sample chapter 3 of a dissertation

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How to Structure a Dissertation – A Step by Step Guide

Published by Owen Ingram at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

A dissertation – sometimes called a thesis –  is a long piece of information backed up by extensive research. This one, huge piece of research is what matters the most when students – undergraduates and postgraduates – are in their final year of study.

On the other hand, some institutions, especially in the case of undergraduate students, may or may not require students to write a dissertation. Courses are offered instead. This generally depends on the requirements of that particular institution.

If you are unsure about how to structure your dissertation or thesis, this article will offer you some guidelines to work out what the most important segments of a dissertation paper are and how you should organise them. Why is structure so important in research, anyway?

One way to answer that, as Abbie Hoffman aptly put it, is because: “Structure is more important than content in the transmission of information.”

Also Read:   How to write a dissertation – step by step guide .

How to Structure a Dissertation or Thesis

It should be noted that the exact structure of your dissertation will depend on several factors, such as:

• Your research approach (qualitative/quantitative)
• The nature of your research design (exploratory/descriptive etc.)
• The requirements set for forth by your academic institution.
• The discipline or field your study belongs to. For instance, if you are a humanities student, you will need to develop your dissertation on the same pattern as any long essay .

This will include developing an overall argument to support the thesis statement and organizing chapters around theories or questions. The dissertation will be structured such that it starts with an introduction , develops on the main idea in its main body paragraphs and is then summarised in conclusion .

However, if you are basing your dissertation on primary or empirical research, you will be required to include each of the below components. In most cases of dissertation writing, each of these elements will have to be written as a separate chapter.

But depending on the word count you are provided with and academic subject, you may choose to combine some of these elements.

For example, sciences and engineering students often present results and discussions together in one chapter rather than two different chapters.

If you have any doubts about structuring your dissertation or thesis, it would be a good idea to consult with your academic supervisor and check your department’s requirements.

Parts of  a Dissertation or Thesis

Your dissertation will  start with a t itle page that will contain details of the author/researcher, research topic, degree program (the paper is to be submitted for), and research supervisor. In other words, a title page is the opening page containing all the names and title related to your research.

The name of your university, logo, student ID and submission date can also be presented on the title page. Many academic programs have stringent rules for formatting the dissertation title page.

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgments section allows you to thank those who helped you with your dissertation project. You might want to mention the names of your academic supervisor, family members, friends, God, and participants of your study whose contribution and support enabled you to complete your work.

However, the acknowledgments section is usually optional.

Tip: Many students wrongly assume that they need to thank everyone…even those who had little to no contributions towards the dissertation. This is not the case. You only need to thank those who were directly involved in the research process, such as your participants/volunteers, supervisor(s) etc.

Perhaps the smallest yet important part of a thesis, an abstract contains 5 parts:

• A brief introduction of your research topic.
• The significance of your research.
•  A line or two about the methodology that was used.
• The results and what they mean (briefly); their interpretation(s).
• And lastly, a conclusive comment regarding the results’ interpretation(s) as conclusion .

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Tip: Make sure to highlight key points to help readers figure out the scope and findings of your research study without having to read the entire dissertation. The abstract is your first chance to impress your readers. So, make sure to get it right. Here are detailed guidelines on how to write abstract for dissertation .

Table of Contents

Table of contents is the section of a dissertation that guides each section of the dissertation paper’s contents. Depending on the level of detail in a table of contents, the most useful headings are listed to provide the reader the page number on which said information may be found at.

Table of contents can be inserted automatically as well as manually using the Microsoft Word Table of Contents feature.

List of Figures and Tables

If your dissertation paper uses several illustrations, tables and figures, you might want to present them in a numbered list in a separate section . Again, this list of tables and figures can be auto-created and auto inserted using the Microsoft Word built-in feature.

List of Abbreviations

Dissertations that include several abbreviations can also have an independent and separate alphabetised  list of abbreviations so readers can easily figure out their meanings.

If you think you have used terms and phrases in your dissertation that readers might not be familiar with, you can create a  glossary  that lists important phrases and terms with their meanings explained.

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Introduction

Introduction chapter  briefly introduces the purpose and relevance of your research topic.

Here, you will be expected to list the aim and key objectives of your research so your readers can easily understand what the following chapters of the dissertation will cover. A good dissertation introduction section incorporates the following information:

• It provides background information to give context to your research.
• It clearly specifies the research problem you wish to address with your research. When creating research questions , it is important to make sure your research’s focus and scope are neither too broad nor too narrow.
• it demonstrates how your research is relevant and how it would contribute to the existing knowledge.
• It provides an overview of the structure of your dissertation. The last section of an introduction contains an outline of the following chapters. It could start off with something like: “In the following chapter, past literature has been reviewed and critiqued. The proceeding section lays down major research findings…”
• Theoretical framework – under a separate sub-heading – is also provided within the introductory chapter. Theoretical framework deals with the basic, underlying theory or theories that the research revolves around.

All the information presented under this section should be relevant, clear, and engaging. The readers should be able to figure out the what, why, when, and how of your study once they have read the introduction. Here are comprehensive guidelines on how to structure the introduction to the dissertation .

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Literature Review 

The  literature review chapter  presents previous research performed on the topic and improves your understanding of the existing literature on your chosen topic. This is usually organised to complement your  primary research  work completed at a later stage.

Make sure that your chosen academic sources are authentic and up-to-date. The literature review chapter must be comprehensive and address the aims and objectives as defined in the introduction chapter. Here is what your literature research chapter should aim to achieve:

• Data collection from authentic and relevant academic sources such as books, journal articles and research papers.
• Analytical assessment of the information collected from those sources; this would involve a critiquing the reviewed researches that is, what their strengths/weaknesses are, why the research method they employed is better than others, importance of their findings, etc.
• Identifying key research gaps, conflicts, patterns, and theories to get your point across to the reader effectively.

While your literature review should summarise previous literature, it is equally important to make sure that you develop a comprehensible argument or structure to justify your research topic. It would help if you considered keeping the following questions in mind when writing the literature review:

• How does your research work fill a certain gap in exiting literature?
• Did you adopt/adapt a new research approach to investigate the topic?
• Does your research solve an unresolved problem?
• Is your research dealing with some groundbreaking topic or theory that others might have overlooked?
• Is your research taking forward an existing theoretical discussion?
• Does your research strengthen and build on current knowledge within your area of study? This is otherwise known as ‘adding to the existing body of knowledge’ in academic circles.

Tip: You might want to establish relationships between variables/concepts to provide descriptive answers to some or all of your research questions. For instance, in case of quantitative research, you might hypothesise that variable A is positively co-related to variable B that is, one increases and so does the other one.

Research Methodology

The methods and techniques ( secondary and/or primar y) employed to collect research data are discussed in detail in the  Methodology chapter. The most commonly used primary data collection methods are:

• questionnaires
• focus groups
• observations

Essentially, the methodology chapter allows the researcher to explain how he/she achieved the findings, why they are reliable and how they helped him/her test the research hypotheses or address the research problem.

You might want to consider the following when writing methodology for the dissertation:

• Type of research and approach your work is based on. Some of the most widely used types of research include experimental, quantitative and qualitative methodologies.
• Data collection techniques that were employed such as questionnaires, surveys, focus groups, observations etc.
• Details of how, when, where, and what of the research that was conducted.
• Data analysis strategies employed (for instance, regression analysis).
• Software and tools used for data analysis (Excel, STATA, SPSS, lab equipment, etc.).
• Research limitations to highlight any hurdles you had to overcome when carrying our research. Limitations might or might not be mentioned within research methodology. Some institutions’ guidelines dictate they be mentioned under a separate section alongside recommendations.
• Justification of your selection of research approach and research methodology.

Here is a comprehensive article on  how to structure a dissertation methodology .

Research Findings

In this section, you present your research findings. The dissertation findings chapter  is built around the research questions, as outlined in the introduction chapter. Report findings that are directly relevant to your research questions.

Any information that is not directly relevant to research questions or hypotheses but could be useful for the readers can be placed under the  Appendices .

As indicated above, you can either develop a  standalone chapter  to present your findings or combine them with the discussion chapter. This choice depends on  the type of research involved and the academic subject, as well as what your institution’s academic guidelines dictate.

For example, it is common to have both findings and discussion grouped under the same section, particularly if the dissertation is based on qualitative research data.

On the other hand, dissertations that use quantitative or experimental data should present findings and analysis/discussion in two separate chapters. Here are some sample dissertations to help you figure out the best structure for your own project.

Sample Dissertation

Tip: Try to present as many charts, graphs, illustrations and tables in the findings chapter to improve your data presentation. Provide their qualitative interpretations alongside, too. Refrain from explaining the information that is already evident from figures and tables.

The findings are followed by the  Discussion chapter , which is considered the heart of any dissertation paper. The discussion section is an opportunity for you to tie the knots together to address the research questions and present arguments, models and key themes.

This chapter can make or break your research.

The discussion chapter does not require any new data or information because it is more about the interpretation(s) of the data you have already collected and presented. Here are some questions for you to think over when writing the discussion chapter:

• Did your work answer all the research questions or tested the hypothesis?
• Did you come up with some unexpected results for which you have to provide an additional explanation or justification?
• Are there any limitations that could have influenced your research findings?

Here is an article on how to  structure a dissertation discussion .

Conclusions corresponding to each research objective are provided in the  Conclusion section . This is usually done by revisiting the research questions to finally close the dissertation. Some institutions may specifically ask for recommendations to evaluate your critical thinking.

By the end, the readers should have a clear apprehension of your fundamental case with a focus on  what methods of research were employed  and what you achieved from this research.

Quick Question: Does the conclusion chapter reflect on the contributions your research work will make to existing knowledge?

Answer: Yes, the conclusion chapter of the research paper typically includes a reflection on the research’s contributions to existing knowledge.  In the “conclusion chapter”, you have to summarise the key findings and discuss how they add value to the existing literature on the current topic.

Reference list

All academic sources that you collected information from should be cited in-text and also presented in a  reference list (or a bibliography in case you include references that you read for the research but didn’t end up citing in the text), so the readers can easily locate the source of information when/if needed.

At most UK universities, Harvard referencing is the recommended style of referencing. It has strict and specific requirements on how to format a reference resource. Other common styles of referencing include MLA, APA, Footnotes, etc.

Each chapter of the dissertation should have relevant information. Any information that is not directly relevant to your research topic but your readers might be interested in (interview transcripts etc.) should be moved under the Appendices section .

Things like questionnaires, survey items or readings that were used in the study’s experiment are mostly included under appendices.

An Outline of Dissertation/Thesis Structure

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FAQs About Structure a Dissertation

What does the title page of a dissertation contain.

The title page will contain details of the author/researcher, research topic , degree program (the paper is to be submitted for) and research supervisor’s name(s). The name of your university, logo, student number and submission date can also be presented on the title page.

What is the purpose of adding acknowledgement?

The acknowledgements section allows you to thank those who helped you with your dissertation project. You might want to mention the names of your academic supervisor, family members, friends, God and participants of your study whose contribution and support enabled you to complete your work.

Can I omit the glossary from the dissertation?

Yes, but only if you think that your paper does not contain any terms or phrases that the reader might not understand. If you think you have used them in the paper,  you must create a glossary that lists important phrases and terms with their meanings explained.

What is the purpose of appendices in a dissertation?

Any information that is not directly relevant to research questions or hypotheses but could be useful for the readers can be placed under the Appendices, such as questionnaire that was used in the study.

Which referencing style should I use in my dissertation?

You can use any of the referencing styles such as APA, MLA, and Harvard, according to the recommendation of your university; however, almost all UK institutions prefer Harvard referencing style .

What is the difference between references and bibliography?

References contain all the works that you read up and used and therefore, cited within the text of your thesis. However, in case you read on some works and resources that you didn’t end up citing in-text, they will be referenced in what is called a bibliography.

Additional readings might also be present alongside each bibliography entry for readers.

You May Also Like

Here are the steps to make a theoretical framework for dissertation. You can define, discuss and evaluate theories relevant to the research problem.

Dissertation discussion is where you explore the relevance and significance of results. Here are guidelines to help you write the perfect discussion chapter.

Not sure how to write the findings of a dissertation. Here are some comprehensive guidelines for you to learn to write a flawless findings chapter.

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PhD Dissertation Outline: Creating a Roadmap to Success

A good PhD dissertation outline is as important to your dissertation as a map is to get you to your destination. Imagine for instance you’re trying to drive to a specific place to attend a party you’ve been looking forward to. You know the address, but you don’t have a map or a driving app. You get there eventually, but it takes a lot longer that it should have and stresses you so much that you’re in a bad mood when you get there. The party ends up being a bust. 

This is similar to trying to write an academic paper, especially a PhD dissertation, without using an outline. 

Why you need a PhD dissertation outline

When you do your PhD, outlines become the driving app for your academic paper, giving you direction so you know what’s in front of you. This is especially important for a PhD dissertation because of its physical length and the amount of time you will need to live with it. Successful PhD dissertation writing requires a laser focus, and an outline makes a great navigator. 

There are many advantages of creating a PhD dissertation outline 1,2 : 

• Organize your project – Using an PhD dissertation outline will help you organize your thoughts and your work. If you have an idea or find a bit of information to include in a different section, simply write a note in the appropriate place to remind yourself. 
• Stay on task – Like the driving app, a PhD dissertation structure keeps you on the proper road and minimizes distractions. When writing without keeping in mind your PhD dissertation structure, it’s easy to find yourself in the weeds. 
• Increase productivity – A PhD dissertation outline keeps you aware of what you have to do, allows you to set goals, and be more productive. 
• Save time – This is a major advantage in PhD dissertation writing. The faster you can successfully complete your dissertation process, the more money you’ll save, and the sooner you can get on with the rest of your life. 
• Reduce anxiety – The effective use of a good PhD dissertation outline will give you control over this massive project. You’ll be more confident that you can successfully complete your PhD dissertation. 

How to write a PhD dissertation outline

So, now that you’re convinced that you need a PhD dissertation outline, where do you start? A few general steps will get you on the right road 3 : 

• Select an appropriate topic: This one might seem obvious, but it is often a very difficult decision to make. The topic will guide the approach and research methodology. Although the research question will probably be tweaked along the way, not choosing a relevant topic at the start will result in chaos later on. 
• Review other dissertations on your topic: This will give you an idea about what your PhD dissertation structure will look like. 
• Draft a research problem: The research problem is the core of your dissertation and will guide your methodology and thus strongly influence your PhD dissertation structure. 
• Get input from your advisor/supervisor: Seek advice from your supervisor on some PhD thesis outline examples and take advantage of any assistance they provide to help you choose wisely. This will help keep you on the right road

PhD dissertation structure

Doctoral dissertations typically have five standard chapters, although your university might have a specific required structure. Here is a brief description of the typical five-chapter PhD dissertation format 3 . 

Chapter 1: Introduction – This section provides an overview of the dissertation including its topic, purpose, and relevance. Typically, the general subject area is discussed and narrowed down to the research topic. Then, the research questions are posed, and the methodology is presented.  Chapter 2: Literature Review – A comprehensive survey and synthesis of existing studies on the research topic, the literature review demonstrates the research gap and sets the context for the research question. Depending on the topic, theory may also be explored. Existing methodologies used to address this topic are also discussed.  Chapter 3: Methodology – In this section, the methodology and materials used to collect and analyze the research data are presented in enough detail to demonstrate the validity of the method and allow the research to be duplicated by others.  Chapter 4: Results – The research findings are reported in this section and presented in relation to the research question. Relevant visuals such as tables and figures are typically included here to communicate the findings effectively.  C hapter 5: Discussion – In a five-chapter format, this is the final chapter in a PhD dissertation format. In this chapter, the findings are discussed and interpreted in light of the research question. Bits from all the chapters are synthesized to completely address the research question. 

An additional chapter is sometimes added that includes conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions for future research. 

Tips for creating your PhD dissertation outline 3,4

Finally, here are some quick and useful tips for your PhD thesis outline journey. 

• Use the structure to complete the outline – Carefully think about each chapter and write down questions and information you will need. 
• Create your outline early – Keep it up to date through your early research and advisor meetings. 
• Be flexible – Changes will need to be made to your outline as you progress. 
• Be detailed – You never know when a small piece of information you jotted down in your outline will save you time and anxiety. 
• Keep in close contact with your PhD dissertation advisor/supervisor – Make sure to share your outline. You may just save yourself a lot of time and misery if major changes need to be made. 
• Stay calm – Changes will come from different committee members. Remember, they are just trying to strengthen your work. 
• Statistics Solutions. The benefit of outlining. https://www.statisticssolutions.com/the-benefits-of-outlining/ [Accessed 14 July 2022].
• PapersOwl. How To Create An Outline For A Dissertation? https://papersowl.com/blog/outline-for-dissertation [Accessed 14 July 2022].
• Research.com. What Is A University Dissertation: Structure, Challenges & Writing Tips. https://research.com/research/what-is-a-university-dissertation [Accessed 14 July 2022].
• Docformats.com. Dissertation Outline Templates. https://www.docformats.com/dissertation-outline-templates/ [Accessed 14 July 2022].

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Dissertation

Chapter 1: Introduction

This dissertation presents a research study titled The Roles of Digital Libraries as Boundary Objects Within and Across Social and Information Worlds . As the name suggests, it examines the roles of two digital libraries, as social phenomena and boundary objects, in information behaviors and activities taking place within, between, and across multiple communities, social worlds, and information worlds. This introductory chapter begins with an overview of the research purpose, a statement of the problem being considered, and the significance of the research. It then presents the research questions explored and the theoretical framework and approach applied in this study. The chapter concludes by reviewing the research design used, the assumptions made in the study, and making an initial presentation of the benefits and implications of this research. Chapter 2 presents a thorough literature review of relevant research; Chapter 3 presents the details of the method and research procedures; Chapter 4 presents a detailed review of the study findings; and Chapter 5 discusses and synthesizes these findings, answers the research question, and considers in detail the implications of this research.

1.1. Purpose

The purpose of this research, taking a social perspective on digital libraries, is to improve understanding of the organizational, cultural, institutional, collaborative, and social contexts of digital libraries, contexts with important effects on users, communities, and information behavior. Drawing from Borgman (1999) and other literature (see Chapter 2 ), a social digital library can be defined as (a) having one or more collections of digital content collected on behalf of a user community; and (b) offering services, relating to the content, by or through the digital library to the user community. It is, or is part of, one or more formal or informal organizations that manage these content and services, focusing on facilitating information and knowledge creation and sharing (after Lankes, 2009, 2011) and excluding different primary motivations (e.g. selling products). These characteristics should be considered in light of the various contexts they inhabit, most of all the social contexts.

1.2. Problem Statement and Significance

Despite the expressed need—as far back as Bush (1945)—for social contexts of information to be considered under a social paradigm, many early information retrieval systems focused on the technology (see e.g. Raber, 2003; Smith, 1981, 1991). Echoes of paradigmatic unrest (cf. Ellis, 1992; Raber, 2003) are seen in divisions on how digital libraries should be seen (Borgman, 1999) and Brown and Duguid’s (2002) rejection of technology-centric solutions to information and knowledge problems. Nevertheless, many have stated and repeated calls for consideration of digital libraries as information systems constructed in social context (Ackerman, 1994; Frumkin, 2004; Gazan, 2008; Levy & Marshall, 1995; Lynch, 2005; Marshall & Bly, 2004; Neuhold, Niederée, & Stewart, 2003; Van House, 2003), as is discussed in Chapter 2 . Viewing digital libraries as social parallels the roles of physical libraries (Pomerantz & Marchionini, 2007, p. 506), which are not just physical collections and technical services but physical and conceptual spaces "link[ing] people to ideas and to each other." It parallels the definition found in the DELOS Reference Model and associated Digital Library Manifesto (see Candela et al., 2007, sec. 2, para. 3), which included (a) an organization; (b) the collection and management of digital content; and (c) functionality and services associated with the content.

Non-social digital libraries do not offer strong support for the multiple communities that use them and for collaboration taking place within and across communities. Since a traditional role of physical library environments is to serve as inherently social spaces (Pomerantz & Marchionini, 2007), digital libraries should improve their support for social, collaborative information behaviors and activities, lest social opportunities to seek, use, and share information and knowledge become diminished or lost as libraries become increasingly digital and hybrid in nature.

The phenomena of communities and collaboration are key elements of this problem. A user community may consist of smaller communities or groups, adopting the subcultural view pioneered by Fischer (1975) and incorporating flexible use of conceptions of community used in calls for social digital libraries and in related research areas (see the review in Chapter 2 ). The content collected by the digital library is intended to be used by these communities; the services it offers are for the communities; and the organization(s) it is associated with are a form of community. A major objective of digital libraries is to support, construct, and build these differing kinds of "knowledge communities" that use their content and services (Bearman, 2007, p. 245). Digital libraries can and should improve and build these communities by supporting their "internal workings … and their links to the rest of the world" (Agre, 2003, p. 227), becoming bound to these communities (Star, Bowker, & Neumann, 2003). Supporting these workings and links requires supporting social contexts: collaboration within and across communities, the building and construction of new and existing communities, and individual and collaborative information behavior. Such collaboration centers around a common overall project, goal, interest, or practice (Gunawardena, Weber, & Agosto, 2010), although serendipitous opportunities for collaboration within and between communities should not be dismissed, given the commonality and value of serendipity as information seeking behavior (see Case, 2012, p. 101; Erdelez, 2005; Foster & Ford, 2003; Talja, 2002). The literature on communities and collaboration as it relates to information science and cognate areas is reviewed at greater length in Chapter 2 .

The literature indicates a clear need for theoretical and practical research to see if and how digital libraries support and facilitate collaboration, communities, and other social contexts in light of the most appropriate conceptions of these contexts in theory and practice. The field of digital library research, and by extension the information science field, will benefit from the fuller understanding of the roles and uses of social digital libraries within and across worlds and communities that this study helps provide. Significant implications exist for digital library design, usability, and development; the provision of services by digital library practitioners; and use of digital libraries by users and user communities. The study further benefits related research in the areas of social informatics, information behavior, and online communities. These implications and benefits are discussed further in section 1.7 below and in Chapter 5 .

1.3. Research Questions

This dissertation study focuses on two cases, LibraryThing and Goodreads, which are digital libraries and web sites for readers and lovers of books. LibraryThing and Goodreads feature digital content—from outside organizations and users—collected for their users and user communities, services relating to the content and for their user communities, and formal and informal organizations managing the content and services; while they are business endeavors, their primary purpose is to encourage information and knowledge sharing among book lovers, and as such they are social digital libraries. Their nature as large, public, multi-faceted digital libraries and web sites makes them appropriate cases for the purpose of this study. Details of the setting are given in Chapter 3 . The following two research questions were chosen to satisfy the purpose of this study within this setting:

RQ1: What roles do LibraryThing and Goodreads play, as boundary objects, in translation and coherence between the existing social and information worlds they are used within?

RQ2: What roles do LibraryThing and Goodreads play, as boundary objects, in coherence and convergence of new social and information worlds around their use?

The concepts of boundary objects, translation, coherence, convergence, social worlds, and information worlds used in these research questions are part of the theoretical framework for this study, explained in section 1.4.2 below.

1.4. Theoretical Framework and Approach

1.4.1. social paradigm.

This research falls under the social paradigm of information science, a view seeing information as a broad phenomenon having "social significance" (N. Roberts, 1976, p. 249) which "must be examined in the context of its social nature" (Raber, 2003, p. 222). Information is subjective within this context, differing in meaning and interpretation between different individuals, groups, communities, organizations, cultures, and societies (Jaeger & Burnett, 2010; Talja, Tuominen, & Savolainen, 2005). Data, information and knowledge may be within information systems, outside these systems, in the heads of users, or be socially constructed by groups and communities (Tuominen & Savolainen, 1997). Research in the social paradigm examines the "production of knowledge" (Karamuftuoglu, 1998, p. 1071), where "information acquiring and processing capabilities are not individual but social manifestations" (Brookes, 1975, as cited in N. Roberts, 1976, p. 254). Users are active participants in the social construction and production of information and knowledge and may take on multiple roles in the resulting discourse (Talja et al., 2005).

1.4.2. Theoretical Framework

This dissertation research draws on a synthesized theoretical framework consisting of three theories, discussed and developed at greater length in Chapter 2 . [1] The primary theory is Star’s (1989; Star & Griesemer, 1989) boundary object theory , which conceives of boundary objects as crossing the boundaries between multiple communities, being used within and adapted to many of them "simultaneously" (p. 408). Such boundary objects, which may be abstract or concrete, have weak structure when used across communities, but are seen as having strong structure when created and used in individual communities (p. 393). The "different" and overlapping meanings they have across communities can cause "mismatches," which require negotiation and translation (p. 412). Successful negotiation requires careful management of the boundary objects, their representations, and the interfaces they provide between social worlds. Maintaining "coherence" across and between social worlds is a critical role of boundary objects (p. 393).

Star and Griesemer drew on Strauss’s (1978) social world perspective , the second of the three theories included in the framework for this study (see also Clarke & Star, 2008). Strauss built his social worlds perspective on the work of Shibutani (1955), who argued there is a great "variety of social worlds," each with its own "organized outlook" based on the norms, beliefs, interaction, and communication of a given group of people (p. 566). Strauss (1978) proposed social worlds consist of "activities, memberships, sites, [and] technologies" in relation to social change (p. 121). A social world includes

• "at least one primary activity … strikingly evident";
• " sites where activities occur";
• " technology … [for] carrying out the social world’s activities"; and
• in established social worlds, " organizations … to further one aspect or another of the world’s activities" (p. 122; emphasis added).

To these four key concepts, Strauss added social worlds could and would "intersect … under [various] conditions" and segment into smaller subworlds given sufficient analysis (p. 122).

The final theory making up part of the theoretical framework used in this study is Burnett and Jaeger’s (2008; Jaeger & Burnett, 2010) theory of information worlds . Burnett and Jaeger built on Chatman’s theory of normative behavior (Burnett, Besant, & Chatman, 2001; Pendleton & Chatman, 1998), but wanted to move beyond its limitation in small worlds. Chatman had used the term information world as early as the 1980s (see Chatman, 1983, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1996), but left it ill-defined, requiring its meaning to be interpreted based on her views of small worlds and social worlds. In developing their theory of information worlds, Burnett and Jaeger saw to be more explicit, combining Chatman’s work with Habermas’s on lifeworlds and the public sphere. Besides information worlds themselves, five additional concepts are part of the theory:

• social norms , or the "standards of ‘rightness’ and ‘wrongness’ in social appearances";
• social types , "the [social] classification of a person" (Burnett et al., 2001, p. 537);
• information behavior , "the full spectrum of normative [information] behavior … that are available to members of a … world" (Burnett & Jaeger, 2008, "Small worlds" section, para. 8);
• information value , relating to the value judgments of different information within and across worlds; and
• boundaries , "the places at which information worlds come into contact with each other and across which communication and information exchange can—but may or may not—take place" (Jaeger & Burnett, 2010, p. 8).

The resulting information worlds are social spaces of varied sizes, settings, and shapes, which may be contiguous or overlapping. The theory allows for "multi-leveled" analysis of these worlds and their information-based interactions (p. 30).

1.4.3. Approach

This research conceives of digital libraries as socially constructed phenomena, following the tenets of the social paradigm, social informatics, and social constructionism. It focuses on the individual and social information behaviors of the users and communities that use a digital library, placing special emphasis on collaborative and community-building behaviors. Because they are used by and cross the boundaries of multiple social worlds, information worlds, and communities, social digital libraries are socially constructed boundary objects (Van House, 2003). Under the three theories mentioned above, they should

• adapt to the "local needs" (Star, 1989, p. 46) of as many of these worlds and communities as possible;
• reconcile and translate the "meanings" and understandings across these worlds to allow users to "work together" (Star & Griesemer, 1989, pp. 388–389), collaborate, and interact;
• support the emergence of localized and common social norms, social types, information values, and information behaviors shared—to varying and potentially overlapping extents—by the different information worlds using them (Burnett & Jaeger, 2008; Jaeger & Burnett, 2010); and
• act as common sites and technologies for users to engage in information-based activities (Strauss, 1978), including collaboration, information sharing, and knowledge sharing.

In acting as boundary objects, social digital libraries should support the possible emergence of a broader community (information world, social world) as the social digital library converges, coalesces, and reconciles portions of the multiple communities it serves.

1.5. Research Design

This dissertation study employed a mixed methods research design, using qualitative and quantitative methods together to combine their strengths and minimize their weaknesses; improve validity, reliability, and trustworthiness; and obtain a fuller understanding of uses of social digital libraries as boundary objects within and across social and information worlds. The research design is a variation on Creswell and Plano Clark’s (2011) multiphase design incorporating elements of their explanatory sequential and exploratory sequential designs. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected and integrated in sequence; qualitative data was prioritized, but not at the expense of quantitative data collection; multiple methods were used within the one study; and the study was and is based on the theoretical framework discussed above and the tenets of the social paradigm, social informatics, and social constructionism.

Three methods of data collection were used, with the choice of research design following the process proposed by Ridenour and Newman (2008) and taking the approach to thought suggested by these authors, Creswell and Plano Clark (2011), and Greene (2007). The selection of this design and these methods was based on the purpose, setting, and research questions discussed above. The three methods used to collect data were:

• content analysis of messages in LibraryThing and Goodreads groups;
• a structured survey of LibraryThing and Goodreads users; and
• semi-structured qualitative interviews with users of LibraryThing and Goodreads.

The holistic combination of these methods, interrelated together in a multiphase design and combined with the theoretical framework discussed above, allowed for exploratory and descriptive research on social digital libraries as boundary objects incorporating the strengths of quantitative and qualitative methods, the viewpoints of multiple perspectives, and a multi-leveled approach to analysis. The research design and the application of these methods in this dissertation research are discussed in detail in Chapter 3 .

1.6. Assumptions and Limitations

The study makes a few assumptions and has limitations, although their impact has been minimized as best as possible. The literature review presented in Chapter 2 is assumed to include all relevant literature; while it is always possible something has been missed, best efforts have been made to situate this study in a complete, accurate picture of the existing research, practice, and theory on social digital libraries. My biases and predispositions as a researcher have influenced the choice of paradigms, approaches, theories, and methods, but it is believed their use in this study is appropriate and was justified throughout. Data collection was limited to the given research setting, LibraryThing and Goodreads, and to users of nine groups across the two sites. Results from the survey cannot be generalized due to the sampling procedures that were necessary to use, but the results of all three methods are believed to have sufficient transferability to apply to LibraryThing and Goodreads as a whole and have some transferability to other research settings, leading to potential implications about social digital libraries and related areas of study. Further research is necessary to confirm this transferability. This is not participatory research—as I am not a frequent user of either site beyond the bounds of this study—and so internal knowledge of the two is limited (and was more so at the beginning of the study), but their nature as large, public, and multi-faceted digital libraries allows the findings to have more transferability beyond the two cases and nine groups studied here. The sampling methods used limit the broader applicability of the findings, but measures were taken (see Chapter 3 ) to help ensure the results are as representative and transferrable as possible given other constraints at hand. The study assumed prospective participants were willing enough to complete the survey and interview phases of the study, and sufficient participants were found; compensation was provided for the survey to help encourage participation. The study assumed limited time and resources, as is true in any research study. I believe the appropriate balance was kept between providing rich, complete, descriptive data and ensuring the dissertation was completed within the time and with the resources available. Details of the limitations of the study can be found in Chapter 5 , section 5.6 .

1.7. Benefits

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a traditional role of physical library environments is to serve as inherently social spaces (Pomerantz & Marchionini, 2007). The field of digital library research should benefit from this study’s treatment of digital libraries as social spaces, examining their support for social, collaborative information behaviors and activities. Studies of social digital libraries grounded in theory, practice, and data, like this one, can help ensure social opportunities to seek, use, and share information and knowledge are not diminished or lost as libraries become increasingly digital and hybrid in nature. My dissertation helps toward providing a fuller understanding of uses of social digital libraries as boundary objects within and across social worlds, information worlds, and communities, with many potential benefits and implications.

Many of these uncover ways that the design and practice of social digital libraries may better support and facilitate the coherence and convergence of the communities of their users. Others speak to the importance of considering the full, sociotechnical context of digital libraries in use by individuals, communities, and organizations. There are wider-ranging implications, when the findings of this study are considered in context of other literature, for research on social digital libraries and in the related areas of social informatics, information behavior, and online communities research. Examining many different communities, phenomena, and platforms—including other digital libraries, such as those with less overt social features than LibraryThing and Goodreads—in relation to the framework, approach, and perspective taken here can help build a broad, ongoing boundary-sensitive research agenda. Details of these benefits and implications are given in Chapter 5 .

Participants can receive indirect benefits from the increased knowledge and understanding researchers will have of the potential roles of social digital libraries within and across communities. They may benefit from the implications of the study findings as they relate to the design and development of digital libraries they may use (such as LibraryThing and Goodreads) and the provision of services to them in and by these digital libraries. Users of social media, social networking, and social Web services and sites will benefit over time from the broader implications of the results and conclusions of this study and related literature.

1.8. Conclusion

This broader has presented an overview of the research problem of interest in and purpose of this dissertation research; the questions that were to be answered; and the approach, methods, and theories used in answering them. Chapter 2 presents a thorough review of the literature of importance and relevance to the study of social digital libraries as boundary objects within and across social and information worlds, examining research on digital libraries, communities, collaboration, and social digital libraries and the theoretical framework used in the study. Chapter 3 provides a detailed look at the research design and methods that were used, including the research setting, method choices, procedures for each method, and means of analysis. Chapter 3 further discusses the management of data; measures taken to improve validity, reliability, and trustworthiness; and ethical considerations. Chapter 4 presents a descriptive look at the findings from this study organized by the three methods used: content analysis of messages, a survey of users, and interviews with users. Chapter 5 provides synthesis—serving as briefer, higher-level summary of the findings—and discussion of the answers to the research questions, relations between these findings and the research literature, and implications for design, practice, research, and theory.

While this dissertation research proceeded, the theoretical framework has also been presented as part of posters, conference papers, and talks (see Worrall, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c, 2014). ↩︎

2024 Theses Doctoral

Physiologic investigations of cartilage fatigue failure and a laser technique for inducing collagen crosslinking for wear resistance

Osteoarthritis is a debilitating joint disease characterized by the degradation of articular cartilage due to long term wear or acute injury. OA can lead to pain, limited mobility, and stiffness in the joint, and current treatment options often require invasive surgery or are limited to corrective attempts at mitigating pain. Due in part to the complexity of the disease and lack of holistic understanding of its advancement, there is no known treatment to halt or reverse the effects of OA progression in the joint. In order to address this need, the underlying mechanisms that drive the mechanical degradation of cartilage structure in its progression must be determined. The objective of this dissertation is to (1) investigate the mechanical breakdown of cartilage through fatigue failure in physiologically relevant models and (2) to introduce a minimally invasive method for increasing the mechanical integrity of cartilage in an effort to reverse the effects of OA. In order to classify the mechanical mediation of wear in OA disease pathology, wear progression in human articular cartilage must be fully characterized. Human articular cartilage exhibits a remarkable resilience to wear during frictional sliding, making it difficult to induce damage in the tissue in experimental models. Previous work established reciprocal compressive stresses, and not frictional stresses, as the primary initiator of delamination fatigue wear in immature bovine cartilage. In Chapter 2, we tested the hypothesis that reciprocal compressive stresses could induce fatigue wear in human articular cartilage and thus establish a reproducible and characterizable model of wear induction in human tissue. Human articular cartilage was subjected to 24 hours of frictional sliding in two contact configurations: stationary contact area (SCA), and migrating contact area (MCA). Five samples were tested in the SCA configuration, which induces frictional stresses, and five were tested in the MCA configuration, which induces reciprocal compressive stresses and frictional stresses. The SCA samples showed no conclusive damage after 24 hours of sliding, and recovered 99.3% ± 2.34% of their original thickness after testing. Three out of five MCA samples showed conclusive signs of damage, one in the form of tissue splitting, one in the form of blister formation, and one in the form of complete tissue tearing. The average friction coefficient in the SCA group (μ_SCA= 0.090 ± 0.008) was higher than the average friction coefficient in the MCA group (μ_MCA= 0.066±0.020; p=0.03). Although conducted as two separate studies, the results in Chapter 2 provide a preliminary data set to suggest that reciprocal compressive stresses are responsible for fatigue failure in human tissue, coherent with the results in the immature bovine model. Additionally, results of Chapter 2 establish a reproducible and physiologically relevant protocol for damage induction in human tissue. Future work will investigate this hypothesis with directly paired SCA and MCA human articular cartilage tissue samples of similar OA grade. To further understand cartilage damage mechanics in physiologically relevant conditions, Chapter 3 and 4 investigate the role of synovial fluid in fatigue failure of immature bovine cartilage. Synovial fluid is often incorrectly identified as the source of low friction in cartilage sliding. In fact, it has an effect on the friction coefficient that is far secondary to interstitial fluid load support. Further, reciprocal compressive stresses, not frictional stresses, have been shown to be responsible for fatigue failure. It is imperative to understand the function of synovial fluid in wear mechanics. We tested the hypothesis that synovial fluid reduces the rate of fatigue failure in immature bovine articular cartilage due to the protective effects of its molecular constituents. Eight paired medial and lateral tibial plateaus were tested in MCA sliding in phosphate buffer saline (n=8) or synovial fluid (n=8) to directly compare fatigue rate in synovial fluid versus phosphate buffer saline. An additional study evaluated the effect of molecular constituents on wear rate by testing medial and lateral tibial plateaus in 50% (n=8) and 25% (n=8) synovial fluid diluted with phosphate buffer saline. All eight samples tested in phosphate buffer saline damaged after 24 hours of reciprocal sliding, and none of the samples tested in pure synovial fluid became damaged over the same duration. After an additional two days of sliding, two of eight samples tested in pure synovial fluid got damaged. In the samples tested in 50% and 25% synovial fluid-phosphate buffer saline dilutions, one sample and five samples got damaged after 72 hours of sliding respectively. The results of this study confirmed the hypothesis that synovial provides a protective effect against fatigue failure. The study also suggests that dilution of the synovial below a critical value reduces the concentration of molecular constituents available to protect the cartilage against damage. Chapter 4 investigates the mechanism of synovial fluid’s protective effect further, by examining its potential to extend the duration of elevated fluid load support under compression and thereby reduce cartilage susceptibility to fatigue. The results of Chapter 4 illustrated that synovial fluid had no effect on the stress relaxation response of the cartilage to unconfined compression, disproving the presented hypothesis. Therefore, future work will investigate the function of synovial fluid in reducing the rate of fatigue, independent of its effect on friction. The final two studies of this dissertation present a novel treatment modality to induce collagen crosslinks that enhance the cartilage equilibrium modulus. The technique introduced is presented as a minimally invasive alternative to current surgical interventions and proposes to increase the integrity of early-OA tissue. In Chapter 5, we investigate the hypothesis that low-level femtosecond laser treatment of cartilage can increase the stiffness of the equilibrium modulus without damaging tissue integrity or cell viability. In the first experiment, six immature bovine cartilage samples were treated with the laser and the equilibrium modulus was found to increase in stiffness (p<10⁻³). The technique was also applied to human articular cartilage tissue with “low” and “high” OA, and tissue was found to have an increase in equilibrium modulus (p=0.003 and p=0.03, respectively). Cell viability was preserved under these treatment conditions. Chapter 6 further outlines a safe envelope of laser treatment parameters through evaluation of the effect of thermal heating on the equilibrium modulus of cartilage samples. The results of this study found that temperatures above 65 ℃ (p<10⁻³) increase the tissue modulus, but no change in modulus occurs below 65 ℃ (p=1.00). The results of Chapter 6 provide an insight to the mechanical effect of thermal exposure, and informed the laser treatment parameters presented in Chapter 5, which were confirmed to produce thermal heating far below temperatures that result in thermal stiffening. Through the results presented in Chapter 5 and 6, preliminary data is provided to introduce a novel method for crosslink induction in the superficial zone of articular cartilage. In future work, this technique can be applied as a potential strategy to increase fatigue wear resistance, and to reduce the progression of OA in diseased tissue. The work presented in this dissertation seeks to contribute to the understanding of fatigue wear in articular cartilage under physiologically relevant conditions, as well as introduce a method for enhancing cartilage tissue properties with laser treatment. In the first half of the dissertation, the effect of reciprocal compressive stresses was evaluated in human articular cartilage tissue and in immature bovine cartilage immersed in synovial fluid in an effort to understand the mechanism of delamination fatigue failure in OA progression. In the second half, a laser treatment modality was shown to increase tissue equilibrium modulus stiffness without compromising tissue viability.

• Biomedical engineering
• Biomechanics
• Osteoarthritis
• Articular cartilage--Wounds and injuries
• Synovial fluid
• Lasers--Therapeutic use

This item is currently under embargo. It will be available starting 2026-04-25.

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How To Write Chapter 2 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Beginner’s Guide)

The second chapter of a PhD thesis proposal in most cases is the literature review. This article provides a practical guide on how to write chapter 2 of a PhD thesis.

Introduction to the chapter

Theoretical review, empirical review, chronological organisation of empirical literature review, thematic organisation of empirical literature review, developing a conceptual framework, research gaps, chapter summary, final thoughts on how to write chapter 2 of a phd thesis proposal.

The format for the literature review chapter is discussed below:

This section is about a paragraph-long and informs the readers on what the chapter will cover.

The theoretical review follows immediately after the introductory section of the chapter.

In this section, the student is expected to review the theories behind his/her topic under investigation. One should discuss who came up with the theory, the main arguments of the theory, and how the theory has been applied to study the problem under investigation.

A given topic may have several theories explaining it. The student should review all those theories but at the end mention the main theory that informs his study while giving justification for the selection of that theory.

Because of the existence of many theories and models developed by other researchers, the student is expected to do some comparative analysis of the theories and models that are applicable to his study.

After discussing the theories and models that inform your study, the student is expected to review empirical studies related to his problem under investigation. Empirical literature refers to original studies that have been done by other studies through data collection and analysis. The conclusions drawn from such studies are based on data rather than theories.

This section requires critical thinking and analysis rather than just stating what the authors did and what they found. The student is expected to critique the studies he is reviewing, while making reference to other similar studies and their findings.

For instance, if two studies on the same topic arrive at contrary conclusions, the student should be able to analyse why the conclusions are different: e.g. the population of study could be different, the methodology used could be different etc.

There are two ways of organising empirical literature: chronological and thematic:

In this method, the empirical literature review is organised by date of publication, starting with the older literature to the most recent literature.

The advantage of using this method is that it shows how the state of knowledge of the problem under investigation has changed over time.

The disadvantage of chronological empirical review is that the flow of discussion is not smooth, because similar studies are discussed separately depending on when they were published.

In this method, like studies are discussed together.

The studies are organised based on the variables of the study. Each variable has its own section for discussion. All studies that examined a variable are discussed together, highlighting the consensus amongst the studies, as well as the points of disagreement.

The advantage of this method is that it creates a smooth flow of discussion of the literature. It also makes it easier to identify the research gaps in each variable under investigation.

While the choice between chronological and thematic empirical review varies from one institution to another, the thematic synthesis is most preferred especially for PhD-level programs.

After the theoretical and empirical review, the student is expected to develop his own conceptual framework. A conceptual framework is a diagrammatic representation of the variables of a study and the relationship between those variables.

The conceptual framework is informed by the literature review. Developing a conceptual framework involves three main steps:

• Identify all the variables that will be analysed in your study.
• Specify the relationship between the variables, as informed by the literature review.
• Draw a diagram with the variables and the relationship between them.

The main purpose of conducting literature review is to document what is known and what is not known.

Research gaps are what is not yet known about the topic under investigation.

Your contribution to knowledge will come from addressing what is not yet known.

It is therefore important for PhD students to first review existing literature for their area of study before settling on the final topic.

Additionally, when reviewing literature, the student should review all of the most recent studies to avoid duplicating efforts. Originality is important especially for PhD studies.

There are different types of research gaps:

• Gaps in concepts or variables studied e.g. most studies on maternal health focus on pregnancy and delivery but not on post-partum period. So you conduct a study focusing on the post-partum period.
• Geographical coverage: rural vs. urban or rural vs. urban slums; developed vs. developing countries etc
• Time: past vs. recent
• Demographics: middle class vs. poor communities; males vs. females; educated vs. uneducated etc
• Research design: quantitative vs. qualitative or mixed methods
• Data collection: questionnaires vs. interviews and focus group discussions
• Data analysis techniques: descriptive vs. inferential statistics etc

This section provides a summary of what the chapter is about and highlights the main ideas.

This article provided some guidance on how to write chapter 2 of a PhD thesis proposal as well as the format expected of the chapter by many institutions. The format may vary though and students are advised to refer to the dissertation guidelines of their institutions. Writing the literature review chapter can be the most daunting task of a PhD thesis proposal because it informs chapter 1 of the proposal. For instance, writing the contribution to knowledge section of chapter 1 requires the student to have read and reviewed many articles.

Related post

How To Write Chapter 1 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Practical Guide)

How To Write Chapter 3 Of A PhD Thesis Proposal (A Detailed Guide)

Grace Njeri-Otieno

Grace Njeri-Otieno is a Kenyan, a wife, a mom, and currently a PhD student, among many other balls she juggles. She holds a Bachelors' and Masters' degrees in Economics and has more than 7 years' experience with an INGO. She was inspired to start this site so as to share the lessons learned throughout her PhD journey with other PhD students. Her vision for this site is "to become a go-to resource center for PhD students in all their spheres of learning."

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