problem solving in personality development

How to Create a Personal Development Plan: 3 Examples

For successful change, it is vital that the client remains engaged, recognizing and identifying with the goals captured inside and outside sessions. A personal development plan (PDP) creates a focus for development while offering a guide for life and future success (Starr, 2021).

This article introduces and explores the value of personal development plans, offering tools, worksheets, and approaches to boost self-reflection and self-improvement.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains

What is personal development 7 theories, coaching in personal development and growth, how to create a personal development plan, 3 examples of personal development plans, defining goals and objectives: 10 tips and tools, fostering personal development skills, 3 inspiring books to read on the topic, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message, frequently asked questions.

Personal development is a fundamental concept in psychology and encompasses the lifelong process of self-improvement, self-awareness, and personal growth. Crucial to coaching and counseling, it aims to enhance various aspects of clients’ lives, including their emotional wellbeing, relationships, careers, and overall happiness (Cox, 2018; Starr, 2021).

Several psychological models underpin and support transformation. Together, they help us understand personal development in our clients and the mechanisms and approaches available to make positive life changes (Cox, 2018; Passmore, 2021).

The following psychological theories and frameworks underpin and influence the approach a mental health professional adopts.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

As a proponent of the humanistic or person-centered approach to helping people, Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that individuals have a hierarchy of needs. Simply put, they begin with basic physiological and safety needs and progress through psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

Personal development is often found in or recognized by the pursuit of higher-level needs, such as self-esteem and self-actualization (Cox, 2018).

2. Erikson’s psychosocial development

Erik Erikson (1963) mapped out a series of eight psychosocial development stages that individuals go through across their lifespan.

Each one involves challenges and crises that once successfully navigated, contribute to personal growth and identity development.

3. Piaget’s cognitive development

The biologist and epistemologist Jean Piaget (1959) focused on cognitive development in children and how they construct their understanding of the world.

We can draw on insights from Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including intellectual growth and adaptability, to inform our own and others’ personal development (Illeris, 2018).

4. Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Albert Bandura’s (1977) theory highlights the role of social learning and self-efficacy in personal development. It emphasizes that individuals can learn and grow through observation, imitation, and belief in their ability to effect change.

5. Self-determination theory

Ryan and Deci’s (2018) motivational self-determination theory recognizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in personal development.

Their approach suggests that individuals are more likely to experience growth and wellbeing when such basic psychological needs are met.

6. Positive psychology

Positive psychology, developed by Martin Seligman (2011) and others, focuses on strengths, wellbeing, and the pursuit of happiness.

Seligman’s PERMA model offers a framework for personal development that emphasizes identifying and using our strengths while cultivating positive emotions and experiences (Lomas et al., 2014).

7. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT)

Developed by Aaron Beck (Beck & Haigh, 2014) and Albert Ellis (2000), CBT explores the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

As such, the theory provides practical techniques for personal development, helping individuals identify and challenge negative thought patterns and behaviors (Beck, 2011).

Theories like the seven mentioned above offer valuable insights into many of the psychological processes underlying personal development. They provide a sound foundation for coaches and counselors to support their clients and help them better understand themselves, their motivations, and the paths they can take to foster positive change in their lives (Cox, 2018).

The client–coach relationship is significant to successful growth and goal achievement.

Typically, the coach will focus on the following (Cox, 2018):

• Actualizing tendency This supports a “universal human motivation resulting in growth, development and autonomy of the individual” (Cox, 2018, p. 53).
• Building a relationship facilitating change Trust clients to find their own way while displaying empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard . The coach’s “outward responses consistently match their inner feelings towards a client,” and they display a warm acceptance that they are being how they need to be (Passmore, 2021, p. 162).
• Adopting a positive psychological stance Recognize that the client has the potential and wish to become fully functioning (Cox, 2018).

Effective coaching for personal growth involves adopting and committing to a series of beliefs that remind the coach that the “coachee is responsible for the results they create” (Starr, 2021, p. 18) and help them recognize when they may be avoiding this idea.

The following principles are, therefore, helpful for coaching personal development and growth (Starr, 2021).

• Stay committed to supporting the client. While initially strong, you may experience factors that reduce your sense of support for the individual’s challenges.
• Coach nonjudgmentally. Our job is not to adopt a stance based on personal beliefs or judgment of others, but to help our clients form connections between behavior and results.
• Maintain integrity, openness, and trust. The client must feel safe in your company and freely able to express themselves.
• Responsibility does not equal blame. Clients who take on blame rather than responsibility will likely feel worse about something without acknowledging their influence on the situation.
• The client can achieve better results. The client is always capable of doing and achieving more, especially in relation to their goals.
• Focus on clients’ thoughts and experiences. Collaborative coaching is about supporting the growth and development of the client, getting them to where they want to go.
• Clients can arrive at perfect solutions. “As a coach, you win when someone else does” (Starr, 2021, p. 34). The solution needs to be the client’s, not yours.
• Coach as an equal partnership. Explore the way forward together collaboratively rather than from a parental or advisory perspective.

Creating a supportive and nonjudgmental environment helps clients explore their thoughts, feelings, and goals, creating an environment for personal development and flourishing (Passmore, 2021).

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A personal development plan is a powerful document “to create mutual clarity of the aims and focus of a coaching assignment” (Starr, 2021, p. 291). While it is valuable during coaching, it can also capture a client’s way forward once sessions have ended.

Crucially, it should have the following characteristics (Starr, 2021):

• Short and succinct
• Providing a quick reference or point of discussion
• Current and fresh, regularly revised and updated

Key elements of a personal development plan include the following (Starr, 2021):

• Area of development This is the general skill or competence to be worked on.
• Development objectives or goals What does the client want to do? Examples might include reducing stress levels, improving diet, or managing work–life balance .
• Behaviors to develop These comprise what the client will probably do more of when meeting their objectives, for example, practicing better coping mechanisms, eating more healthily, and better managing their day.
• Actions to create progress What must the client do to action their objectives? For example, arrange a date to meet with their manager, sign up for a fitness class, or meet with a nutritionist.
• Date to complete or review the objective Capture the dates for completing actions, meeting objectives, and checking progress.

Check out Lindsey Cooper’s excellent video for helpful guidance on action planning within personal development.

We can write and complete personal development plans in many ways. Ultimately, they should meet the needs of the client and leave them with a sense of connection to and ownership of their journey ahead (Starr, 2021).

• Personal Development Plan – Areas of Development In this PDP , we draw on guidance from Starr (2021) to capture development opportunities and the behaviors and actions needed to achieve them.
• Personal Development Plan – Opportunities for Development This template combines short- and long-term goal setting with a self-assessment of strengths, weaknesses, and development opportunities.
• Personal Development Plan – Ideal Self In this PDP template , we focus on our vision of how our ideal self looks and setting goals to get there.

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“The setting of a goal becomes the catalyst that drives the remainder of the coaching conversation.”

Passmore, 2021, p. 80

Defining goals and objectives is crucial to many coaching conversations and is usually seen as essential for personal development.

Check out this video on how you can design your life with your personal goals in mind.

The following coaching templates are helpful, containing a series of questions to complete Whitmore’s (2009) GROW model :

• G stands for Goal : Where do you want to be?
• R stands for Reality : Where are you right now with this goal?
• O stands for Options : What are some options for reaching your goal?
• W stands for Way forward : What is your first step forward?

Goal setting creates both direction and motivation for clients to work toward achieving something and meeting their objectives (Passmore, 2021).

The SMART goal-setting framework is another popular tool inside coaching and elsewhere.

S = Specific M = Measurable A = Attainable/ or Agreed upon R = Realistic T = Timely – allowing enough time for achievement

The SMART+ Goals Worksheet contains a series of prompts and spaces for answers to define goals and capture the steps toward achieving them.

We can summarize the five principles of goal setting (Passmore, 2021) as follows:

• Goals must be clear and not open to interpretation.
• Goals should be stretching yet achievable.
• Clients must buy in to the goal from the outset.
• Feedback is essential to keep the client on track.
• Goals should be relatively straightforward. We can break down complex ones into manageable subgoals.

The following insightful articles are also helpful for setting and working toward goals.

• What Is Goal Setting and How to Do it Well
• The Science & Psychology of Goal-Setting 101

1. People skills

Improving how we work with others benefits confidence, and with other’s support, we are more likely to achieve our objectives and goals. The following people skills can all be improved upon:

• Developing rapport
• Assertiveness and negotiation
• Giving and receiving constructive criticism

2. Managing tasks and problem-solving

Inevitably, we encounter challenges on our path to development and growth. Managing our activities and time and solving issues as they surface are paramount.

Here are a few guidelines to help you manage:

• Organize time and tasks effectively.
• Learn fundamental problem-solving strategies.
• Select and apply problem-solving strategies to tackle more complex tasks and challenges.
• Develop planning skills, including identifying priorities, setting achievable targets, and finding practical solutions.
• Acquire skills relevant to project management.
• Familiarize yourself with concepts such as performance indicators and benchmarking.
• Conduct self-audits to assess and enhance your personal competitiveness.

3. Cultivate confidence in your creative abilities

Confidence energizes our performance. Knowing we can perform creatively encourages us to develop novel solutions and be motivated to transform.

Consider the following:

• Understand the fundamentals of how the mind works to enhance your thinking skills.
• Explore a variety of activities to sharpen your creative thinking.
• Embrace the belief that creativity is not limited to artists and performers but is crucial for problem-solving and task completion.
• Learn to ignite the spark of creativity that helps generate innovative ideas when needed.
• Apply creative thinking techniques to enhance your problem-solving and task completion abilities.
• Recognize the role of creative thinking in finding the right ideas at the right time.

To aid you in building your confidence, we have a whole category of articles focused on Optimism and Mindset . Be sure to browse it for confidence-building inspiration.

With new techniques and technology, our understanding of the human brain continues to evolve. Identifying the vital elements involved in learning and connecting with others offers deep insights into how we function and develop as social beings. We handpicked a small but unique selection of books we believe you will enjoy.

1. The Coaching Manual: The Definitive Guide to the Process, Principles and Skills of Personal Coaching – Julie Starr

This insightful book explores and explains the coaching journey from start to finish.

Starr’s book offers a range of free resources and gives clear guidance to support new and existing coaches in providing practical help to their clients.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. The Big Leap: Conquer Your Hidden Fear and Take Life to the Next Level – Gay Hendricks

Delving into the “zone of genius” and the “zone of excellence,” Hendricks examines personal growth and our path to personal success.

This valuable book explores how we eliminate the barriers to reaching our goals that arise from false beliefs and fears.

3. The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You’re Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are – Brené Brown

Brown, a leading expert on shame, vulnerability, and authenticity, examines how we can engage with the world from a place of worthiness.

Use this book to learn how to build courage and compassion and realize the behaviors, skills, and mindset that lead to personal development.

We have many resources available for fostering personal development and supporting client transformation and growth.

Our free resources include:

• Goal Planning and Achievement Tracker This is a valuable worksheet for capturing and reflecting on weekly goals while tracking emotions that surface.
• Adopt a Growth Mindset Successful change is often accompanied by replacing a fixed mindset with a growth one .
• FIRST Framework Questions Understanding a client’s developmental stage can help offer the most appropriate support for a career change.

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but they are described briefly below:

• Backward Goal Planning

Setting goals can build confidence and the skills for ongoing personal development.

Backward goal planning helps focus on the end goal, prevent procrastination, and decrease stress by ensuring we have enough time to complete each task.

Try out the following four simple steps:

• Step one – Identify and visualize your end goal.
• Step two – Reflect on and capture the steps required to reach the goal.
• Step three – Focus on each step one by one.
• Step four – Take action and record progress.
• Boosting Motivation by Celebrating Micro Successes

Celebrating the small successes on our journey toward our goals is motivating and confidence building.

Practice the following:

• Step one – Reflect momentarily on the goal you are working toward.
• Step two – Consider each action being taken to reach that goal.
• Step three – Record the completion of each action as a success.
• Step four – Choose how to celebrate each success.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others reach their goals, check out this collection of 17 validated motivation & goal achievement tools for practitioners. Use them to help others turn their dreams into reality by applying the latest science-based behavioral change techniques.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Personal development has a rich and long history. It is underpinned by various psychological theories and remains a vital aspect of creating fulfilling lives inside and outside coaching and counseling.

For many of us, self-improvement, self-awareness, and personal growth are vital aspects of who we are. Coaching can provide a vehicle to help clients along their journey, supporting their sense of autonomy and confidence and highlighting their potential (Cox, 2018).

Working with clients, therefore, requires an open, honest, and supportive relationship. The coach or counselor must believe the client can achieve better results and view them nonjudgmentally as equal partners.

Personal development plans become essential to that relationship and the overall coaching process. They capture areas for development, skills and behaviors required, and goals and objectives to work toward.

Use this article to recognize theoretical elements from psychology that underpin the process and use the skills, guidance, and worksheets to support personal development in clients, helping them remove obstacles along the way.

Ultimately, personal development is a lifelong process that boosts wellbeing and flourishing and creates a richer, more engaging environment for the individual and those around them.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

Personal development is vital, as it enables individuals to enhance various aspects of their lives, including emotional wellbeing, relationships, careers, and overall happiness.

It promotes self-awareness, self-improvement, and personal growth, helping individuals reach their full potential and lead fulfilling lives (Passmore, 2021; Starr, 2021).

Personal development is the journey we take to improve ourselves through conscious habits and activities and focusing on the goals that are important to us.

Personal development goals are specific objectives individuals set to improve themselves and their lives. Goals can encompass various areas, such as emotional intelligence, skill development, health, and career advancement, providing direction and motivation for personal growth (Cox, 2018; Starr, 2021).

A personal development plan typically comprises defining the area of development, setting development objectives, identifying behaviors to develop, planning actions for progress, and establishing completion dates. These five stages help individuals clarify their goals and track their progress (Starr, 2021).

• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . Prentice-Hall.
• Beck, A. T., & Haigh, E. P. (2014). Advances in cognitive therapy and therapy: The generic cognitive model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 10 , 1–24.
• Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond . Guilford Press.
• Cottrell, S. (2015). Skills for success: Personal development and employability . Bloomsbury Academic.
• Cox, E. (2018). The complete handbook of coaching . SAGE.
• Ellis, A. (2000). Can rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) be effectively used with people who have devout beliefs in God and religion? Professional Psychology-Research and Practice , 31 (1), 29–33.
• Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . Basic Books.
• Illeris, K. (2018). An overview of the history of learning theory. European Journal of Education , 53 (1), 86–101.
• Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Ivtzan, I. (2014). Applied positive psychology: Integrated positive practice . SAGE.
• Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personalit y (2nd ed.). Harper & Row.
• Passmore, J. (Ed.). (2021). The coaches’ handbook: The complete practitioner guide for professional coaches . Routledge.
• Piaget, J. (1959): The Psychology of intelligence . Routledge.
• Rose, C. (2018). The personal development group: The students’ guide . Routledge.
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . Guilford Press.
• Seligman, M. E. (2011). Authentic happiness using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment . Nicholas Brealey.
• Starr, J. (2021). The coaching manual: The definitive guide to the process, principles and skills of personal coaching . Harlow: Pearson Education.
• Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance . Nicholas Brealey.

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Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing (for example, Kahneman, 2011).

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• Describe problem solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics
• Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

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Activities for personality development: 15 ways to grow

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All about personality

Can you change your personality?

Personal versus professional versus personality development

15 personality development activities for personal growth.

One step at a time

Everything that makes you you — likes, dislikes, temperament — is something to celebrate. Your unique personality shows the world your value and is what makes you worth knowing. 

But there may be times when you’re not satisfied with certain facets of your character. Maybe your laid-back nature means you scramble to meet deadlines at work. Maybe you’re not as outgoing as you’d like to be, which keeps you from networking professionally . 

Wanting to change a character trait doesn’t mean you don’t love or accept yourself. It actually means the opposite: you recognize that becoming the best version of yourself takes work. Putting in that effort is a form of self-love .

That’s where activities for personality development come in. Incorporating one or more of these character-building pursuits can help you grow and adjust aspects of yourself that you feel hold you back. 

When you make a new friend or meet someone new, their appearance might be the first thing you notice. But once you start a conversation , their personality is what stands out and sparks a lasting first impression .

Your personality is the unique combination of traits and behavior that form in response to various influences. These influences include nature, your genetic predisposition, and nurture, your experiences and environment . The debate continues as to how influential these factors are, but generally, they combine to shape your: 

Defining characteristics

Motivations

Personal values

Capabilities

Emotional patterns

Self-awareness

You’ve probably heard a friend or colleague refer to their personality type, which is a systemic approach to classifying your personality. One of the most common forms is Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which categorizes your traits into four dimensions.

While there’s some argument about effectiveness , Myers-Briggs and other personality tests can provide insights into your strengths and weaknesses at a high level. 

Can you change your personality? 

Psychologists once believed that your temperament and character developed during childhood and didn’t change much over time. Sigmund Freud postulated that, by the age of five, you developed your “superego” (your moral standards) and therefore your personality. 

But more modern studies have found that your personality remains flexible throughout your life. It evolves as you age, whether that’s in response to a significant life event or through consistent effort and discipline . These changes are less about your personality and whole self and more about your individual skills, traits, and characteristics.

This is good news if there’s an aspect of your personality you’d like to resolve or develop. It is possible to make a change if you’re willing to commit to a personality training and development process , whether that’s meeting with a coach or reading books for growth . 

When embarking on self-improvement , you might focus on one of two areas: personal or professional development. Personality development can fall under either category, but knowing the distinction can help you better sharpen your efforts.

Personal development

Personal development is any activity meant to improve or transform yourself. Working to change your habits, develop discipline, or start a new hobby all fall under the personal development umbrella. The ultimate goal of these activities is to aid your physical, emotional, or spiritual growth on a personal level.

Professional development

Professional development is similar to personal, but instead of growing as an individual, you’re narrowing your scope to evolve as an employee. Employee training methods vary, but any time you gain knowledge, improve or learn career-related skills, or receive an industry certification, you participate in a professional development activity .

Personality development 

Personality development is a more holistic process that looks for insight into everything you do — both personal and professional. Once you understand your whole self better, you can enhance and improve your unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Personality development impacts both professional and personal growth. If you struggle to meet new people or make conversation, working on your interpersonal skills can help you better connect with others (personal) and improve your ability to work on a team (professional). When you’re trying to set goals for personal or professional growth, or both, think about the work you need to do at the personality level. 

When you’re making an effort to change yourself, skill development takes many forms. You might focus on a particular character trait, develop a specific skill, or reinforce new habits that contribute to your personality. 

Either way, when choosing self-development activities, consider lifestyle fit and whether you’ll stick with those practices. Signing up to make a speech when you’re terrified of speaking in front of crowds might be too much to handle at once. Instead, start slowly by working to develop your self-confidence while taking a beginner’s public speaking course . 

Here are some personal progress activity ideas you can do independently and at your own pace:

1. Work on your communication skills

If you want to enhance your personal and professional relationships, spend some time polishing your communication skills . Soft skills like active listening , cueing into body language and gestures, and clearly expressing yourself all fall into this category. 

Poor communication can lead to increased stress , project delays or failures, and decreased employee morale at work. And in personal relationships, improvements in communication style resulted in increased satisfaction . Becoming a more communicative person aids both aspects of your life.

2. Commit to a 30-day challenge

It’s normal to struggle to meet certain goals. Work on self-accountability by taking on a 30-day challenge. It can be something small to begin with, but try to make a commitment and stick to it every day for a month. If nothing else, this practice will teach you discipline and how dedicated you can be to new habits.

Examples of 30-day challenges include:

Spending 15 minutes writing in a journal

Exercise for 30 minutes 

• Practice the Kaizen method

Waking up early  

Establishing a nightly reading habit

Be sure to track your progress to keep motivated. As your success continues, you’ll feel confident tackling more ambitious goals and making bigger changes.

3. Step out of your comfort zone

Some people are comfortable in their routine, and there’s nothing wrong with that. But trying new things has many benefits, including increased focus, improved memory, and greater creativity, which can all contribute to your overall personality. 

If you want to become a little more adventurous, shake things up by:

Giving an interactive presentation

Volunteering for a difficult project at work

Writing an article for the office newsletter

Talking to someone new

Taking a class in something outside of your skill set

4. Learn how to say no

Generosity is a wonderful personality trait when you give to the people around you. But you could burn yourself out when you spend too much time on others rather than self-care . Saying no and developing healthy boundaries help you be more assertive and protect your energy . The benefits of curbing your people-pleasing tendencies include: 

Improved self-esteem

Increased sense of identity and independence

Enhanced emotional well-being

Deeper connection with your values 

Reduced chance of burnout

More time to work on your goals

5. Tap into your creativity

If you don’t have an artistic inclination, there’s nothing wrong with that. But if you want to spark creativity, you can actually work to develop it as a skill . Creativity is linked to improved problem-solving , helping you innovate and think outside the box both in your professional and personal life.

6. Get curious

If there’s something you want to know, commit to learning more about it. Daily learning and intellectual curiosity have many benefits, including greater professional success and an increased sense of personal fulfillment. Start researching a new language, reading a self-help book , or listening to a podcast — whatever fits your lifestyle. You can even look at personal growth examples to inspire your next steps.

7. Give yourself a daily affirmation

Positive affirmations give you a confidence boost when you need it, which can motivate you to continue your personal development journey. Daily affirmations trigger your brain’s reward center to increase feelings of competence and self-worth. Stand in front of your mirror every day and tell yourself:

I deserve to have good things happen to me

I can find solutions to my problems

I’m able to reach my goals

I will face the day with courage and grace

I trust my decision-making skills

8. Practice some self-care

Developing your personality is a fantastic practice. But if you’re balancing that work with caring for others, developing your career, and going through the motions of daily life, it can wear you out. As part of your personal growth, prioritize your well-being so you have the inner resources you need to be there for both others and yourself.

9. Meditate

Taking time out of the day to calm your mind and focus on your thoughts can help develop mindfulness and make better choices towards development. Even mindful breathing during the day regulates your emotions and decreases stress. If you’re not sure how to start your meditation practice , you can find guided exercises in apps or YouTube videos. 

10. Start journaling

When making a change in your life, persistence can be a key factor in achieving your personal goals. Studies show that regular journaling enhances the self-regulation you need to achieve long-term goals like personality development. Starting a journaling practice helps you: 

Process negative emotions

Improve self-awareness

Document your successes

Track mistakes and reflect on what to do differently

Reduce anxiety

Writing in a journal doesn’t have to be time-consuming. Putting in a few minutes is enough to enjoy its benefits.

11. Play a team sport

Being independent is a beneficial trait, especially if you spend lots of time alone at work or at home. But if you tend to rely on yourself too much, playing on a team can help you understand the importance of interdependence. Not only will you learn teamwork , but you’ll also develop communication, risk-taking , and strategic planning skills, all of which can serve you well in any aspect of your life.

12. Volunteering

Reinforce the personality development skills you’ve been working on by volunteering for a cause you’re passionate about. You’ll help others while helping yourself, and you might have the chance to gain experience, network, and meet people like you in the process. 

13. Networking

Challenging yourself is part of growth, and if becoming more outgoing and social is on your list, there are lots of productive ways to do so. Put your new social skills to good use by creating a networking plan to expand your circle of professional connections. Your network can also help you:

Find a new job opportunity

Improve your creativity

Build your confidence

Establish a support system

14. Get feedback

When you’re making a personal change, it helps to get an objective view of how far you’ve come — whether that’s positive or negative. If you’re working on a specific aspect of your personality, like if you want to stop micromanaging , let the people around you know. Check in and ask for feedback on whether they’ve noticed a change in you. Their input: 

Lets you take ownership of the changes you want to make

Increases your confidence

Creates a healthy dialogue

Offers support and opportunities for creative problem-solving

Motivates you to reach your goals faster

15. Find a mentor/coach

The irony of self-improvement is it’s difficult to accomplish on your own. Finding a life coach or trusted mentor can speed up the process. Mentorship can be extremely useful on your journey, with 97% of mentees saying it was a valuable experience and 55% believing it contributed to their success . And the benefits of coaching are also extensive, including increased mental health and empowerment.

One step at a time 

Deciding to confront your flaws and make a change is a courageous choice. But it can’t happen all at once. Change takes time. It’s important that you accept and be patient with yourself while you undergo this process.

Consistently participating in activities for personality development wi ll help drive your progress and become the best version of yourself. With patience and determination, you’ll get there. 

Understand Yourself Better:

Big 5 Personality Test

Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

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• Front Psychol

Personality traits and complex problem solving: Personality disorders and their effects on complex problem-solving ability

Ulrike kipman.

1 College of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences and Research, Salzburg, Austria

Stephan Bartholdy

2 Department of Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany

Marie Weiss

3 Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria

Wolfgang Aichhorn

4 Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Paracelsus Medical Private University, Salzburg, Austria

Günter Schiepek

5 Institute of Synergetics and Psychotherapy Research, Paracelsus Medical Private University, Salzburg, Austria

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Complex problem solving (CPS) can be interpreted as the number of psychological mechanisms that allow us to reach our targets in difficult situations, that can be classified as complex, dynamic, non-transparent, interconnected, and multilayered, and also polytelic. The previous results demonstrated associations between the personality dimensions neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion and problem-solving performance. However, there are no studies dealing with personality disorders in connection with CPS skills. Therefore, the current study examines a clinical sample consisting of people with personality and/or depressive disorders. As we have data for all the potential personality disorders and also data from each patient regarding to potential depression, we meet the whole range from healthy to impaired for each personality disorder and for depression. We make use of a unique operationalization: CPS was surveyed in a simulation game, making use of the microworld approach. This study was designed to investigate the hypothesis that personality traits are related to CPS performance. Results show that schizotypal, histrionic, dependent, and depressive persons are less likely to successfully solve problems, while persons having the additional behavioral characteristics of resilience, action orientation, and motivation for creation are more likely to successfully solve complex problems.

Introduction

A problem arises when a person is unable to reach the desired goal. Problem-solving refers to the cognitive activities aimed at removing the obstacle separating the present situation from the target situation ( Betsch et al., 2011 ). In our daily lives, we are constantly confronted with new challenges and a plethora of possibilities to address them. Accordingly, problem-solving requires the ability to identify these possibilities and select the best option in the unfamiliar situations. It is, therefore, an important competence to deal with new conditions, adapt to changing circumstances, and react flexibly to new challenges ( Kipman, 2020 ).

Even tasks for which the sequence of choices to be taken is relatively straight-forward, such as in the process of navigating to a certain destination in a foreign city or cooperative decision-making during psychotherapy, appear as a highly diversified process, when considered in detail ( Schiepek, 2009 ; Schiepek et al., 2016a ). However, most problems we face in everyday life are not as well defined and do not necessarily have an unambiguous solution. The ability to deal with such sophisticated problems, i.e., complex problem solving (CPS) , is of particular relevance in everyday settings.

Funke (2001 , 2003 , 2012) and Dörner and Funke (2017) , identified five dimensions along which complex problems can be characterized: (i) The complexity of the problem arises from the number of variables contributing to the problem, which in turn affect the number of possible solutions. (ii) The connectivity of the problem arises from the number of interconnections between these variables. (iii) The dynamics of the problem arise from changes in the problem variables or their interconnections over time. These changes can be a result of the person’s actions or are inherent to the problem, i.e., characteristics of the variables themselves or a result of interactions between the variables. (iv) The non-transparency of a problem refers to the extent to which the target situation, the variables involved, their interactions and dynamics cannot be ascertained. (v) Finally, complex problems are usually polytelic , i.e., they have more than one target situation.

Accordingly, CPS requires the ability to model the problem space, i.e., understand which variables are involved and how they are interconnected, the ability to handle a large number of variables at the same time, judge the relevance and success probability of possibilities, identify the interconnections between variables and the inherent dynamics thereof, judge the consequences of one’s own actions with regards to the problem space, and collect relevant knowledge to deal with non-transparency.

Tasks to measure this complex set of abilities were developed by Dörner (1980 , 1986) , who criticized that the measurement of general intelligence tended to use simple tasks that are not comparable with the level of complexity of real-world problems. He proposed measuring intelligent behavior in computerized environments specifically adapted to simulate the properties of sophisticated problems in everyday settings ( Danner et al., 2011b ). cf. Dörner et al. (1983) in research used settings referred to as Microworlds to assess the way participants acted under heterogeneous, dynamic, and non-transparent conditions. Participants were instructed to administrate a tiny German village by the name of Lohhausen by creating the ideal conditions for the village and its inhabitants ( Hussy, 1998 , p. 140–141). This microworld comprised more than 2,000 variables, guaranteeing an elevated level of complexity, which also required a high-level operationalization of CPS. However, the general validity of the performance at Lohhausen turned out to be a questionable issue, since the performance was operationalized as a factor composed of 6 main criteria, some of which were subjective assessments. Accordingly, the parameter definition for CPS performance was rather ambiguous. The reason for this ambiguity is that the vague description of the objective, i.e., to establish a respectable standard of well-being among the inhabitants—gave room for subjective interpretation (cf. Hussy, 1998 , p. 146–150). Since then, the psychometric validity of the CPS performance in complex microworlds has been demonstrated by several researchers (e.g., Wittmann and Hattrup, 2004 ; Danner et al., 2011a ).

Because of the high-translational relevance of the topic, the question arises how and which individual differences contribute to more or less efficient solving of the complex problems, such as Microworlds. Individual differences in problem-solving have been described along a cognitive dimension, i.e., the problem-solving style , and an emotional–motivational dimension, i.e., the problem orientation ( D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ). Cognitively, problems can be solved in a rational style , i.e., systematically and deliberate, in an impulsive style , i.e., careless, hurried, and often incomplete, or in an avoidance style via passivity and inaction leading to procrastination ( D’Zurilla et al., 2002 , as cited in D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ). Emotionally, people with a positive problem orientation , see problems as an opportunity for success, i.e., a “challenge” and are confident that the problem is solvable, and that they will be able to solve it. People with a negative problem orientation view problems as an opportunity for failure, i.e., a “threat” and doubt their ability to solve the problem ( D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ).

Some studies have already related basic personality traits, such as the BIG-5, to the way a person tackles complex problems. For example, it has been demonstrated that individuals who score high in conscientiousness, openness for experience, and extraversion also have higher problem-solving abilities. In contrast, individuals with higher scores in neuroticism show poor problem-solving abilities ( D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ). McMurran et al. (2001) demonstrate that this is a result of the way in which neurotic individuals approach problems. Neuroticisms was significantly associated with an impulsive or avoidant problem-solving style, and a negative problem orientation. Vice versa, Arslan (2016) identified a positive relationship between constructive problem-solving and being extrovert, receptive, and open to new learning experiences, and also high in tolerability and accountability.

The present study seeks to extend these findings to individuals with “extreme” levels of personality traits, i.e., individuals with personality disorders, taking into consideration the way in which personality characteristics manifest in everyday situations, such as work–place situations. Following the most current diagnostic approach to personality disorders as outlined in the ICD-11, the individual accentuations of 9 disorder-relevant personality traits were taken into account, including:

• (i) Paranoid traits , i.e., the extent of mistrust toward others.
• (ii) Schizoid traits , i.e., the inability to express feelings and experience pleasure, resulting in fierce separation from affective contacts and also friends and social gatherings with an excessive preference for the magical worlds.
• (iii) Antisocial traits , i.e., the extent of disregard for social obligations and callous lack of involvement in feelings for others, resulting in aggressive behavior.
• (iv) Borderline traits , i.e., the tendency to act out impulses without regard to consequences, associated with unpredictable and erratic moods.
• (v) Histrionic traits , i.e., the tendency to overdramatize and show a theatrical, exaggerated expression of feelings, suggestibility, egocentricity, hedonism, and a constant desire for recognition, external stimuli, and attention.
• (vi) Dependent traits , i.e., excessive and inappropriate agreeableness ( Costa and McCrae, 1986 ) resulting in major anxiety about separation, feelings of helplessness, and a tendency to subordinate oneself to the desires of others.
• (vii) Schizotypal traits , i.e., extreme levels of introversion, resulting in social disengagement.
• (viii) Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) traits , i.e., excessive conscientiousness, involving feelings of doubt, perfectionism, and inflexibility.
• (ix) Depressive traits , i.e., the tendency toward persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest.

Few studies have assessed problem-solving, much less CPS, in patients with personality disorders. Previous research shows, that patients with histrionic and narcissistic personality types show an impulsive problem-solving style, whereas avoidant and dependent individuals show a negative problem orientation ( McMurran et al., 2007 ). In addition, people who are in a depressive mood ( Lyubomirsky et al., 1999 ), or even clinically depressed and anxious have difficulties generating effective solutions to problems ( Marx et al., 1992 ). Accordingly, we hypothesize a negative association between high accentuations of disorder-related personality traits and CPS. The aim of the present study was to explore, which disorders were most severely affected and whether this association also manifested in work-related situations.

Action-orientated problem-solving is particularly required in areas where people are under a lot of stress, for example, in entrepreneurship, team leading in the clinical settings, or firefighting. Especially when a work-related crisis appears, action-oriented problem-solving is important, because it unites handling both novel and routine demands ( Rudolph and Repenning, 2002 , as cited in Rudolph et al., 2009 ). Rudolph et al. (2009) found that only by taking action, information cues become available. Accordingly, both CPS and everyday situations in the work-place require the ability to cope with stressful events and protect oneself from the negative effects of stress, i.e., resilience ( Lee and Cranford, 2008 , as cited in Wagnild and Young, 1993 ; Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013 ). Indeed, individuals with a high trait resilience are more willing to take action in problem-solving ( Li and Yang, 2009 , as cited in Li et al., 2013 ). This is consistent with previous research demonstrating that effective problem-solving abilities go along with high-psychological resilience ( Garcia-Dia et al., 2013 ; Williamson et al., 2013 ; Crowther et al., 2016 , as cited in Pinar et al., 2018 ). Pinar et al. (2018) even found that problem-solving competencies can be increased by increasing psychological resilience and self-confidence levels. Accordingly, identifying which personality disorders are most severely affected in these areas may also provide hints for psychotherapy.

Materials and methods

Participants.

The present study included data from N = 242 adults (49.1% male) with personality disorders and/or depressive disorders, with ages ranging from 17 to 48 years (mean: 26.5 years). The participants were given five assessment batteries and a set of demographic variables, which included game experience. They were also given a commercial complex problem-solving (CPS) game known as Cities: Skylines involving the construction and managing of a city like a mayor would with the goal of growing the city while not running out of money. Participants were patients from psychiatric and psychosomatic hospitals, who got follow-up treatment directly after leaving the hospital. The treatment took place in a panel practice for aftercare where the CPS experiment was done (see Figure 1 ).

Exemplary model of some (not all) factors that influence the number of inhabitants and the general happiness of the population in Cities: Skylines (CSL). The number of related variables illustrates the complexity, connectivity, and polytely in the simulated environment.

Personality questionnaires

In order to obtain a comprehensive diagnosis and measure disordered personality traits in a continuous fashion, three personality questionnaires were used, including the PSSI, SCID-5-PD, and MMPI-II. While the PSSI scores were used in the statistical analysis, SCID-5-PD scores and MMPI-II scores were used to confirm the PSSI diagnosis. Furthermore, in order to assess the manifestation of disordered personality traits in work-related situations, we used the BIP.

The Persönlichkeits-Stil und Störungs-Inventar (PSSI; Kuhl and Kazen, 2009 ) is a self-report instrument that measures the comparative manifestation of the character traits. These are designed as non-pathological analogs of the personality disorders described in the psychiatric diagnostic manuals DSM-IV and ICD-10. The PSSI comprises 140 items assigned to 14 scales: PN (willful-paranoid), SZ (independent-schizoid), ST (intuitive-schizotypal), BL (impulsive-borderline), HI (agreeable-histrionic), NA (ambitious-narcissistic), SU (self-critical-avoidant), AB (loyal-dependent), ZW (conscientious-compulsive—anankastic), NT (critical-negativistic), DP (calm-depressive), SL (helpful-selfless), RH (optimistic-rhapsodic), and AS (self-assertive-antisocial). Patients rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale (from 0 to 3) and continuous scale values are calculated as the sum of the 10 item ratings belonging to a scale. Accordingly, a maximum value of 30 can be achieved for each scale. In this study, we focused on the nine traits PN, SZ, ST, BL, HI, AB, ZW, DP, and AS, as the other measured traits are not listed as personality disorders in the ICD-10 or DSM-V.

The Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM-5—Persönlichkeitsstörungen (SCID-5-PD; First et al., 2019 ) is a semi-structured diagnostic questionnaire that can be used to evaluate the 10 personality disorders included in the DSM-5 in clusters A, B, and C, as well as disorders in the category “not otherwise specified personality disorder.” Each DSM-5 criterion is assigned corresponding interview questions to assist the interviewer in assessing the criterion. It is possible to utilize the SCID-5-PD to categorically diagnose personality disorders (present or absent) ( First et al., 2019 ). In addition, regulations are also included which can be used to create dimensional ratings.

The MMPI ® –2 ( Butcher et al., 2000 ) is a revised and completely re-normed version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). With the help of the MMPI ® –2, a relatively complete picture of the personality structure can be obtained in an economical way.

The Bochumer Inventar zur berufsbezogenen Persönlichkeitsbeschreibung (BIP; Hossiep and Paschen, 2019 ) measures personality traits in a work-related context. A total of 210 items are assigned to 4 global dimensions including 14 subscales. These include work orientation (diligence, agility, and focus), professional approach ( performance-, creativity-, and management motivation), social competencies (sensitivity, social skills, sociability, teamwork, and assertiveness), and mental constitution (emotional stability, resilience, and self-confidence) on a continuous scale. Patients respond to each item on a 6-point Likert scale.

Game experience

As possible previous experience with the CPS game may affect the level of problem-solving efficiency during the test, participants were asked to rate their previous engagement with simulation-based urban development games on a 4-point Likert scale with response options running from “none” to “very much.” The same poll also featured a listing of 20 symbols from Cities: Skylines, in combination with their meanings (e.g., “no electricity”) for participants to make use of during their quest. At the end, participants were asked to rate their experience based on a 5-point scaling reaching from 1 (extremely simple) to 5 (super challenging). At last, the researcher also marked on each poll sheet, whether (a) the individual patient was able to accomplish the mission (Success, Failure, or Patient Breakup), and (b) the exact time frame of the testing session (morning, afternoon, or evening).

Cities: Skylines (CSL)

The computer-based simulation game Cities: Skylines ( Paradox Interactive, 2015a ), which can be downloaded from Steam for about 30 dollars, explores the construction and management of a city and was implemented in the current study as a Microworld scenario. Much like in the successful microworld Lohhausen ( Dörner et al., 1983 ), gamers in Cities: Skylines basically act in lieu of the city’s mayor, taking over all of his authority and duties. As promised in the user manual, it “offers endless sandbox play in a city that keeps offering new areas, resources, and technologies to explore, continually presenting the player with new challenges to overcome” ( Paradox Interactive, 2015b , p. 4). The game fulfills the parameters of Brehmer and Dörner’s (1993) microworlds and meets the standards of complex problems according to Funke ’s ( 2001; 2012 ). The examples below illustrate the way in which these features are relevant for Cities: Skylines (see Figure 2 ; see also de Kooter, 2015 ; Paradox Interactive, 2015b ):

Procedure of the study.

• (i) Complexity is fulfilled because the system is made up of a variety of components including a vast series of different constructions (areas, basic resources, roads, constructions, electricity, water supplies, etc.), options (fiscal matters, budgeting, credit, traffic management, security, healthcare, and education), and parameters (population density, inhabitant satisfaction, environmental issues, and delinquency). As an example, while purchasing a wind turbine, the participant may weigh related costs, budgeted funds for the week, potential noise pollution, the way the turbine blends into the landscape vs. the rate of efficiency, along with the hardware required to connect the device to the town’s existing network, etc.
• (ii) Connectivity is fulfilled because the parameters in the model are heavily interconnected. Each component is related to at least one other element (see Figure 2 ) implementing a network of correlations and interdependencies. As an example, residential zones should not be located in proximity to wind turbines, as the amount of noise pollution caused by their operation might affect the quality of life in that zone, which again might make the area less attractive and lower the property values.
• (iii) Dynamics are fulfilled because the demands of the population are subject to autonomous change, while other variables, e.g., zoning requirements also depend in part on the actions of the participants. While the dynamics of the game cause the population and the territory of the city to grow, the whole infrastructure becomes inadequate over time and needs to be adapted. Water and electricity infrastructures, the number of schools, clinics, municipal cemeteries, etc., that used to suffice for the population then need to be expanded. Moreover, depending on its frequentation, each building or road has a certain life span until it is left abandoned and will have to be replaced.
• (iv) Non-transparency is not featured as an essential part of the Cities: Skylines gameplay, but is instead primarily caused by its connectivity and intricacy. While playing the game, the number of variables and their interconnections make active exploration essential. Independent of the player’s actions; however, there are also very non-transparent features, such as random death waves or an (unexpectedly) higher incidence of fires in the area following the first construction of a firefighter center by the player.
• (v) Polytely arises since the objective to increase the population of the city requires the simultaneous achievement of a large number of minor tasks, which may be conflicting (e.g., strategic allocation of bus stops for both students and employees). The situation is further complicated by unforeseen complications (e.g., water pollution causing disease spread), which force the player to abandon his/her ongoing task and give full attention to the new issue. The source of the problem must be evaluated while new strategies for potential solutions are weighed against proven approaches. For the current research, each patient was provided with identical settings, including a sizeable, completely functional city with a number of 2,600 residents, 50,000 game money points, and a general population satisfaction level of 90%. Their subsequent task was to boost the population of the cities to 5,000 residents while making sure that the residents were not poorly (as measured by an average satisfaction level of at least 75%) and the bank balance remained positive. On the contrary, the task was left unaccomplished if (a) the population of the urban areas dropped to 1,000, (b) the balance of the account dropped to 0, or (c) the maximum game time of 120 min had elapsed. Patients received the tip, that it was necessary to set priorities and focus on the mission.

Based on the task of raising the number of inhabitants of the city, a parameter of CPS performance was calculated as the average growth of the population relative to the target size of 5,000:

Gamers were instructed not to modify the time settings during the game, to allow for comparable measurements across participants.

Given that the participants were patients from psychiatric and psychosomatic hospitals, many of them lacked game experience. To increase test fairness between patients with different levels of game experience, all the participants were provided with a brief introduction on how to handle a list of fundamental game features:

• • placement of streets, buildings, water pumps, and wind turbines;
• • positioning of roads, structures, water pipes, and turbines;
• • division of zones (housing, businesses, and industries/offices zones) and the mode of bulldozing;
• • structural survey of power, water lines, and waste collection;
• • search for the info stats to view the requirements of the residents;

Statistical analysis

For all the statistical analyses, SPSS version 26.0 (2020) was used.

On the basis of the ICD-11 definition, the personality traits were not analyzed categorically (as before), but dimensionally. To relate the expression of currently recognized personality disorders to performance in CPS, we used correlation analyses between CPS performance and the 9 scale scores of the PSSI (verified by the SCID and MMPI-2) and also the 4 overall dimensions of the BIP. Given the high number of resulting correlations, p -values could be misleading because of the multiple testing. Accordingly, we identified relevant personality traits for CPS using (i) The Bonferonni-correction of p -values and (ii) an effect sizes cut-off of r > 0.25.

In a second step, we explored, which facets of the BIP contributed to the associations with CPS performance in order to get a more fine-grained picture of possible effects.

In sum, we sought to identify the strongest predictors of CPS performance using 3 multivariate regression models with the 9 clinical traits, controlling for gender in the 2nd model and additional game experience in the 3rd model.

Table 1 lists the experience with urban planning simulation games in the current sample. About 50% of the patients rated the game as “easy” or “rather easy,” 37.5% rated it as “not easy but also not difficult” and 12.6% responded that the game was “difficult” or “very difficult.”

Experience of the sample ( N = 242, N = 210 valid answers).

Correlation analyses show that CPS performance was negatively related to schizotypal ( r = −0.46), histrionic ( r = −0.44), and depressive ( r = −0.46) personality accentuations. The higher the expression in any of these areas, the higher the probability of failing in CPS. Effect sizes (: = r ) were > 0.40 for each of these traits (compare Table 2 ). Furthermore, CPS-performance was negatively correlated with the dependent ( r = −0.29) and paranoid ( r = −0.25) personality traits, but coefficients were much lower and therefore of less practical relevance as for schizotypical, histrionic, and depressive traits. Schizoid ( r = 0.04), borderline ( r = 0.17), anankastic ( r = −0.05), and anti-social ( r = −0.04) traits were not significantly associated with the CPS (see Table 3 ).

Correlations of CPS and personality disorders with work-related personality manifestations as assessed with the BIP.

Correlations surpassing an effect size of r = 0.25 are highlighted in bold font, italic numbers have a lower effect size but are still significant when taking only the Bonferroni Correction into account, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.

Correlations between personality traits and CPS performance.

Correlations surpassing an effect size of r = 0.25 are highlighted in bold font, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05 but not significant when taking the Bonferroni Correction into account.

Regarding the work-related manifestations of the personality traits, CPS-performance was positively associated with the overall BIP dimensions of work orientation ( r = 0.27), professional orientation ( r = 0.34), and psychological constitution ( r = 0.25), but negatively with the overall BIP dimension social competencies ( r = −0.25). In order to explore these associations further, CPS performance and personality disorders were related to the sub-facet scores of the BIP (see Table 2 ).

Professional orientation was also negatively correlated with depressive traits ( r = −0.40), the psychological constitution was negatively correlated with borderline traits (−0.38), dependent traits (−0.31), and with depressive traits (−0.26).

The results demonstrate that particularly the facets resilience, action orientation, and motivation for creation were positively correlated with successful problem-solving, while sociability and CPS were significantly negatively correlated. The higher the resilience, action orientation and motivation for creation and the lower the sociability, the better was the CPS performance. When we take Bonferroni correction into account, also conscientiousness and motivation for leadership (italic in the table) were negatively correlated with the CPS performance.

Interestingly, the associations between personality disorders and work-related personality expressions were moderate. The strongest associations arose for resilience, which was negatively associated with several personality disorders, particularly, borderline, histrionic, and dependent traits. Focusing on the traits that showed the strongest impairment in CPS, schizotypal traits were associated with high sociability ( r = 0.36) and to a lesser extent with low-action orientation ( r = −0.22), which in turn related to low-CPS performance. Histrionic traits were related to low resilience ( r = −0.28), which in turn related to low-CPS performance. Depressive traits were related to low motivation for creation ( r = −0.25), and also low-leadership motivation ( r = −0.34) and to a lesser extent low-achievement motivation ( r = −0.21), low-action orientation ( r = −0.20), and low resilience ( r = −0.24), which in turn is related to low-CPS performance.

In a combined model with all 9 personality traits (adjusted R 2 = 36.7%), we confirmed that histrionic traits have the biggest negative impact on CPS performance (β = −0.351), followed by schizotypical (β = −0.312) and depressive traits (β = −0.303). Also, in the multiple regression model, dependent and paranoid traits are negatively related to CPS performance. If gender is the part of the model and held constant in a model containing the 9 traits, histrionic traits still have a significant and practical relevant impact of β′ = −0.325. (Condition Index = 24). The same holds true when also taking game experience into account (β ′ ′ = −0.319) see Table 4 .

Combined regression model, β′: controlling for gender, β ′ ′ controlling for gender and game experience.

Correlations surpassing an effect size of r = 0.25 are highlighted in bold font, **p < 0.001.

(Condition Index checking for possible multicollinearity is moderate with CI = 22, 36, so multicollinearity is moderately given, βs are, therefore, interpretable, p -values can be slightly biased, βs with 0.3 and higher found in this model for the 3 traits have for certain a significant and practically relevant impact).

The present study examined the influences of personality traits on the CPS performance in a clinical sample of individuals with a range of different psychiatric diagnoses. The aim of this empirical analysis was to extend previous research on individual differences in CPS to extreme personality traits as observed in personality disorders, and also their manifestation in work-related situations. We explored, which personality dimensions were most strongly associated with impairments in the CPS.

With regards to the clinical personality dimensions (i.e., dimensionally defined personality disorders), statistical analyses revealed that schizotypal, histrionic, dependent, and depressive personality traits were associated negatively with the participants’ performances in the given CPS task (consistent with, e.g., McMurran et al., 2007 ). Previous findings on these relationships were, therefore, further confirmed, specifically in showing that subjects with high levels of depressiveness and anxiety seemed to have more difficulties in finding and executing effective solutions to the given complex problems (e.g., see Marx et al., 1992 ; Lyubomirsky et al., 1999 ).

Unsurprisingly, no single clinical personality structure was associated with better problem-solving performances (as compared with the non-clinical trait levels). As personality disorders are generally linked with increased levels of neuroticism, which subsequently was consistently found to negatively influence problem-solving (e.g., McMurran et al., 2001 ; D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ), this result is also consistent with the general clinical intuition. But, contrary to the previous findings ( D’Zurilla et al., 2011 ), conscientiousness had no significant impact on CPS performance in this sample.

Further analyses gave deeper insights into relationships that were found in the first part of the data analyses. They are especially allowed to draw conclusions for the clinical patients. It was found that higher levels of resilience (consistent with, e.g., Garcia-Dia et al., 2013 ; Williamson et al., 2013 ; Crowther et al., 2016 , as cited in Li and Yang, 2009 ; Pinar et al., 2018 , as cited in Li et al., 2013 ), action orientation, and motivation for creation (e.g., see Eseryel et al., 2014 ) positively influenced the problem-solving performance as additional behavioral characteristics . This indicates that, even for high levels of usually negative personality traits, a person’s ability to successfully solve problems will not be impaired automatically if the person is also very resilient to the effects of negative events and highly action-oriented and motivated when facing problems. Hence, this interpretation is consistent with the conclusions of a study by Güss et al. (2017) , who found that more approach-oriented individuals outperformed avoidance-oriented participants in the complex problems. In this way, these positive traits act against the negative impact of otherwise impairing personality traits or even disorders. Interestingly, sociability was found to have a negative influence on the participants’ performances, while no significant influences on social skills, team orientation, or self-confidence were found. Therefore, it seems to be more comprehensible why some of us deal easily with complex problems and can manage things forward-looking while others do not succeed in making good decisions.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

UK was the main author, did all calculations, research to and wrote the article. SB did the programming of the microworlds and all technical support. MW did the review on the introduction and discussion part. WA and GS served as a consultant. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

We thank Martina Mathur and Belinda Pletzer for proofreading and translating.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Learning Styles Based on Jung's Theory of Personality

• Jung's Theory

Jungian Learning Styles

• Can Learning Style Change?

Have you ever felt like you retain information better when it's presented in a particular way? Some people learn best by hearing new information, for example, while others get more benefit from seeing it in the form of words or images.

While these are examples of VARK learning styles , other theories exist as to how we learn best. Here we explore the learning styles that are based on Jung's theory of personality and the characteristics of each.

Jung's Theory of Personality

Analytical psychologist Carl Jung is well known for his theory of personality. This theory suggests that personality is inherited and part of the collective unconscious —which includes both conscious and unconscious aspects.

According to Jung, personality appears in the form of archetypes, or universal patterns of thought and behavior that affect what we focus on and how we interact with the world. Jungian archetypes categorize people in terms of various personality patterns.

The psychological types identified by Jung are based on factors such as general attitude and psychological functions. The four basic psychological functions or dimensions that are the focus of Jung's theory are:

• Extraversion vs. introversion
• Sensation vs. intuition
• Thinking vs. feeling
• Judging vs. perceiving

Jung's theory later led to the development of the famous personality test, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator .

The dimensions outlined by Jung can be used to describe various learning styles. While each dimension represents a unique aspect of a learning style, individual learning styles may include a combination of these dimensions.

Your learning style might include elements of extraverted, sensing, feeling, and perceiving learning styles, for example. Here are the different learning styles based on Jungian theory.

Extraverted Learning Style

This Jungian learning style is based on how learners interact with the outside world. Extraverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from other people; they prefer socializing and working in groups . Activities that benefit extraverted learners include teaching others how to solve a problem, collaborative work, and problem-based learning.

Characteristics of extravert learners include:

• Learns best through direct, hands-on experience (learning by doing)
• Enjoys working in groups, sharing both ideas and tasks
• Gathers feedback from outside sources
• Likes using aids, such as objects or PowerPoints, when presenting to others
• Self-motivated , jumping in without guidance
• Often thinks out loud

Introverted Learning Style

While introverted learners can still be sociable, they prefer to solve problems on their own. They enjoy generating energy and ideas from internal sources such as brainstorming, personal reflection , and theoretical exploration. Introverted learners tend to like solitary studying, individual work, and abstract ideas.

Characteristics of introverted learners include:

• Would rather work alone
• Enjoys quiet, solitary work
• Often generates ideas from internal sources
• Prefer to listen, watch, and reflect
• Want to observe others before attempting a new skill

Sensing Learning Style

Jung described these individuals as being interested in the external world as they are focused on the physical environment. Sensing learners tend to be realistic and practical, preferring to rely on facts and well-established problem-solving methods . While people with a sensing learning style enjoy order and routine, they're also quick to adapt to changing environments and situations.

Characteristics of sensing learners include:

• Work in a methodical way
• Pay attention to details
• Okay with repetitive work
• Prefer concrete vs. abstract information
• Generally take more time to solve problems

Intuitive Learning Style

Intuitive learners focus more on the world of possibility. Unlike sensing learners who are interested in the here and now, intuitive learners enjoy considering ideas, possibilities, and potential outcomes. These learners like abstract thinking , daydreaming, and imagining the future.

Characteristics of intuitive learners include:

• Prefer to work in short sessions rather than finishing a task all at once
• Enjoy new challenges, experiences, and situations
• More likely to look at the big picture rather than the details
• Like theories and abstract ideas

Thinking Learning Style

Individuals with a thinking learning style place more emphasis on the structure and function of information and objects. Thinking learners use rationality and logic when dealing with problems and decisions. These learners often base decisions on personal ideas of right, wrong, fairness, and justice.

Characteristics of thinking learners include:

• Interest in logic and patterns
• Dislike basing decisions on emotions
• Make decisions based on reason and logic

Feeling Learning Style

People with a feeling learning style manage information based on the initial emotions it generates. They are interested in personal relationships , feelings, and social harmony. Feeling learners also dislike conflict and make decisions based on what they feel in their hearts.

Characteristics of feeling learners include:

• Interest in people and their feelings
• In tune with their own emotions and those of other people
• Base decisions on immediate feelings
• Generate excitement and enthusiasm in group settings

Judging Learning Style

Judging learners are very decisive, sometimes making decisions too quickly, before learning everything they need to know. These learners prefer order and structure, which is why they often plan out activities and schedules very carefully. They're also highly organized , detail-oriented, and have strong opinions.

Characteristics of judging learners include:

• Do not like ambiguity or mystery
• Tend to be firm in their decisions
• Very organized and structured
• Have strong opinions
• Generally follow the rules

Perceiving Learning Style

Perceiving learners make decisions impulsively in response to new information and changing situations, focusing more on indulging their curiosity than decision-making. These learners prefer to keep their options open. They start many projects at once (often without finishing any of them), avoid strict schedules, and jump into projects without planning.

Characteristics of perceiving learners include:

• Often make impulsive decisions
• Change decisions based on new information
• Dislike structure and organization
• Are flexible and adaptable
• Sometimes have trouble making decisions

Prevalence of Jungian Learning Styles

The Paragon Learning Style Inventory is a 52-item self-scored test designed to measure learning style based on Jungian personality types. Data collected from this learning style inventory provides the following insights into the prevalence of each of these learning styles within the general population.

Can You Change Your Learning Style?

No matter how you feel you learn best, branching out and trying other learning strategies may help maximize your learning potential . One reason is that learning styles can change over time.

One study found that learning styles change for a variety of reasons. Factors that can contribute to changes in learning style include:

• Environment
• Teaching method
• Subject matter

How to Change Your Learning Style

If you want to work on changing your preferred learning style, try changing where you study and experimenting with different learning methods. Intentionally incorporate other tactics and learning formats—such as videos, visuals, lectures, readings, and group discussions—into your studies.

Criticisms of Learning Styles

While the concept of learning styles has become very popular, it is also the subject of considerable criticism. Labeling students with one specific style, critics suggest, can hinder the learning process .

Research has also demonstrated that matching instructional strategies to student learning styles does not improve educational outcomes. So, while you might feel like a certain style matches your learning preferences, drawing on various learning and study strategies is the best way to ensure you get the most out of your educational experience.

Different approaches can also help improve your capacity for learning and challenge your brain . If you know that you prefer to learn by quietly reading on your own, for example, you might augment your solo studies by participating in a study group where you can further cement that knowledge (and pick up other new information) through group discussions or guest lectures. 

Varying your approach to learning can not only help introduce you to new study strategies but can also make learning more fun.

A Word From Verywell

The learning styles based on Jung's theory of personality represent just one way of thinking about how people learn. While the concept of learning styles remains very popular, research has found little evidence to support the idea that offering instruction based on learning preferences leads to improved learning outcomes.

At the same time, learning styles can still be a helpful way to think about some of the ways that you enjoy learning. As you look at each style, think about which strategies appeal the most to you. In all likelihood, you may find that your own unique learning preferences draw upon several learning styles.

Alcaro A, Carta S, Panksepp J. The affective core of the self: A neuro-archetypical perspective on the foundations of human (and animal) subjectivity .  Front Psychol . 2017;8:1424. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01424

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Paulus PB, Baruah J, Kenworthy JB. Enhancing collaborative ideation in organizations .  Front Psychol . 2018;9:2024. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02024

Cabello R, Fernandez-Berrocal P. Under which conditions can introverts achieve happiness? Mediation and moderation effects of the quality of social relationships and emotion regulation ability on happiness .  PeerJ . 2015;3:e1300. doi:10.7717/peerj.1300

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San Bernadino Community College District Technology & Educational Support Services. Learning style .

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California State University, Los Angeles. Paragon Learning Style Inventory .

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Solving problems the cognitive-behavioral way, problem solving is another part of behavioral therapy..

Posted February 2, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

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• Problem-solving is one technique used on the behavioral side of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
• The problem-solving technique is an iterative, five-step process that requires one to identify the problem and test different solutions.
• The technique differs from ad-hoc problem-solving in its suspension of judgment and evaluation of each solution.

As I have mentioned in previous posts, cognitive behavioral therapy is more than challenging negative, automatic thoughts. There is a whole behavioral piece of this therapy that focuses on what people do and how to change their actions to support their mental health. In this post, I’ll talk about the problem-solving technique from cognitive behavioral therapy and what makes it unique.

The problem-solving technique

While there are many different variations of this technique, I am going to describe the version I typically use, and which includes the main components of the technique:

The first step is to clearly define the problem. Sometimes, this includes answering a series of questions to make sure the problem is described in detail. Sometimes, the client is able to define the problem pretty clearly on their own. Sometimes, a discussion is needed to clearly outline the problem.

The next step is generating solutions without judgment. The "without judgment" part is crucial: Often when people are solving problems on their own, they will reject each potential solution as soon as they or someone else suggests it. This can lead to feeling helpless and also discarding solutions that would work.

The third step is evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This is the step where judgment comes back.

Fourth, the client picks the most feasible solution that is most likely to work and they try it out.

The fifth step is evaluating whether the chosen solution worked, and if not, going back to step two or three to find another option. For step five, enough time has to pass for the solution to have made a difference.

This process is iterative, meaning the client and therapist always go back to the beginning to make sure the problem is resolved and if not, identify what needs to change.

Advantages of the problem-solving technique

The problem-solving technique might differ from ad hoc problem-solving in several ways. The most obvious is the suspension of judgment when coming up with solutions. We sometimes need to withhold judgment and see the solution (or problem) from a different perspective. Deliberately deciding not to judge solutions until later can help trigger that mindset change.

Another difference is the explicit evaluation of whether the solution worked. When people usually try to solve problems, they don’t go back and check whether the solution worked. It’s only if something goes very wrong that they try again. The problem-solving technique specifically includes evaluating the solution.

Lastly, the problem-solving technique starts with a specific definition of the problem instead of just jumping to solutions. To figure out where you are going, you have to know where you are.

One benefit of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach is the behavioral side. The behavioral part of therapy is a wide umbrella that includes problem-solving techniques among other techniques. Accessing multiple techniques means one is more likely to address the client’s main concern.

Salene M. W. Jones, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist in Washington State.

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Growth Mindset

You Have Your Own Peak To Reach

23 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS TO KNOW

Developing essential skills like confidence, communication, problem-solving, decision-making, and more are pivotal to a child’s meaningful life. Today, we’ll learn how to unlock your true potential and achieve holistic growth with our range of engaging and interactive personality development activities for students.

Developing a solid personality is crucial to success in life. Today, we will provide you with activities designed specifically for students to help you grow holistically.

These activities are designed to be both fun and educational, allowing students to build self-confidence and gain important skills for their overall growth in life. Let’s find them out without taking any more time.

Top 23 Personality Development Activities For Students

Personality development is an important part of any student’s growth and development. It helps them to become more confident and successful in their lives. To help students develop their personality, it is important to provide them with activities that help them practice active listening.

Improving writing skills

Writing is an essential skill for students to master in order to communicate effectively. It is important for them to have the ability to express their thoughts and ideas in a clear and concise manner.

To help students develop their writing skills, it is important for them to engage in personality development activities that can improve their writing abilities. These activities can include reading books, listening to podcasts, writing short stories or essays, or even participating in writing competitions.

30 DAYS PRO BLOGGING CHALLENGE

All of these activities can help students hone their skills and boost their confidence when it comes to expressing themselves through the written word.

Practice Active Listening

Active listening involves paying attention to what the other person is saying, asking questions, and providing thoughtful responses. By engaging in active listening activities, students can learn how to better understand the perspective of others and gain insight into how they think and feel.

This will help them develop empathy and build strong interpersonal relationships with those around them. Additionally, these activities can also help students hone their communication skills, which will be invaluable for their future success.

Self Reflection

Personality development is an important part of any student’s growth and development. It helps them to become more self-aware, understand themselves better, and develop the skills they need to be successful in life.

To foster this growth, it is important for teachers and parents to provide students with opportunities for self-reflection and personality development activities. Through these activities, students can gain insight into their strengths and weaknesses, as well as learn how to work on improving themselves.

Self-reflection is a key component of personality development activities for students, as it encourages them to take time out of their day and think about their experiences in order to gain a better understanding of who they are.

This can help them recognize areas where they need improvement or areas where they excel so that they can focus on those areas more effectively.

Practice Mindfulness

As students, it is important to develop our personalities in order to become successful in life. Personality development activities help us to cultivate the skills and qualities that we need for success.

Mindfulness is one such activity that can be used by students to develop their personalities. Mindfulness helps us to reduce stress, improve focus, and increase self-awareness. It can also help us to gain insight into our own thoughts and feelings which can lead to better decision-making and improved mental health.

By teaching students mindfulness techniques, we can help them become more self-aware and confident in their abilities as they progress through school and into adulthood.

Conflict Resolution

Personality development activities are important for students, as they help them to develop the skills and qualities that will serve them well in their future lives.

Conflict resolution is one such activity that can help students learn how to handle disagreements in a respectful and constructive way. It is essential for students to understand how to resolve conflicts so that they can have successful relationships with others, both at school and beyond.

By teaching students the techniques of conflict resolution, we can ensure that they are well-equipped with the necessary skills needed for successful communication.

Practice public speaking

Public speaking is an important skill for students to learn and master. It helps build confidence, and communication skills, and develop a student’s personality. By encouraging students to practice public speaking, they can gain the confidence they need to express themselves in various situations.

Public speaking activities also help students learn how to articulate their thoughts and ideas clearly and effectively. Moreover, it allows them to practice their problem-solving skills as they come up with creative solutions to challenges posed by public speaking tasks.

In short, public speaking activities are great for developing a student’s personality as well as helping them become more confident in expressing themselves in different settings.

Participate in group discussions

Personality development activities for students are essential to help them develop their social, emotional, and communication skills. Group discussions provide an excellent platform for students to express their opinions, learn from the experiences of others, and develop a sense of self-confidence.

By participating in group discussions, students can learn how to listen actively and think critically while developing their communication skills. It also encourages them to be open-minded and empathetic towards different perspectives.

Furthermore, it helps them build relationships with peers and gain valuable insights into various topics which can help shape their overall personality.

Team Building Activities

Personality development is an important part of student life. It helps students to develop their social and communication skills, as well as their self-confidence and leadership qualities. One of the best ways to ensure that students are developing these skills is through team-building activities.

By engaging in team-building activities, students can learn how to work together, develop strong leadership skills, and improve their communication abilities.

Team building activities can also help them become more confident in themselves and better equipped to handle challenges that come their way.

23 Personal Development Activities To Ace Your Life

Role-playing

Personality development activities are essential for students to become successful in their academic and professional lives. These activities help students develop important skills such as communication, empathy, problem-solving, and creativity.

One of the most effective personality development activities is role-playing. Role-playing helps students practice communication and interpersonal skills in a safe environment. It also encourages them to think critically and creatively while developing an understanding of different perspectives.

Through role-playing exercises, students can develop their self-confidence and gain the confidence to interact with others effectively.

Leadership Activities

Developing leadership skills is an important part of personal growth for students. It can help them become more confident, organized, and effective in their future endeavors.

By encouraging students to participate in team projects, clubs, or community service activities, they can learn valuable skills such as problem-solving, communication, and collaboration. These activities will also help them develop a sense of responsibility and empathy towards others.

Furthermore, these activities will also provide the opportunity to practice their leadership skills in a safe environment with guidance from mentors and peers.

Cultural Sensitivity

Personality development activities for students are essential in helping them become well-rounded individuals. In today’s globalized world, it is important to teach students to appreciate and respect different cultures and understand the importance of diversity and inclusion.

Through engaging in activities that foster a sense of acceptance and understanding of other cultures, we can help young people build positive relationships with people from all walks of life.

By participating in these activities, students can learn about different cultures, gain an appreciation for the similarities and differences between them, and develop a deeper understanding of what it means to be part of a global community.

Personal Branding

Personal branding is an important part of any student’s development. It can help them identify their unique strengths and talents, as well as build confidence and self-esteem.

Through personal branding activities, students can learn how to communicate effectively, network with peers and employers, and develop a professional identity for themselves. By understanding their own personal brand, students can better position themselves for success in the future.

Students should be encouraged to engage in activities that will help them develop their personal brand. These activities could include participating in internships or volunteer opportunities, attending conferences or seminars related to their field of interest, or engaging in public speaking events.

Additionally, they should also be encouraged to create a portfolio showcasing their work and accomplishments as well as establish an online presence through social media platforms such as LinkedIn or Twitter.

All of these activities will help students gain valuable experience that will set them apart from other job applicants when applying for jobs in the future.

Time Management

Time management is an important skill for students to learn in order to maximize their productivity and avoid procrastination. It is essential for students to understand the importance of managing their time effectively in order to achieve their goals and make the most out of their learning experiences.

There are many activities that can be used by teachers, parents, and mentors to help students develop good time management skills. These activities can include setting goals, breaking tasks into smaller chunks, prioritizing tasks, scheduling tasks on a calendar or planner, and reflecting on progress.

By engaging in these activities regularly, students will be able to better manage their time and ultimately become more successful in their studies.

Career Development

Personality development activities for students are an important part of their growth and success. It is essential to help them understand the importance of career development and teach them the skills and knowledge relevant to their desired career.

By engaging in personality development activities, students can explore different career options, gain experience in various fields, and develop personal values that will help them succeed in life.

These activities can also provide students with the opportunity to network with professionals in their chosen field, build confidence, practice communication skills, and learn how to make informed decisions about their future.

Practice effective communication

Effective communication is an essential skill for students to develop in order to succeed in their future careers. It is important for students to understand how to communicate with others in a clear, professional, and effective manner.

Teaching students the basics of effective communication will help them become more confident and successful in their future endeavors.

By engaging in activities that promote effective communication, such as role-playing scenarios or small group discussions, students can practice the skills they need to communicate effectively.

These activities can also help them think critically about how they communicate with others and give them the opportunity to build relationships with their peers.

Through these personality development activities, students can gain valuable knowledge and experience that will help them excel both inside and outside of the classroom.

23 Personality Development Activities For College Students

Develop social skills

Personality development is an important part of a student’s education. It helps students to develop the skills and attitudes needed to succeed in life.

By engaging in personality development activities, students can learn how to develop their social skills, build meaningful relationships with peers, and become more confident individuals.

These activities can range from participating in group discussions and debates to attending workshops on communication skills or taking part in team-building exercises.

Through these activities, students will learn how to communicate effectively with others, build relationships based on trust and respect, and become more confident when interacting with people. All of these are essential for success in any field of life.

Continuous Learning

Personality development is an important part of growing up and becoming successful in life. It is essential for students to learn how to develop their personalities in order to become successful adults.

There are many activities that can help students to develop their personalities, such as encouraging them to embrace lifelong learning, seek new knowledge and skills, and pursue personal growth and development.

These activities can help students gain the confidence they need to take on new challenges and reach their full potential.

Volunteering

Personality development is an important part of the student’s education. It helps them develop empathy, compassion, and social responsibility.

Encouraging students to participate in volunteer work can help them hone these skills and gain valuable experience. Volunteering also provides students with the opportunity to practice leadership skills, build meaningful relationships with their peers, and gain a better understanding of themselves and their community.

Through volunteering, students can learn how to become more responsible citizens by making a positive impact on society. Additionally, it can provide them with a sense of purpose and fulfillment in life.

Creative Expression

Personality development is an important part of growing up and maturing as an individual. It helps students develop the skills they need to become successful in life.

One way to do this is by encouraging students to express themselves creatively through art, music, writing, or other forms of creative expression. By doing so, students can explore their interests and passions while also developing important skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking.

Furthermore, these activities can help build self-confidence and resilience in the face of challenges. With the right guidance and support from teachers and parents, these activities can open up a world of possibilities for students’ personal growth.

Critical Thinking

Personality development activities for students are essential in helping them to develop their critical thinking, analysis, and decision-making skills. These activities help to expand their knowledge base and give them the opportunity to explore different perspectives on a given topic.

They also help students become more confident in their abilities and better equipped to make informed decisions. Through these activities, students can learn how to think critically about the information they receive and analyze it in order to make informed decisions.

They can also gain a better understanding of themselves by exploring their own thoughts and feelings as well as those of others around them.

By engaging in these activities, students can develop the skills necessary for success in their future endeavors.

Emotional Intelligence

Developing the personality of students is essential for their academic and social success. It involves teaching students to recognize and manage their emotions and develop empathy and social skills.

Personality development activities help students to build self-confidence, develop positive relationships with peers, and become more independent.

These activities can include role-playing scenarios, group discussions, reflective writing exercises, problem-solving tasks, and other interactive activities that encourage self-expression. By engaging in these activities on a regular basis, students can learn how to better understand themselves and others around them.

Goal Setting

Personality development is an important part of a student’s life and it is essential for them to have the right skills and habits to become successful in the future. It is important for students to develop their goals and create plans to achieve them.

Goal setting can help students become more organized, motivated, and confident in their own abilities. It can also help them stay focused on achieving their goals and develop better problem-solving skills.

Setting specific, achievable goals can also help students learn more about themselves as well as their strengths and weaknesses. By setting achievable goals, they will be able to identify areas that need improvement and work towards improving them.

Through goal-setting activities, students will be able to develop better communication skills, time management skills, decision-making skills, and self-discipline which are all necessary for success in any field of life.

Practice problem-solving

Personality development activities for students are essential to help them become successful individuals. It is important to teach them the skills and attitudes they need to face life’s challenges and opportunities. One of the best ways to do this is by encouraging problem-solving activities.

By teaching students how to identify problems, think critically, and come up with creative solutions, we can help them develop the necessary skills for success. Not only will this help them in their academic pursuits, but it will also prepare them for future career opportunities.

Problem-solving activities can also be used as a way of developing self-confidence and resilience in students, which are essential qualities for success.

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The Personality Traits That Define a Successful Problem-Solver

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Problems are an unavoidable fact of life. Do not be surprised as an entrepreneur if your days are consistently filled with a continuous wave of problems.

However, Entrepreneur Network partner Brian Tracy recommends you do your best to control your attitude. If you are able to control your emotional tendencies, you will be able to deal with problems more tactfully. Next, try to embrace a solution-oriented personality and focus on what can be done in the moment. Switch your mind from the problem (the negative) to the solution (the positive).

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Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Here’s the conflict:

Trust : If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.

This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Mistrust : Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity . 

This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.

Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events, viewing the world with apprehension.

Infant Feeding

Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. It’s one of infants’ first and most basic ways to learn whether they can trust the world around them.

It sets the stage for their perspective on the world as being either a safe, dependable place or a place where their needs may not be met.

This consistent, dependable care helps the child feel a sense of security and trust in the caregiver and their environment.

They understand that when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to provide for that need.

These negative experiences can lead to a sense of mistrust in their environment and caregivers.

They may start to believe that their needs may not be met, creating anxiety and insecurity.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope . By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early attachment experience can affect relationships with others in later life.

The balance between trust and mistrust allows the infant to learn that while there may be moments of discomfort or distress, they can rely on their caregiver to provide support.

This helps the infant to build resilience and the ability to cope with stress or adversity in the future.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Autonomy : If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

Shame and Doubt : On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.

Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Toilet Training 

This is when children start to exert their independence, taking control over their bodily functions, which can greatly influence their sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.

Autonomy : When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a sense of accomplishment and autonomy.

They understand they have control over their own bodies and can take responsibility for their actions. This boosts their confidence, instilling a sense of autonomy and a belief in their ability to manage personal tasks.

Shame and Doubt : Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there’s too much pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents, the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.

They may feel bad about their mistakes, and this can lead to feelings of shame, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in their autonomy.

Success and Failure In Stage Two

Erikson states parents must allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will . If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Suppose children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves. In that case, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem , and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Control?

Success leads to feelings of autonomy, and failure results in shame and doubt.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task, they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt allows the child to understand that while they can’t always control their environment, they can exercise control over their actions and decisions, thus developing self-confidence and resilience.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Initiative : When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.

Guilt : If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive.”

During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.

Exploration

Here’s why exploration is important:

Developing Initiative : Exploration allows children to assert their power and control over their environment. Through exploration, children engage with their surroundings, ask questions, and discover new things.

This active engagement allows them to take the initiative and make independent choices, contributing to their autonomy and confidence.

Learning from Mistakes : Exploration also means making mistakes, and these provide crucial learning opportunities. Even if a child’s efforts lead to mistakes or failures, they learn to understand cause and effect and their role in influencing outcomes.

Building Self-Confidence : When caregivers support and encourage a child’s explorations and initiatives, it bolsters their self-confidence. They feel their actions are valuable and significant, which encourages them to take more initiative in the future.

Mitigating Guilt : If caregivers respect the child’s need for exploration and do not overly criticize their mistakes, it helps prevent feelings of guilt. Instead, the child learns it’s okay to try new things and perfectly fine to make mistakes.

Success and Failure In Stage Three

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose .

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt . The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiative too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening, the child may feel guilty for “being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can slow the child’s interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children understand that it’s acceptable to take charge and make their own decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of purpose.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, caregivers must provide a safe and supportive environment that allows children to explore freely. This nurtures their initiative, helps them develop problem-solving skills, and builds confidence and resilience.

By understanding the importance of exploration and providing the right support, caregivers can help children navigate this stage successfully and minimize feelings of guilt.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

Industry : If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to achieve goals.

Inferiority : On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

The child is coping with new learning and social demands.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach specific skills.

At this stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.

The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

This stage typically occurs during the elementary school years, from approximately ages 6 to 11, and the experiences children have in school can significantly influence their development.

Here’s why:

Development of Industry : At school, children are given numerous opportunities to learn, achieve, and demonstrate their competencies. They work on various projects, participate in different activities, and collaborate with their peers.

These experiences allow children to develop a sense of industry, reinforcing their confidence in their abilities to accomplish tasks and contribute effectively.

Social Comparison : School provides a context where children can compare themselves to their peers.

They gauge their abilities and achievements against those of their classmates, which can either help build their sense of industry or lead to feelings of inferiority, depending on their experiences and perceptions.

Feedback and Reinforcement : Teachers play a crucial role during this stage. Their feedback can either reinforce the child’s sense of industry or trigger feelings of inferiority.

Encouraging feedback enhances the child’s belief in their skills, while persistent negative feedback can lead to a sense of inferiority.

Building Life Skills : School also provides opportunities for children to develop crucial life skills, like problem-solving, teamwork, and time management. Successfully acquiring and utilizing these skills promotes a sense of industry.

Dealing with Failure : School is where children may encounter academic difficulties or fail for the first time.

How they learn to cope with these situations— and how teachers and parents guide them through these challenges—can influence whether they develop a sense of industry or inferiority.

Success and Failure In Stage Four

Success leads to the virtue of competence , while failure results in feelings of inferiority .

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competence) and confident in their ability to achieve goals.

If this initiative is not encouraged, if parents or teacher restricts it, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities, and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society demands (e.g., being athletic), they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.

The balance between industry and inferiority allows children to recognize their skills and understand that they have the ability to work toward and achieve their goals, even if they face challenges along the way.

How Can Parents & Teachers Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, teachers and parents need to provide consistent, constructive feedback and encourage effort, not just achievement.

This approach helps foster a sense of industry, competence, and confidence in children, reducing feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Identity : If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form their own unique identity.

Role Confusion : If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role confusion.

This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion about their personal identity.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent and looking at the future regarding careers, relationships, families, housing, etc.

The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.

According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, between the morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245).

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. During this stage, the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

Social Relationships

Given the importance of social relationships during this stage, it’s crucial for adolescents to have supportive social networks that encourage healthy exploration of identity.

It’s also important for parents, teachers, and mentors to provide guidance as adolescents navigate their social relationships and roles.

Formation of Identity : Social relationships provide a context within which adolescents explore different aspects of their identity.

They try on different roles within their peer groups, allowing them to discover their interests, beliefs, values, and goals. This exploration is key to forming their own unique identity.

Peer Influence : Peer groups often become a significant influence during this stage. Adolescents often start to place more value on the opinions of their friends than their parents.

How an adolescent’s peer group perceives them can impact their sense of self and identity formation.

Social Acceptance and Belonging : Feeling accepted and fitting in with peers can significantly affect an adolescent’s self-esteem and sense of identity.

They are more likely to develop a strong, positive identity if they feel accepted and valued. Feeling excluded or marginalized may lead to role confusion and a struggle with identity formation.

Experiencing Diversity : Interacting with a diverse range of people allows adolescents to broaden their perspectives, challenge their beliefs, and shape their values.

This diversity of experiences can also influence the formation of their identity.

Conflict and Resolution : Social relationships often involve conflict and the need for resolution, providing adolescents with opportunities to explore different roles and behaviors.

Learning to navigate these conflicts aids in the development of their identity and the social skills needed in adulthood.

Success and Failure In Stage Five

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage, the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity .

Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their explorations.

Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes.

Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:

• severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)
• prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time)
• aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion.

However, if adolescents don’t have the support, time, or emotional capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.

This could potentially lead to a weak sense of self, role confusion, and lack of direction in adulthood.

Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis , an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education, or political activities).

Also, pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Intimacy : Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

Isolation : If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Success and Failure In Stage Six

Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love . Individuals who develop this virtue have the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.

Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. 

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society.

Generativity : If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.

Stagnation : If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

Psychologically, generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

During middle age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and participating in community activities and organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture through generativity.

Work & Parenthood

Both work and parenthood are important in this stage as they provide opportunities for adults to extend their personal and societal influence.

Work : In this stage, individuals often focus heavily on their careers. Meaningful work is a way that adults can feel productive and gain a sense of contributing to the world.

It allows them to feel that they are part of a larger community and that their efforts can benefit future generations. If they feel accomplished and valued in their work, they experience a sense of generativity.

However, if they’re unsatisfied with their career or feel unproductive, they may face feelings of stagnation.

Parenthood : Raising children is another significant aspect of this stage. Adults can derive a sense of generativity from nurturing the next generation, guiding their development, and imparting their values.

Through parenthood, adults can feel they’re making a meaningful contribution to the future.

On the other hand, individuals who choose not to have children or those who cannot have children can also achieve generativity through other nurturing behaviors, such as mentoring or engaging in activities that positively impact the younger generation.

Success and Failure In Stage Seven

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of contribution through these roles, they are more likely to develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of productivity and fulfillment.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of care . Individuals who develop this virtue feel a sense of contribution to the world, typically through family and work, and feel satisfied that they are making a difference.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

We become stagnant and feel unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. 

This could potentially lead to feelings of restlessness and unproductiveness in later life.

Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Ego Integrity : If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.

Despair : On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear of impending death.

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of regret.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people.

Success and Failure In Stage Eight

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom . Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Individuals who reflect on their lives and regret not achieving their goals will experience bitterness and despair.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

This could potentially lead to feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.

A continuous state of ego integrity does not characterize wise people, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by integrity and despair as alternating states that must be balanced.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, filling a major gap in Freud’s emphasis on childhood.  (McAdams, 2001).

• Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized how the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
• Erikson’s theory has good face validity . Many people find they can relate to his theories about various life cycle stages through their own experiences.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs.

For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

Erikson also does not explain what propels the individual forward into the next stage once a crisis is resolved. His stage model implies strict sequential progression tied to age, but does not address variations in timing or the complexity of human development.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

The lack of elucidation of the dynamics makes it challenging to test Erikson’s stage progression hypotheses empirically. Contemporary researchers have struggled to operationalize the stages and validate their universal sequence and age ranges.

Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development primarily on observations of middle-class White children and families in the United States and Europe. This Western cultural perspective may limit the universality of the stages he proposed.

The conflicts emphasized in each stage reflect values like independence, autonomy, and productivity, which are deeply ingrained in Western individualistic cultures. However, the theory may not translate well to more collectivistic cultures that value interdependence, social harmony, and shared responsibility.

For example, the autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in early childhood may play out differently in cultures where obedience and conformity to elders is prioritized over individual choice. Likewise, the identity crisis of adolescence may be less pronounced in collectivist cultures.

As an illustration, the identity crisis experienced in adolescence often resurfaces as adults transition into retirement (Logan, 1986). Although the context differs, managing similar emotional tensions promotes self-awareness and comprehension of lifelong developmental dynamics.

Applications

Retirees can gain insight into retirement challenges by recognizing the parallels between current struggles and earlier psychosocial conflicts.

Retirees often revisit identity issues faced earlier in life when adjusting to retirement. Although the contexts differ, managing similar emotional tensions can increase self-awareness and understanding of lifelong psychodynamics.

Cultural sensitivity can increase patient self-awareness during counseling. For example, nurses could use the model to help adolescents tackle identity exploration or guide older adults in finding purpose and integrity.

Recent research shows the ongoing relevance of Erikson’s theory across the lifespan. A 2016 study found a correlation between middle-aged adults’ sense of generativity and their cognitive health, emotional resilience, and executive function.

Interprofessional teams could collaborate to create stage-appropriate, strengths-based care plans. For instance, occupational therapists could engage nursery home residents in reminiscence therapy to increase ego integrity.

Specific tools allow clinicians to identify patients’ current psychosocial stage. Nurses might use Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) to reveal trust, autonomy, purpose, or despair struggles.

With this insight, providers can deliver targeted interventions to resolve conflicts and support developmental advancement. For example, building autonomy after a major health crisis or fostering generativity by teaching parenting skills.

• By understanding which stage a client is in and the associated challenges, social workers can tailor their interventions and support to address the client’s specific needs. For example, a social worker helping a teenager grappling with identity formation (Erikson’s fifth stage) might focus on fostering self-exploration and providing a safe environment for experimenting with different roles.

Erikson vs Maslow

How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?

Erikson vs Freud

Freud (1905) proposed a five-stage model of psychosexual development spanning infancy to puberty, focused on the maturation of sexual drives. While groundbreaking, Freud’s theory had limitations Erikson (1958, 1963) aimed to overcome.

• Erikson expanded the timeline through the full lifespan, while Freud focused only on the first few years of life. This more holistic perspective reflected the ongoing social challenges confronted into adulthood and old age.
• Whereas Freud highlighted biological, pleasure-seeking drives, Erikson incorporated the influence of social relationships, culture, and identity formation on personality growth. This broader psychosocial view enhanced realism.
• Erikson focused on the ego’s growth rather than the primacy of the id. He saw personality developing through negotiation of social conflicts rather than only frustration/gratification of innate drives.
• Erikson organized the stages around psychosocial crises tied to ego maturation rather than psychosexual erogenous zones. This reformulation felt more relevant to personal experiences many could identify with.
• Finally, Erikson emphasized healthy progression through the stages rather than psychopathology stemming from fixation. He took a strengths-based perspective focused on human potential.

Summary Table

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include:

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child . London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage.  Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: Norton.

Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed . New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues . New York, NY: International University Press

Fadjukoff, P., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2016). Identity formation in adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 27 to 50.  Identity ,  16 (1), 8-23.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.  Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id . SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior . London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Logan , R.D . ( 1986 ). A reconceptualization of Erikson’s theory: The repetition of existential and instrumental themes. Human Development, 29 , 125 – 136.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., & Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health.  Developmental Psychology ,  52 (3), 496.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories . Review of General Psychology , 5(2), 100.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal . American Psychologist, 52(5) , 509.

Meeus, W., van de Schoot, R., Keijsers, L., & Branje, S. (2012). Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  41 , 1008-1021.

Osborne, J. W. (2009). Commentary on retirement, identity, and Erikson’s developmental stage model.  Canadian Journal on Aging/La Revue canadienne du vieillissement ,  28 (4), 295-301.

Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust on intimacy: A new inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  10 (6), 525-537.

Sica, L. S., Aleni Sestito, L., Syed, M., & McLean, K. (2018). I became adult when… Pathways of identity resolution and adulthood transition in Italian freshmen’s narratives.  Identity ,  18 (3), 159-177.

Vogel-Scibilia, S. E., McNulty, K. C., Baxter, B., Miller, S., Dine, M., & Frese, F. J. (2009). The recovery process utilizing Erikson’s stages of human development.  Community Mental Health Journal ,  45 , 405-414.

What is Erikson’s main theory?

Erikson said that we all want to be good at certain things in our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we go through eight developmental stages as we grow up, from being a baby to an old person. In each stage, we have a challenge to overcome.

If we do well in these challenges, we feel confident, our personality grows healthily, and we feel competent. But if we don’t do well, we might feel like we’re not good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

What is an example of Erikson’s psychosocial theory?

Throughout primary school (ages 6-12), children encounter the challenge of balancing industry and inferiority. During this period, they start comparing themselves to their classmates to evaluate their own standing.

As a result, they may either cultivate a feeling of pride and achievement in their academics, sports, social engagements, and family life or experience a sense of inadequacy if they fall short.

Parents and educators can implement various strategies and techniques to support children in fostering a sense of competence and self-confidence.

8 Personality Development Skills You Must Possess

Personality development is a set of activities, which are intended to develop and improve an individual’s abilities and competence, build personal capital, facilitate effective employability, improve quality of life and realization of personal goals and aspirations and facilitate the realization of educational goals and aspirations. It involves the development and implementation of policies that are meant to promote an individual’s capabilities, enhance his/her employability and build on his/her capital. 

Personality development includes the process of creating personal goals, targets, acquiring the necessary skills, implementing them, realizing these goals, and attaining appropriate means to acquire those goals. It also involves the process of identifying and establishing one’s identity or individuality, defining and measuring personal worth and worthiness.

A developed personality is all about 

• Building one’s support system
• Finding and utilizing opportunities and resources, 
• Improving communication and social networking, 
• Exercising and maintaining healthy and productive ways of being and living,
• Developing and enhancing one’s self-discipline, 
• Building on one’s strengths, 
• Developing and implementing effective career strategies, 
• Managing one’s time and working smarter,
• Accepting and tolerating differences, promoting and empowering one’s creativity and inventiveness, 
• Exploring and investigating new ideas, communicating effectively, 
• Improving one’s sense of humor, loving, supporting and caring for others, accepting and tolerating differences,
• Appreciating other people’s ideas, 
• Keeping good relationships and generally enjoying life.

So how can we know what personality development goals are? It is always best to have a personal vision of success in everything that we do, especially in the area of work. We can make plans to achieve these goals, but the real test is when we achieve them. 

What is important to realize is that no single method will work for everyone because every person is unique and different. If you truly want to see personality development results, you need to consider and evaluate your circumstances carefully to find the path that suits you best.

Another important way to answer the question, “What is personality development?” is through the process of self-awareness and self-image improvement. These are two processes through which you can change your life and create the life that you want. With an effective personality development plan and the right attitude, anyone can succeed.

What are personality development skills?

Personality development is a continuous process containing a structured set of activities that builds and improves an individual’s potential and capacities to become productive and intelligent. Various behavioral characteristics and qualities are cultivated through professional training, classes, and workshops focusing primarily on different aspects of personality development. It is also possible to develop personality development skills through informal experience. Personality development also involves a range of skills and knowledge regarding self-help techniques, motivation, goal-setting, and improving interpersonal relationships.

Why are personality development skills important?

Personality development is a set of skills that enable you to develop and strengthen your skills and abilities in all aspects of your life. They include problem-solving, delegating responsibilities, improving self-confidence, creating goals, developing communication skills, goal setting, creating, and maintaining healthy relationships, and much more. You can develop these skills in any area of your life as you want – from your relationships to your professional ones. These skills can help you become the person you’ve always wished you could be and help you grow professionally and personally.

One of the major benefits of personal growth and development skills is your ability to identify and achieve your goals. Personality development training will teach you how to work your self-development skills into your everyday routine so you can naturally propel these skills into your life and use them to accomplish your goals. 

8 Life Changing Personality Development Skills

Personality development skills are qualities that you may already have or gain through education and training. Here are some examples of skills that people commonly practice for personal growth. 

Communication 

Problem-solving , self-confidence , listening skills .

• Interpersonal 

Adaptability 

Work-ethic .

• Leadership 

One of the most powerful questions one can ask oneself is “what are the benefits of communication skills in personality development?” The simple answer to this question is that they can help you to make the most of your own personality development efforts and to unleash your full potential. With the right communication skills, anyone-regardless of what their current abilities or capabilities are-can have a tremendous impact on the growth of themselves and the people around them!

Problem-solving is the one skill that everybody needs to learn and practice if they want to develop themselves. personality development is about self-discovery and improvement, so you need to be able to identify problems and how to solve them. However, most people can’t think creatively or decide on a solution for a problem; this is where problem-solving skills come in. The ability to solve a problem is an inherent part of all human beings, and it is something that everyone should take time to develop.

The importance of self-confidence in personality development cannot be underestimated. It’s a fact that it has been said that we are what we do, not what we own. That should be motivation enough to help us build and develop our self-confidence. Strong self-confidence in personality development can make the difference between failure and success in anything you attempt to do in life. It’s not hard to build up one’s self-confidence.

One of the most important factors in personality development is the ability to listen effectively and be open to learning from others. Listening skills are not only a skill that people can develop through their education or employment, but it is something that can be improved through personal growth experiences. 

While listening is a basic human characteristic, it can be greatly enhanced through creative endeavors such as those associated with the art of communication. In fact, a great deal of success in communication depends upon how accurately one can listen. 

A good listener will be able to pick up on the subtleties of what another person is saying and understand what it is that he or she is trying to communicate.

Interpersonal skills 

Developing interpersonal skills in personality development is a key factor in attaining the life, career, and happiness that we desire. With the skills you learn to communicate effectively, negotiate effectively, manage effectively, and lead effectively you will be able to live a fulfilling life. personality development will provide you with skills and knowledge to help you in every aspect of your life.

Adaptability can be described as the ability of a person to change and adapt to various changes, regardless of their environment. The concept of adapting is related to the concept of personal boundaries since these are created for our own benefit and to protect us from external influences which may be harmful to our well-being. 

Some of the people who may have great adaptability in their skills are those who have undergone personality development training or have acquired skills through various experiences. Others who may not be as good at this skill are people who have not developed these skills or people with little education on personal boundaries and development. The importance of adaptability in personality development deals with the fact that in life we always have to change and adapt and thus learn to develop our skills to get through different situations. 

Work ethics in personality development is essential for attaining personality development and improving your quality of life. As you go through your daily routines, there are certain tasks that you tend to ignore or take for granted. If you want to maximize the positive effects of your effort in personality development, you need to be more assertive and focused. These are just the things that work ethics in personality development can do to help you achieve your goals.

The leader is always the star in an organization. As a leader, you have to lead by example, inspire your team members by your qualities and accomplishments, encourage them to take up challenges and be the best they can be, and strive for the impossible. It includes success at work, in sports, in life itself, and with your personality development. 

How to improve your personality development skills? 

• It’s interesting how self-development and personal growth can be linked. Your personal growth is directly related to how you feel about yourself. In many ways, the journey through life is a continuous self-improvement journey. One of the things that most people notice when they observe personal growth is that it usually involves a noticeable improvement in their state of mind. This improvement in your state of mind could very well lead to the manifestation of self-actualization. You are what you think, so if you think you are worthless, then you are worthless.
• So how can you highlight personality development skills? If you want to work on improving your self-development skills, you can start by noticing where you may need some work. Do you find that you have weak self-control or a low work ethic? If so, then you should try to develop your work ethic and discipline. But remember that self-development comes with discipline, so if you lack discipline, then you won’t likely be able to progress to a point where you are better than you were before.
• When you are trying to improve your personality development skills, you should also note any negative characteristics that you might have. Maybe you have a negative response to criticism, low tolerance for uncertainty, low energy level, or a hard time accepting and resolving conflict. After recognizing these issues, you may want to seek professional help or enlist your friends’ assistance. Regardless of how you get the help, however, you must do something to address these problems, because they can seriously hinder your personal growth.
• Finally, when you’re figuring out how to improve your personality development skills, you need to figure out what steps you need to take to achieve your goals. For instance, if you have goals that include becoming financially independent, you can pursue this goal. You can’t move forward unless you develop financial management skills. Even if you are already financially independent, you should consider taking some management classes to ensure that your money-making future is in place.

These are just a few examples of how to improve your personality development skills. There are many more areas that you can focus on. It’s just a matter of recognizing your strengths and taking advantage of them. With enough effort and determination, you too can be on your way to reaching your personal and professional goals.

Personality Development Skills In The Workplace 

Personality development skills help in every aspect of life, these particular practices may be helpful in the workplace and help you advance your career: 

• Be an active listener: In order to be an effective listener in the workplace, you must first realize that your life and the work you do together require that you take a very active role. As a leader, your communication is the most important aspect of what you do, and it requires you to listen carefully to people who are trying to communicate with you. It means not responding or interrupting someone who is speaking. It also means listening without judging, lecturing, or correcting what they are saying. Instead, you should allow them to convey their thoughts, and you can give feedback when necessary without taking sides on the issue. The more you participate, the more effectively you will be able to lead.
• Work well with others: When we do our best and succeed, we should be thankful to those who made it possible. And if we learn to work well with others even when we are successful, we will find that we have more opportunities in life to pursue, both personally and professionally.
• Believe in yourself: Belief in yourself. It makes a big difference. Believing in yourself simply means having confidence in your capabilities. It does not mean expecting miracles, but you can do every little thing you need to do to improve yourself and make yourself successful. It does not mean doubting your abilities, it just simply means doing everything necessary to improve yourself. When you believe in yourself and have confidence in yourself, then you are much more likely to be successful and achieve your goals.
• Adapt to change: Adaptability is a key component of personality development that relates to the ability to effectively change to change adaptively. It is the ability to change with the times and remain adaptable when circumstances change to suit your needs and mindset. Adaptability is related to the ability to change in ways that allow leaders to quickly and efficiently adapt to ever-changing circumstances.
• Guide those around you: Being a successful leader takes confidence, vision, and perseverance. Leaders who don’t encourage their team are more likely to lead them into difficult situations. Those who don’t communicate well are also less effective. Leading those around you needs to be a constant process of learning. 
• Be truthful: There are many reasons to be truthful in the workplace, especially if you are the manager of a company that is being trusted to provide honest services to its customers. A manager is in charge of the company and they should uphold and maintain honesty in order to keep the clients happy and the staff happy too. It is important to keep your head firmly on the right track and working on improving your truthfulness, communication skills, and personality development.
• Work through challenging situations : Each day I go through a tough situation that requires me to “come out of my shell” and work through difficult situations. One of the most challenging things I do in my job is to handle difficult bossy situations. It takes strength and courage to even bring up a simple question during a meeting or speaking with a client. But it is vital to be able to hold your head high despite the challenges you are going through.
• Organize your time, work, and materials: Organise your time and materials in a way that maximizes efficiency, productivity, and personality development. In an increasingly stressful world, it is vital to spend time doing what you enjoy. Organize your time-management skills for greater efficiency and get your work and life to manage your time and life better. Learn more about how to create systems, structure time, make use of personality development tools and learn how to organize your time the effective way. 

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PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES FOR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

Problem Solving is a Lifelong Endeavor 

This article is based on the fact of life that all humans are born into challenges, but also with opportunities to overcome those challenges with basic problem solving strategies. 

The concept of problems in our lives is not about viewing them as obstacles, but it’s about having the right tools in our toolbox to conquer them. 

While we cannot tell you how to solve every life problem in one article, most problems fall into the following broad categories:

• Success Mindset
• Health & Fitness
• Financial Success
• Relationships
• Kids & Parenting

This article is for you if you are looking to develop a success mindset. More so, to improve your financial success, develop better relationships, achieve better health and fitness, or want to be better in your parenting. The reality boils down to having the tools so you can tackle any problem that comes your way. 

A problem is only a problem when we don’t have the tools to overcome it. If you can master problem solving strategies in each of these categories, you should be able to hit so many birds with one stone .

Problem Solving Strategies for Success Mindset

When it comes to personal development and growth, there’s a thin line between success and failure. Every successful problem-solving process must begin with the right mindset . 

Having the right knowledge is great, but it’s of little use with the wrong mindset. So what does it take to develop the ability to transform your mindset ? 

There are many different areas we can address, such as a growth mindset, visualization, as well as not fearing failure. Let’s break down each component, and add a little more to help you understand why your mindset is critical to achieving anything. The first thing is to understand who you really are .

Read: Self Discovery: Find your true self and achieve success

What Are You Afraid Of? 

Everybody, in some capacity, is afraid of failure. You can argue that you are afraid of failure because you are performing some act of self-preservation. But the reason we can not succeed is because of our fear of failure. Having a fear of failure can stop you from truly investing yourself in solving your problems. 

Breaking it down even further, if you are at the foot of the mountain, you can’t reach the peak until you take that first step. However, we live in a world where we are fearful of making mistakes. But to err is to be human. Risk is a scary concept, but you have to recognize that stagnation is far worse. 

Additionally, if you believe you will fail, it is more likely that you will. It’s not about the end goal, it’s about taking that first step into a larger world. If you’re not progressing in any way and taking one step at a time, you may as well be failing. So how can you develop a success mindset? 

Trusting Your Instincts

When we are scared of failure, it boils down to the fact that we’ve thought and thought about the problem. There is nothing wrong with overthinking per se , but if you want to develop a success mindset, you have to listen to your gut on occasion. When you dwell on the past, this will influence your decision-making abilities. 

Remember, our brain is built to be irrational, and when we do our best to avoid completing the task, this boils down to the little voice in the back of our mind telling us to not do something. This is also known as the lizard brain , and the lizard brain is almost a hangover from our cavemen days. 

The lizard brain is responsible for fear and rage, and really hates change and risk and achievements, all of the things that we want to achieve. When we start to listen to our intuition and start acting on instinct, we must be confident that we are going in the right direction. 

Adopting a Positive Mindset

Success is subjective to the individual. A success mindset is not about one thing, but it’s about manifesting the things in your life that you want. This is why a positive mindset is essential, and if you can only change one thing about the way you think, it should be this. Optimistic people are happier, but they are also more successful , as long as they have a realistic approach to their outcomes and goals. 

Some of us don’t necessarily appreciate the eternal optimist, but it’s not about always showing our teeth, but about having a glass half full mentality. 

Your brain is unable to tell the difference between what is real and what is imagined.  As such,  you can then start to manifest success and positivity, but also realize that positivity will reap further positivity, which will guide everything you do. 

You can do this by incorporating positivity into your life in ways such as cognitive behavioral therapy, which retrains your brain in how you are thinking. Additionally, you can start to adopt visualization techniques, which you can perform on a daily basis, as well as positive self-talk. 

When we incorporate positivity into our thinking patterns, there is no room for negativity. This is absolutely pivotal to our success mindset.

To learn more about success mindset, see these Success Principles>>>

Problem Solving Strategies for Health & Fitness  

Survival and longevity of life are determined by the condition of your mind and body. 

Whether we’re talking about building a better immune system , the ability to perform daily tasks, or attracting a mate, there’s a minimum number of things you must do for your body to function as it should. 

And it all boils down to the frame and functionality that you carry with you in your daily life. The topic of health and fitness is incredibly subjective in the modern world. Everybody appears to have their own one true vision of what defines health and fitness. But when it comes to health and exercise , the rules are, in many ways, simple. 

Do You Hear That? That’s Your Body Talking…

You may think that you’ve got to consume a certain level of vitamins and minerals every day in order to be healthier, but the reality comes down to listening to your body. This is something we don’t always do because of the abundance of information out there telling us to follow a vegan diet, a carnivore diet, the keto way of life, etc. 

When we start to focus on what our body needs by listening to it , we can tap into our individual needs. 

Any nutritionist will tell you that your body is not the same as the person next to you, which is why you must develop a form of intuition, which means learning to calm yourself down.

Stress is one of those things that can impact the immune system, positively and negatively. Chronic stress, or long-term stress, is unhealthy. But stress in small doses can motivate you. And the foundation for longevity is about reducing our stress to a manageable level. 

This doesn’t mean bringing your heart rate down as low as possible, because this can be bad for your body. 

Nor should it be about having your heart rate at an elevated level constantly, but somewhere in between. That’s what forms the basis of heart rate variability , or the moments in between heartbeats, which is a sign of health and longevity. 

To learn more about success in health and fitness, see how to ‘ Create a Personal Development Plan for Health & Fitness ’.

Addressing Your “Diet”

Diet is another component that we must recognize is key to how we will operate throughout our lives. When we eat something that our body doesn’t agree with, it will produce symptoms of inflammation, which could be brain fog, achy joints, or fatigue. 

To establish a solid baseline, it’s important to check if you have any conditions that can hinder your ability to enjoy food. For example, getting blood tests to see if you are lactose intolerant or have a sensitivity to wheat and gluten. 

When you start to eradicate the things that your body doesn’t agree with, you should feel the difference, and will provide you with the solid foundation to get yourself fitter. 

We should remember, the term “diet” implies it is something temporary, we should make a lifestyle choice with our food and aim to stick with it.

But what about the quantity?

While the quality of food you eat is important, the quantity is equally important. This is more so if you’re trying to lose weight or to maintain the right Body Mass Index. There’s so much to talk about weight management as we have elsewhere. But we cannot overstate the fundamental basis for weight management, which is: 

CALORIES IN – CALORIES OUT = WEIGHT LOSS/GAIN

Read: How much food is enough for a meal?

Read: How to eat healthy: A foolproof diet cheat sheet

Looking at Your Relationship With Exercise

Exercise is something that we were all told that we need to do as much of as humanly possible in order to feel good. But there is also such a thing as too much exercise , depending on the individual’s fitness.

You can measure your markers for fitness in a number of ways, for example, testing your VO2 max. B ut the important thing for anybody who is looking to change their life through fitness is to listen to their body. 

It is not helpful in starting an exercise regime and hitting the gym five days a week from the outset, because this can set you up to fail. This is why many people give up on their new year’s resolutions so quickly. 

However, exercise is beneficial for the immune system , as long as it’s in the right dosage. This is why we need to talk about the minimum effective dose . 

The modern world talks about working smart rather than working hard. And as far as exercise is concerned, our physiology in terms of building strength and muscle involves giving the muscle group the appropriate stimulus, which sends a signal to the nervous system that says it needs to grow. 

As long as we give the muscles and nervous system the nutrients and rest necessary, you will bounce back stronger. This is why high-intensity training is a very popular approach, as it provides that intense stimulus, and as long as you rest your body effectively, you will build back stronger. 

Read: Home exercise for beginners

A Word on Supplements

With regards to health and fitness, there are many people that will tell you you need to take certain supplements in order to feel like a whole new you. The best medicine and supplements are there to supplement your lifestyle, and no more. 

Many people find that they are deficient in key minerals. While the key to health and fitness is about having the right balance of vitamins and minerals in your body, there has been only a couple of essential ones that help your health and fitness. Thankfully, these are two things you can buy over the counter in any store: Vitamin D, and Omega-3. 

Vitamin D has a profound impact on the immune system and has even been studied as a way to combat the coronavirus . Omega-3 has the ability to help recovery, as well as boost serotonin receptors in the body, therefore, acting almost like an antidepressant.

Supplements can help, but it’s important to remember that they are not the be-all and end-all.

For a complete supplements guide, see Diet Supplements: The Ultimate Guide

Problem Solving Strategies for Financial Success

Some people say that money doesn’t buy happiness. And they may be right, to a degree. But we can all agree that we would rather have a problem of too much financial success than too little. Right? 

Sources of Income

Sources of income include:

• Employment – 9-5 jobs, self-employment, contractors, etc.
• Investment – Interest from savings, 401Ks, stocks, bonds, mutual funds, real estate, etc.

My personal view is that investment is the best source of income. This is simply because unlike other sources where you have to work for money, in investment the money works for you. That’s regardless of whether you pay someone to work for you, or to manage your passive income. 

But you can also argue that to earn the investment money, most people have to work for it. This is a fair point, but it still doesn’t diminish the point that investment is the best source of income. It only means that working for money should only be used as a means to an end. 

To learn more about investment opportunities, see: When Opportunity knocks

Self-employment has to come in second. First, it gives you the potential to earn more. Second, and perhaps more importantly, it gives you the opportunity to do what you love. If you can make an unlimited income doing what you love, that’s happiness!

To learn more about self-employment, see: Self-employment Success Guide

But, let’s face it. The vast majority do not earn their living from investments – at least not to begin with. Additionally, not everyone has the wherewithal – the know-how, and the risk propensity – for self-employment. 

That means their main source of income is their 9-5 jobs. Although their earnings and freedom is in the hands of the employer, these jobs tend to offer some stability. Still, with the right approach , they can earn a comfortable living. 

For this vast majority of people, financial success boils down to four key factors: 

• How long you work for. 
• The rate at which you save. 
• Knowing how much you want to spend in retirement. 
• How long you may live. 

While you can control three out of the four variables, you need to bear in mind that the concept of financial planning can be very complicated. You have to balance all of the relevant information, in accordance with your life changes.

To learn how to get your dream job, see: The Career Climber

How Long You Work

For every year you work, you will earn one less year of spending on your savings. You will also gain a year of saving for your retirement and compounding retirement assets . These will all correlate to a better probability of financial success.

Giving your assets time to grow and compound will fund your later life, but you won’t have as long to enjoy them because you are working. 

Choosing When You Retire

For many people, the goal is to have a long and fruitful retirement. But the finances you think you need in retirement will vary, because you will need more in the early years than the later years, and you should factor your goals accordingly.

Many people may have to work longer than they planned but if they get a late start, or didn’t put enough money towards their pension as soon as they started working, they won’t be able to save the right amount right away.

But this is where you’ve got to start saving more and allowing it to compound, which will give your nest egg the opportunity to grow. 

Money = Happiness?

When you are looking at retirement, knowing how much you want to spend is crucial. And you must take into consideration not just the amount of money you need for retirement, but what will actually make you happy in retirement. 

This boils down to your current lifestyle choices. After retirement, it’s common for people to want to do more things, but many people are forced to spend less because they don’t have many options. This is why if you want to save for retirement, you’ve got to address what your ideal lifestyle actually is, now and in the future. 

Being someone who works to live rather than lives to work can feed into so many of our lifestyle choices. If we have friends that earn a lot of money, we can have that temptation to keep up with the Joneses. That means  we believe that we need to work more in order to fund this lifestyle.

But financial success directly correlates with your lifestyle choices. You need to decide if you are happier with more things than less, and therefore, you will need to manifest this reality with the appropriate level of funds. 

As simplistic as this equation is, it asks a number of key things of you. You need to determine if what you are doing is going to give you the ideal finances to live the life you want, but also if you need to have so much to be happy. So many of us need money to be happy, but we don’t put a value on it. 

You Can’t Take it With You, So Should You Spend Everything You Have?

Some people think they need more money than less because this buys the finer things in life. If you want the finer things in life, and you are happier for it, this is absolutely fine.

But if you are working to pay off debt, because you were more than generous with your spending in your younger years, you are now paying the price, literally and figuratively. But this is where having a money-saving mindset, and knowledge of how to pay off your debt appropriately can help. 

Techniques like the debt snowball method can be invaluable, because it allows you to pay off your debt. But it also gives you the power over your debt because you are achieving your goals by paying off a certain amount.

The modern world is expensive, and this is why we feel we need to earn more so we can catch up with everybody else.

But it’s about bringing things closer to home and realizing that there are aspects of our lives that we can benefit from simplification. 

This boils down to certain practices that can help save you money, such as reducing your utility bills, batch cooking food , and learning to make things go further, rather than having to pay for everything fresh. It benefits to be resourceful in the modern world, not just because it’s helping to save the planet, but it’s helping us to save those precious pennies.

To learn more about personal finances, see: Empower Your Personal Finance

Problem Solving Strategies in Relationships

The number one secret to having long and successful relationships is to begin with the right relationships in the first place. For this to happen, you need to understand yourself and accept who you are as you present yourself to the world. It should come as no surprise that there is a link between self-esteem and the health of a relationship. 

If you do not value yourself, this is going to affect behaviors, which will have an impact on the type of connections you make with others. The Law of Attraction can spring to mind here. If we view ourselves in a positive light, we are going to attract people of a similar mindset to us. But it’s not about necessarily attracting the right people, however, we have to start with ourselves. 

You may want a certain type of person in your life, but you’re not going to have that person in your life if you do not view yourself in a certain way. This means you’ve got to start following a certain number of practices to make sure that you are valuing yourself: 

Incorporating Affirmations 

If you have low self-worth, this will be evident in the fact that you are constantly looking for validation and affirmation. If you think that the things you do are not good enough, and you obsess about what other people think , this is going to cause long-term damage to your relationships with others. 

You might be doing it with the best of intentions, but people may view your behavior as a way to smooth your ego. This is why sometimes we may view someone as arrogant or selfish, whereas, in fact, they are extremely socially anxious. It’s important to affirm who you are, and realize that you do not need to validate others. 

Learning to Emotionally Share

Some people feel they do not want to share their lives with others. However, as a foundation for any relationship, romantic or otherwise, it is important to remember that we have to open ourselves up to others. We can start this by doing simple things: 

Being a dependable friend. 

• Offering gestures. 
• Being there for someone. 

Many people feel that if they’ve been spurned or hurt by someone, they start to retreat into their shells and come to the conclusion that they just need to focus on themselves. As important as it is to focus on ourselves, there is a difference between self-care and being selfish. 

Think About Your Physical Demeanor

There is an amazing TED talk by Amy Cuddy on the power of body language. If you are someone who easily finds yourself recoiling, crossing your legs, or folding your arms when you speak to people, it can take a long time to unlearn these unhelpful behaviors. These behaviors send a clear, but subconscious signal that you do not want to be bothered. When you slouch, you subconsciously communicate that you are being submissive. 

If you’re being submissive to someone, this will send a signal that they can walk all over you. If you don’t respect yourself, nobody will respect you. When you let others disrespect you, this will then feed into your negative mindset. 

Cultivating Self-Awareness

Many people feel that they need to get by in life through denial. But when you start to look at who you are properly and identify your strengths and your weaknesses , you are giving yourself permission to understand the things that you may not necessarily like about yourself, but you either want to change or recognize the fact that you are unique. 

Throughout our lives, we are told that we need to conform or be left behind. Gaining self-awareness will give you the permission to appreciate yourself. It’s about realizing that if you cannot be yourself around others, you are letting people into your life that are only seeing a small aspect of you, or only the personality type you are presenting to the world. 

In order to love others, you must love yourself first, and this means accepting who you are and what you want to be. Because if we want to love other people, we have to learn what it is that they love about us. Only when we are at a place where we do love and respect ourselves, then we can start giving everybody else more reasons to love us.

To learn more about sustaining successful relationships, see : Relationships Maintenance

To learn more about sexual intimacy, see: Intimate Sexual Issues

Problem Solving Strategies for Kids and Parenting

Right parenting is beneficial for both parents and kids. Studies show that your life is shaped by what happens to you by the time you’re 8 years old. Since there’s no parenting school, oftentimes, parents find themselves raising their kids through trial and error methods. But this doesn’t have to be the case. 

Because raising children is the hardest, yet most fulfilling job in the world, we can place a lot of pressure on ourselves to get the job right the first time. From helping your child to sleep , to disciplining them, and understanding their friendships , to teaching sexuality , your work is cut out. And if you have more than one child, there are other complexities to deal with such as managing sibling rivalry . 

In order to feel that we are doing right by our children, we have to realize one simple thing: the impact that we have on our children. When we become aware of the fact that we are responsible for them, not just physically but emotionally, it can be a job that becomes overwhelming. 

But we also have to remember that parenting our children is about letting them be their own person. How can we do this? 

Communication Is Everything

Communication is one of the biggest bridges to any relationship. And it’s easy for parents just to say “no” to a child and not explain why. “Because I said so” should never be something that comes out of our mouths.

If we don’t take time to explain, our children aren’t going to understand our motives, our values, and if what we say has any basis in the real world.

Communicating with your children is about reasoning with them, allowing them to understand both sides of the story. This helps you make sure that you are able to set your expectations in a clear manner.

When you start to communicate properly with your children, it isn’t just a way for you to explain why they need to go to their room. It’s about ensuring that both of you can learn how to put across your feelings. 

You need to treat your child as another person, not someone lesser than you. This is a very common mistake parents make because they may subscribe to the ideology that children should be seen and not heard.

But it’s about actually having a conversation with your child, being open to the suggestions, offering choices, but also, being sure to include the consequences of actions . 

Understanding Their Self-Esteem 

It is the first 8 years of our child’s life that have the biggest impacts on them, and how they will view the world for the rest of their lives. As soon as our children are born, they start to develop their sense of self when they begin to see themselves through their parents’ eyes. 

This means you have to focus on every aspect of your personality, including your body language, tone of voice, etc, because this will affect their self-esteem more than anything else. 

We have to be aware that we have the potential to cause damage to our children’s self-esteem when we make loaded comments, or we disparage something they are proud of. And we think we can do this for the fact that our parents did it to us. 

Sometimes, we can argue that our father spoke to us in a certain way, and “it didn’t do me any harm.” The reality is that if you don’t want to repeat the parenting patterns your parents made, you’ve got to be conscious of the fact that words can be weapons. Choose them carefully, but be compassionate. 

Children Make Mistakes, and That Is Okay

The modern world can stress us out. We have a lot to do. And this means that if our child makes a mess at the wrong moment we can easily chastise them. But it’s so important to instill the fact that everybody makes mistakes. 

We all need to remember that to make mistakes in life is to be human. And if we set a precedent that our children cannot make mistakes at all, this is going to cause them to become a perfectionist. This is unviable, unattainable, and can cause a lot of emotional damage. 

However, this is where we can give our children the appropriate toolboxes to deal with their problems. Everything we have discussed so far is about providing a thorough foundation to being the best version of ourselves. And our child is, in essence, the culmination of all our hard work. 

We have to remember that our children will make mistakes, as will we. And this means that we’ve got to be the role model that we think we should be for them, but also remember that we need to give ourselves a pass! 

We have limits as parents, and we are not perfect parents. But we have to remember that the one thing we can offer them, regardless of how we feel on a specific day, is that we can show them unconditional love . 

If we blame, criticize, or find fault, we will undermine their self-esteem, we need to show them that our love is there, no matter what. 

As you can see, if you want to solve any problem in your life, you first need to understand the underlying mechanics of the problem. This means that sometimes we need to look at it from another perspective, or have no inherent understanding of how our body works. If we have the toolbox in place, this will give us invaluable abilities to tackle anything in our lives.

Further reading:

Five ways to become a better person

Be a better you: A guide to self-development and success oriented mindset

Self Discovery: Find your true self and achieve success

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15 Impressive Traits Of People Who Are Natural Problem Solvers

Natural problem solvers possess a unique set of traits that make them highly effective at tackling challenges. From resilience to effective communication, these individuals exhibit qualities that set them apart in problem-solving endeavors. Here’s 15 remarkable traits that define natural problem solvers and help them excel in finding solutions to complex issues.

1. They’re extremely resilient.

Natural problem solvers are resilient people . They bounce back from setbacks with determination and a positive attitude, seeing challenges as opportunities to learn and grow. This resilience not only helps them but also inspires those around them to stay persistent and optimistic in the face of difficulties.

2. They know how to communicate effectively.

These individuals excel at clear communication. They express their ideas in a way that everyone can understand and actively listen to others, making sure everyone’s voice is heard. Their open and productive communication style fosters collaboration and a free flow of ideas within their problem-solving teams.

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4. They’re patient and don’t rush the process.

Patience is their virtue. They tackle complex problems step by step, maintaining a calm and composed demeanor even in tough situations. They work well with others, allowing colleagues to share their thoughts without pressure. Their patience creates an environment where everyone feels comfortable contributing.

5. They’re resourceful.

Resourcefulness is their strength. They make the most of available resources and find creative solutions when needed. They’re like problem-solving wizards, always finding a way, no matter the constraints. This resourcefulness not only helps them solve problems effectively but also encourages innovative thinking within their teams.

6. They practice empathy.

Empathy is a key part of their approach. They understand others’ perspectives and needs, making them great team players. They consider the human side of problems, fostering compassionate and effective solutions. Their empathy creates a collaborative and understanding problem-solving environment.

7. They stay organized.

Organization is their secret weapon. They keep details, timelines, and tasks in order, ensuring a structured problem-solving process. They break down complex problems into manageable steps, making their approach efficient and effective. Their organizational skills streamline the entire problem-solving journey.

8. They take calculated risks.

They’re not afraid to take well-thought-out risks. They carefully consider potential benefits and drawbacks, fostering a culture of innovation and experimentation. Their calculated risk-taking encourages creative thinking and exploration of new ideas within their problem-solving teams.

9. They’re humble.

Humble and open to feedback, they admit when they don’t have all the answers. They seek input from others and collaborate effectively, creating a cooperative problem-solving environment. Their humility and willingness to learn from others strengthen the collective problem-solving effort.

10. They’re always learning new things.

Learning is a lifelong journey for them. They stay updated on industry trends and new approaches, enriching their problem-solving skills and staying ahead in their field. Their commitment to continuous learning ensures that they remain at the forefront of problem-solving challenges.

11. They’re decisive and don’t second-guess themselves.

Natural problem solvers exhibit decisiveness in their approach. They are quick to make well-informed decisions, even in complex and uncertain situations. This trait ensures that they maintain momentum and progress steadily toward effective solutions.

12. They’re creative thinkers.

Innovation is at the core of their problem-solving style. They constantly seek new approaches and technologies, thinking outside the box to solve challenges creatively. This innovative mindset often leads to groundbreaking solutions that push the boundaries of what’s possible.

13. They’re detail-oriented .

Attention to detail is a hallmark of natural problem solvers. They meticulously examine every aspect of a problem, leaving no stone unturned. This keen eye for detail ensures that their solutions are comprehensive and error-free.

14. They’re genuinely confident.

Confidence is a defining trait that empowers them to tackle even the most daunting challenges. They believe in their abilities and trust their judgment, inspiring confidence in those around them. This self-assuredness is a driving force behind their problem-solving success.

15. They’re proactive.

Proactivity is a key characteristic that sets them apart. They don’t wait for problems to escalate; instead, they take the initiative to identify and address issues before they become significant. This proactive approach ensures that they stay ahead of challenges and maintain a proactive problem-solving environment.

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Development of Personality Throughout the Life Cycle

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• First Online: 05 September 2024
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• Dorothy Stubbe 10 ,
• Claudia Moreno 10 &
• Hyun-Hee Kim 11  

Personality traits are basic, fundamental differences between individuals which remain consistent over time. In trait psychology, personality is often conceptualized as sets of broad domains encompassing different traits, while integrative frameworks seek to paint a fuller picture of the human personality within a larger cultural context. Behavior patterns analogous to personality traits can be found in animals, as well as in early temperamental traits of infants, suggesting a biological basis. Personality’s biological basis is also supported by twin studies and genome-wide studies. Nevertheless, personality traits are not impervious to the environment and time, being influenced by myriad of factors such as the in utero environment, caregivers, attachment, life experiences, cultural norms, and socioeconomic contexts. This chapter explores the development of personality, from the temperament of infants and attachment styles of toddlers to personality pathology and complex character of adults and the interactions between the developing personality and the environment.

We continue to shape our personality all our life. If we knew ourselves perfectly, we should die. —Albert Camus

This chapter is an update from the 4th edition. Previous edition authors were Claudia Moreno and Dorothy Stubbe

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Dorothy Stubbe & Claudia Moreno

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Allan Tasman

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Renato D. Alarcón

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César A. Alfonso

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Shigenobu Kanba

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Dusica Lecic-Tosevski

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Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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Stubbe, D., Moreno, C., Kim, HH. (2024). Development of Personality Throughout the Life Cycle. In: Tasman, A., et al. Tasman’s Psychiatry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_69

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Personality development, problem solving, and behavior problems among preschool children with early histories of nonorganic failure-to-thrive: a controlled study

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• 1 Department of Psychiatry, Case Western University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio.
• PMID: 1506465

Using a prospective study design, 48 preschool children with early histories of nonorganic failure-to-thrive (NOFT) and 47 physically healthy children of comparable age, sex, birth order, and family demographics were compared on measures of problem solving and personality development (ego control and ego resiliency). In responding to structured measures, NOFT children demonstrated deficits in behavioral organization, ego control, and ego resiliency compared with controls. Parents also identified higher levels of behavioral symptoms in children with early histories of NOFT compared with controls. However, home observational measures of ego control and ego resiliency did not differentiate the two groups. Deficiencies in problem solving and personality development and increased levels of behavioral symptoms in preschool children with early histories of NOFT may affect their future socioemotional development and learning.

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