, such as why the tragedy is called Julius Caesar , given that he has so few lines and dies in the third act. Finally, students will compose a personal statement that requires them to demonstrate their mastery of the art of rhetoric. This culminating activity, based upon the NPR “This I Believe” format, will encourage students to consider the core values and beliefs that shape their characters and inform their decisions. Several fantastic models exist from individuals they are familiar with, such as Amy Tan, Elie Wiesel, Bill Gates and Muhammad Ali.

Analyzing the Characters

Caesar is introduced by the remarks of Flavius and Murellus, who may initially encourage skepticism among the audience about this returning military hero whose victory over Pompey has led the plebeians to celebrate during the Feast of Lupercal. The stage is set with one strong military leader replacing another and conflict in the streets between men of status, the tribunes, and the plebeians, themes that may resonate with my students as we approach a heated Presidential election year. Caesar appears on stage in Act 1, Scene 2, directing his wife to stand before Marc Antony as he runs in a race during the Feast of Lupercal to induce fertility.

Caesar. Calpurnia. Casca. Peace ho! Caesar speaks. Caesar. Calpurnia. Calpurnia. Here, my Lord. Caesar. Stand you directly in Antonio’s way When he doth run his course. Antonio! [I,ii,1-4]

This choice is complicated and odd as modern science leads us question whether Calpurnia is actually the party responsible for the infertility. 12 This scene furthermore introduces Caesar as a character who is given to a belief in superstition, such that he would command this ritual to take place. Nonetheless, Caesar is shown to be an absolute ruler whose will is obeyed without question and without delay. His power and respect are undoubtable, but perhaps there is also a hint of arrogance. He is clearly an astute observer of the character of others as he has suspicions of Cassius and has proven himself to be a heroic general and powerful leader. His supremacy and nobility are especially significant to establish, as this will later lend terror to the apparition of his ghost. 13 Both Brutus and Cassius speak to Caesar’s spirit when they die, evincing the sense that his posthumous power is nearly invincible.

There is a lot of rhetoric, but is there any evidence that this Caesar is the character Brutus and Cassius have constructed in their minds who would abuse his power? He does decline the crown three times, and Brutus acknowledges that he rules by reason as opposed to whim, yet his ambition is the supposed justification for the murder. Perhaps Brutus and Cassius dispute the political ideal as opposed to reacting to his individual reactions? He is called a serpent, implying he is a sly and vicious creature as well as a stag whose nobility shouldn’t be marred by slavering dogs tearing him to shreds. Students may perceive him to be a considerate husband who seeks to please his anxious wife when he vacillates upon his decision to go to the Capitol, or as a superstitious man driven by vanity. If he fails to go to the Capitol he might not only be mocked for listening to his wife’s superstitious nonsense, he may also miss his opportunity to be offered the crown. Does this ultimately prove that he is ambitious and therefore a threat who was justly assassinated? Conversely, is his final refusal to read Artemidorus’ letter evidence that he was an unselfish leader who ultimately held the needs of the people before his personal well-being?

Brutus is the most morally pure character in that he truly believes his motivation for murder to be the protection of the Republic. His first lines are therefore rather ironic as he interceded in the exchange between the soothsayer and Caesar to report that “A soothsayer bids you beware the ides of March” [I,ii,19] given that we know he will deliver the final blow that defeats Caesar physically and eliminates his will to live. His first soliloquy focuses on the necessity to murder Caesar and the justification for the action, as opposed to a moral dilemma over the murder of his friend or a logical debate over the fallacies in Cassius’ justification.

Cassius seems motivated by petty revenge -- he feels slighted by a man he saved -- as opposed to a purely political motivation. He manipulates Brutus through the use of rhetorical questions to convince Brutus that Caesar was a threat to Rome and liberty, yet his rhetoric is not particularly clever and one must wonder why it is so easy for him to convince Brutus to murder his friend. While he claims to be interested in discoursing on the topic of honor, a common theme in Shakespeare’s plays, he actually seeks to launch an attack upon Caesar. He cites evidence of epilepsy and the near-drowning to draw attention to Caesar’s lack of physical strength and then proceeds to compare the names Brutus and Caesar by way of demonstrating that Caesar is no more deserving of honor and titles. His first soliloquy is delivered in such a manner as to reveal that he is merely using Brutus to establish public respect for his agenda. The very fact that this scheming character considers Brutus worthy of manipulating due to his morally pure reputation cements our impression of Brutus as being motivated by pure ideals, leading to complexity in character interpretation. Cassius’ scheming is ultimately ended when he ends his life (with the help of Pindarus) and the natural order is restored as he proclaims: “Caesar, thou art revenged, Even with the sword that killed thee.” [V,iii,45-6]

Antony is initially introduced as this vigorous young man running a race in honor of his friend Caesar, and his first line is a loyal response , “Caesar, my Lord?” [I,ii,5] after which Caesar conveys his request that he touch Calpurnia during the race. Antony responds “I shall remember. When Caesar says, ‘Do this,’ it is performed,” [I,ii,9-10] reflecting his absolute obedience and subservience to Caesar’s will. Antony demonstrates self-control and an ability to manipulate when he responds to the murder by flattering Brutus’ character, sending a servant to Brutus with instructions to prostrate himself and say “Brutus is noble, wise, valiant and honest,” [III,I,126] and suggesting that he will submit to Brutus’ justification if he demonstrates sufficient reason for killing his friend. He then deceives the conspirators, using clever double speak in order to address the plebeians.

While we focus on each character, there are also many opportunities to explore the power of rhetoric through particular scenes. Creating students who read with intelligence, using their mental faculties to explore text, necessitates choosing challenging content. Exploring character and motivation through the lens of rhetoric with a focus on first lines and soliloquies will lead my students to a more nuanced and complicated analysis of character, motivation and persuasion. Taking note, for example, of the moment when directly after slaughtering Caesar, Cinna declares “Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! Run hence! Proclaim! Cry it about the streets!” [III,i,78] demonstrating an immediate control of the spin on the action and embedding the justification in the declaration.

Another passage that may encourage interesting discourse is the reconciliation between the conspirators after they argue over funding the military venture. The very nature of friendship and criticism of one’s character flaws is the subject of the dialogue between Cassius and Brutus.

Cassius. You love me not. Brutus. I do not like your faults. Cassius. A friendly eye could never see such faults. Brutus. A flatterer’s would not, though they do appear As huge as high Olympus. [IV,iii,88-92]

Portia always seems to interest my students as she proves her loyalty to her husband and her determination by actually stabbing herself in the thigh. Her interchanges with him demonstrate a fascinating dynamic and her use of rhetoric to urge Brutus to divulge what’s troubling him includes many strategies. Her bold claim that she is no more than “Brutus’ harlot, not his wife” [II,i,288] if he fails to disclose his plans to her shock both Brutus and the audience.

The dramatic scene in which Caesar is alternately concerned about Calpurnia’s dream wherein he is sacrificed, and vaingloriously eager to meet his fate when Decius Brutus explains that he is the metaphorical fountain of freedom, nourishing the people, is fascinating. Students may declare him to be superstitious and will find ample evidence in the text to support that claim, while others may interpret his choices as an attempt to honor his wife and his civic duty. This is an important passage for analyzing his character and ensuring student comprehension prior to the murder and funeral speeches.

Teaching Strategies

Essential questions.

Who is the speaker and how do they establish ethos?

What is the speaker’s intent?

Who is the intended audience?

What is the rhetorical situation?

How does an author use rhetorical devices to communicate characters’ point of view?

How do the form and content of the message interrelate?

How can you effectively use rhetoric to challenge current thought and bring positive change to the world?

How do we interpret, evaluate and analyze content in our world to discover our own thoughts and opinions?

Learning to annotate text in a careful and deliberative manner is perhaps the most essential skill I will impart to my students, as these notes will inform their writing, thinking and conversations. “Reading Rhetorically” is a text that provides strategies for reading critically to support writing and conversation about a text with a focus on determining the audience, purpose and genre. Educators are incessantly asking students to analyze a text, but what does that really mean? Analysis means that an understanding of the rhetorical strategies used by the author is evident and that they are evaluated in light of the author’s purpose; it is a marriage of both the ideas explicit and implicit in the text and your opinions about those ideas. “On the one hand, you will be expected to represent what the text said accurately and fairly. On the other hand, you will be expected to offer your own analysis, interpretation, or critique in a way that enables readers to see the text differently.” 14

The initial read-through of a piece of text should be active, involving students noticing and circling organizational signal words such as however , therefore , or likewise . Additionally, students will put a question mark next to words, terms or references they are unfamiliar with, and return to them after the initial reading. Bracketing ideas that seem difficult of confusing will also allow students to continue reading through their confusion and later pose questions or determine whether the passage is more clear once they have completed the reading. As students are completing this initial read, they should annotate the text by highlighting main ideas and evidence that supports the writer’s assertions, draw arrows to significant word choices and otherwise note questions, objections, and connections. Once they have reviewed their questions, looked up vocabulary, analyzed the impact of specific word choice, and discussed the reading with their peers, the second reading should occur. This is the point at which I ask them to engage in descriptive outlining. On the left margin they will write a note for each segment that addresses what is said--a summary of the content--and on the right what is done, a statement of how that segment interacts with the whole, usually preceded by words such as describe , explain , or argue . 15 This strategy will be useful for students to practice close reading skills, but will be predominantly used with the “Logos, Ethos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade” article and the sample personal essays, such as Joseph Epstein’s "The Divine Miss H, Revisited” and Horace Miner’s “Body Rituals Among the Nacirema”, which students will review prior to writing their final product

They Say I Say

Developing students who are able to speak clearly and effectively to communicate an idea is incumbent upon educators. The authors of They Say I Say have created an approach to classroom conversations that is rooted in the idea that they are not merely preparing to discuss the author’s argument, but also the arguments it is responding to. Students become active and critical readers as they seek to parse out “not only what the author thinks, but how what the author thinks fits with what others think, and ultimately with what you yourself think.” 16 In order to help students learn how to express their ideas, this strategy offers sentence frames to help them utilize appropriate academic language that focuses on ideas. The frames can be categorized into groups such as those that capture authorial action, such as “X demonstrates that _____” or “X urges us to ______.” Disagreeing, with reasons, might lead to the use of the frame: “X’s claim that _____ rests upon the questionable assumption that _____.” Agreeing with qualifications could be aided by the use of the frame: “I agree that ______, a point that needs emphasizing since so many people believe _____.” Agreeing and disagreeing simultaneously could be expressed through the frame: “Though I concede that _____, I still insist that _____.” 17

This acronym (Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject and Tone) is intended to help students consider and evaluate an argument through a series of questions. Students will ask themselves, who is the speaker and what personae they have created, with a focus on ethos. Next, the occasion can be understood in terms of time, place, context and background information. Audience necessitates consideration of the intended audience, which may only be a segment of the population with access to the rhetoric, as well as the three rhetorical appeals utilized. Purpose is the implicit or explicit intention of the speaker. The worldview, assumptions and philosophies that inform the subject of the text must be carefully considered. Tone requires students to consider the attitude of the speaker towards the subject and perhaps even the audience.

Classroom Activities

Character analysis.

As the students read the play, they will fill out a graphic organizer that has several characters (Antony, Brutus, Caesar, Calpurnia, Cassius, Portia) for whom they must address questions such as: What do other characters say about the focus character? How do they represent themselves with words to others? What are the character’s private thoughts? What are their actions? This activity is designed to demonstrate how much evidence there is in the text relating to character, and how the evidence may point to conflicting interpretations. Effective classroom conversations cannot occur without adequate preparation for both the rituals and routines of the discussion, as well as the appropriate language for the discourse, in addition to ample textual evidence to support opinion. The graphic organizer is one way to support and scaffold students towards effective conversation.

Funeral Speeches

Close reading requires that students have the opportunity to annotate and really work with the text. Hence it is useful to provide worksheets that will allow students to write, highlight, circle and otherwise annotate. As they are examples of some of the most notable rhetoric in the play, the funeral speeches afford ideal opportunities for students to perform close textual analysis. As indicated in Appendix B, the side-by-side format allows students to respond to questions and be led through close textual analysis. The initial speech by Brutus would be heavily teacher directed, whereas Antony’s speech might be analyzed in small groups.

Brutus’ idealism has been perverted by Cassius, yet he still fails to recognize his tenuous position as he addresses the audience. His relatively short funeral oration is a masterful example of carefully constructed verse that demonstrates balance, yet comes across as cold and too logical with over 30 figures of speech crammed into a relatively short monologue, in the face of his supposed regret for the necessity of murdering a man he loved. His speech seems almost entirely informed by ethos as he commands the crowd to “hear” and “believe” him. He repeatedly refers to his own honor, as if to suggest that it is an unquestionable attribute, which demonstrates his idealism and perhaps his naiveté. His emotional distance is evident when he expresses his regret for the necessity of murder “As Caesar loved me, I weep for him” [III,ii,23] as opposed to expressing his own love for Caesar. 18 Brutus calls Caesar “fortunate” and commends his valor, but condemns his “ambition” and uses that as justification to the amassed crowd for the murder. He asks the rhetorical question , who is so “vile” that they don’t love the Republic and asks that individual to step forward, which of course has the effect of silencing any dissenter. In sum, Brutus’ speech demonstrates stilted rhetoric and moral narcissism, and ultimately his focus on ethos (his honor) will be turned against him. Although he tried to kill a political idea he feared, he necessarily had to commit a murder. However, he distances himself from the actual physical murder by making it a symbolic act and even refers to Caesar as a sacrifice, a “dish fit for the gods” [II,I,174] when planning the deed. His guilty conscience still troubles him when he commits suicide at the end of play and declares “Caesar, now be still, I kill’d not thee with half so good a will.” [V,v,52-53]

When Antony addresses the crowd at the Forum, they initially are respectful only because Brutus has instructed them to be so. His audience is not necessarily hostile, but they seem hardly malleable, yet while Brutus commanded them most masterfully, Antony coaxes them through a progressive series of rhetorical devices that build upon one another. Antony immediately sets himself apart from Brutus by using prose and taking the conversation from the ethereal level to the very physical, evident especially in his use of the actual corpse to illustrate his perspective. Antony proves capable of harnessing his emotions in order to sway the opinion of the crowd in a seemingly natural manner by using prose, yet it is rife with irony, questioning, and logical appeals that gradually persuade the audience. His appeal seems motivated by genuine grief as he carefully leads the audience to question Caesar’s ambition, then tantalizes them with the will while continuing slyly to refer to Brutus’ honor. His use of pathos and logos, while continually sarcastically referring to Brutus’ ethos--“But Brutus says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man” [III,ii,85-86]--are delivered in segments with pauses for the crowd to respond and generate pity for Caesar and then righteous indignation after they learn of Caesar’s bequests in the will . Eventually their passions are so inflamed that they are incited to riot. Antony is perhaps the most masterful orator. He has convinced the crowd that he is “a plain blunt man” [III,ii,208], but my students will understand through their analysis that his is in fact, the most calculated and devious deployer of rhetoric in the play. This may lead to a discussion of an audience’s dislike of being manipulated by a rhetorically gifted individual and in inherent reaction to resist the content of what such a person says. Antony’s last speech might respond to the question who is truly the tragic hero of this play. With no benefit to derive from dissembling, Antony states that Brutus “was the noblest Roman of them all” [V,v,68] and his judgment stands as a summary thought for the audience. Still considering the effects of rhetoric, students may also choose a historical interpretation that focuses on the chaos that ensues when the legitimate ruler is usurped.

I hope to demonstrate how Brutus’ funeral oration is ultimately flawed as a result of his dependency upon ethos and style. It is a beautiful piece of rhetoric comprised of repetition, reverse interchanges, the pairing of opposites, and rhetorical questions, but it ultimately demonstrates his narcissistic reliance on his own honor as a justification for murder, and the haughty rhetoric alienates him from his audience. In marked contrast, Antony’s speech is a testament to his apparent emotional trauma. It uses irony and manipulation to firstly convince with logos and then play to the crowd’s emotions with ethos. After close analysis, students will compare and contrast the speeches of Brutus and Antony to reveal the marked contrast between prose and verse, reliance upon ethos as opposed to logos, brevity in contrast to breadth, and careful composition versus an emotional appeal. 19 Although there are a number of questions that direct attention to significant uses of rhetoric, there are also many opportunities to conduct further and deeper analysis. Students may benefit from completing a Venn Diagram that compares and contrasts the speeches of Brutus and Antony (length, prose vs. verse, reaction to the death, commanding vs. coaxing, rhetorical strategies employed, etc.), followed by a discussion of how those differences affect the audience, given the speaker’s purpose. Ultimately it is my hope that students will concur that the masterful use of a variety of rhetorical devices develops logos, ethos and then pathos in Antony’s speech, making him therefore the more effective rhetorician. “He passes the only test that matters in classical rhetoric---audience response.” 20 Film versions of the key speeches by Brutus and Antony will be viewed and compared to demonstrate how delivery profoundly alters perception of the content and to explore the art of public speaking and effective speaking strategies.

Conduct a mock trial of Brutus for the crime of assassinating Caesar. Assign roles for Brutus, several prosecution and defense lawyers, a judge, and witnesses. The remainder of the class will serve as the jury. Students will prepare for their role in the trial. At the end of the trial the jury members will each write a paragraph explanation of their opinion on the guilt or innocence of the defendant and the evidence that swayed them. The judge will deliver an appropriate sentence, having acted as moderator for the process.

Socratic Seminar

A Socratic seminar is a structured conversation between students that demands they use evidence from the text to support their assertions and interact utilizing a constructive model. I tend to use an inner circle of confident speakers to engage in debate while an outer circle takes very specific notes on the types of interactions students engage in: Do they they pose a question, ask another student to elaborate, refer to another student’s ideas when making a point, or use evidence from the text? Posing questions that are highly debatable and don’t necessarily have a correct answer is a favorite strategy to help students prepare for meaningful classroom conversation. When is murder justified? Is assassination morally less reprehensible than murder? How is the treatment of the wives (Portia and Calpurnia) parallel? Is Caesar’s excessive use of his own name and the third person evidence that he is vainglorious or merely that he is cognizant of his own authority? Was Caesar a threat to Rome or just a fallible man? If the conspirators were right to fear Caesar’s power, were they right to kill him? Did Brutus betray Caesar? Why do Cassius and Brutus kill themselves on the battlefield? Do the ends justify the means? Can positive change result from violent action? What is the function of soliloquy? How does the relationship between Brutus and Cassius change over the course of the play?

Students will create a six panel storyboard to convey the most significant plot points of the play. This activity requires students to demonstrate sequencing skills as they determine which are the most significant moments. They will indicate the main ideas and include a caption with a quotation from the text. This activity will be especially engaging for students as they work in groups and will help my English Language Learners remain engaged.

Resource List

Classroom texts.

Duarte, Nancy, “The Secret Structure of Great Talks,” TEDx East video, 18:38,

November 11, 2010,

http://www.ted.com/talks/nancy_duarte_the_secret_structure_of_great_talks

Edlund, Dr. John R. "Ethos, Logos, Pathos." Ethos, Logos, Pathos. Accessed July 31,

2015. http://web.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/3waypers.htm.

Epstein, Joseph. "The Divine Miss H, Revisited." The Weekly Standard, June 22, 2015,

Vol 20, No. 39, 5.

King, Martin Luther. Letter from the Birmingham Jail . San Francisco: Harper San

Francisco, 1994.

Shakespeare, William, and John D. Cox. Julius Caesar . Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview,

2013. One of two indispensable texts for the teacher as it includes discussion of

rhetoric that precedes the play as well as [] excerpts from Plutarch’s Lives

of the Noble Grecians and Romans .

Zigarelli, Michael, “An Introduction to Ethos, Logos and Pathos” You Tube, 4:20, May

30, 2014, http://youtu.be/9L_G82HH9Tg

Bibliography for Teachers

Bean, John C., Virginia A. Chappell and Alica M. Gillam. Reading Rhetorically . New

Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014. This is one of the fundamental texts used by

our ERWC classes in alignment with the Common Core State Standards. Although

written for students, it serves to deconstruct the elements of analysis by teaching

students how to approach thinking, reading and writing from the perspective of

rhetoric and is especially useful in strategies for closely and vigorously annotating

Blits, Jan H. “ From Caesar’s Ambiguous End.” In Julius Caesar , edited by S.P.

Cerasano, 199-210. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Bloom, Harold. Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human . New York: Riverhead Books,

Includes references to Aristotle’s rhetoric, a basic plot diagram and close analysis of

two speeches: “I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King and a speech by Steve Jobs.

2015. http://web.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/3waypers.htm. Great foundational text

to provide students with an opportunity to understand Aristotle’s three most basic

methods of persuasion and can serve to simultaneously teach annotation skills. There

are also great questions at the end of each method that encourage group conversations.

Garber, Marjorie B. Shakespeare after All . New York: Pantheon Books, 2004.

Garber, Marjorie B. Shakespeare and Modern Culture . New York: Pantheon Books,

Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say / I Say: The Moves That Matter in

Academic Writing . 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton &, 2010.

Greenblatt, Stephen. Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare . New

York: WW. Norton and Co., 2004. I provide my students with some great handouts

on both Shakespeare and life/theater in Elizabethan times, but this biography is a

delightful exploration of the playwright and his world which will help flesh out my

lectures and commentary.

Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can

Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion . New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007.

Joseph, Sister Miriam. Rhetoric in Shakespeare's Time: Literary Theory of Renaissance

Europe. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962.

McGuigan, Brendan, and Paul Moliken. Rhetorical Devices: A Handbook and Activities

for Student Writers . Rev. ed. Clayton, DE: Prestwick House, 2011.

Miner, Horace. “Body Rituals Among the Nacirema”

Museum of the Moving Image, “The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign

Commercials 1952-2012” http://www.livingroomcandidate.org. Given that I will be

teaching this unit in the midst of campaigning for the next presidential election, an

analysis of one of outgoing President Barack Obama’s speeches that used ethos to

arouse hope and logos to address the economy and war might provide useful as will

viewing current candidate’s debates and ads.

Roskelly, Hepzibah. “What do Students Need to Know About Rhetoric.” College Board

Shakespeare, William, and Susan P. Cerasano. Julius Caesar . New York: W.W. Norton,

rhetoric that precedes the play as well as the addition of excerpts from Plutarch’s Lives

of the Noble Grecians and Roman.

Wills, Garry. Rome and Rhetoric: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar . New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 2011. Invaluable text in that it analyzes the characters in Julius

Caesar through the lens of rhetoric. While it is far too in-depth an analysis in terms of

depth and breadth for my classroom, it is invaluable to me as an educator to

familiarize myself with Plutarch’s historical take on these men as well as the specific

rhetorical devices in the text.

30, 2014, http://youtu.be/9L_G82HH9Tg. Fun introductory clip to the pragmatic use of the art of persuasion through as example of a detective trying to get a confession from a suspect.

Academic Standards

This is the second year after adoption of the California Common Core State Standards and the Oak Grove High School English department is focused on truly preparing our students for the 21st century.

Enduring Understandings

Students will understand that:

argument is part of a process and debate, and not the last word, nor is it a dogmatic opinion. One can form an opinion while keeping an open mind W.9-10.1 Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or gets, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

(The ability to accept the writer’s premise and conduct a descriptive outline that seeks comprehension prior to engaging in questioning the text in a skeptical manner will be taught as a discreet skill)

they can observe patterns objectively and thoroughly, especially when they consider how diction, syntax, style and structure profoundly impact how a message is received by an audience. RL.9-10.10 By the end of grade 10, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas and poems, and the high end of the grades 9-10 text complexity band independently and proficiently. (My aim is to teach perseverance to my students, who often feel overwhelmed by a complicated text like a Shakespeare play. Teaching them to consider speaker, audience, genre, tone, use of figurative language, grammar, sentence structure and rhetoric and how to perform a close annotation of the text that leads to analysis is key)
the rhetorical choices made by an author can influence the way people think or perceive . "Evaluate a speaker's point of view, reasoning, and use evidence and rhetoric, identifying any fallacious reasoning or exaggerated or distorted evidence.” SL.9-10.3

(Ultimately, the honorable Brutus leaves the stage convinced that his authority and ethos have convinced the audience of the necessity of slaying Caesar, and when he offers to fall upon his own sword, they chant “Live, Brutus, live, live!” However, once Antony has played the impassioned crowd like a fiddle, convincing them with both his style [such as using irony], his tearful emotions and the reading of the will, we witness the crowd incited to riot.)

Grammar would actually be imperative to Aristotle as well, considered an essential part of style and therefore noting the schemes of words and repetition would dovetail with this threefold approach to persuasion. Sister Miriam Joseph, Rhetoric in Shakespeare’s Time , 34-38.
John R. Edlund, “Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade.
Sister Miriam Joseph, Rhetoric in Shakespeare’s Time , 20.
P. Cerasano, ed, Julius Caesar , xi.
John Cox, ed, Julius Caesar , 195.
Brutus’ willingness to believe such lies shows that he was predisposed to despise Caesar already.” Garry Wills, Rome and Rhetroic , 14-15.
Harold Bloom, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human,
“The image of Cicero that Shakespeare wants for his play is the typical Renaissance attitude of respect for the champion of liberty,” hence, Shakespeare could not include Cicero amongst the conspirators, nor could he use Plutarch’s assertion that Cicero was elderly and fainthearted without diminishing his image as a defender of the Republic. Gary Wills, Rome and Rhetoric , 7-8.
Jan H. Blits “ From Caesar’s Ambiguous End,” in Julius Caesar , edited by S.P. Cerasano, 210.
“Shakespeare also invented Caesar’s belief in his wife’s barrenness…, a detail that could as easily reflect Caesar’s disability as his wife’s, though Caesar characteristically fails to see the situation that way.” Cox, 17.
John C. Bean, Virgina A. Chappell and Alica M. Gillam, Reading Rhetorically , 36.
Descriptive outlining (says and does statements) can be explored in detail, along with other helpful strategies for annotating text in Reading Rhetorically . John C. Bean, Virgina A. Chappell and Alice M. Gillam, Reading Rhetorically , 56-57
Gerald Graff, and Cathy Birkenstein, They Say / I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing ,
Wills, 81-82.

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Shout out for Shakespeare!

A persuasive writing resource asking the question: Should Shakespeare remain on the curriculum?

Students explore the opening of two student responses to this question, considering how persuasive techniques are used. They also plan their own written response.

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A persuasive writing resource asking the question: Should Shakespeare remain on the curriculum? Students explore the opening of two student responses to this question, considering how persuasive techniques are used. They also plan their own written response. Part of Sandbox Learning Limited.