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Qualitative study design: Phenomenology

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Used to describe the lived experience of individuals.

• Now called Descriptive Phenomenology, this study design is one of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative research within the social and health sciences.
• Used to describe how human beings experience a certain phenomenon. The researcher asks, “What is this experience like?’, ‘What does this experience mean?’ or ‘How does this ‘lived experience’ present itself to the participant?’
• Attempts to set aside biases and preconceived assumptions about human experiences, feelings, and responses to a particular situation.
• Experience may involve perception, thought, memory, imagination, and emotion or feeling.
• Usually (but not always) involves a small sample of participants (approx. 10-15).
• Analysis includes an attempt to identify themes or, if possible, make generalizations in relation to how a particular phenomenon is perceived or experienced.

Methods used include:

• participant observation
• in-depth interviews with open-ended questions
• conversations and focus workshops. 

Researchers may also examine written records of experiences such as diaries, journals, art, poetry and music.

Descriptive phenomenology is a powerful way to understand subjective experience and to gain insights around people’s actions and motivations, cutting through long-held assumptions and challenging conventional wisdom.  It may contribute to the development of new theories, changes in policies, or changes in responses.

Limitations

• Does not suit all health research questions.  For example, an evaluation of a health service may be better carried out by means of a descriptive qualitative design, where highly structured questions aim to garner participant’s views, rather than their lived experience.
• Participants may not be able to express themselves articulately enough due to language barriers, cognition, age, or other factors.
• Gathering data and data analysis may be time consuming and laborious.
• Results require interpretation without researcher bias.
• Does not produce easily generalisable data.

Example questions

• How do cancer patients cope with a terminal diagnosis?
• What is it like to survive a plane crash?
• What are the experiences of long-term carers of family members with a serious illness or disability?
• What is it like to be trapped in a natural disaster, such as a flood or earthquake? 

Example studies

• The patient-body relationship and the "lived experience" of a facial burn injury: a phenomenological inquiry of early psychosocial adjustment . Individual interviews were carried out for this study.
• The use of group descriptive phenomenology within a mixed methods study to understand the experience of music therapy for women with breast cancer . Example of a study in which focus group interviews were carried out.
• Understanding the experience of midlife women taking part in a work-life balance career coaching programme: An interpretative phenomenological analysis . Example of a study using action research.
• Holloway, I. & Galvin, K. (2017). Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare (Fourth ed.): John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Rodriguez, A., & Smith, J. (2018). Phenomenology as a healthcare research method . Journal of Evidence Based Nursing , 21(4), 96-98. doi: 10.1136/eb-2018-102990
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• Last Updated: Apr 8, 2024 11:12 AM
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What is phenomenology in qualitative research?

Last updated

7 February 2023

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Take a closer look at this type of qualitative research along with characteristics, examples, uses, and potential disadvantages.

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• What is phenomenological qualitative research?

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that builds on the assumption that the universal essence of anything ultimately depends on how its audience experiences it .

Phenomenological researchers record and analyze the beliefs, feelings, and perceptions of the audience they’re looking to study in relation to the thing being studied. Only the audience’s views matter—the people who have experienced the phenomenon. The researcher’s personal assumptions and perceptions about the phenomenon should be irrelevant.

Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research as it requires an in-depth understanding of the audience’s thoughts and perceptions of the phenomenon you’re researching. It goes deep rather than broad, unlike quantitative research . Finding the lived experience of the phenomenon in question depends on your interpretation and analysis.

• What is the purpose of phenomenological research?

The primary aim of phenomenological research is to gain insight into the experiences and feelings of a specific audience in relation to the phenomenon you’re studying. These narratives are the reality in the audience’s eyes. They allow you to draw conclusions about the phenomenon that may add to or even contradict what you thought you knew about it from an internal perspective.

• How is phenomenology research design used?

Phenomenological research design is especially useful for topics in which the researcher needs to go deep into the audience’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

It’s a valuable tool to gain audience insights, generate awareness about the item being studied, and develop new theories about audience experience in a specific, controlled situation.

• Examples of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research is common in sociology, where researchers aim to better understand the audiences they study.

An example would be a study of the thoughts and experiences of family members waiting for a loved one who is undergoing major surgery. This could provide insights into the nature of the event from the broader family perspective.

However, phenomenological research is also common and beneficial in business situations. For example, the technique is commonly used in branding research. Here, audience perceptions of the brand matter more than the business’s perception of itself.

In branding-related market research, researchers look at how the audience experiences the brand and its products to gain insights into how they feel about them. The resulting information can be used to adjust messaging and business strategy to evoke more positive or stronger feelings about the brand in the future.

• The 4 characteristics of phenomenological research design

The exact nature of phenomenological research depends on the subject to be studied. However, every research design should include the following four main tenets to ensure insightful and actionable outcomes:

A focus on the audience’s interpretation of something . The focus is always on what an experience or event means to a strictly defined audience and how they interpret its meaning.

A lack of researcher bias or prior influence . The researcher has to set aside all prior prejudices and assumptions. They should focus only on how the audience interprets and experiences the event.

Connecting objectivity with lived experiences . Researchers need to describe their observations of how the audience experienced the event as well as how the audience interpreted their experience themselves.

• Types of phenomenological research design

Each type of phenomenological research shares the characteristics described above. Social scientists distinguish the following three types:

Existential phenomenology —focuses on understanding the audience’s experiences through their perspective. 

Hermeneutic phenomenology —focuses on creating meaning from experiences through the audience’s perspective.

Transcendental phenomenology —focuses on how the phenomenon appears in one consciousness on a broader, scientific scale.

Existential phenomenology is the most common type used in a business context. It’s most valuable to help you better understand your audience.

You can use hermeneutic phenomenology to gain a deeper understanding of how your audience perceives experiences related to your business.

Transcendental phenomenology is largely reserved for non-business scientific applications.

• Data collection methods in phenomenological research

Phenomenological research draws from many of the most common qualitative research techniques to understand the audience’s perspective.

Here are some of the most common tools to collect data in this type of research study:

Observing participants as they experience the phenomenon

Interviewing participants before, during, and after the experience

Focus groups where participants experience the phenomenon and discuss it afterward

Recording conversations between participants related to the phenomenon

Analyzing personal texts and observations from participants related to the phenomenon

You might not use these methods in isolation. Most phenomenological research includes multiple data collection methods. This ensures enough overlap to draw satisfactory conclusions from the audience and the phenomenon studied.

Get started collecting, analyzing, and understanding qualitative data with help from quickstart research templates.

• Limitations of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research can be beneficial for many reasons, but its downsides are just as important to discuss.

This type of research is not a solve-all tool to gain audience insights. You should keep the following limitations in mind before you design your research study and during the design process:

These audience studies are typically very small. This results in a small data set that can make it difficult for you to draw complete conclusions about the phenomenon.

Researcher bias is difficult to avoid, even if you try to remove your own experiences and prejudices from the equation. Bias can contaminate the entire outcome.

Phenomenology relies on audience experiences, so its accuracy depends entirely on how well the audience can express those experiences and feelings.

The results of a phenomenological study can be difficult to summarize and present due to its qualitative nature. Conclusions typically need to include qualifiers and cautions.

This type of study can be time-consuming. Interpreting the data can take days and weeks.

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Phenomenological psychology and qualitative research

Magnus englander.

1 Department of Social Work, Faculty of Health & Society, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden

James Morley

2 Department of Psychology, Ramapo College of New Jersey, Mahwah, NJ USA

This article presents the tradition of phenomenologically founded psychological research that was originally initiated by Amedeo Giorgi. This data analysis method is inseparable from the broader project of establishing an autonomous phenomenologically based human scientific psychology. After recounting the history of the method from the 1960’s to the present, we explain the rationale for why we view data collection as a process that should be adaptable to the unique mode of appearance of each particular phenomenon being researched. The substance of the article is then devoted to a detailed outline of the method’s whole-part-whole procedure of data analysis. We then offer a sample analysis of a brief description of an ordinary daydream. This is an anxiety daydream in response to the recent Covid-19 pandemic. We present this daydream analysis in full to show the concrete hands-on 5 step process through which the researcher explicated the participants’ expressions from the particular to the general. From this brief sample analysis, the researcher offers a first-person reflection on the data analysis process to offer the reader an introduction to the diacritical nature of phenomenological psychological elucidation.

Pure phenomenology's tremendous significance for any concrete grounding of psychology is clear from the very beginning. If all consciousness is subject to essential laws in a manner similar to that in which spatial reality is subject to mathematical laws, then these essential laws will be of most fertile significance in investigating facts of the conscious life of human and brute animals.—Husserl 1917 . 1 The natural sciences were never intended to study man as a person. One need not leave the realm of science to study man adequately. We need only to broaden science itself.—Giorgi, 1970 2

Introduction

Recently, there has been a healthy and long overdue discussion over how best to appraise the many new qualitative methods and how they contribute to scientific knowledge in psychology. For phenomenological psychologists the crucial challenge is, as expressed by Edmund Husserl (quoted above), to show how phenomenology provides a " concrete grounding " and " fertile significance " to the development of psychology as a science. Historically, it is well known that psychology, by and large, has imitated the methodology of the natural sciences. As expressed by Amedeo Giorgi (quoted above), by emulating physical science, psychology gave up studying human beings "as persons ." In response to this critical flaw at the heart of modern psychology, phenomenological psychologists endeavor to redirect psychology toward a more phenomenologically based direction. The centerpiece of this project has been the development of a qualitative research methodology that would make a phenomenological psychological science possible. What follows is an outline of the original research method, where we also offer an example of data analysis as carried out by the researcher.

Historical context: the project of a human science psychology

Before we launch into our main presentation, we believe that it is important to offer a brief historical review to illustrate the unique way in which this method developed in close collaboration with phenomenological philosophy. The following section is a synthesis that draws from historical accounts by Smith ( 2002 ), ( 2010 ), Cloonan ( 1995 ), and Churchill and Wertz’s ( 2015 ), as well as from the past experience of the authors.

In the early 1960’s Giorgi found phenomenology to be practiced in an ambivalent and often methodologically contradictory manner in European academic psychology. Similarly, American humanistic psychologists, sympathetic to phenomenology, were active critics of the deterministic approaches of mainstream psychology. But they, nonetheless, like their European counterparts, also defaulted to non-phenomenological measurement techniques when it came to their own research designs. It was as a response to this situation that the first systematically phenomenological psychology program was founded at Duquesne University in the early 1960’s. In this context Giorgi and his colleagues articulated this distinctly phenomenological way of doing psychological research—a methodology consistent with its phenomenological foundations. While Giorgi took the lead role in the development of this methodology, it needs to be stressed that this a was also an interdisciplinary community endeavor that took place between the philosophy and psychology departments at Duquesne University spanning the 1960’s to the late 1980’s. John Scanlon, the translator of Husserl’s phenomenological psychology lectures, was particularly supportive as a consultant to Giorgi and his colleagues during this period—as was Richard Rojcewicz, Al Lingis, Lester Embree, and several non-Duquesne but sympathetic scholars such as Martin Dillon, William Richardson and many others whom, records show, were often invited as guest speakers and consultants. Also, the psychology curriculum required students to take a minimum of two courses in modern philosophy, whereas the psychology faculty consistently audited philosophy courses.

In 1970 Giorgi launched the Journal of Phenomenological Psychology , which was at the outset a joint venture with European phenomenologically oriented psychologists and psychiatrists, as well as phenomenological philosophers. The journal was initially co-edited by Georges Thines and Carl F. Graumann. Serving on the first editorial board were Europeans such as Blankenburg, Buytendijk, Gurwitsch, van den Berg, van Breda, and Straus. The key point here is that the work being done on the development of the research methodology was part of a radically interdisciplinary and international project from the very beginning. As part of the overall project, Giorgi also founded the Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center . This research center also carries a copy of Husserl’s unpublished papers from the archives in Leuven, as well as the archives of Gurwitsch, Straus, Strasser, Bouman, Heidegger’s Marburg lectures, Buytendijk’s Pensée Repensée , and over 20,000 volumes, making it the largest collection of existential-phenomenological literature in the world. At the official inception of the center, Giorgi invited John Salis as his co-director.

Giorgi's seminal work, Psychology as a Human Science: A Phenomenology-Based Approach ( 1970 ) expressed a phenomenological response to the historical situation of psychology as a natural science. This also served as a foundational text for the psychology curriculum at Duquesne. Here, as a psychologist, he first proposed the necessity of a rigorously procedural, qualitative research method for a human scientific psychology. It made the appeal for an overall paradigmatic unity of “approach, method, and content” as the basis for a non-naturalistic psychology—an authentic Geisteswissenschaft or ‘human scientific’ psychology. Giorgi insisted that if psychology is to be true to its own subject matter, the scientific study of humans as persons, then the meaning of term 'empirical' in psychology must by necessity be 'broadened' beyond empiricism’s restriction to the sensory (see also, Giorgi, 1971 , 2009 ). A phenomenologically empirical science would be inclusive of all experience. This would include (in Husserl’s terms) the ir-real, or the more than sensory aspects of experience, not just the real or sense-based measurables of classical empiricism. The vision was to employ the overall phenomenological paradigm to ground a human scientific psychology, a scientific enterprise autonomous from the naturalistic juggernaut of mainstream psychology.

Over this 50-year history this methodological approach has been known by various names: the phenomenological psychological method, the existential-phenomenological psychological method, the qualitative phenomenological method, human science psychology and even “the Duquesne method.” The founding Duquesne faculty mostly preferred the term “ Existential-Phenomenological Psychology ” to highlight the influence of all main continental thinkers: Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty—as well as Husserl and many others. The term “existential” also expressed their emphasis on concrete psychological situatedness in contrast to transcendental phenomenological philosophy. Phenomenological psychologists who received their graduate training from within the Duquesne research tradition, such as, Frederick Wertz (Wertz et al., 2011 ) used the term “Phenomenological Psychological Method,” whereas Scott Churchill ( 2022 ) maintains the original Duquesne term “Existential Phenomenological Research.” As we will see ahead, it was only in 2009 that Giorgi committed to the nomenclature of “the descriptive phenomenological method in psychology.” The emphasis on description was done to offer a counterpoint to the penchant among qualitative researchers, often influenced by cultural postmodernism, to take the extreme position that 'everything is an interpretation'—something rejected by Giorgi as the imposition of a hermeneutic universalism (Giorgi, 1992 ). 3 However, while generally based on Husserl’s approach, it is very important to highlight how in his 2009 text he never claimed his method to be identical to Husserl's. It was instead it was a modification of Husserlian philosophical methodology to adapt to the human scientific context of the discipline of psychology (Giorgi, 2014 , 2021 ). 4 In addition, Giorgi ( 2006 , 2010 , 2018 ) has also made several critical comparisons with other qualitative phenomenological methods as well as replies to philosophers (Giorgi, 2017 , 2020 , 2021 ). Several of his psychology colleagues and ex-students have developed variations of the method. Davidson ( 1988 , 2003 , 2021 ), for example, offers such a variation, to which both Giorgi ( 2020 , 2021 ) and Wertz ( 2016 ) are sympathetic. Churchill ( 2022 ) maintains the core Husserlian elements while complimenting them with Heideggerian insights. But all such variations maintain most of the key components of the overall method—as shall be outlined ahead.

Across the development of this research tradition, there have been innumerable studies published in various psychology journals and books based on this overall approach. This research tradition is cited as a significant development within the history of modern psychology (see Brennan & Houde, 2017 ). Important theoretical and original qualitative research findings were published in the four volume, Duquesne Studies in Phenomenological Psychology (Giorgi et al., 1971 , 1975 , 1979 , 1983 ), as well as the edited volume Phenomenology and Psychological Research (Giorgi, 1985 ). The latter contains paradigmatic empirical studies on learning (by Giorgi) criminal victimization (by Wertz), thinking while playing chess (by Aanstoos), and self-deception (by Fischer). A brief representative sampling that illustrates the range of recent research outputs is as follows: Living through positive experiences of psychotherapy (Giorgi & Gallegos, 2005 ), Lived persistent meaning of early emotional memories (Englander, 2007 ), Art appreciation (Roald, 2008 ), Pivotal moments in therapy (B. Giorgi, 2011 ), Postpartum depression (Røseth et al., 2011 ), Autism and culture (Desai et al., 2012 ), Leading a police vehicle pursuit (Broomé, 2013 ), Social anxiety (Beck, 2013 ), The suffering of older adults (Morrissey, 2015 ), The beginning of an extra-marital affair (Zapien, 2016 ), Mental health and the workplace (Tangvald-Pedersen and Bongaardt, 2017 ) Disturbances in maternal affection (Røseth and Bongaardt, 2019 ) Cross cultural learning (DeRobertis, 2017 , 2020 ), and Black men’s experience of police harassment (Vogel, 2021 ).

Data collection

Since this research tradition is oriented toward data analysis, this section on data collection will be brief and limited to some basic principles. Because psychologists are usually already well trained in interview techniques (Englander, 2020 ; Giorgi, 2020 ), it is natural that interviews will be commonly used to collect descriptive material. However, we stress that the method is not, by itself, an interview method. 5 Instead, each data collection strategy is developed in an idiosyncratic way by first understanding how each phenomenon best reveals itself in its own unique mode of appearance (Englander, 2020 ). For instance, when studying ‘thinking while playing chess’ Aanstoos ( 1985 ), found interviewing, by itself, to be insufficient for accessing the subtle psychological nuances of playing chess. To accommodate this phenomenon, Aanstoos ( 1983 ), developed a 'think aloud method' where one player freely spoke his thoughts into a recorder during a chess game while the opponent had his ears covered. In other words, the principle here was to design the data collection process by attending closely to the particularity of the phenomenon. Typically, the phenomenon is carefully circumscribed in advance through pilot studies, field work and clinical contexts from which the researcher can uncover the ways to best solicit descriptions and expressions that can most successfully reveal deeper psychological meanings.

Our main point here is that there should be a ‘custom fit’ between the phenomenon and the data collection design to solicit maximally good descriptions of the phenomenon within the context of everyday life. Strategies for collecting such descriptions should not be presumed beforehand and imposed on the phenomenon. The data collection design should fit the phenomenon instead of the phenomenon being forced to fit the design . Concretely, the phenomenon or related phenomena should be carefully studied through the trial-and-error process of pilot studies before any final decisions are made regarding data collection strategies.

Having made these points, some general recommendations have been laid out for data collection procedures. Drawing from existential-phenomenological philosophers such as Sartre ( 1962 , 28–29) and Merleau-Ponty ( 1962 ), phenomenological psychologists acknowledge that a person is always in a situation. At the start of any data collection, the research focus is on a concrete situation in which the participant has directly experienced the phenomenon under investigation. A concrete situation is not an idea, an attitude or anything abstract and conceptual—it is an experience that is directly lived. This acknowledgement of the situated concrete nature of psychological phenomena is another reason why data collection designs, again, need to be unique to the phenomenon and independently ‘custom-designed’ by the researcher. Or put another way, each study seeks the mode of investigation that allows the phenomenon to best express itself in its own distinctive way.

Data analysis 6

This is a ‘whole-part-whole’ qualitative method that includes steps where the researcher adopts the phenomenological psychological attitude and applies the technique of eidetic variation. Again, in contrast to philosophical analysis, phenomenological psychology begins and ends with meanings as lived and contextualized within the mundane, everyday lifeworld.

Concrete 5 step method of data analysis

The data analysis has five steps. Over the course of nearly five decades of experience we have learned that success with this method is best achieved by applying each step in a generally sequential relation to the other steps. In this way, all five steps work as an integral whole. The steps that follow where adopted from a recent publication by Giorgi et al. ( 2017 ). Having said this, it is important to also point out that these steps have both a linier and non-linier dimension to them. The linear sequential ‘steps’ offers an initial structure and organization that can also liberate the researcher to move back and forth, reviewing previous steps and revising them in relation to new discoveries and intuitions. In actual concrete practice, the process becomes more like a working draft or scaffold to work from. Ahead, in our discussion of the case analysis, this non-linier dimension will be more fully addressed.

Step 1. Initial reading for a sense of the whole

As this is a whole-part-whole method, the procedure begins with the ‘sense of the whole,’ proceeds with an analysis of the parts, and concludes with a newly elucidated ‘sense of the whole.’ Thus, the preliminary ‘appreciation’ of the entire description is important because it prepares and assists the researcher for the next steps where one studies its parts. This ‘sense of a whole’ should not be confused with hypothesis, conclusions or theorizations. Instead, it should be seen as a tentative understanding that is only an opening prelude to a relationship with the descriptive material. Importantly, it is this ‘sense of the whole,’ provided by the participant’s full descriptive account, that will act as the background to the diacritical figure-ground analysis carried out during the latter steps. In concrete practical terms, the researcher reviews the transcription (or audio or video) several times before starting Step 2. Again, this first step establishes the figure-ground framework that will drive the part-whole analysis of the entire method as every part, or meaning unit, will usually be explicated in terms of its relationship with the whole of the description.

Step 2. Adopting the phenomenological psychological attitude

Adopting the overall phenomenological attitude or ‘way of seeing’ is what distinguishes this method from other forms of non-phenomenological qualitative research. Importantly, and this can’t be stressed enough from the onset, in our work as social scientists doing life-world qualitative research, the epoché and the reduction function in a different context then in philosophy. 7 So, modified to accommodate the psychological sphere of interest, this attitude is essential to the next steps of the data analysis. Most would agree that time needs to be dedicated to the study authoritative primary sources in phenomenology to fully understand the nature of this phenomenological approach to research. This involves, (1) the epoché (or suspension) of the natural attitude, and (2) an assumption of the phenomenological psychological reduction.

With the practice of the epoché we try to just let the experience of something arise in its “givenness.” 8 In Husserl’s terms this is a ‘putting out of play’ or ‘parenthesizing’ of any positions of belief or doubt toward the world as independent of our consciousness of the world. This ordinary everyday position towards reality is what phenomenologists call the ‘natural attitude.’ A corollary of the natural attitude is the naturalistic attitude which is the commonsense belief that all things are ultimately explained by the physical causes of natural science. So, the psychologist appropriates the epoché for several reasons, (1) it clears the way for us to better understand how the participants are experiencing the world, self and others, and (2) it liberates us to better describe other people’s experiences without falling back on physical explanations, rationalizations, stereotypes or explaining them away with hypothetical models and concepts. (3). It allows researchers to become more aware of how, as Merleau-Ponty ( 1962 , p xiii) put it, one’s own ‘intentional threads’ are themselves influencing the phenomenon. (4). It invites researchers to overcome prejudices and doubts with regard to their own aptitudes for intuitive imagination. Put another way, the epoché opens us to see how the world is profusely intertwined with both the researchers and the research participant's experience of it, characterizing a radically non-dogmatic and open-minded perspective towards psychological research.

We will next go into some detail on the nature of the reduction in phenomenological psychology because it is here that phenomenological psychologists make significant and necessary modifications to the reduction, and in turn the epoché , as originally expressed by Husserl and philosophical phenomenologists. The phenomenological psychological reduction is what one does after first understanding the perspective of the epoché. Here we ‘reduce’ or restrict our frame of reference to a particular region of meaning. The psychological, in this sense, can be viewed as a particular region of science that is a psychological reduction. In the human scientific context of a qualitative psychology, a psychological reduction takes on a different meaning than Husserl’s original incomplete depiction of the psychological reduction. Husserl saw the psychological reduction as both a propaedeutic steppingstone towards the transcendental (or philosophical) reduction, 9 as much as he also saw it as the basis for new kind of psychological science—as we are applying it here. However, not being a psychologist, Husserl was not able to offer detail on how to apply the psychological reduction in an applied human science context. It is here where Giorgi's modification of the psychological reduction incorporates the doings of science to qualitative psychological research. The psychological region pertains to a particular domain of lived experience—an experience that is neither abstractly conceptual, nor objectively physical; it is concretely and personally lived, by a particular person, always socially engaged, in a particular situation in everyday social life, in space, time and history.

In this sense, the psychological reduction maintains an intimate but distinctively delicate, even tricky, relationship with the natural attitude. While philosophers may be disinterested in the natural attitude in order to pursue other matters, the phenomenological psychologist is studying exactly the natural attitude itself. This mundane world of everyday common-sense beliefs is precisely the subject matter of the phenomenological psychologist—and any other phenomenologically identified social scientists. In this sense, the psychological position transforms the nature of the epoché. Instead of the philosopher’s full suspension of the world of the natural attitude, the psychologist takes strong interest in exactly this world of the natural attitude. This means that the psychologist performs an epoché that is both in and out of the natural attitude. Within the psychological reduction we ‘step back’ from the natural attitude in order to study its structures. Again, the phenomenological psychologist is cognizant of the faith of the assumed world of the natural attitude but still studies this worldview not unlike the empathic manner of an anthropologist, doing field work, who both spontaneously participates in village life, like a fellow villager, while also maintaining his social scientific perspective. So, unlike the faith of the participant, the researcher’s is a faith that regularly, and methodically, steps back and questions itself. These points will be further developed in our reflection on how this attitude, particular to the phenomenological psychologists, was applied to the data analysis process performed on our sample case description.

Another aspect of this circumscribed 'psychological' region is that it pertains to the domain of relevance that is, itself, the ‘discipline’ of psychology 10 and what Giorgi ( 2009 ) has referred to as the 'disciplinary perspective'. Giorgi suggests that this ‘disciplinary’ reduction to the domain of the psychological (2009) should be most accurately depicted as a human scientific reduction. 11 In stark contrast to the empirical theory of science that drives mainstream psychology, the approach provided here allows researchers to explicate psychological meanings in their morphological, provisional, phenomenological sense.

Step 3. Dividing data into meaning units

This next step is motivated by practicality. Attempting to analyze, for example, 30–40 pages of transcribed interview material all at once is a daunting task. This is precisely why a data analysis method is helpful. Nevertheless, to stay consistent with a phenomenological theory of science, Step 3 is carried out from within the phenomenological attitude. For example, while reading through the recorded material, the researcher breaks down the material into smaller manageable parts to allow for a closer and more detailed focus in the upcoming Step 4. By phenomenologically elucidating the parts, the researcher is also able to begin distinguishing the participants’ meanings from how these appear in the natural attitude. This allows the expression by the participants to later (i.e., in Step 4) be explicated into phenomenologically psychologically sensitive description. The material is thus broken into manageable sections referred to as “meaning units.” The length of a meaning unit can vary from one sentence to an entire paragraph or (on rare occasions) a whole page of material. The length of meaning units can also vary from researcher to researcher, and such variation does not necessarily have any bearing on the general findings at the end of the analysis. Often the material can be easily differentiated. The main point is that too large a meaning unit can be unwieldy to analysis. It is also important to point out that not all meaning units are essential to the general structure of the phenomenon. However, all meaning units need to be analyzed (in Step 4). This last point is important, because sometimes when the researcher relaxes the epoché and returns to the natural attitude, some meaning units might mistakenly appear redundant. Nevertheless, when analyzed carefully, there is always the possibility of discovery.

Typically, researchers break this into two side-by-side columns that are written out in text form, referred to as Column 1 and Column 2 . This two-column transcription procedure serves several purposes. It conveniently organizes the process for the researcher and, importantly, it makes the data analysis process transparent and thus open for critique by other phenomenological researchers. As an additional procedure to this step, Giorgi also suggests that one modifies the participants’ expression into third person expressions. However, this is only a suggestion intended for researchers who are having difficulty in seeing the difference between the individual (or the idiographic level) and the phenomenon (the nomothetic level). Another discretionary modification is to extend columns, beyond the usual two, into three or even four columns. This was employed in the daydream analysis ahead where the researcher found a third column to be of value as it allowed him to visually check his more generalized transformations with the original meaning units—right before his eyes.

Step 4. Transformation of everyday expression to psychological meaning

The relationship between Column 1 (i.e., everyday expression, or naive description, of the participant) and Column 2 (i.e., phenomenological description of psychological meaning) is distinctive to this method. Here one carefully elucidates the participants’ essential meanings into generalizable terms within the domain of psychological relevance—as expressed above. We grasp and draw out the fuller psychological meanings embedded within the everyday description. Now, it is in this particular step that the phenomenological attitude takes center stage and is explicitly put into practice for the purpose of a phenomenological psychological analysis. In addition, in order to seek the general meanings within the lived experience this step also includes the tool of eidetic variation . This means that the researcher needs to maintain a general focus on the phenomenon under investigation while carrying out this detailed analysis. In this context, phenomenological elucidation is not a matter of mere notetaking, summarizing, annotating or just condensing meanings. It is more about how the researcher adjusts one’s mindset so as to allow the psychologically relevant meanings to emerge to one’s consciousness. In a certain sense, one opens oneself, or renders oneself a vehicle to the fuller meanings of the participant’s naive description, but always with a focus on the phenomenon. This is a receptive or ‘discovery’ mode of consciousness—not one of actively applying ideas, theories or concepts. One can understand this position as a contemplative openness to the givens of the other’s experience as it emerges through the participants’ expressions. There is an imaginative participation in the subjects’ descriptions not unlike the engagement one experiences when reading a novel, a poem, or any act of expressive art. There is here an ironically 'focused openness' or put another way: a resolute receptiveness. One converts the participant’s expressions (as conveyed within the natural attitude) into phenomenologically clarified psychological meanings by carefully following the intentionality in the participants' expression. The watchwords here are: elucidation, illumination, and explication. Here, we do not add to what our participants say, instead we bring forth the fuller meanings.

In addition, one does not need to restrict oneself to only one column during the analysis. It is perfectly feasible for the researcher to extend the analysis of the initial meaning unit into several levels of elucidation—such as a column 3 or 4. As noted in the previous section on Step 3, this 4th step is also about the spirit of transparency in science (similar to how one shows one's work when doing mathematics). By extending the analysis into stages or levels of analysis, one is showing colleagues exactly how one has reached these extended levels of generalization.

Step 5. Returning to the whole and moving toward the general structure

It is at this phase that the researcher moves from a part-whole eidetic analysis to a new focus on the whole again. But now we have a new whole, a whole that is the end result of this entire procedure. Remaining within the phenomenological psychological attitude, as described above, the researcher’s intimate engagement with the meaning unit analysis now becomes an act of synthesis of the parts together into what is usually a temporally sequential narrative. The watchword here is structure. A structure is understood in gestalt terms as a whole, but a whole composed only of essential parts. The idea here is that if one where to hypothetically remove one of the parts, then the rest of the structure would fall apart. Therefore, the researcher wants to be prudent to not overstuff a structure. A good structure should follow the elegance of simplicity—as much as reasonable. Furthermore, the features or constituent parts should be invariant. By invariant we do not mean universal or absolute. We are fully aware that human phenomena are contingent to history and culture. We only mean that an invariant psychological structure should “hold together” within this culture at this point in history. Within these parameters we think it reasonable that generalized psychological claims can be made. 12

It is important to note that most other qualitative research methods present their conclusions in terms of ‘themes.’ But because this approach emphasizes phenomena as totalities, i.e. as structures, we avoid any overemphasis on themes and prefer to comment on the structure of the phenomenon as a totality as much as possible. When we do discuss parts, we prefer the term ‘constituents’ to stress their relatedness to the whole of the structure. It is conventional for many other methods to present to readers curated direct quotes from their participants. But because we have already performed a very close analysis of the direct expressions of the participants in the earlier steps of the data analysis, we prefer to offer readers the more structural, or general, levels of meaning in any discussion of our results as will be seen ahead when we discuss the results of our analysis of an experience of daydreaming. In short, our inclination is to offer readers prepared or explicated data instead of curated raw data.

Situated structures

As an optional procedure one can add an extra step between the meaning unit analysis (step 4) and the General Structure (step 5). While Giorgi stressed the general structure, most advanced researchers find it effective to add this intermediary step—as demonstrated in the analysis offered ahead. 13 This can support the eventual goal of generality and can be an extremely helpful ‘bridge step’ toward the general structural description. But it must be stressed that to remain only on the level of situated individual experience would miss the key purpose of the method—which is to achieve a general (inter-subjective) structural description of the phenomenon. Having said this, a situated structure can be very rich in life world details and remarkably illuminative in its own right. One could depict this as a structure on the idiographic or individual level. This is often popular with clinical psychologists who prefer an individual ‘case-study’ level of understanding. But unlike ‘clinical’ case-studies, this is a research phenomenon which is different from a diagnostic, or therapeutic relationship. Here the research intention is paramount—not the clinical intention. Again, this is the elucidation of an individual participant’s experience performed as a step before moving to the general structure. This would be an essential structure of the invariant aspects of an individual person’s experience of the phenomenon. In more simple language this is a basic summary of the psychologically relevant aspects of this particular person’s experience of the phenomenon. Developing situated structures from three or more research participants can be a very helpful way to eidetically scrutinize the phenomenon as experienced by all of the participants. But when it comes to groups, it is important to emphasize that within the phenomenological approach to science, eidetic comparison (Wertz, 2010 ) should not be confused with statistical comparison. Though more challenging (especially for newcomers), in phenomenological psychology an eidetic analysis could just as well be performed on a single participant as on a group. But having made this qualification, a group of any number of situated structures is always a great support to one’s eidetic analysis towards generalizability. 14

The general structure

At this point, these phenomenologically elucidated ‘parts’ of the data analysis (including the situated structures) are brought back together into a new whole . Phenomenological psychology is definitively a search for psychological essences or what we prefer to call general invariant structures. Husserl called this ‘eidetic analysis’ and the primary technique he used for this level of analysis he called eidetic or ‘imaginary variation.’ In this analysis, one imaginatively reviews the phenomenologically clarified parts of the previous analysis as achieved in step 4, with an eye for intuiting a new whole. Again, this is a discovery frame of mind where I render myself open to the continually emerging intuitions and patterns in the elucidated data as they give themselves to my awareness. In other words, it is not an empirical summary or the common denominator of facts across the cases, but another level of the analysis. Specific to this level of the analysis is the technique of imagining the phenomenon in its various profiles, angles or possibilities. For example, as a researcher I can ask myself if the structure of this phenomenon is possible without any of the particular constituent parts that I have discovered during my analysis in Step 4? I may even imagine adding new parts that were not explicitly expressed in the data but ‘apperceptively’ or intuitively suggested by the data. To reiterate, in contrast to most other qualitative approaches, the general structure is an integral whole and is never just a series of separate themes. The key idea here is that a structure is a full gestalt , a whole, or a totality that dissipates when a part is removed. Therefore, it is important to edit a general structure with rigor and integrity and to delete all that is unessential to the systemic pattern that makes the phenomenon what it is. The general structure is typically narrated in the present tense—though not always. Sometimes a phenomenon may split off into types or variants. In such cases one could have two or three general structures, representing different ‘types.’ Therefore, forcing a closure by applying a psychological theory is not an option. The findings, as supported by the analysis, can at a later stage in the discussion section (of the research report) be presented in dialogue with established psychological theories (‘backloading’ in current nomenclature) and other research results (See Fig.  1 ).

Overview—flowchart of data analysis process (from Giorgi et al., 2017 ). R researcher, P participant

Case example

What follows is a brief case example of a phenomenological psychological data analysis. Again, unlike philosophy where the research is done in a solitary first person manner, in phenomenological psychology we take a second person position. We see ourselves as participants —not mere observers—as we try to grasp the fuller meaning of other people’s concrete descriptions as expressed within the natural attitude of everyday life (Englander, 2020 ; Giorgi, 2009 ). We make no demands on our participants to take the reflective attitude of the practicing phenomenologist. Instead, only the researcher is responsible for taking the phenomenological stance as he or she reads the expressions of the participant. Here the data analysis is conducted within the tension of two intertwined goals: to be faithful to the intentional meanings as expressed while also deepening their meaning through their re-expression within the phenomenological psychological attitude—as performed in meaning unit analysis (step 4) and the development of structures (step 5). This, again, is what we call elucidation or explication . This is a fidelity that also takes us into a deeper understanding of the expressed intentions our participants. This is exactly the power of the epoché (within the psychological standpoint) as applied to the grasping or bringing-forth of psychological meaning. Like the way certain artists can transform the taken-for-granted experience of an ordinary object, such as an apple in a still-life painting, into an apple seen afresh ‘as if for the first time,’ so does the phenomenological psychologist strive to bring out the psychological meaning of the participant’s experience of the phenomenon.

The sample presented here is taken from the context of an ongoing research project on daydreaming that is currently replicating and updating a previously published study (Morley, 1998 , 1999 , 2003 ) through fresh interview material. As explained above, the data collection process was customized to suit the unique nature of the phenomenon. Here, in this particular research context, the procedure for collecting daydream reports has been to first request a self-written protocol from persons who are not themselves directly involved with psychology. A formal protocol question prompt (see below) was given to the participant to help guide the written description. As mentioned above, the reason for beginning with a written description is that, as an imaginary phenomenon, daydreaming can become unwieldy and difficult to articulate during an interview. Through pilot trials we have learned that written descriptions help the participant to ground or anchor their memory of the daydream. It then serves as an organizing point of reference for the interview—without imposing any leading external influences. Then, the researcher and participant begin the interview itself by re-reading the written protocol together to refresh their memories of the event. The researcher initiates the interview by asking the participant to take the initiative to express what, in the written description, he or she feels is most in need of elaboration or expansion. After the participants have offered further elaborations on what stands out as most important to them, the researcher will then pose questions from an informal semi-structured check-list of points of special phenomenological interest to the researcher. Specifically, the researcher asks for fuller descriptions of existential constants such as space, time, embodiment, social relations, sense of reality, and sense of self as experienced during the various temporal phases of the daydream. The actual interview approach, for this particular phenomenon, will vary across a spectrum from a gentle reiterative style to intensive and challenging inquiries 15 —depending on circumstances. As described above, this data collection method was developed through the researcher’s intimate relationship with the phenomenon over time.

A full data analysis of an entire interview would surfeit the space of this presentation. So it is for this reason that we chose to offer a concise sample of the analysis process drawn from material that was recently collected in the form of an initial written protocol. While not as detailed and spontaneous as the interview that followed, the written protocol still offers the reader a rich “sense of the whole’ that allows for a faithful sample the data analysis process. So, though brief, this was still a reasonably good description that offers a worthy example of the whole-part-whole dynamic central to the analysis process of this method. Choosing a brief sample also expresses the authors’ confidence that even the smallest fragment of an everyday type of description will explode in meaning when approached from within the phenomenological psychological attitude. Not unlike how the sensory empirical world burst open with the introduction of telescopes and microscopes, so does the human life world open up before us when beheld from within the openness provided by the lens of the overall phenomenological perspective as expressed above.

Having said this, we again caution that as a sample data analysis it does not benefit from the detail offered by the follow-up interview. This small sample is offered for strictly didactic reasons. More importantly, it also stands alone without the fuller dimensionality offered by the intersubjective eidetic analysis at least two other individual case examples to which it’s whole and constituent parts could be eidetically compared. It was for this reason that we restricted the title of the phenomenon from “daydreaming” to “an anxiety daydream” to reflect the particularity of the one sample. But even without the intersubjective corroboration of at least two other daydream descriptions, we hope readers will agree that it can be surprising to see what can emerge when using only one case example.

To reiterate, in brief, we begin with the whole daydream description as depicted in the written protocol. After reading for the whole we then break it into parts—or meaning units. Then, we phenomenologically elucidate each of the parts, or meaning units, though the technique of using columns—in this case we used 3 columns (most researchers only use two). Finally, we return to a renewed sense of the whole in both of the situated and general structures. The situated structure, like a case study, is idiographic to the particular description while the general structure is an attempt to achieve a nomothetic statement on the phenomenon of anxious daydreaming. In this instance, the general structure will be restricted to the meanings elicited from this single, and very brief, case example and will therefore be somewhat limited and tentative. It’s very important to note that in most research instances the general structure will be an eidetic analysis based on the various other individual situated structures. The general structure corresponds to what one could call the results of the research process. While the constituent parts of the whole structure will be discussed in most research reports, unlike most other qualitative methods that discuss themes , typically supported with selected quotes, we prefer to keep the whole structure of the experience as the primary reference point.

Ahead, within the analysis we will refer to the participant as ‘P.’ Later, in the discussion, we will address the participant through the pseudonym of Ashling.

Written daydream protocol—initial protocol prompt to the participant (P)

Please concretely describe a situation in which you experienced a daydream. Please describe what was happening when the daydream began, what the daydream was about, what it was like while having the daydream, and how the daydream came to an end. Please try to be as concrete and detailed in your description as possible.

Ashling’s written protocol description—including step 3, marking the meaning units

On March 14, 2020, I was in Tepoztlán, Mexico. Trump had recently announced he would be suspending travel from Europe to the US due to COVID-19. I had just moved to Mexico a few months prior. I feared if the closure was happening with Europe it would most likely be happening with Mexico very soon, a golden moment for Trump to assert his plan for the border with Mexico to be even more impenetrable. As we drove back from Tepoztlán to Mexico City and night was falling, I started to gaze out the window, daydreaming, as we passed the silhouetted Popocatépetl volcano in the distance.

I started thinking about how I would get back to my family in the US if flights were suspended with Mexico. As we continued to drive I thought about if we didn’t stop in Mexico city but just continued all the way to the border (about a 15 h drive). In my daydream I imagined arriving at the border and that there would be mayhem, cars piled up for miles and the border patrol not allowing anyone across. The border agents were armed and aggressive and unreachable. I imagined the reasons I would give, that my family needed me etc., but reasoning with them was not working. And I envisioned somehow managing to get past them as they were distracted by the chaos, and the relief felt by speeding into the US away from the border and onward towards home.

I felt anxious imagining the border patrol and their dominance, their potential to shoot us when we sped past, defying their rules of closure. But I then felt relief at the outcome of getting past, of fighting our way in and across and making it to a place of safety.

When my partner and I later got to the apartment in Mexico City that night I looked into flights to get to Boston where we would be in a familiar place during this most intensive and uncertain time. My good friend called me from Rennes in France and told me how bad it was, that death rates were rising, and how she wasn't leaving the house at all. She advised me to leave quickly and that to have a garden was a saving grace for her, and that at least in Boston I would have a garden. I booked my flight and packed a small case. I daydreamed again as I looked around the apartment, that 10 or so years would pass, and I would finally be able to come back and all my things would be here but between and around old weeds and crumbled walls and cobwebs, a scene left untouched and abandoned.

Meaning unit analysis

Situated structure of an anxiety daydream.

Daydreaming for this person was an imaginary manifestation of her feelings of anxiety. By manifesting this anxiety as a dramatically staged scenario, she was able to live-out or play-out the enactment of her anxiety and its eventual resolution. This particular daydream occurred as a person’s affective response to the threat of having her freedom of movement, across international borders, curtailed or restricted by political forces beyond her control. In particular she feared being cut-off and separated from her home and family during a time of great uncertainty. These strongly felt emotions around the experience of constraint or restriction had no means of expression within the context of a long road trip in a car. Turning her gaze, away from the car interior, out the window towards the twilight horizon of the landscape, P entered into an imagined scenario where she is in the same car but has arrived at the international border between her foreign country of residence and her desired home country. The daydream manifests the person’s own momentary existential situation as a scene of chaos and mayhem enforced by the imposing, threatening and impersonal agents of power i.e. the border guards who refuse to allow her to cross the border into her home country. P imagines trying to reason or negotiate with the guards but realizes that dialogue is futile in this situation. Again, these are circumstances out of her control. As a staged enactment or ‘metaphorization’ of her actual existential situation, the daydream is both the expression and revelation of her life situation. It allows her to “express” her immersion in the situation which also, in a reversible way, offers her a reflective distance to “see” the feeling of restriction that has occupied her. As both the expression and revelation of her present life situation the daydream is, in this sense, lived ambiguously as both an active and passive experience. These ambiguously dual, yet interwoven, perspectives are implicit to her daydreaming experience. Next, within the imaginary narrative of the daydream, the daydreaming/daydreamed person commits an act of defiant transgression. P shifts the narrative from that of passive casualty of powers beyond her control, to one where she takes charge, or assumes agency, by choosing the extreme risk of speeding past the distracted guards and thus flouting their overbearing authority by driving across the border without their sanctioned permission. By taking matters into her own hands and transgressing the rules, P escapes confinement and experiences the satisfaction that comes with the security of having returned to her home country. The daydream concludes with feelings of relief. The experience of this daydream allowed P to articulate her desire to return home to her native country during this time of uncertainty—a desire that was converted into an actual concrete decision to eventually book an airline flight home to family and friends.

Tentative general structure of an anxiety daydream

Daydreaming emerges in a situation of unfulfilling circumstances. In the case of anxiety, it appears in the form on an ominous and yet opaque threat to one’s well-being. This feeling presents itself as a demand for action—to seek the source of the threat and to overcome it. However, this demand for action cannot be achieved in the current situation as it is impeded by circumstances where no real behavioral action is possible. This becomes a tension between the feeling’s demand for action, regarding the ominous threat, and its restraining context. The person turns attention away from the immediately restraining situation by seeking out and shifting attention to another horizonal field of focus. It is here that the emotion takes the course of expressing itself through the medium of an imaginary scenario that opens up an opportunity for the fulfillment of the emotion. The emotion transforms into a world scenario where it is expressed in the form of an enacted narrative drama. The person assumes a dual intentional role as both the author/narrator of the dramatic scenario and well as the actor immersed within the dramatic action. The emotion is now lived in a narrative context that allows the possibility of its fulfilment. As a staged enactment the daydream can become a living metaphor of the person’s actual existential situation. The daydream scenario can be both the expression and revelation of one’s emotional situation. Its expression makes it possible to “see” one’s immersion in the emotional dramatic scenario. It can offer the opportunity for a reflective distance from the feeling of restriction that had previously occupied the person. As both expression and revelation of the person’s present life situation daydreaming reveals an ambiguous interplay between both active and passive aspects of experience. These ambiguously interwoven perspectives vary between being implicit or explicit to the daydreamer. Though daydreaming takes place within an imaginary region of experience, this region is always also interfused within one’s life historical horizons—always expressing one’s life projects and goals.

Commentary on the analysis

In any phenomenological psychological research report, there is an extensive theoretical discussion of the results (i.e. the constituent parts of general and situated structures) with the phenomenological and natural scientific literature. We have much to say here, especially with regard to such constituents as ‘dual intentionality’ ‘multiple realities, the ‘affective-imaginary dynamic,’ the “linkage of expression with revelation’ and, of course, the comparison of these findings with current studies in cognitive science (such as the default mode network). But alas, as the purpose of this essay is didactic with regard to the method, and due to the limits of space, we must defer this full dialogue to a future publication.

Due to the brevity of the written description, and the very fact of there being only a single participant, the researcher can only modestly offer a highly tentative sample general structure. However, despite its brevity, the participant, whom we will here call ‘Ashling,’ offered a rich and full description and the researcher feels confident that the situated structure was faithful to the participants experience.

The non-linier dimension of data analysis

While the researcher initially worked with fidelity to the 5 step method, it is also important to note that there was a significantly non-linier dimension to this process. This was especially the case when it came to the composition of the situated and general structures. Once the meaning units were demarcated, the process towards the situated and eventual general structures took on a life of its own. In other words, while the meaning units established a framework for data analysis, once the 3 column framework was established, and the participant’s expressions were laid out before his eyes , the researcher began a back-and-forth process of checking, rechecking, reflecting and intuitively linking the meanings into fuller wholes and patterns. To use an imperfect metaphor, we can compare this explication process to what is called a detective’s “crazy wall” that is used to help interpret and understand a crime case. From detective stories and movies, we are familiar with how the investigator will post pieces of data and information across a wallboard, or sometimes a city map. The detective can then use this to meaningfully link the information and datapoints with connecting strings. Seeing the constituent parts ‘before his eyes’ helps the investigator to make the ‘meaningfully intuitive connections’ that lead to better understanding of the case. Obviously, this helps the investigator to step back and see the dynamic relation between the parts and the whole and it is from this perspective that insights and discoveries can arise. This is exactly the benefit of meaning unit analysis.

The diacritical aspect of data analysis

To reiterate, the psychological phenomenological attitude is focused on understanding the particular experience of a particular person. Obviously, as evidenced by the general structure, we do not stop a the particular—but this is where we begin. While this attitude undoubtedly suspends the naturalistic attitude of physical science, its disposition towards the more global natural attitude, as discussed above, contains a strategic ambiguity. Very importantly, unlike phenomenological philosophy, phenomenological psychology directly takes up the naively believed world of the natural attitude as a subject of inquiry. Ours is, as Maurice Natanson, citing Alfred Schutz, calls it: “a phenomenology of the natural attitude” ( 1973 , p107). In other words, while we ourselves as researchers are trained to be aware of our own natural attitude, and ‘step back’ from it as best we can, it is also true that we do not entirely put it aside. So, for example, when reading Ashling’s description of her daydream, the researcher imaginatively participated with the description of her daydream and, for that moment, may have been empathically engrossed within the world of her natural attitude. In a recent publication this is well described by Scott Churchill as a ‘disciplined fascination’ (Churchill, 2022 ). Also, as a denizen of the natural attitude oneself, the researcher may well have applied his background stock of knowledge of daydreaming, garnered from personal experiences as well as professional readings on the subject; all of this in order to better understand Ashling’s experience and intentional structures. Hence, as discussed above, this is not a pure epoché or a pure reduction as practiced by the philosopher. On the other hand, unlike Ashling, or any research participant, the researcher continually practices a ‘stepping back’ from that believed world, again, in order to better understand her world. There is, in this way, a weaving process that is unique to the phenomenological psychological attitude.

The figure-ground metaphors used by Merleau-Ponty are very helpful here. Throughout his works he explicitly describes what we are calling the phenomenological psychological attitude, as a ‘ diacritical ’ process (Kearney, 2011 ) that is, like the act of breathing—both inhaling and exhaling as one whole act. This is precisely what we mean by the strategic ambiguity of the phenomenological psychological position. In his well-known discussion on methodology Merleau-Ponty describes the attitude of the researcher as follows: “Reflection does not withdraw us from the world…’ “…it steps back to watch the forms of transcendence fly up like sparks from a fire; it slackens the intentional threads which attach us to the world and thus brings them to our notice…” ( 1962 , p xiii). As psychologists these threads or tethers to the natural attitude are never cut, they are “loosened or slackened” to enable us to see the intentions of others—as well as one’s own. Seeing my own intentional threads can reveal fore-understandings that could either inhibit or enhance my analysis.

In this case, a young woman is learning about the encroaching covid pandemic, wants to return to the security of her home and family, and becomes upset about the closing international borders that could restrict, and become an obstacle, to her desire to return home. This was the big picture to which the researcher returned, in a circular manner, throughout the analysis.

The researcher came to see how Ashling was originally overcome with a desire to go home while simultaneously experiencing a feeling of being impeded from that intention. Though she did not explicitly say this, one could easily imagine how, as more borders closed, Ashling’s desire to return home would only intensify. The beginning part of the daydream narrative reflected this distressing and overwhelming devils circle where she is impeded by powers beyond her control. But in meaning unit 7 we see a turn.

Another diacritical element is the weaving between the whole of the description and its parts. As a reader one could say that I am “zooming-in” on the unique and minute details of the participants expressions as much as I am continually “zooming-out” to use the whole as the context for understanding these details. For example, Ashling’s use of key expressions in Meaning Unit 7 (MU7) such as “envisioned,” “getting past” and “the relief felt” all offered a basis for enhanced eidetic exploration and fuller illumination. They allowed the researcher to come to the insight of Ashling’s shift in position, from that of passive victim of overpowering circumstances to that of an active agent of an imaginary act of courageous transgression—driving past the armed and aggressive border guards to cross the border. Understanding the “whole” of her situation is what brought to light the essential meaning of the daydream.

Spelling out tacit meanings

By explication, or elucidation, we mean the process of spelling-out latent or tacit meanings. To offer an example, Ashling, of course, never explicitly said that she experienced a ‘dual intentional structure.’ It was the task of the researcher to cull out this structural component that was implicit to the description and likely lived-out in a pre-thematic way by Ashling. The researcher’s recognition of this constituent happened during the researcher’s transition from the meaning unit analysis to the whole of the situated structure. It was in this process of “putting the whole story back together again” that the researcher saw how this double intentionality was experienced by Ashling. Here, there were two distinct but related intentions, (1). the intention to deal with the practical frustrations of booking a flight home during an uncertain period of international crisis (the actual world), and (2). the daydreamed intention of getting past imaginary border guards (the daydreamed world scenario). The researcher came to see Ashling as experiencing both intentions and both corresponding world relations—the actual car scenario and the other being the daydreamed car scenario. Hence, the dual intentional structure. One could call this a “generalizing process” but, in actual practice, it was a much fuzzier and more unclear event than any such nominalizations can portray. Once again, we can understand this as a diacritical process: (1). The insight came ‘as given’ in the discovery manner of a direct phenomenological intuition, and (2). This pattern was ‘recognized’ from the researcher’s background stock of knowledge (or fore-understanding) as a daydream researcher and reader of phenomenological literature. Because this elucidation process is itself somewhat pre-reflective, one can never have absolute certainty over whether it was an intuitive given or a pre-understanding.

Again, Merleau-Ponty’s diacritical approach helps to illuminate this elucidation process. In describing Merleau-Ponty’s ( 1968 ) diacritical approach to grasping meaning, Kearney cites James Joyce’s statement that it is possible to have “two thinks at a time.” ( 2011 , p 1). Directly addressing psychological research, Merleau-Ponty says: “One may say indeed that psychological knowledge is reflection but that it is at the same time an experience. According to the phenomenologist (Husserl) it is a material apriori . Psychological reflection is a “constatation” (a finding). Its task is to discover the meaning of behavior through an effective contact with my own behavior and that of others. Phenomenological psychology is therefore a search for the essence, or meaning, but not apart from the facts.” (Merleau-Ponty,  1964 , p.95).

With the term “constatation’ Merleau-Ponty is suggesting that both observing , (receiving the intuitive givens) and asserting (actively applying one’s stock of knowledge) can be at play in the same act of psychological understanding. Both are one whole movement within the same act—in the chiasmatic, reversable manner of a figure-ground dynamic. While space does not allow us to develop this issue in the detail it deserves, we raise this matter to try to bring some light to the act of elucidation that is so central to this method. The take home point here is that, while the method highlights the significance of description, this does not mean that one needs to choose between stark antinomies such as description and interpretation, or phenomenology and hermeneutics as within this elucidation process of ‘disciplined fascination’ both movements come together.

Towards dual disciplinary citizenship

This method was designed to give psychological researchers an organized and structured framework for doing second person research. The whole-part-whole process, in itself, is not complicated or difficult to understand and learn. What is difficult for those who are beginning this style of research, is the assumption of the phenomenological psychological attitude. This attitude, which distinguishes this method from non-phenomenological qualitative research methods, can’t be taken for granted and requires training, study, and the support of a like-minded research community. Because it is founded in phenomenological epistemology, phenomenological psychology is a hybrid discipline. The practice of phenomenological psychology requires a kind of ‘dual citizenship’ in both psychology and phenomenological philosophy. Those trained solely in philosophy’s orthodox emphasis on textual exegesis may often lack experience in practical professional life-world applications as well as an overall knowledge of the literature and scientific history psychology. On the other hand, those trained solely in psychology, with little to no exposure to philosophy, coupled with the field’s strictly naturalist experimental orientation—which underscores the natural/naturalistic attitude—come to phenomenology with this resilient attitudinal disadvantage that can take effort to overcome. What we have here, in the current academic world, is a set-up for mutual misunderstanding between these disciplines. While the sharp disciplinary divides of the current academic world make such ‘dual citizenship’ training difficult and rare, this is possible, but only with special effort and unique pedagogical interventions. There are institutionalized training programs, usually schools of psychotherapy, that are open to such interdisciplinary training. Yet, these programs are few and far-ranging in their offerings. Most independent researchers entering this field need to supplement their training in naturalistic psychology with an intense period of philosophical study of primary sources and guidance in this study is too often lacking. Then, on the other hand, it is encouraging to see the increasing number of philosophers who are taking an interest in “applied phenomenology.” Yet, we currently see little cognizance, in much of this recent literature, of the 50-year phenomenological psychological research tradition. We mention this, as a friendly invitation to psychologically interested philosophical researchers to acquaint themselves with their predecessors to avoid re-inventing the wheel and duplicating research results and techniques that have already been developed within the phenomenological psychological research tradition. In the same breath, we would just as strongly urge our colleagues in the social sciences to give more serious study to the phenomenological philosophical tradition.

Open access funding provided by Malmö University.

1 From Husserl’s inaugural lecture in Freiburg given 1917 and published in Husserl—Shorter Works ( 1981 , 17).

2 This quote is from a talk that Giorgi gave at the Symposium on science and scientism: the human sciences Trinity College, May 15–16, 1970 and documented by Maurice Friedman ( 1984 ) Contemporary Psychology: revealing and obscuring the human . Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press. (p.30).

3 To Giorgi, relativism is as much a dogmatism to be avoided in psychology as is reductionism. Giorgi's ( 2009 ) method, hence, became known as the descriptive phenomenological psychological research method. With the emphasis on description Giorgi intended to apply the phenomenological attitude by staying true to discoveries from the everyday lifeworld. So even though discoveries may sometimes be incomplete, he preferred that they were described in their incompleteness rather than forced into unnecessary closure for aesthetic or ideological reasons (ibid.). Hence, both psychologically relevant aspects of Husserl's phenomenology as well as the discovery-oriented spirit of science became essential influences on Giorgi's approach to the project of a qualitative research method in psychology.

4 Initially influenced by Merleau-Ponty’s psychologically oriented thought, Giorgi turned more to Husserl’s methodological emphasis in his pursuit of a phenomenological theory of science to support a qualitative psychological research method (see Giorgi, 2009 ). As Giorgi ( 2014 , 236) recently stated "…I use Husserl because he confronts the issue directly and he contrasts his position with that of the empiricists." In the late 90’s, several other qualitative methods using a phenomenological approach started to emerge, most had a stronger emphasis on postmodernism or hermeneutics. Giorgi differentiated his method from the newer ones by stressing that his was a more descriptive emphasis as opposed to an interpretative one (Giorgi, 1992 , see also, Giorgi 2006 , 2010 , 2018 ). Of course, the distinction should not be understood too literally, because in certain settings the use of the word ‘interpretation’ could synonymously refer to the act of ‘description.’ However, with the term ‘description’ Giorgi ( 1992 ) simply meant to stay true, or rooted, to what appeared in the data . This is similar to what is called a “close reading of the text” in literary studies. The intention was to avoid the kind of intrusive and overly imposing 'interpretations' where gaps in the qualitative data would be 'filled' with theoretical explanations, abstractions or even speculations.

5 Developing phenomenological interviewing skills requires practice and training that is often already present in the education of most clinical psychologists and health care workers. However, phenomenological psychologists have been recently applying the insights of philosophical phenomenology to better articulate the role of empathic reflection in participant observation (Englander, 2020 ; Churchill 2010 ) and designing phenomenologically inspired teaching methods (Englander  2014 ; Churchill, 2018 ) for improving quality of psychological interviewing and qualitative phenomenological research generally.

6 For a chronological development of the methodology, see Giorgi ( 1975a , 1975b , 1985 , 1997 , 2009 , 2018 ).

URL =  <  https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/schutz/  > .

8 The history of phenomenology could be considered one big ongoing deliberation about the meaning and possibility of the epoché. We hope readers will forgive us for sidestepping these discussions for the purposes of this presentation where space only permits us to present the epoché as practically applied to the research process in phenomenological psychology. But we will make this one brief point. All major phenomenological themes such as embodiment, temporality, intersubjectivity and even the hermeneutic circle were developed by philosophers thorough their initial employment of the epoché —or awareness of the natural attitude. It is therefore important, we believe, for one to understand the practice of the epoché to, in turn, fully grasp these phenomenological concepts. We find it inconceivable that one could proficiently comprehend basic phenomenological concepts such as the lived body or intersubjectivity while remaining unreflectively within the influence of the natural attitude. Similarly, we have learned through experience that success with the method we are presenting here is often in direct proportion to one’s awareness of their natural attitude.

9 The relation between the transcendental and the psychological reduction is another long-deliberated issue in the history of phenomenology which we can’t develop here. In brief, because the transcendental “philosophical” reduction is a non-personal and non-situated level of reflection it is simply not appropriate for performing qualitative psychological research—at the moment that we are doing it. To our knowledge, no phenomenological psychologist would claim to be doing both standpoints at once. But this does not mean that psychologists must, or should, ignore the insights of transcendentally derived philosophical concepts when we design our research or reflect on the results of our psychological analysis. Phenomenological philosophy can be a perfectly compatible basis from which to deepen our understandings of the results of our descriptive analysis. In short, psychologists may visit the transcendental position, but we do not unpack our bags, and we always remember our return ticket.

10 This is very similar to the relevance structure of a world as suggested by Schutz ( 1962 ).

11 As Giorgi ( 2009 , 99–100) writes, “The researcher does, of course, assume the human scientific (psychological) reduction. Everything in the raw data is taken to be how the objects were experienced by the describer, and no claim is made that the events described really happened as they were described. The personal past experiences of the researcher and all his or her past knowledge about the phenomenon are also bracketed. This bracketing results in a fresh approach to the raw data and the refusal to posit the existential claim allows the noetic-noematic relation to come to the fore so that the substratum of the psychologist's reality can be focused upon. That is, the particular way in which the describer's personal acts of consciousness were enacted to allow the phenomenal intentional objects to appear from the basis of the sense determination that the psychologist is interested in uncovering.”.

12 For a more elaborate discussion on general knowledge claims in qualitative research and its relation to a phenomenological theory of science, see for example, Englander ( 2019 ).

13 Giorgi originally included situated structures but later dropped them to emphasize the nomothetic (or generalized knowledge) aspect of the method. But most Giorgi’s colleagues and ex-students prefer to include situated structures as a transition to the general. As teachers we have learned that this psychologically rich transitional step is of great pedagogical value. For most newcomers to the method, it is intuitively much easier to construct situated structures before moving on to develop general structures. We also find situated structures to be of great psychological value in their own right—as we hope is demonstrated in our case example ahead.

14 It is important to note that research participants are not considered from the stance of an empirical theory of science. Any qualitative methodology, grounded in a phenomenological theory of science, cannot naively adopt the concept of the population (and sampling methods ) as its ground for making general knowledge claims (see for example, Englander, 2019 ).

15 At points in the interview when a more active questioning is called for, evocation techniques like those from the explication interview, or the micro phenomenological interview method, can be very effective. (see Petitmengin et al., 2018 ) Here, we invoke the daydream so that both the interviewer and the participant can, in an almost trance-like way, imaginatively re-live the daydream together. These techniques can provoke profoundly rich description. Here is another example of how we approach data collection as always contingent to the manner in which the phenomenon best expresses itself. Again, this is why we endorse an adaptable approach to data collection.

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Contributor Information

Magnus Englander, Email: [email protected] .

James Morley, Email: ude.opamar@yelromj .

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Phenomenology helps us to understand the meaning of people's lived experience.  A phenomenological study explores what people experienced and focuses on their experience of a phenomenon.  As phenomenology has a strong foundation in philosophy, it is recommended that you explore the writings of key thinkers such as Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty before embarking on your research. Duquesne's Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center maintains a collection of resources connected to phenomenology as well as hosting lectures, and is a good place to start your exploration.

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Phenomenological Research: Methods And Examples

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program…

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program to improve his understanding of research. As a part of his assignment, he was asked to work with a phenomenological research design. To execute good practices in his work, Ravi studied examples of phenomenological research. This let him understand what approaches he needed and areas he could apply the phenomenological method.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Phenomenological research method, examples of phenomenological research.

A qualitative research approach that helps in describing the lived experiences of an individual is known as phenomenological research. The phenomenological method focuses on studying the phenomena that have impacted an individual. This approach highlights the specifics and identifies a phenomenon as perceived by an individual in a situation. It can also be used to study the commonality in the behaviors of a group of people.  

Phenomenological research has its roots in psychology, education and philosophy. Its aim is to extract the purest data that hasn’t been attained before. Sometimes researchers record personal notes about what they learn from the subjects. This adds to the credibility of data, allowing researchers to remove these influences to produce unbiased narratives. Through this method, researchers attempt to answer two major questions:

• What are the subject’s experiences related to the phenomenon?
• What factors have influenced the experience of the phenomenon?

A researcher may also use observations, art and documents to construct a universal meaning of experiences as they establish an understanding of the phenomenon. The richness of the data obtained in phenomenological research opens up opportunities for further inquiry.

Now that we know what is phenomenological research , let’s look at some methods and examples.

Phenomenological research can be based on single case studies or a pool of samples. Single case studies identify system failures and discrepancies. Data from multiple samples highlights many possible situations. In either case, these are the methods a researcher can use:

• The researcher can observe the subject or access written records, such as texts, journals, poetry, music or diaries
• They can conduct conversations and interviews with open-ended questions, which allow researchers to make subjects comfortable enough to open up
• Action research and focus workshops are great ways to put at ease candidates who have psychological barriers

To mine deep information, a researcher must show empathy and establish a friendly rapport with participants. These kinds of phenomenological research methods require researchers to focus on the subject and avoid getting influenced.

Phenomenological research is a way to understand individual situations in detail. The theories are developed transparently, with the evidence available for a reader to access. We can use this methodology in situations such as:

• The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique. Research can illuminate their mental states and survival strategies in a new world.
• Losing family members to Covid-19 hasn’t been easy. A detailed study of survivors and people who’ve lost loved ones can help understand coping mechanisms and long-term traumas.
• What’s it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? The conflict of birth and death can’t be generalized, but research can record emotions and experiences.

Phenomenological research is a powerful way to understand personal experiences. It provides insights into individual actions and motivations by examining long-held assumptions. New theories, policies and responses can be developed on this basis. But, the phenomenological research design will be ineffective if subjects are unable to communicate due to language, age, cognition or other barriers. Managers must be alert to such limitations and sharp to interpret results without bias.

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Investigating modes of being in the world: an introduction to Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research

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• Volume 22 , pages 149–169, ( 2023 )

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In this article, we develop a new approach to integrating philosophical phenomenology with qualitative research. The approach uses phenomenology’s concepts, namely existentials, rather than methods such as the epoché or reductions. We here introduce the approach to both philosophers and qualitative researchers, as we believe that these studies are best conducted through interdisciplinary collaboration. In section 1, we review the debate over phenomenology’s role in qualitative research and argue that qualitative theorists have not taken full advantage of what philosophical phenomenology has to offer, thus motivating the need for new approaches. In section 2, we introduce our alternative approach, which we call Phenomenologically Grounded Qualitative Research (PGQR). Drawing parallels with phenomenology’s applications in the cognitive sciences, we explain how phenomenological grounding can be used to conceptually front-load a qualitative study, establishing an explicit focus on one or more structures of human existence, or of our being in the world. In section 3, we illustrate this approach with an example of a qualitative study carried out by one of the authors: a study of the existential impact of early parental bereavement. In section 4, we clarify the kind of knowledge that phenomenologically grounded studies generate and how it may be integrated with existing approaches.

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1 Introduction

Phenomenology is a philosophical investigation of experience, subjectivity, and the lifeworld. But the human and social sciences, including psychology, education, anthropology, and nursing, have adapted it as a paradigm for qualitative research. Footnote 1 In many adaptations, they take phenomenology’s philosophical methods—such as the epoché and the hermeneutic circle—and transform them into empirical methods that facilitate interviewing and data analysis. In other adaptations, an approach is called phenomenological simply because it investigates experience from the first-person perspective. Footnote 2 However, while these qualitative researchers draw from the philosophical texts, many have developed their qualitative methodologies without collaborating with philosophically trained phenomenologists.

In this article, we propose an approach to integrating philosophical phenomenology with qualitative research that uses phenomenology’s concepts, rather than its methods, to ground the domain or focus of a qualitative study. We here introduce the approach to both philosophers and qualitative researchers, as we believe that these studies are best conducted through interdisciplinary collaboration. In section 1, we review the debate over phenomenology’s role in qualitative research and argue that qualitative theorists have not taken full advantage of what philosophical phenomenology has to offer, thus motivating the need for new approaches. In section 2, we introduce our alternative approach, which we call Phenomenologically Grounded Qualitative Research (PGQR). Drawing parallels with phenomenology’s applications in the cognitive sciences, we explain how phenomenological grounding can be used to conceptually front-load a qualitative study, establishing an explicit focus on one or more structures of human existence, or of our being in the world. In section 3, we illustrate this approach with an example of a qualitative study carried out by one of the authors: a study of the existential impact of early parental bereavement. In section 4, we clarify the kind of knowledge that phenomenologically grounded studies generate and how it may be integrated with existing approaches.

2 Phenomenology and qualitative research: The state of the debate

Most phenomenological qualitative theorists claim roots in the philosophical tradition of phenomenology. But the degree to which their approaches are genuinely phenomenological has become a matter of debate. Both Amedeo Giorgi ( 2010 ) and Max van Manen ( 2017 ) have questioned the philosophical foundations of Jonathan Smith’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), one of the most popular phenomenological approaches to qualitative research today. Smith ( 2010 , 2018 ) defended the philosophical foundations of his approach, arguing that it draws extensively from the classic phenomenological and hermeneutic texts, including the work of Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. But both Giorgi ( 2011 ) and van Manen ( 2018 ) remain unconvinced. Giorgi acknowledged that Smith’s method has some hermeneutic inspiration; but he argued that Smith fundamentally misinterprets key aspects of the phenomenological method, specifically with respect to notions of bracketing and the reduction. Van Manen took a similar line of argument, suggesting that Smith fails to distinguish phenomenological from psychological methods. Following van Manen’s most recent critique, Dan Zahavi ( 2018 , 2019 ; Zahavi and Martiny 2019 ) questioned the philosophical foundations of both Giorgi’s and van Manen’s approaches. He argued that they misinterpret or (at least in the case of Giorgi) misapply various aspects of the phenomenological method—especially the epoché or reduction. Van Manen ( 2019 ) defended his own position and James Morley ( 2019 ) defended Giorgi’s. But the debate continues, with Zahavi ( 2020 ) leveling a further critique against van Manen’s approach.

These approaches derive much of their legitimacy from their philosophical lineage, which is now in question. And, in the wake of these debates, many qualitative researchers have become skeptical of phenomenological approaches. But this skepticism and concern has proved productive. Already, qualitative theorists have taken the opportunity to clarify their use of phenomenology, including their phenomenological approach to interviews. Footnote 3 We expect that this trend will continue, with current methodologies clarified in productive ways.

The approach that we introduce here, however, diverges in significant respects from the dominant approaches to phenomenological qualitative research (including those of Giorgi, van Manen, and Smith). Our approach does not adapt philosophical phenomenology’s methods, although it may be compatible with approaches that use such methods. Rather, our approach draws on philosophical phenomenology’s concepts—specifically, what phenomenologists call “invariant” or “existential” structures, and what Heidegger refers to, simply, as “existentials.” As we explain in the following section, these structural features of human existence, or being in the world, can be used to ground the domain of a qualitative study. They provide a framework that allows the qualitative researcher to focus on a specific feature of human existence and investigate its particular modes. In so doing, our approach takes advantage of many of phenomenology’s philosophical concepts in ways that other approaches to qualitative research do not. Footnote 4

3 Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research

What is phenomenological grounding? The general idea is fairly simple: Philosophical phenomenology provides a rich account of the essential structures of being in the world, which we refer to as “existentials.” These include intentionality, selfhood, empathy, embodiment, temporality, spatiality, and affectivity, among others. Footnote 5 The existentials provide a conceptual framework that qualitative researchers can use to organize and focus the domain of their study. For example, rather than ask how chronic illness shapes one’s experience in general, we can ask how chronic illness shapes one’s temporal experience, embodied experience, sense of self, and so on. And each of these might be investigated in more detail. With respect to embodied experience, we might ask how illness disrupts one’s habituated styles of bodily movement, how it alters one’s bodily engagement with one’s environment, or how it modifies one’s bodily experience in social interactions. Phenomenologically grounded studies will, therefore, have clearly delimited research questions and aims for the interview—at least in comparison to most phenomenological qualitative approaches.

In this section, we introduce the basics of phenomenological grounding as a qualitative research methodology. First, we clarify the distinction between existentials and modes. This is key to distinguishing between ontological and ontic studies in phenomenology. Second, we explain how to design a phenomenologically grounded study, drawing analogies with how phenomenology has been successfully integrated with cognitive science research. In this introductory article, we do not discuss methods of interviewing or data analysis in detail. Footnote 6 We will return to these stages of PGQR in future work.

3.1 Existentials and modes

We use “existentials” as a synonym for what phenomenologists call “invariant,” “existential,” or “ontological” structures. The existentials are the constitutive elements of human existence, or being in the world. Moreover, we follow Heidegger in acknowledging that being in the world is a unified phenomenon: “Being-in-the-world is a structure which is primordially and constantly whole ” (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962, 225). This means that these constitutive elements aren’t independent of each other. But even Heidegger had to investigate being in the world through its “constitutive items,” that is, its existentials. Analyzing the structure of human existence in this way is a necessary starting point, even if our goal is to provide a more unified account. In much the same way, when we perform qualitative studies of particular ways of being in the world, it’s best to start from specific existentials, even if our ultimate goal is to provide an account of this way of being in its totality.

But qualitative researchers aren’t typically interested in the existentials themselves. They don’t engage in the philosophical articulation of the invariant structural features of human existence, such as temporality, selfhood, and so on. If the analysis of existentials is, for the most part, a philosophical project, then why should qualitative researchers care about existentials? On our approach, a phenomenologically grounded qualitative study investigates what we call a “mode” of an existential. This is a way of being that is, to some degree, particular. This might include a way of being that is considered characteristically masculine or feminine, a way of being that is culturally specific, a way of being that arises from living through a particular kind of life event, and so on. It might be an individual’s way of being. But, in most cases, the researcher will be interested in the way of being of a particular class of subjects (e.g., people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (Køster 2017a ), people who are refugees in western Europe, or people living with a long-term disability). When we articulate what’s distinctive about these ways of being, we’re not describing the existentials or the invariant structural features of human existence. We use the existentials as a guide or framework for an empirical study of particular ways of being.

How should we think of the relationship between existentials and modes? We can think of each existential as a category and the modes as the phenomena that belong to this category (Fernandez 2017 ; Fernandez and Køster 2019 ). We can illustrate this distinction with an example from Heidegger. We may, for instance, articulate the general structure of affective situatedness [ Befindlichkeit ]. As Heidegger argues, we always find ourselves attuned to the world through some mood or other; our moods disclose the world (and ourselves) and allow things to matter to us. When he articulates the structure and function of affective situatedness, he doesn’t describe any particular mood. He describes the structure of affective situatedness in general—the existential itself.

But Heidegger also describes modes of affective situatedness, that is, particular moods. These include, among others, anxiety, joy, and boredom. When he describes these moods, his phenomenological investigation takes on a fundamentally new kind of object. He’s no longer engaged in fundamental ontology—that is, an analysis of the general structure of being in the world. Rather, he’s now engaged in a study of particular modes, or ways, of being in the world, which he refers to as “ontic” studies (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962, 172). In this case, he describes particular modes of affective situatedness. What’s important here is the distinction between (a) the (ontological) investigation of moods as such and (b) the (ontic) investigation of particular moods. We can draw the same distinction for all of the existentials. For example, we can describe the general structure of temporality; but we can also describe the particular temporal modes of whiling away the time or of eager anticipation. Alternatively, we can describe the general structure of body image; but we can also describe the body image of a particular person or class of people. These are two fundamentally different kinds of projects. The former is ontological; the latter is ontic (see, e.g., Heidegger [ 1987 ] 2001, 207). And, for our purposes, the former provides a framework for the latter. Footnote 7 In section 3, we provide a detailed example of how this approach has been used in a qualitative study. However, before we get to the illustration, we need to explain how existentials can inform qualitative research.

3.2 Preparing a phenomenologically grounded study

It’s not enough to say that philosophical phenomenologists study existentials and phenomenological qualitative researchers study the modes of existentials. We need to describe how, exactly, the existentials inform the design of a qualitative study. To clarify this stage of phenomenological grounding, we draw parallels between two approaches to integrating phenomenology with the cognitive sciences. The first is “retrospective” phenomenology. The second is “front-loaded” phenomenology (Gallagher 2003 ; Gallagher and Zahavi 2012 ).

Retrospective phenomenology involves the interpretation, or reinterpretation, of already existing empirical data or analyses. Glenn Braddock ( 2001 ) defends this use of phenomenology. But the approach itself is not new. One of the best examples is Merleau-Ponty’s reinterpretation of the case of Schneider, a World War One veteran whose perception and motility were fundamentally altered following a brain injury. Schneider’s case was originally studied by the psychologist, Adhemar Gelb, and the neurologist, Kurt Goldstein. Together, Gelb and Goldstein collected observational accounts of Schneider’s behavior and first-person reports from Schneider himself. They then analyzed and interpreted this data, providing an account of how Schneider’s lived world had altered. Merleau-Ponty critically reinterpreted Gelb and Goldstein’s data and analyses, providing a competing phenomenological account of Schneider’s condition. He argued that Schneider lost what he calls “the function of projection.” Conscious life is, according to Merleau-Ponty, “underpinned by an ‘intentional arc’ that projects around us our past, our future, our human milieu, our physical situation, our ideological situation, and our moral situation” ([ 1945 ] 2012, 137). He says that Schneider, having lost this function, is bound to his current situation—he can’t imagine other possibilities for himself, speculate about the future, and so on. Here, Merleau-Ponty’s use of phenomenology is retrospective: He uses a phenomenological understanding of experience to critically assess previous scientific analyses and provide alternative interpretations of how experience has been altered or disturbed. Gallagher acknowledges that this approach can produce competing interpretations of a case. But it’s important to keep in mind that these interpretations are not conclusive. As he says, “Merleau-Ponty’s account of the case remains simply one of several possible theoretical accounts” (Gallagher 2003 , 89). This kind of retrospective interpretation, when employed in the context of experimental cognitive science, generates testable hypotheses. It does not provide definitive conclusions. If one’s interpretation of a case is accurate, then it should, in principle, stand up to experimental testing.

When using a retrospective approach in the design of qualitative study, the researcher should consult both the relevant scientific literature (e.g., previous psychological and/or qualitative studies) and first-person descriptions (e.g., memoirs, previous interviews, etc.). As we’ll illustrate in section 3, a phenomenologically informed interpretation may identify aspects of a condition, or way of being, that’s been neglected in previous studies. Or, alternatively, the phenomenological orientation may provide a more nuanced interpretation of an experience that’s already been studied. For example, a researcher may review previous studies of bodily objectification in health care settings. By critically reviewing the results of these studies in light of their phenomenological understanding of embodiment, they may be able to conceptually distinguish among different kinds of bodily objectification that haven’t been disambiguated in existing studies. This provides the groundwork for developing a new study that will focus on specific modes of bodily objectification and provide more nuanced insight into these kinds of experiences.

After identifying the specific aspect of being in the world that the researcher wants to investigate, they should turn to the front-loading process. Here, again, it’s helpful to review how this approach has been successfully used within the cognitive sciences. According to Gallagher, the retrospective approach can produce alternative interpretations that generate new hypotheses for empirical (in his case, experimental) research. Front-loading, in contrast, is used to design the studies that will test the hypothesis. The cognitive scientist can draw upon phenomenological concepts and conceptual distinctions to frame their empirical study. The front-loading of new concepts in the study-design leads to the generation of new data (Gallagher 2003 ; Gallagher and Zahavi 2012 , 44–45).

To get a better sense of this approach, consider one of Gallagher’s examples: In most bodily experiences, the sense of bodily self-agency and the sense of bodily self-ownership are nearly indistinguishable. When I walk down the street, drink a cup of coffee, or grab a book off the shelf, I have the tacit sense that I am both the agent of this bodily movement and that it is my body that is moving. However, if someone pushes me, then I do not experience any agency for this movement—I experience the person who pushed me as the agent. Yet I still experience the movement as happening to me—I experience my body being pushed. I therefore have an experience of ownership without an experience of agency. As Gallagher stresses, this is not simply a higher-order attribution of agency or ownership. The distinction holds at the level of first-order phenomenal consciousness. As he says, “They are part of a pre-reflective (non-conceptual) self-awareness implicit to the experience of action” (Gallagher 2003 , 92). With this conceptual distinction in hand, cognitive scientists can design experimental studies that investigate, for instance, the neurological processes that underpin or correlate with these distinct experiences. Without such a conceptual distinction—and, thus, without the ability to accurately identify the phenomena in question—it would be impossible to design an empirical study that investigates the different mechanisms that underly bodily agency in contrast with bodily ownership.

How can a front-loaded approach be used in qualitative research? Qualitative researchers don’t conduct experiments and they aren’t concerned with neurobiological mechanisms. But the general principles of front-loading still apply. To put phenomenological concepts to use, qualitative researchers might use the conclusions of their own retrospective interpretations of previous data and analyses to formulate new research questions and an interview protocol. But they may also use critical reinterpretations developed by philosophically trained phenomenologists as a jumping off point for their empirical investigations. Just as Heidegger investigated particular modes of affective situatedness, many philosophically trained phenomenologists investigate particular modes of being in the world. These philosophical investigations are empirical, to a degree, since they draw on and critically engage with empirical research. But they don’t typically generate their own data through interviews or analyses. For example, one of the most famous applications of philosophical phenomenology is Iris Marion Young’s study of feminine body movement (Young 1980 ). In this study, Young uses Merleau-Ponty’s general account of embodiment as a foundation for describing characteristically feminine modes of body comportment. A qualitative researcher interested in women’s embodied experiences may, for instance, use Young’s philosophical study as a starting point for their own qualitative study, designing interview questions that will help flesh out some of the experiences that Young described in fairly broad strokes. Moreover, this kind of empirical study also has the potential to correct or revise Young’s account if the findings conflict with Young’s descriptions.

Young’s study is just one example of a kind of retrospective phenomenological analysis that can provide conceptual foundations and guiding clues for qualitative researchers. Many philosophically trained phenomenologists provide accounts of, for example, women’s experience, African-American experience, the experience of chronic illness, the experience of living with various mental disorders, and so on. Typically, these phenomenological accounts draw upon and critically engage with empirical research. But they don’t generate their own data. Footnote 8 There is, therefore, an open question about how broadly their interpretations apply, whether they apply equally to other populations, and so on. These kinds of philosophical studies therefore provide excellent starting points for qualitative researchers to develop their own empirical studies that might flesh out, or even correct, the philosophical accounts.

4 Designing a phenomenologically grounded study of modal alterations

Up to this point, our discussion has been fairly abstract. In this section, we provide a concrete example of a PGQR study conducted by one of the authors, focusing primarily on the study-design. This will exemplify how existentials can ground the domain of the study and orient the researcher toward the specific modes that they’re concerned with. The study involved in-depth phenomenological interviews with 20 people who had experienced early parental bereavement (between the age of 5–18). The overall aim of the study was to investigate how this kind of profound event in early life may have impacted the overall mode of being in the world of the individual. To achieve such an analysis, the study was phenomenologically grounded by using existentials as lenses for structuring and guiding the interviews. Because the aim was to identify alterations in the overall way of being in the world, the focus of the interview was ex post facto (i.e., backwards-looking at how the loss shaped the experiences of the interview across the life-span). The participants were between 20 and 50 years old and were interviewed for a total of 6–8 hours over the course of 3–4 interviews.

As already discussed in detail above, the kind of phenomenologically grounded study that we propose requires extensive familiarity with and understanding of the relevant existentials. This familiarity allows the researcher to structure and focus his attention on the specific kinds of experiences, or contents of experience, that are relevant to the study. The interview is conducted in an explorative and inherently hermeneutic attitude. But this attitude differs significantly from what one might expect from other qualitative studies, such as the semi-structured interviews of IPA, where the exploration is primarily guided by selected themes (Smith et al., 2009 ), or the completely open attitude of an inductive approach such as grounded theory (Charmaz 2014 ), where theory is generated exclusively based on methodological gathering and analysis of data. Rather, in a phenomenologically grounded approach, the interview is guided by a phenomenological sensitivity that, to some degree, privileges the researcher’s extensive knowledge of existentials. It is important to emphasize that the process of grounding draws exclusively on the structure and dynamics of the existentials. These provide the conceptual framework for the study, allowing the researcher to focus in on the particular modal alterations, which must be investigated empirically; our understanding of the particular mode—in contrast with our understanding of the existentials—emerges from the interview and subsequent data analysis. Hence, by using existentials as a conceptual framework, the researcher does not impose experiential content on the interviewee. Rather, the existential provides a lens that allows the researcher to focus on and explore the specific content that they want to understand and describe with the interviewee.

Grounding the design of the bereavement study had two stages, which parallel our earlier discussion of retrospective and front-loaded phenomenology: (1) The selection of relevant existentials and (2) the articulation of a guiding research question that frames an investigation of the modes of this existential.

4.1 Selecting the existential and designing a research question

When designing a phenomenologically grounded qualitative study, the researcher shouldn’t simply select an existential at random. Which existentials a researcher should focus on—and how she justifies this focus—will depend on both the phenomenon under investigation and the state of current research on the topic. In the parental bereavement study, the existentials that guided the investigations were selected based on a comprehensive engagement with two sets of literature on grief and bereavement experiences: (1) psychological studies and (2) first-person descriptions from memoirs and poetry that express personal experiences of loss. Critically engaging with these two sets of literature constituted the retrospective stage of the study (analogous to the retrospective use of phenomenology in cognitive science research discussed above). In what follows, we illustrate how these two sets of literature were used to (a) select a relevant existential for the study and (b) design a research question within the domain of this existential. This account should be considered illustrative and not prescriptive. The study investigated modal alterations in a total of five existentials, each of which had separate research questions and interview protocols, and the design process was not identical across these. In fact, the relevance of one existential, namely body memory , was discovered through the interview process itself; nothing in the surveyed literature had highlighted the importance of this aspect of grief (Køster 2020b ). In this case, the design stage was not disconnected from the hermeneutics of the interview process.

First, by engaging with the existing psychological (and philosophical) literature on grief, it was clear that grief is recognized as an ambiguous and complex affective phenomenon (O’Connor et al. 2008 ; Parkes and Prigerson 2013 ; Boerner et al., 2013 ). According to standard psychological accounts, the emotivity of grief has a wavelike character—what, since Lindemann ( 1944 ), has been referred to as ‘pangs of grief’. Footnote 9 The affective dimension of grief is therefore predominantly understood as what phenomenologists call an “emotion,” that is, a short-lived affective state that is directed toward something within the world—in this case, the lost loved one.

Once this phenomenon—i.e., the affective dimension of grief—was understood within the current scientific literature, memoirs and other first-personal literature on grief were consulted to see if these descriptions enrich or perhaps conflict with the scientific accounts. Roland Barthes’ Mourning Diary ( 2010 ) provided an especially enlightening perspective. Here, he insists that there is an encompassing affective component integral to his experience of bereavement that is separate from what he calls the ‘emotivity’ of grief: “Emotion (emotivity) passes, suffering remains” (Barthes 2010 , 103), he tells us. Hence, according to Barthes, there is an affective dimension that both precedes and exceeds the emotional level. Barthes consistently refers to this as “suffering” and insists that it is an affective constant, a kind of altered affective tonality that governs the way of being in the world of the individual in much the same way that one’s being in the world is modified when in love (Barthes 2010 , 126). However, Barthes does not actually describe this affective state in any detail. He points to it as a significant experiential domain and calls it “suffering,” yet he provides no systematic description. But this should not be surprising: it was not Barthes’ intention with the text. Barthes’ diaries point to an affective phenomenon that has not been adequately investigated in the psychological literature and, therefore, motivates the need for a systematic investigation. His first-person accounts suggested a deeper affective alteration—one that doesn’t come in waves, but is a pervasive background way of finding oneself affectively attuned to the world. This suggested an alteration in what phenomenologists have traditionally called ground moods (Heidegger [ 1927 ] 1962; 2001) and which has more recently been addressed, in a slightly modified form, as existential feelings (Ratcliffe 2008 ). To avoid terminological confusion, we shall refer to these as existential feelings in the following. This notion is not part of a standard taxonomy in empirical psychology, in which both emotions and moods are defined as temporally delimited states (Coleman 2008 ). However, as Peter Goldie ( 2002 ) has pointed out, this conceptualization characterizes affectivity as purely contingent to experience—an add-on element that temporarily colours and disturbs experiences, implying that the mind is typically free of affect.

Contrary to this, the phenomenologists argue that not only does existence always feel a certain way, but existential feelings are responsible for structuring how we find ourselves in the world. Hence, while emotions express a short-term evaluative attitude towards specific objects, existential feelings are non-intentional or pre-intentional affective states that determine our mode of being in the world. Existential feelings shape our sense of reality and both open and constrain our range of intentional states, including emotions and desires. However, while phenomenologists have clearly articulated what existential feelings are, and even provided analyses of particular feelings (e.g., existential anxiety, profound boredom, deep guilt), there has not been a systematic investigation into whether bereavement experiences produce alterations in existential feelings. Footnote 10

It’s important to remember that this stage, which critically engages with both the scientific and non-scientific literature, is only the retrospective stage of the analysis. What one can learn from existing literature is necessarily limited. These texts remain a fixed testimony to an experience that can be unpacked only to a limited degree if one does not move beyond the text. Eventually, one exhausts an existing first-person report and will require new data to gain a richer understanding of the relevant phenomenon. This retrospective stage therefore generates new research questions informed by the existing literature. But, to answer these questions, we need to turn to the front-loading stage, in which phenomenological concepts are incorporated into the design of an empirical qualitative study.

The retrospective engagement with the existing literature led to the following guiding research questions: Do profound experiences of bereavement manifest in alterations at the level of existential feelings? If so, how should these changes be characterized from a phenomenological point of view? Importantly, the generation of this research focus was itself created through phenomenological grounding. An explicit and active hermeneutic awareness and sensitivity to phenomenological analysis and conceptuality formed the research focus.

4.2 The interview-guide and phenomenological sensibility in the hermeneutics of the interview

The above-mentioned research question formed the basis of one of the project’s interview guides, which was specifically aimed at disclosing potential modifications at the level of existential feelings. At this point, it should be noted that the type of interview we are proposing is not one with a pre-defined set of questions that the interviewees should be taken through in a sequence. Rather, the interview guide functions as a broad hermeneutic roadmap for the interview. It steers the interview through a few predefined focus points, which ensure that the research question is explored in a thorough manner. Such focus points included an exploration of a range of overlapping categories that all emphasize how existential feelings are the connective tissue between self and world, such as the character of how it felt to be alive, the feeling of the relation to the world, the embodied sense of presence in the world, and so on. As such, the interview guide is far more theory-loaded and specific in its focus than one would expect from a standard semi-structured and thematically guided approach to interviews (Brinkmann and Kvale 2015 ). Furthermore, the overlapping nature of the categories was intentional and rooted in the rationale that it is in fact an unfamiliar activity for non-phenomenologists to address this type of phenomenon and that it is therefore productive to reiterate through a variety of phrasings and points of entry.

Although the structure of the interview guide was already phenomenologically grounded, a more encompassing grounding is found in the inquisitive and hermeneutic attitude of the interviewer. Throughout the interview, the researcher should use his understanding of the existentials to cultivate his attention toward the phenomenon under investigation. The researcher should take up an exploratory attitude, attending to any hints or clues that the interviewee might offer and asking follow-up questions that encourage the interviewee to describe this aspect of their experience in more detail. Certain expressions and statements of the interviewee should be systematically flagged and become the object of dedicated investigations. For example, if an interviewee were asked to describe what he felt like in the period after being bereaved, he might refer to a range of affective states, such as emotions of longing and anger, as well as a general feeling of being distanced from everything. In this case, the interviewer should flag the feeling of being distanced as particularly relevant since it points to what a phenomenologist would recognize as an existential feeling and attempt to systematically unpack it through a series of follow-up questions, such as, “What does it feel like to be distanced?”; “How does one notice distance?”; “How does distance announce itself?”; “Distance from what?”; “Is distance similar to or connected to other feelings?”; etc. Specifically, in respect to existential feelings, which are often expressed in metaphorical and allegoric language (Ratcliffe 2008 , 38), it is productive to both invite such types of language and at the same time not assume that these metaphors can be understood off-hand. Rather, metaphors should be extensively unpacked and explored. Quite often, this involves an attitude of lingering with and focusing on the particular phenomenon for a much longer duration than we are used to and comfortable with in everyday conversation. While it might feel familiar to the trained phenomenologist to linger with the process of bringing tacit, pre-reflective experiences to expression, this is a rather unfamiliar activity to an average interviewee and it may feel both tedious and unnecessary. Hence this aspect of the interview should be addressed with the interviewee beforehand.

At this point, the reader might worry that there is something rather circular about this approach, and that the method might run the risk of generating the phenomena it is looking for. Does the strong focus on front-loading not compromise the open explorative attitude that sets qualitative studies apart from more quantitative approaches in psychology? These are valid concerns. However, in response to such worries, we emphasize two key points:

Since the focus of PGQR is to explore altered modes of being in the world through modal alterations in existentials, we are dealing with a level of experience that is inherently difficult to access and does not often reveal itself in everyday reflection. This means that the type of descriptions we are looking for will not pop up in the typical and oft-rehearsed self-narratives that may be offered by the interviewees in a qualitative study. Rather, the interviewer needs to push beyond (or below) these scripted narratives in an attempt to evoke descriptions of pre-reflective and often embodied experiences that have not previously been reflected on or narrated by the interviewee. Footnote 11 The interviewee might, for instance, have lived through profound alterations in existential feelings post-bereavement, but without being reflectively aware of this or able to pin-point and articulate this alteration. Because we investigate experiences that seldom offer themselves in the interviewee’s narrative, PGQR relies on front-loading to privilege the researcher’s knowledge of existentials.

Front-loading the interview does not predetermine the content of the interviewees’ descriptions. There is a significant difference between predefining the focus of an investigation and predefining what will emerge from this focus. That is, a predefined focus on existential feelings does not dictate the kind of alteration that might emerge. In fact, it might even turn out that there are no alterations to be found here at all. Therefore, the pre-structured focus developed in the retrospective phase is open to a degree of falsification. Obviously, this should not be taken in a strict sense of hypothesis testing; rather, the assumptions that guide the investigation are sensitive to the concrete experiential content described in the interviews.

4.3 Examples of descriptions generated

To illustrate the kinds of descriptions that this type of interview can produce, let’s turn to some examples. First, it should be noted that the interviews confirmed the tentative supposition that bereavement manifested in alterations in existential feelings. All the participants, save one, Footnote 12 expressed profound changes in existential feelings in the years immediately following bereavement. Most of them, with significant scalar differentiations in intensity and frequency, considered these changes a lasting disposition and something that characterized their particular mode of being in the world.

The kind of modal alteration reported was similar across all participants and there was a striking similarity in the choice of metaphors used to express this alteration. In a condensed manner, the alteration can be characterized as world-distancing . Briefly stated, world-distancing refers to a continued or recurring feeling of being disconnected from the world. The world appears separate, akin to watching an event from a distance—not standing within the bustling crowd, but observing the crowd while feeling distinctly separate from it, pushed back on yourself and out of the flow of the world. This affective state is a profound existential feeling that has implications on both the experiential dimension of temporality and sociality. The following examples illustrate some aspects of this alteration, but are not exhaustive of it. It should also be noted that these rather clear descriptions provided by informants are the result of a lengthy and laborious collaborative process of bringing experiences to words, which required repetition, lingering, and refining expressions. However, they are exclusively the words of the informants.

Let’s start with the following description of a 49-year-old man who lost his mother suddenly at age 12. He describes the emergence of a world distancing affective attunement in the following way:

To me this feeling of distancing is similar to watching a train running by. It’s my life, and I am on the platform watching the train run by. You know, the best metaphor is perhaps looking at a party and, just for a few seconds, having stepped out into the garden and watching the party from afar. You know there are a lot of people, and I have a relation to all of them. Everybody is having fun, but I have stepped outside. I observe it all. And it is perhaps really that observing stance from the outside that best describes the changed feeling. It’s a kind of bubbling up. It’s a different feeling of being in a blur, like things are a bit out of focus because I experience it from afar. When thinking of this state all I can think of is calmness. There is no noise. Perhaps I can describe it by saying there is no sound. And this kind of displacement was not only an initial feeling. It is a recurring feeling, one that has become a property of my way of being... In this sense the world has become much more two-dimensional. It has no depth. The world is no longer as nuanced, I think. There are not as many layers, I think, or that’s what I am left with when I say that it’s soft and calm. You know, when you observe from a distance, you don’t get all the details, some of the senses don’t exist, as for instance the sense of smell, because you are watching things from afar.

To anyone familiar with Heidegger’s notion of Befindlichkeit or Ratcliffe’s expansion of this concept to existential feelings, it should be clear that this description depicts a clear modal alteration in this level of experience. That is, the very mode of being in the world is altered. It is a feeling of “being in a bubble,” of “being in a blur,” a feeling that alters the way the world manifests in the sense that it is now “more two-dimensional,” without color and lacking in sensory qualities, partially because it is observed from afar.

The contours of this description are echoed by a 33-year-old woman who lost her father at the age of 16. However, she adds an important temporal dimension to this modal change in affective attunement, which illustrates the inherently interrelated constitution of existentials:

I consider it, this feeling of distancing, as almost a metaphysical feeling. I am in my body but the world is cloudy. I am confined to my own shell, and time has stopped; everybody else is continuing their lives, but I am stuck in stillness. It’s a kind of vacuum, where time feels abstract. It’s a feeling of being fundamentally alone in the world... One might perhaps also say that I feel like I am continuously caught behind a glass plate and watching the world and other people through this screen.

Again, she explicitly refers to the sense of distancing as a feeling, in this case a “ metaphysical feeling ,” that describes a particular way of finding herself in the world. As emphasized, however, she adds a clear temporal dimension to this experience: distancing is a feeling of being “ stuck in stillness ” because “ time has stopped ,” separated from the temporal flow of the world.

A 28-year-old woman who lost her mother at age 10 complements these descriptions by elaborating on the social implications of world-distancing as a particular mode of attunement:

I think it is a bit like being in a bubble; well, it’s a feeling of being in a bubble and when somebody is talking to you it just becomes this myriad of words, this stream of fuzzy talk, because it is difficult to localize it, because you are caught in your own bubble. One keeps thinking that this is what is happening, and then that only makes it worse. Often, I feel, though, that I am able to tune-in on the conversation, but it is really hard to remain present. I hear the words, but I can’t be fully present, so I end up just saying hmmm, and platitudes like “I know that.” Sometimes I feel like shaking my head a bit, to see if it disappears, but it’s really difficult. It’s a bit like having the hiccups and trying to think it away—it does not work. I start thinking that they notice that, they can tell you are not listening. It’s really unpleasant. I get this feeling very often, almost daily, since my mum passed. At least it feels like that.

In this passage, she emphasizes how the feeling of distance impacts the capacity to follow the rhythm and resonance of social interaction. She feels cut off from the interaction as a result of the preceding affective state of distance. The broader anatomy of this altered affective integration with the world is complex and it had a profound impact on the overall well-being of the informants. However, the reader might wonder to what extent this state is in fact specific to grief. A similar kind of world distancing is, for instance, sometimes reported in connection to states of dissociation and, from a phenomenologically inspired clinical perspective, Robert Stolorow associates a similar state of world-distancing with trauma more generally (although he specifically uses grief as his example) (Stolorow 2011 , 2019 ). Lastly, world-distancing as an affective state shows similarities to Heidegger’s description of anxiety. Our claim is therefore obviously not to propose that world-distancing is exclusive to the experiences of grief. Assuming that an experience is correlated to one specific affective state in this uniform way would be naïve and out of tune with the broader natural history and evolution of our affective repertoire. However, we find it reasonable to expect that there is a certain way that world-distancing manifests or unfolds in grief experiences. Although it far exceeds the scope of this paper to justify and expand on this claim here, we can indicate that there is a particular feeling of existential loneliness associated with post-bereavement feelings of world-distancing that differs in kind from other types of trauma (Køster 2019 ).

These are examples of the descriptions that a PGQR study can generate. Getting to these descriptions is only the first step in the broader research process. Important work is still needed to provide a thorough phenomenological analysis of the kind of experiential modification that they constitute. However, it should also be clear that the kinds of descriptions generated by the focus points and sensitivities of PGQR differ from the descriptions that would flow naturally into a typical grief narrative. Rather, the descriptions emerge as a result of the phenomenological grounding of the interview.

5 Type of knowledge generated

As already mentioned, there are a number of well-established phenomenological approaches to qualitative research. So far, we have focused on how PGQR is distinctive by grounding the research process in pre-selected existentials. These existentials provide the foundation for well-focused research questions and the design of interview protocols that help the researcher attend to the pre-reflective level of experience. We’ve also seen the kind of insightful and illuminating descriptions that participants can provide when interviewed through this approach. However, what kind of knowledge do PGQR studies generate? Is PGQR relevant to all types of qualitative research agendas and can it be integrated with all types of qualitative methods? We intend to provide detailed answers to these questions in future work. But, for now, we provide an initial account of the scope and conditions for applications of PGQR.

We are not suggesting that PGQR replace existing phenomenological approaches to qualitative inquiry. Rather, PGQR’s conceptual orientation can be integrated with a variety of existing approaches to qualitative research, both phenomenological and non-phenomenological. As we see it, PGQR has its merits in the particular type of knowledge that it generates, which in turn also restricts its range of application. As already mentioned, PGQR investigates altered modes of being in the world. We might also refer to this as the way one finds oneself in the world or the how of one’s being in the world. Importantly, these modes or ways are often pre-reflective. One can, in principle, reflect upon one’s mode of being. But, in everyday life, how we find ourselves in the world is often tacit or implicit. PGQR orients the researcher toward pre-reflective and embodied aspects of experience and allows the interviewee to articulate these aspects of experience without recourse to ready-made and culturally scripted narratives of experience.

This kind of research broadens our understanding of our pre-reflective experiential life, including how it undergoes alterations in significant life events. However, the kind of knowledge generated by PGQR can also be integrated with other kinds of studies. The prevalence of descriptions of world-distancing as an aspect of the affectivity of grief is, for instance, currently being investigated in an encompassing quantitative study. Footnote 13 Based on this kind of survey material, it will perhaps be possible to determine whether world-distancing differs across types of loss and if it can be predictive of complicated grief reactions or states of prolonged grief disorder.

The specific focus of PGQR also means, however, that PGQR might not be the best choice if one wants to understand, for instance, particular practices, be they cultural or more personal, such as when Ashworth ( 2016 ) investigates the practice of gift giving or when van Manen ( 1990 , 104–6) examines childhood secrets. But PGQR may still be able to supplement such studies. For example, while it does not provide resources for understanding the practice of telling or listening to secrets, it may help us understand how holding a secret modifies one’s general orientation toward others. PGQR also does not seem obvious for ethnographic research that focuses on social interaction in situ, in so far as these studies aim to understand the logic of human actions within a confined social context or environment, rather than the modes of being that these individuals find themselves in. Moreover, PGQR does not typically inquire into interviewees’ opinions, beliefs, or values.

It may also be helpful to show how PGQR differs from a popular approach to applied phenomenology that also draws extensively on the philosophical texts: micro-phenomenology, which has been developed by Claire Petitmengin and colleagues (Petitmengin 2006 ; Petitmengin et al., 2019 ). There are several overlaps between PGQR and micro-phenomenology, such as a focus on bringing pre-reflective experiences to language and the explicit methodological intention of letting the interview be structured and guided by the interviewer’s extensive “meta-knowledge” of experiential structures (see, e.g., Petitmengin 2006 , 250), which is similar to what we have framed in terms of front-loading. However, at least two constitutive differences should be emphasized.

First, there is a manifest difference in focus : PGQR studies investigate broad existential orientations and characterize alterations in the overall mode of being in the world of the person, partitioned through the lens of existentials. Micro-phenomenology, in contrast, studies particular, temporally delimited cognitive processes, such as specific acts of memorizing or detecting cues for anticipating epileptic seizures (Petitmengin et al., 2006 ). Such cognitive processes can, according to micro-phenomenology, only be investigated through “singular acts” (Petitmengin 2006 , 692). The research protocol for micro-phenomenology provides a rich and detailed methodology for investigating such singular acts. However, it is not obvious how this framework would be appropriate for investigations of broader modes of being in the world. This is not to say that the two frameworks can’t supplement each other or that the methodological innovations for investigating singular acts cannot enrich and be applicable to aspects of a PGQR. However, the overall focus is fundamentally different.

Second, micro-phenomenology specifically aims to uncover invariant experiential structures through empirical investigations that move from individual experiences toward “progressively abstract categories” (Petitmengin et al. 2019 , 702). PGQR, in contrast, moves in a different direction. It utilizes philosophical accounts of invariant structures, or existentials, to frame empirical investigations of particular modal alterations, which are often generalizable to a population but are not invariant structures of existence. There may be potential for PGQR studies to inform our understanding of invariant structures; but this is not its primary aim.

To which types of inquiry is PGQR therefore suited? It’s well-suited for any study where modifications in one’s mode of being in the world can reasonably be expected. As noted above, philosophically trained phenomenologists often take modes of being in the world as their primary object of study, even if they don’t use this kind of language when characterizing their investigation. A few examples include alterations in modes of affectivity in mental disorders (Ratcliffe 2008 ; Stanghellini and Rosfort 2013 ); modes of embodiment in chronic or life-threatening illness, or even following treatment (Aho and Aho 2009 ; Carel 2013 ; Nancy and Hanson 2002 ; Slatman 2016 ; Toombs 1995 ); and the discursively shaped modes of both embodiment and spatiality that are characteristic of feminine ways of being (Young 1980 ). In sum, PGQR generates knowledge by uncovering alterations in the basic modes that constitute how a person finds herself in the world.

6 Conclusion

In this article, we have argued that qualitative research can benefit from a conceptual grounding in philosophical phenomenology. We have proposed PGQR as a framework for this interdisciplinary integration. On this approach, the qualitative researcher frames her empirical study through the concepts and analyses found in philosophical phenomenology. Each stage of a qualitative study, from designing a research question to analyzing the data, should be guided by phenomenological concepts and analyses. This process of phenomenological grounding directs the researcher toward specific existentials, allowing the researcher to investigate the modes of this existential and, thus, one’s way of being in the world. This, moreover, enables the researcher to investigate aspects of experience that are typically pre-reflective, orienting the interviewee toward aspects of her experience that she may have been largely unaware of and never before put into words.

Where should we go from here? As we noted above, there’s considerably more to say about further stages of research within the PGQR paradigm. We’ll need to clarify how phenomenological concepts should inform the interview process, including the dynamics between interviewer and interviewee; how these concepts should be used to analyze interview transcripts; and, also, how the interviews themselves can generate new questions for future studies. This article provides an initial introduction. But we intend to follow up on these aspects of PGQR and develop them in future work.

Some of the better-known approaches have been developed by Peter Ashworth ( 2003 ); Paul Colaizzi ( 1978 ); Karin Dahlberg et al. ( 2008 ); Amedeo Giorgi ( 2009 ); Darren Langdridge ( 2007 ); Max van Manen ( 2016 ); Claire Petitmengin ( 2006 ); and Jonathan Smith et al. ( 2009 ).

Shaun Gallagher argues that some of these approaches even fail to reach the lived experience of the interviewee, instead arriving at opinions or explanations for how the interviewee felt about an experience ( 2012 , 306).

One example is found in the work of Magnus Englander, who had previously written on phenomenological approaches to interviewing (Englander 2012 ) but, following Zahavi’s critique, returned to the topic and clarified his position (Englander 2020 ).

Readers who are familiar with phenomenological approaches to qualitative research may recognize an apparent similarity with the work of van Manen ( 1990 , 2016 ), Ashworth ( 2003 , 2016 ), and Les Todres et al., ( 2007 ; see also Dahlberg et al., 2009 ; Todres et al., 2009 ). All of these authors appeal to existentials, although they may refer to them under different names (Ashworth calls them “fractions of the life-world” and Todres, Galvin, and Dahlberg call them “constituents of the lifeworld”). One distinctive feature of our approach is the use of a single existential or a selection of existentials to determine the scope of the study in advance. This allows for a highly focused study of a specific structural feature of human existence, such as temporality, spatiality, selfhood, or affectivity. In this respect, our approach shares much in common with the method of conceptual front-loading used in phenomenology’s successful application in the cognitive sciences (Gallagher 2003 ).

To our knowledge, no one has attempted to provide an exhaustive list of existentials and no one has provided necessary and sufficient criteria for determining what counts as an existential. However, there’s general agreement among phenomenologists on what these key structures are, although they may have different ways of describing and distinguishing them.

For recommendations on philosophically informed approaches to phenomenological interviewing, see Høffding and Martiny ( 2016 ) and Gallagher and Francesconi ( 2012 ).

We acknowledge that there are competing interpretations of what Heidegger means by “fundamental ontology” and what the relationship is between ontological and ontic investigations in his work. To provide a clear and viable approach to applied phenomenology, we put some of these interpretive debates aside and simply rely on an interpretation that’s useful for qualitative researchers. However, we do believe that our distinction between the ontological and the ontic is largely consistent with Heidegger’s characterization in the Zollikon Seminars , where he explains to a group of psychiatrists that their studies of mental illnesses are ontic, whereas his own studies of being in the world are ontological (Fernandez 2018 ; Heidegger [ 1987 ] 2001 , 207). There’s also a sense in which investigations of particular phenomena (e.g., particular moods) provide resources for articulating the general features that hold for this entire class of phenomena (e.g., moods as such). However, for the sake of simplicity, we will not discuss this aspect of phenomenological research here.

There are a few exceptions. See, for example, Jenny Slatman’s phenomenologically informed qualitative studies of women’s experience following a mastectomy (Slatman et al., 2016 ).

In DSM-5, grief is also distinguished from Major Depressive Disorder through its wave-like character: “The dysphoria in grief is likely to decrease in intensity over days to weeks and occurs in waves, the so-called pangs of grief. These waves tend to be associated with thoughts or reminders of the deceased. The depressed mood in MDE is more persistent and not tied to specific thoughts or preoccupations” (American Psychiatric Association 2013 ).

This is not to say that grief has not been a topic of philosophy. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in grief from a phenomenological perspective (see, e.g., Fuchs 2018 ; Køster 2019 , 2020a , 2021 ; Ratcliffe 2017 , 2020 ).

For a detailed analysis of this process see (Køster 2017b ).

It is not in itself an aim of PGQR that all the descriptions for the interviewees align or overlap. Contrasts in experiences can provide rich sources for phenomenological elaboration. For an example of how this unpacks see (Køster 2020b , 2021 ).

The prevalence of world distancing as an aspect of grief experiences has recently been investigated as part of a controlled, randomized intervention project titled “TABstudy” based in Aarhus University, Denmark. On the basis of the descriptions generated in PGQR interviews, we developed a psychometric scale of measurement which was sent out to 1600 participants from 2016–2020. The results are currently in the process of being published.

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Acknowledgments

We thank Ola Borek, Svend Brinkmann, Shaun Gallagher, Jim Morley, Marta Santillo, Dan Zahavi, and researchers as the “Culture of Grief” for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. This work was supported by the Den Obelske familiefond (#28153) and the Global Research Network program through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2017S1A2A2039388).

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Køster, A., Fernandez, A.V. Investigating modes of being in the world: an introduction to Phenomenologically grounded qualitative research. Phenom Cogn Sci 22 , 149–169 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-020-09723-w

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171 Best Phenomenological Research Topics For Students

Welcome to our exploration of Phenomenological Research Topics, where we examine how people experience life. Phenomenology, a philosophy turned research method, tries to understand how we experience the world around us. 

By studying people’s experiences, this blog will uncover the depths of emotions, perceptions, social interactions, memories, and identity. We want to illuminate the complex woven cloth of human existence and our realities by examining these topics. 

Whether you’re a student, researcher, or just curious about how complicated human experiences are, join us as we explore the rich research landscape of people’s experiences. Let’s start this journey together to understand better what it means to be human.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Table of Contents

Phenomenological research is a type of study that tries to understand people’s personal experiences and how they make sense of the world. Researchers ask participants questions about their lives, feelings, perceptions, and understandings. 

The goal is to uncover the deep meaning behind everyday experiences we may take for granted. Phenomenological studies value the subjective perspectives of individuals and aim to see the world through their eyes. These studies often rely on in-depth interviews, observations, art, diaries, and other personal sources of information. 

The focus is on describing the essence of an experience rather than explaining or analyzing it. The aim is to gain insight into the diversity and complexity of human experience in a way that is accessible and relatable. Phenomenological research provides an enriching window into what it means to be human.

171 Phenomenological Research Topics

Here is the list of phenomenological research topics:

• The experience of being a first-generation college student.
• The lived experiences of pupils with disabilities in higher education.
• Teachers’ experiences of burnout in urban schools.
• Parental involvement in early childhood education: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of immigrant students in the classroom.
• Homeschooling: A phenomenological exploration of parental motivations.
• Student perceptions of online education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The experiences of teachers implementing project-based learning in STEM education.
• Peer tutoring: A phenomenological investigation into its effectiveness.
• Educational leadership: A phenomenological study of principals’ experiences.

Psychology and Mental Health

• The lived experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders.
• Perceptions of body image among adolescents: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Faring mechanisms of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Experiences of postpartum depression among new mothers.
• The phenomenology of addiction recovery.
• The lived adventures of survivors of domestic violence.
• Self-care practices among mental health professionals.
• The meaning of resilience: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of grief and loss: A phenomenological study.
• Psychological well-being in the LGBTQ+ community: A phenomenological approach.

Health and Medicine

• The lived experiences of cancer survivors.
• The patient experiences chronic pain management.
• Understanding the meaning of disability: A phenomenological study.
• Nurses’ experiences of compassion fatigue.
• The lived experiences of people living with HIV/AIDS.
• Family caregivers’ experiences of caring for elderly relatives.
• Medical professionals’ experiences of ethical dilemmas in healthcare.
• The phenomenology of end-of-life care.
• Experiences of stigma among some people with mental illness.
• The lived experiences of organ transplant recipients.

Sociology and Anthropology

• The experience of homelessness: A phenomenological exploration.
• Perceptions of social justice among marginalized communities.
• Cultural identity among immigrant populations: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of discrimination based on race/ethnicity.
• The meaning of community in rural areas: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The lived experiences of refugees resettling in a new country.
• Social media use and its impact on interpersonal relationships.
• Experiences of aging: A phenomenological perspective.
• Work-life balance: A phenomenological study of dual-career couples.
• The phenomenology of poverty in urban settings.

Business and Management

• Entrepreneurial experiences of women in male-dominated industries.
• Leadership styles in multinational corporations: A phenomenological approach.
• Work-life integration among Millennials in the workforce.
• Employee experiences of workplace diversity and inclusion initiatives.
• Small business owners’ experiences of navigating economic challenges.
• The lived experiences of remote workers.
• Burnout among healthcare professionals: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of success in the business world: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of workplace harassment and discrimination.
• The effect of organizational culture on worker satisfaction: A phenomenological exploration.

Technology and Society

• The lived experiences of individuals with technology addiction.
• Online gaming communities: A phenomenological investigation.
• Experiences of cyberbullying among adolescents.
• Social media and self-esteem: A phenomenological perspective.
• The impact of (AI) artificial intelligence on everyday life: A phenomenological study.
• Digital nomadism: A phenomenological exploration of remote work lifestyles.
• Virtual reality experiences: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Ethical considerations in the use of big data: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of individuals disconnecting from technology.
• The phenomenology of online activism and social movements.

Arts and Humanities

• The lived experiences of professional artists.
• Experiences of creativity and inspiration among writers.
• Art therapy: A phenomenological exploration of its effects.
• The meaning of beauty: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of cultural heritage preservation.
• Music therapy: A phenomenological study of its impact on mental health.
• The lived experiences of actors in the theater industry.
• The role of storytelling in shaping identity: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of cultural assimilation through literature.
• The phenomenology of dance as a form of expression.

Environmental Studies

• The lived experiences of individuals affected by climate change.
• Sustainable living practices: A phenomenological exploration.
• Environmental activism: A phenomenological study of motivations.
• Experiences of reconnecting with nature in urban environments.
• The meaning of environmental stewardship: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Perceptions of ecological justice in marginalized communities.
• The lived experiences of indigenous people’s relationship with the land.
• Ecopsychology: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of volunteering for environmental conservation efforts.
• The phenomenology of outdoor recreational activities.

Philosophy and Ethics

• The meaning of happiness: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of moral dilemmas in everyday life.
• Personal identity: A phenomenological study of self-perception.
• The phenomenology of forgiveness and reconciliation.
• The lived experiences of individuals practicing mindfulness.
• Ethical decision-making in professional contexts: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of existential anxiety and meaninglessness.
• The phenomenology of altruism and empathy.
• Spirituality and well-being: A phenomenological perspective.
• The meaning of life: A phenomenological inquiry into existential questions.

Politics and Governance

• Political engagement among young adults: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of activism and social change.
• The lived experiences of refugees navigating asylum processes.
• Experiences of political polarization in society.
• Grassroots movements: A phenomenological exploration.
• The meaning of democracy: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of political participation among marginalized groups.
• The role of identity in political discourse: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of civic engagement in local communities.
• The phenomenology of political leadership.

Family and Relationships

• The lived experiences of blended families.
• Experiences of parenthood: A phenomenological exploration.
• Sibling relationships: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of love in romantic relationships: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of caregiving for elderly family members.
• Intergenerational relationships: A phenomenological perspective.
• The lived experiences of individuals in long-distance relationships.
• Experiences of infertility and assisted reproductive technologies.
• Divorce and its impact on family dynamics: A phenomenological study.
• The phenomenology of friendship and social support.

Religion and Spirituality

• Religious conversion experiences: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of individuals in religious communities.
• Experiences of spiritual awakening and transformation.
• Religious rituals and their significance: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of faith: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Religious identity and its role in personal development.
• Experiences of religious discrimination and persecution.
• The phenomenology of religious pilgrimage.
• Spirituality and coping with illness: A phenomenological perspective.
• Mystical experiences: A phenomenological exploration.

Miscellaneous

• Experiences of travel and cultural immersion.
• The meaning of home: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of coming out: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of people in recovery from substance abuse.
• Volunteerism and its impact on personal development: A phenomenological perspective.
• The meaning of leisure: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of intercultural communication and adaptation.
• The phenomenology of dreams and their interpretation.
• Experiences of living with chronic illness.
• The meaning of success: A phenomenological exploration of personal goals.

Sports and Recreation

• The lived experiences of professional athletes.
• Experiences of team dynamics in sports.
• The meaning of competition: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of injury and rehabilitation in sports.
• Sports fandom: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of coaches in youth sports.
• Experiences of gender identity in sports.
• The phenomenology of extreme sports.
• Sportsmanship and ethics: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of achievement in sports: A phenomenological perspective.

Technology and Innovation

• Experiences of early adopters of new technologies.
• The lived experiences of individuals with wearable technology.
• Technological disruptions in the workplace: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of artificial intelligence and automation in daily life.
• Virtual reality gaming: A phenomenological study of immersion.
• The impact of social media influencers: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of privacy and surveillance in the digital age.
• The meaning of digital literacy: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of technology-mediated communication.
• The phenomenology of online shopping experiences.

Media and Communication

• The lived experiences of journalists covering conflict zones.
• Experiences of social media activism and advocacy.
• Media representation and identity: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of misinformation and fake news consumption.
• The meaning of celebrity culture: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of binge-watching television series.
• The phenomenology of advertising and consumer behavior.
• Experiences of online dating and virtual relationships.
• The lived experiences of content creators on digital platforms.
• Experiences of censorship and freedom of speech in media.

Law and Justice

• Experiences of wrongful conviction: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The lived experiences of people involved in restorative justice processes.
• Experiences of bias in the criminal justice system.
• The meaning of justice: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of being a juror in a criminal trial.
• Police-community relations: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of victims of crime.
• Experiences of incarceration and reintegration into society.
• Legal professionals’ experiences of ethical dilemmas.
• The meaning of punishment: A phenomenological inquiry into justice systems.
• Experiences of seeking legal recourse: A phenomenological exploration.

These phenomenological research topics cover various disciplines and provide ample opportunities for phenomenological research. Researchers can explore lived experiences, perceptions, and meanings associated with various phenomena within each field.

Applications of Phenomenological Research

Here are some ways phenomenological research can be helpful for students:

• Understanding learning experiences – Students can be interviewed about their subjective experiences in the classroom, with homework, studying for exams, etc. This provides insight into how to improve education.
• Exploring social experiences – Students’ experiences making friends, joining groups, dealing with peer pressure, and more can be examined. This sheds light on social development.
• Investigating identity formation – The essence of forming one’s identity and sense of self during college can be uncovered through phenomenological methods.
• Discovering motivations – Students’ motivations for pursuing higher education, choosing a major, and setting career goals can be explored in-depth.
• Gaining perspectives on diversity – Students from diverse backgrounds can share their experiences on campus related to culture, race, gender, sexuality, disability, etc.
• Understanding extracurriculars – The meaning students ascribe to activities like sports, clubs, volunteer work, and internships and how these shape their collegiate journey.
• Transition challenges – Phenomenological studies can provide insight into the lived experiences of crucial transitions like moving away from home, transferring schools, graduating, etc.
• Wellness/health – Students’ experiences with stress, anxiety, depression, sleep issues, burnout, and other health concerns can be examined to promote well-being.

The takeaway is that phenomenological research can give rich insights into the student’s perspective and subjective realities. This is invaluable for improving educational experiences.

Challenges and Criticisms in Phenomenological Research

Here are some common challenges and criticisms associated with phenomenological research:

• Subjectivity – Critics argue phenomenology is too subjective and lacks scientific rigor. The subjective nature makes it challenging to generalize findings.
• Researcher bias – The researcher’s personal views and expectations may bias the collection and interpretation of data. Bracketing to set aside presuppositions is difficult.
• Retrospective bias – Participants may not accurately recall past experiences, distorting the lived essence under examination.
• Ambiguous approach – There is no single phenomenological method, which makes the overall approach vague. Steps in data analysis can be unclear.
• Abstract concepts – Descriptions of essences, meanings, and perceptions can be abstract. Communicating findings is challenging.
• Data collection limits – Depth interviews or observations may not capture the lived experience. Relying only on language is restricting.
• Generalizability – Small sample sizes in phenomenology make extending findings to larger populations difficult.
• Lack of causality – Phenomenology aims for descriptive insight rather than explanatory models or causal relationships.
• Time-consuming – Conducting in-depth interviews and analyzing large amounts of qualitative data is very time-intensive.

While valuable, phenomenology has limitations. Researchers should acknowledge subjectivities, triangulate data carefully, and communicate detailed descriptions of the phenomenon under study.

Future Directions in Phenomenological Research

Here are some potential future directions for phenomenological research:

• Increased diversity – Studies that aim to understand a broader range of cultural, social, and individual experiences. Giving voice to marginalized groups.
• New contexts – Applying phenomenological methods to emerging topics like technology, social media, climate change , pandemics, etc.
• Multimodal data – Incorporating data beyond interviews, like art, videography, observation, and participant diaries.
• Longitudinal insights – Following individuals’ lived experiences over extended periods as phenomena evolve.
• Collaborative approaches – Having participants be actively involved as co-researchers in designing studies and analyzing/communicating shared experiences.
• Innovative analysis – Leveraging advancements in qualitative data analysis software to uncover subtleties and connections in phenomenological data.
• Integration – Combining phenomenological findings with methods like grounded theory, ethnography, and experimental research for richer insights.
• Enhanced rigor – Improving methodological rigor while retaining open phenomenological inquiry using techniques like member checking.
• Applied research – Partnering with communities, organizations, and policymakers to ensure phenomenological insights translate to impact in real-world contexts.
• Cross-disciplinary – Scholars from diverse fields like health, psychology, and business collaborating on phenomenological projects using mixed expertise.
• New publishing models – Opting for open-access and multimedia publication to enhance dissemination and accessibility of phenomenological research.

The future looks bright for phenomenology’s continued elucidation of human experience!

Final Remarks

In conclusion, our journey through Phenomenological Research Topics has given us valuable insights into the complexities of human life. From exploring emotions and perceptions to understanding social interactions, memories, and identity, we have uncovered the rich woven cloth of personal realities that shape our lives.

Studying people’s experiences offers a unique lens through which we can delve into the essence of being human, acknowledging the importance of individual perspectives and real-life experiences. As we conclude our exploration, it’s clear that research about people’s experiences holds huge potential for further inquiry and understanding in various fields.

By embracing the nuanced nature of human existence, we can continue to heighten our knowledge of ourselves and the world around us. Let’s keep exploring and appreciating the depth of human experience by studying people’s experiences. I hope you liked this post about Phenomenological Research Topics. 

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Phenomenology Approach in Qualitative Research

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Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences

Kashif Khan

Phenomenology is the qualitative research inquiry that explores the lived experiences of the individual. This paper discusses phenomenology as a qualitative research methodology and its roots, characteristics, and steps to conduct the study. The relevant literature was searched using the database library, including PubMed, Google Scholar, PakMediNet, Medline, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature CINAHL. Literature was searched using keywords including phenomenology, qualitative inquiry, roots of phenomenology, steps of phenomenology, and characters of phenomenology. The essential essence of phenomenology is to understand the lived experiences of individuals. The participants truly share the lived experiences which they witnessed. It is concluded that phenomenology is a qualitative inquiry that addresses the real-life experiences of individuals.

International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies [IJELS] , Abayomi Alase

As a research methodology, qualitative research method infuses an added advantage to the exploratory capability that researchers need to explore and investigate their research studies. Qualitative methodology allows researchers to advance and apply their interpersonal and subjectivity skills to their research exploratory processes. However, in a study with an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach, the advantageous elements of the study quadruple because of the bonding relationship that the approach allows for the researchers to develop with their research participants. Furthermore, as a qualitative research approach, IPA gives researchers the best opportunity to understand the innermost deliberation of the 'lived experiences' of research participants. As an approach that is 'participant-oriented', interpretative phenomenological analysis approach allows the interviewees (research participants) to express themselves and their 'lived experience' stories the way they see fit without any distortion and/or prosecution. Therefore, utilizing the IPA approach in a qualitative research study reiterates the fact that its main objective and essence are to explore the 'lived experiences' of the research participants and allow them to narrate the research findings through their 'lived experiences'. As such, this paper discusses the historical background of phenomenology as both a theory and a qualitative research approach, an approach that has transitioned into an interpretative analytical tradition. Furthermore, as a resource tool to novice qualitative researchers, this paper provides a step-by-step comprehensive guide to help prepare and equip researchers with ways to utilize and apply the IPA approach in their qualitative research studies. More importantly, this paper also provides an advanced in-depth analysis and usability application for the IPA approach in a qualitatively conducted research study. As such, this paper completely contrasted itself from many books and articles that are written with the premise of providing useful and in-depth information on the subject-matter (phenomenology, as a qualitative approach).

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Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Phenomenology

Definition:

Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the study of subjective experience and consciousness. It is based on the idea that the essence of things can only be understood through the way they appear to us in experience, rather than by analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Phenomenology is often associated with the work of philosopher Edmund Husserl, who developed a method of phenomenological inquiry that involves suspending one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world and focusing on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves to us. This involves bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, and instead attending closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Phenomenology has been influential not only in philosophy but also in other fields such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology, where it has been used to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

History of Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement that began in the early 20th century, primarily in Germany. It was founded by Edmund Husserl, a German philosopher who is often considered the father of phenomenology.

Husserl’s work was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, particularly his emphasis on the importance of subjective experience. However, Husserl sought to go beyond Kant’s transcendental idealism by developing a rigorous method of inquiry that would allow him to examine the structures of consciousness and the nature of experience in a systematic way.

Husserl’s first major work, Logical Investigations (1900-1901), laid the groundwork for phenomenology by introducing the idea of intentional consciousness, or the notion that all consciousness is directed towards objects in the world. He went on to develop a method of “bracketing” or “epoche,” which involved setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves.

Other philosophers, such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, built on Husserl’s work and developed their own versions of phenomenology. Heidegger, in particular, emphasized the importance of language and the role it plays in shaping our understanding of the world, while Sartre focused on the relationship between consciousness and freedom.

Today, phenomenology continues to be an active area of philosophical inquiry, with many contemporary philosophers drawing on its insights to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

Types of Phenomenology

There are several types of phenomenology that have emerged over time, each with its own focus and approach. Here are some of the most prominent types of phenomenology:

Transcendental Phenomenology

This is the type of phenomenology developed by Edmund Husserl, which aims to investigate the structures of consciousness and experience in a systematic way by using the method of epoche or bracketing.

Existential Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, focuses on the subjective experience of individual existence, emphasizing the role of freedom, authenticity, and the search for meaning in human life.

Hermeneutic Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur, emphasizes the role of interpretation and understanding in human experience, particularly in the context of language and culture.

Phenomenology of Perception

This type of phenomenology, developed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, emphasizes the embodied and lived nature of perception, arguing that perception is not simply a matter of passive reception but is instead an active and dynamic process of engagement with the world.

Phenomenology of Sociality

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Alfred Schutz and Emmanuel Levinas, focuses on the social dimension of human experience, exploring how we relate to others and how our understanding of the world is shaped by our interactions with others.

Methods of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key methods that phenomenologists use to investigate human experience:

Epoche (Bracketing)

This is a key method in phenomenology, which involves setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves. By bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, one can attend more closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Introspection

Phenomenologists often rely on introspection, or a careful examination of one’s own mental states and experiences, as a way of gaining insight into the nature of consciousness and subjective experience.

Descriptive Analysis

Phenomenology also involves a careful description and analysis of subjective experiences, paying close attention to the way things appear to us in experience, rather than analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Another method used in phenomenology is the variation technique, in which one systematically varies different aspects of an experience in order to gain a deeper understanding of its structure and meaning.

Phenomenological Reduction

This method involves reducing a phenomenon to its essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of its nature and significance.

Epoché Variations

This method involves examining different aspects of an experience through the process of epoché or bracketing, to gain a more nuanced understanding of its subjective qualities and significance.

Applications of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, and healthcare. Here are some of the key applications of phenomenology:

• Philosophy : Phenomenology is primarily a philosophical approach, and has been used to explore a wide range of philosophical issues related to consciousness, perception, identity, and the nature of reality.
• Psychology : Phenomenology has been used in psychology to study human experience and consciousness, particularly in the areas of perception, emotion, and cognition. It has also been used to develop new forms of psychotherapy, such as existential and humanistic psychotherapy.
• Sociology : Phenomenology has been used in sociology to study the subjective experience of individuals within social contexts, particularly in the areas of culture, identity, and social change.
• Education : Phenomenology has been used in education to explore the subjective experience of students and teachers, and to develop new approaches to teaching and learning that take into account the individual experiences of learners.
• Healthcare : Phenomenology has been used in healthcare to explore the subjective experience of patients and healthcare providers, and to develop new approaches to patient care that are more patient-centered and focused on the individual’s experience of illness.
• Design : Phenomenology has been used in design to better understand the subjective experience of users and to create more user-centered products and experiences.
• Business : Phenomenology has been used in business to better understand the subjective experience of consumers and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences.

Purpose of Phenomenology

The purpose of phenomenology is to understand the subjective experience of human beings. Phenomenology is concerned with the way things appear to us in experience, rather than their objective properties or functions. The goal of phenomenology is to describe and analyze the essential features of subjective experience, and to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.

Phenomenology is particularly concerned with the ways in which subjective experience is structured, and with the underlying meanings and significance of these structures. Phenomenologists seek to identify the essential features of subjective experience, such as intentionality, embodiment, and lived time, and to explore the ways in which these features give rise to meaning and significance in human life.

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, healthcare, and design. In each of these fields, phenomenology is used to gain a deeper understanding of human experience, and to develop new approaches and strategies that are more focused on the subjective experiences of individuals.

Overall, the purpose of phenomenology is to deepen our understanding of human experience and to provide insights into the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence. Phenomenology offers a unique perspective on the subjective aspects of human life, and its insights have the potential to transform our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

Examples of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has many real-life examples across different fields. Here are some examples of phenomenology in action:

• Psychology : In psychology, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of individuals with mental health conditions. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of anxiety in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, or the experience of depression in individuals with major depressive disorder.
• Healthcare : In healthcare, phenomenology is used to explore the subjective experience of patients and to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of chronic pain in patients, in order to develop more effective pain management strategies that are based on the patient’s individual experience of pain.
• Education : In education, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of learning in students, in order to develop teaching methods that are more focused on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• Business : In business, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of consumers, and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular product or service, in order to identify areas for improvement and to create a more user-centered experience.
• Design : In design, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of users, and to create more user-centered products and experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular app or website, in order to identify ways to improve the user interface and user experience.

When to use Phenomenological Research

Here are some situations where phenomenological research might be appropriate:

• When you want to explore the meaning and significance of an experience : Phenomenological research is particularly useful when you want to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of individuals and the meanings and significance that they attach to their experiences. For example, if you want to understand the experience of being a first-time parent, phenomenological research can help you explore the various emotions, challenges, and joys that are associated with this experience.
• When you want to develop more patient-centered healthcare: Phenomenological research can be useful in healthcare settings where there is a need to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, if you want to improve pain management strategies for patients with chronic pain, phenomenological research can help you gain a better understanding of the individual experiences of pain and the different ways in which patients cope with this experience.
• When you want to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies : Phenomenological research can be used in education settings to explore the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies that are based on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• When you want to improve the user experience of a product or service: Phenomenological research can be used in design settings to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of users and to develop more user-centered products and experiences.

Characteristics of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key characteristics of phenomenology:

• Focus on subjective experience: Phenomenology is concerned with the subjective experience of individuals, rather than objective facts or data. Phenomenologists seek to understand how individuals experience and interpret the world around them.
• Emphasis on lived experience: Phenomenology emphasizes the importance of lived experience, or the way in which individuals experience the world through their own unique perspectives and histories.
• Reduction to essence: Phenomenology seeks to reduce the complexities of subjective experience to their essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.
• Emphasis on description: Phenomenology is primarily concerned with describing the features and structures of subjective experience, rather than explaining them in terms of underlying causes or mechanisms.
• Bracketing of preconceptions: Phenomenology involves bracketing or suspending preconceptions and assumptions about the world, in order to approach subjective experience with an open and unbiased perspective.
• Methodological approach: Phenomenology is both a philosophical and methodological approach, which involves a specific set of techniques and procedures for studying subjective experience.
• Multiple approaches: Phenomenology encompasses a wide range of approaches and variations, including transcendental phenomenology, hermeneutic phenomenology, and existential phenomenology, among others.

Advantages of Phenomenology

Phenomenology offers several advantages as a research approach, including:

• Provides rich, in-depth insights: Phenomenology is focused on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals in a particular context, which allows for a rich and in-depth exploration of their experiences, emotions, and perceptions.
• Allows for participant-centered research: Phenomenological research prioritizes the experiences and perspectives of the participants, which makes it a participant-centered approach. This can help to ensure that the research is relevant and meaningful to the participants.
• Provides a flexible approach: Phenomenological research offers a flexible approach that can be adapted to different research questions and contexts. This makes it suitable for use in a wide range of fields and research areas.
• Can uncover new insights : Phenomenological research can uncover new insights into subjective experience and can challenge existing assumptions and beliefs about a particular phenomenon or experience.
• Can inform practice and policy: Phenomenological research can provide insights that can be used to inform practice and policy decisions in fields such as healthcare, education, and design.
• Can be used in combination with other research approaches : Phenomenological research can be used in combination with other research approaches, such as quantitative methods, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon or experience.

Limitations of Phenomenology

Despite the many advantages of phenomenology, there are also several limitations that should be taken into account, including:

• Subjective nature: Phenomenology is focused on subjective experience, which means that it can be difficult to generalize findings to a larger population or to other contexts.
• Limited external validity: Because phenomenological research is focused on a specific context or experience, the findings may have limited external validity or generalizability.
• Potential for researcher bias: Phenomenological research relies heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and analyses of the data, which can introduce potential for bias and subjectivity.
• Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Phenomenological research is often time-consuming and resource-intensive, as it involves in-depth data collection and analysis.
• Difficulty with data analysis: Phenomenological research involves a complex process of data analysis, which can be difficult and time-consuming.
• Lack of standardized procedures: Phenomenology encompasses a range of approaches and variations, which can make it difficult to compare findings across studies or to establish standardized procedures.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Subjective experiences of tertiary student pianists with playing-related musculoskeletal disorder: a transcendental phenomenological analysis.

• Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Background: The literature suggests that the medical community needs musicians to provide an insider’s perspective to understand the physical and psychological dimensions of playing an instrument, and healthcare providers need to understand musicians’ experiences in order to develop coping strategies. Compared with professional pianists, student pianists are a neglected group. However, student and professional pianists both want to maintain their playing careers and have the experience of giving up playing because of playing-related musculoskeletal disorder (PRMD). There are a few studies conducted on student pianists’ experiences with PRMD, but none have been conducted in the Chinese context. Given the distinctive characteristics of higher music education in China and Chinese piano students, this study aims to investigate the lived experiences of tertiary student pianists with PRMD.

Methods: Phenomenology is the most suitable qualitative method for investigating lived experiences. This study employed a transcendental phenomenological approach to investigate the experiences of student pianists, collecting data through one-on-one interviews and focus group discussions. Since phenomenological research emphasizes the homogeneity of research subjects, all 25 participants in this study are tertiary student pianists from seven Chinese higher education institutions.

Results: Four themes and ten sub-themes were identified in this study. They are as follows: Theme one, Perceptions of PRMD, with sub-themes of body perceptions, negative thought, and emotional changes; Theme two, Complex Identity, with sub-themes of future pianists’ identity, nuanced identity of student pianists, and the dual identity between student pianist and patient; Theme three, Coping Strategies, with sub-themes of self-regulation and actively seek help from social relations; Theme four, Influences and Meanings, with sub-themes of negative influences of PRMD and positive meanings of PRMD.

Conclusion: This study explores the experiences of tertiary student pianists with PRMD, including their subjective thoughts and feelings. It also highlights the importance of understanding tertiary student pianists’ experiences in developing health education and healthcare measures tailored to them.

1 Introduction

Musicians have high career satisfaction; however, amidst the happiness of playing music, there is also the risk of injury due to musculoskeletal disorders ( Rose et al., 2021 ; Rodríguez-Gude et al., 2022 ). Playing-related musculoskeletal disorder (PRMD) is a common occupational disease among musicians ( Cruder et al., 2020 ; Shinde and Borkar, 2021 ), but it has been neglected for a long time ( Lee et al., 2012 ). The inaugural documentation of musician injuries in connection with their profession dates back to 1713, recorded in Ramazzini’s “Diseases of Workers” ( Armocida, 2019 ). Subsequently, in the late 19th century, the British Medical Journal reported on musician injuries ( Baxter, 2022 ). Notably, in the 1980s, The New York Times highlighted hand injuries experienced by pianists Gary Grafman and Leon Fleisher, with Grafman encountering difficulty in using his right hand and Fleisher diagnosed with focal dystonia, resulting in the loss of his ability to play the piano with his right hand. Both pianists shared their experiences of playing injuries through the media, bringing widespread public attention to musicians’ health problems for the first time ( Dunning, 1981 ).

For an extended period, there was a lack of precise terminology to characterize musicians’ playing-related health issues. Expressions like overuse syndrome, repetitive strain injury, and misuse were frequently employed to delineate injuries associated with playing ( Zaza, 1998 ). Zaza et al. (1998) conducted a literature review on musculoskeletal disorders in musicians and introduced the term play-related musculoskeletal disorders (PRMD) to encompass such conditions. PRMD is defined as “pain, weakness, numbness, tingling, or other symptoms that interfere with the ability to play the instrument at the level one is accustomed to.” This definition by Zaza et al. (1998) currently stands as the most widely accepted and employed terminology in the field ( Shanoff et al., 2019 ).

The risk factors and symptoms of PRMD vary among musicians playing different instruments: for instance, tenosynovitis in the hands of keyboard players, nerve problems in the upper limbs and backs of percussionists, and cervical spondylosis, periarthritis of the shoulder, and back musculoskeletal diseases in orchestral musicians. Wind players are prone to oral and lung diseases (Bronwen et al., 2012; Larsen, 2020 ; Mizrahi, 2020 ). Most existing literature focuses on orchestra musicians ( Rotter et al., 2020 ; Ryan et al., 2021 ), though independent musicians are also susceptible to PRMD, with varying experiences due to different musical instruments. Hence, it’s imperative to study homogeneous groups of musicians playing the same musical instrument for more in-depth and representative research conclusions ( Panebianco, 2021 ; Svendsen, 2022 ). This study is conducted in the context of China, where piano students account for the largest proportion of professional or amateur music education, and piano is also the preferred instrument for students to learn ( Yong et al., 2019 ). Therefore, this study chooses Chinese student pianists as the research object, which is more representative.

Current literature indicates a prevalence of PRMD ranging from 62 to 93% among professional musicians ( Smyth and Mirka, 2021 ) and 26 to 93% for pianists specifically ( Bragge et al., 2006 ). However, PRMD is not exclusive to professionals; student musicians, particularly at the tertiary level, also grapple with this challenge. Among conservatory students, the prevalence of PRMD varies from 43 to 63% ( Stanhope et al., 2019 ; Cruder et al., 2020 ; Portnoy et al., 2022 ). A study on the occupational health course experiences of tertiary music students revealed that 75% of student musicians had encountered PRMD ( Salonen, 2018 ). Brandfonbrener (2009) identified an 85% incidence of PRMD among first-year music students, with some affected even before entering college. Certain studies propose that student musicians face a greater risk of PRMD than their professional counterparts due to limited playing experience and injury-coping strategies ( Cruder et al., 2020 ). The impact of PRMD on student musicians may result in reduced learning efficiency or discontinuation of music education ( Kok et al., 2016 ; Steemers et al., 2020 ). Despite these implications, the injuries and experiences of student musicians often go unnoticed, rendering them a frequently overlooked group ( Détári and Nilssen, 2022 ; Matei and Ginsborg, 2022 ).

With the progress of performing arts medicine, an increasing number of studies are honing in on PRMD. However, the predominant focus in current literature remains quantitative, with prevalence and risk factors being frequently explored ( Kaufman-Cohen and Ratzon, 2011 ). Quantitative research, while valuable, may not capture the nuanced aspects of pianists’ experiences or unveil the specificity and social factors in their experiences with PRMD ( Queirós et al., 2017 ; Cruder et al., 2020 ). Hence, the inclusion of qualitative research becomes imperative. Qualitative studies play a crucial role in aiding clinicians to formulate effective treatment plans for pianists, identifying research gaps, and informing future studies on PRMD-related subjects ( Etchison and Kleist, 2000 ). According to Guptill and Golem (2008) , practitioners’ anecdotes on successful coping with PRMD constitute valuable contributions to the literature on musicians’ health issues. Building on this, Guptill (2010) emphasizes that treatments offered to musicians are most effective when healthcare providers comprehend the nature of the challenges they face. Therefore, this study focuses on the lived experiences of student pianists.

1.1 The experiences of musicians and student pianists related to PRMD

Previous research shows that musicians generally are highly satisfied with their careers and believe that work provides them with identity and self-worth. This conviction enables them to persevere in their careers despite experiencing PRMD and find fulfillment in their musical pursuits ( Park et al., 2007 ; Guptill, 2010 ; Hale, 2019 ). Interestingly, a study identified a paradoxical relationship between the happiness derived from performing music and the presence of PRMD among musicians. They reported feeling content rather than distressed when striving to sustain their playing careers post-injury. However, this happiness may inadvertently lead them to willingly continue working in a state of physical discomfort, thereby heightening the risk of PRMD ( School and Zosso, 2012 ). After suffering from PRMD, musicians commonly undergo a sense of “loss of prior ability” and diminishing dignity due to impaired performance ( Pappa, 2019 ).

The literature on PRMD is often focused on professional pianists, so the lived experiences of injured student pianists are often overlooked ( Austen, 2020 ). However, student pianists identify with their profession as highly as professional musicians do and are willing to play despite the high risk of injury ( Park et al., 2007 ). Student musicians also enjoy the process of creating and performing music, so they face a dilemma between the “need to play” and “respect the body” after undergoing PRMD ( McCready and Reid, 2007 ). They are also prone to emotional distress and career uncertainty ( Cruder et al., 2020 ). Bragge et al. (2006) investigated pianists’ perceptions of PRMD, as well as their behavioral, emotional, and physical worlds through interviews. The results show that pianists are more likely to suffer from PRMD than other instrumentalists, and they also experience many internal and external stresses. Pianists are reluctant to declare their health problems, which causes therapists to lack understanding of their experiences and needs, so the effect of PRMD management accepted by them is not ideal. In addition, due to the lack of PRMD prevention courses in higher education institutions, student pianists lack knowledge and awareness of PRMD ( Ling et al., 2018 ). Waters (2020) proposed that student pianists have a low sense of self-efficacy, are prone to stress and anxiety, and lose control of life, so student pianists need to develop time management skills to maintain the balance between physical and mental health and piano performance. Some PRMD-related studies also have found that social relationships significantly impact student pianists with PRMD. Lack of support from interpersonal relationships such as family, teachers, and classmates can lead to psychological stress, emotional distress, and physical suffering ( Santos and Queirós, 2019 ). The existing literature can prove that qualitative studies can help to understand pianists’ thoughts, feelings, behaviors, interpersonal relationships and other hard-to-quantify experiences that are important for coping with PRMD and sustaining their playing careers. The experiences of Chinese tertiary student pianists with PRMD have not been investigated, so this study focuses on Chinese student pianists.

1.2 Transcendental phenomenology

Moustakas (1994) created transcendental phenomenology based on the theories of Husserl and Heidegger. The distinction between transcendental phenomenology and other phenomenological approaches is that it proposes that the research process leads researchers back to the potential meaning of experience, and the main task of phenomenological researchers is to describe what is presented in the data and what may be hoped or imagined. Emphasis is placed on the interpretation of underlying existential dynamics through intuition, imagination, and universal structures. These dynamics can bring about aspects of personal experience (sensations, thoughts, and perceptions) into consciousness ( Moustakas, 1994 ). Moustakas developed two main types of data analysis: textural and structural. Textural analysis is used to analyze the experiences that appear in participants’ consciousness and describes participants’ perceptions of a phenomenon ( Yüksel and Yıldırım, 2015 ). Structural analysis is used to reveal implicit universal structures, which are common characteristic markers of the lived experiences of people who have experienced the same phenomenon, and to describe how the phenomenon is experienced by people ( Lopez and Willis, 2004 ). Textural analysis and structural analysis are complementary, just as human experience and how a phenomenon is experienced cannot be separated ( Ihde, 2012 ).

1.3 The application of transcendental phenomenology to musicians’ health problems

Phenomenological studies focusing on musicians’ health issues predominantly employ the research method of interpretive phenomenology (IPA) ( Salonen, 2018 ; Hale, 2019 ; Casey, 2020 ), with a more limited application of transcendental phenomenology. Howard (2004) stands as a pioneer in utilizing transcendental phenomenology to explore musicians’ health problems. Her study examined the experiences of musicians who lost their ability to play due to overuse injuries, revealing a cyclic process from loss to recovery, ultimately leading musicians to establish a new balance. Noteworthy contributions from Burgoyne (2022) and Bober (2019) delve into musicians’ lived experiences concerning perfectionism and performance anxiety, underscoring the importance of recognizing psychological issues in musicians. In a different vein, Olson Moser (2021) explores the lived experiences of professional musicians grappling with focal task-specific dystonia, offering insights from a musician’s perspective.

1.4 Social cognition theory (SCT)

Social cognition theory (SCT) is a theory about individual behavior created by Bandura. The core idea is ternary interaction determinism, that is, there is a dynamic interaction between individual cognition, environment, and behavior ( Bandura, 1986 , 2002 ). Bandura (1986) argued that people can take control of their lives by increasing self-efficacy and outcome expectations and becoming self-regulators. Although there is no literature on the use of SCT to study musicians’ health problems, SCT is often used in phenomenological research, such as Gallagher et al. (2005) studying the contribution of phenomenology to SCT and Rashid (2022) using SCT to investigate the lived experiences of social media influencers related to cyberbullying. SCT is also a common theoretical model in the field of health behavior research ( Bandura, 2002 ; Painter et al., 2008 ). SCT guides this study to investigate tertiary student pianists’ PRMD-related experiences from the perspectives of personal, behavior, and environment factors and to develop a deeper understanding of their experiences by using the two SCT characteristics of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Therefore, the innovative use of SCT in this study is feasible.

1.5 Current study

In China, researchers commonly characterize health issues related to instrumental music as “musicians’ occupational diseases” ( Li, 2006 ; Wang, 2008 ; Tang, 2010 ). Despite this terminology, there is a noticeable dearth of research on playing-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (PRMD) in China, particularly concerning student pianists. The health concerns of student pianists have not received sufficient attention, and higher education institutions in China lack dedicated facilities for managing and treating PRMD in music students. Moreover, there is a notable deficiency in health education initiatives tailored to the needs of music students. Although qualitative research is difficult to generalize to a wider group, this preliminary study in China serves as a valuable starting point, aiming to draw attention to the health problems of student musicians and their associated experiences, with the hope of inspiring broader awareness and further research efforts.

This study is designed on the basis of transcendental phenomenology, with Social Cognition Theory (SCT) as the theoretical perspective. It focuses on the experiences of tertiary student pianists related to PRMD, and delves into their thoughts and feelings, emphasizing the descriptions of participants’ lived experiences ( Langdridge, 2007 ). In light of the lack of research on the experiences of student pianists and the absence of an Asian perspective in the PRMD research field, this study aims to explore the lived experiences with PRMD from injured Eastern tertiary student pianists’ perspective so as to better understand their thoughts, perspectives, and feelings. This understanding can, in turn, encourage the healthcare and education sectors to pay attention to the ideas and needs of student pianists, thereby providing them with appropriate help and support. The research questions of this study are as follows:

1. What are the lived experiences of tertiary student pianists related to PRMD?

2. What are the subjective thoughts and feelings of tertiary student pianists who have suffered from PRMD?

2 Materials and methods

2.1 study design.

This study employs a phenomenological design, focusing on the experiences of tertiary student pianists afflicted with PRMD, utilizing a transcendental phenomenological approach for analyzing these experiences ( Moustakas, 1994 ). Moustakas (1994) posited that investigating the common experiences of several individuals concerning a specific phenomenon is the most suitable type of research problem for phenomenology. Transcendental phenomenology focuses on the structures of consciousness and the ways in which they shape human experience rather than on interpreting the experiences of participants and the meaning of those experiences ( Moustakas, 1994 ). It is consistent with the aim of this study to understand participants’ thoughts, feelings, perspectives, and behaviors through in-depth descriptions of their lived experiences related to PRMD without the investigator’s interpretation of their experiences.

2.2 Participants and recruitment procedure

Kaufman-Cohen and Ratzon (2011) proposed that purposive sampling is the best method when research requires collecting information from interviewees based on their attributes or characteristics. This study required assurance that each participant was a student pianist at a higher education institution, had prior experience with PRMD, and met the recruitment criteria for the study. Therefore, the purposive sampling method was adopted to recruit participants for this study. The recruitment criteria are as follows: (1) student pianists from higher education institutions with experience related to PRMD and pain intensity of at least level 3 [self-assessed according to Fry’s (1986) method]; (2) have significant experience related to playing the piano and PRMD; (3) be willing to discuss their injury experiences.

Upon obtaining ethical approval from the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects at the university where the researcher was affiliated, the researcher initially contacted 42 potential interviewees through the recommendation of piano teachers from six comprehensive universities and one conservatory in China, introduced the purpose of the study and its research significance to them, and inquired about their willingness to participate in the interview. Upon discussion, the researcher discovered that some of the student pianists suffered musculoskeletal disorders due to playing a second instrument (an instrument other than the piano), engaging in sports, or other causes. Some individuals were unable to communicate openly due to their status as researchers and teachers or other reasons, which was not conducive to data collection. Others declined to be interviewed for fear that their personal information or injury experiences would be exposed. Ultimately, after excluding student pianists who did not meet the recruitment criteria and did not wish to be interviewed, 25 student pianists participated in the study, of which 12 engaged in one-on-one interviews, and 13 partook in focus group discussions across two groups. One-on-one interviews serve as a valuable means to gain insight into individual participants’ experiences and thoughts regarding playing-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (PRMD). On the other hand, focus groups offer the opportunity to comprehend the collective experiences of a group, providing a broader perspective and potential confirmation of individual participants’ experiences. The synergistic use of both methods ensures a more comprehensive understanding of participants’ subjective experiences, capturing both the nuances of individual participants and the shared perspectives within the focus group. The basic information regarding the participants is depicted in Tables 1 , 2 .

Table 1 . Demographic information of one-on-one interview participants.

Table 2 . Demographic information of focus group discussion participants.

2.3 Data collection

Qualitative research is conducted through one-on-one communication with individuals or direct interaction within a group to obtain in-depth information and understanding of the subject ( Bernard, 2013 ). Individual face-to-face interviews and focus groups are the most suitable data collection methods for phenomenological research ( Shorey and Ng, 2022 ). Data were collected in the form of one-on-one interviews and focus group discussions, both of which were conducted in a semi-structured manner. Regular questions were prepared in advance as interview guides (see Appendix 1 ) to elicit unstructured responses. To allow participants to accurately and fully describe their experiences, questions could be added, replaced, or removed during the interview ( McIntosh and Morse, 2015 ). Prior to the formal data collection, researchers initiated one-on-one pilot interviews with five tertiary student pianists who were not part of the main participant group. Subsequently, pilot group discussions were conducted with these same five students, leading to minor adjustments in the interview guidelines based on the feedback received. The results of the pilot study indicated that one-on-one interviews were more conducive to obtaining in-depth, detailed, and personal data. Focus group discussions proved effective in yielding broader information, and participants demonstrated a greater likelihood of opening up during interactive sessions.

Before the formal interview and discussion, the researcher distributed informed consent forms to the participants, providing the overview of the study’s purpose and outlining the data collection procedures. Participants who signed and returned the informed consent forms were considered to have given their consent to participate and retained the right to terminate or withdraw from the interview at any point. Throughout the process, the researcher ensured the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. In the one-on-one interviews, participants were identified as Pianist 1, Pianist 2, and so forth, up to Pianist 12. The group representing conservatory student pianists was denoted as Focus Group 1, consisting of six individuals, while the group representing non-conservatory students was labeled Focus Group 2, comprising seven individuals. With the participants’ consent, the interviews and discussions were recorded and securely stored in an encrypted folder on the researcher’s computer. The recordings would be deleted upon the conclusion of the study, and all data were used exclusively for research purposes ( Chen et al., 2018 ).

One-on-one interviews preferred face-to-face format. Due to the rehearsal, treatment, and concert preparation, the three participants were still unable to arrange the time and place of the face-to-face interview after many times of communication. Hence, they used the form of the telephone interview, and the total time of the interviews was about 25–40 min. Focus group discussions were conducted face-to-face and lasted 67 min (Focus Group 1) and 73 min (Focus Group 2). Participants had the freedom to choose interview settings. One-on-one interviews took place in varied locations such as coffee shops, dessert shops, the library, and the piano room. The two focus groups convened in university classrooms. Each individual participant and focus group contributed to a single interview session, resulting in the collection of 14 interview datasets. The interviews and discussions involved the lived experiences of tertiary student pianists with PRMD. Data collection was stopped when all the themes emerged and strongly supported the research questions, and participants felt they had fully shared their experiences. The data reached saturation when the eleventh participant was interviewed, and the focus group discussion further validated and supported the interview data.

2.4 Data analysis

Data were analyzed using Moustakas’ refined Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen (SCK) phenomenological method ( Moustakas, 1994 ; Morrow et al., 2015 ) and the data analysis software Nvivo for the coding process ( QSR International Pty Ltd., 2020 ). Table 3 delineates the steps in the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen (SCK) method.

Table 3 . Analytic steps of Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen (SCK).

Initially, the researcher transcribed the verbatim recordings of one-on-one interviews and focus group discussions into documents to ensure complete records of the participants’ experiences. The researcher then scrutinized the transcripts repeatedly until she became fully acquainted with the participants’ experiences with PRMD, following which she categorized the data using open coding. Subsequently, specific meanings were drawn out from significant statements based on the text of the explanation. Each meaning derived from the significant statement was then amalgamated to develop themes related to the participants’ experiences. Redundant, irrelevant, and trivial descriptions were expunged from the overall structure to concentrate on the fundamental structure pertinent to the participants’ experiences. Finally, the transcript and coding stripes were forwarded to the participants to verify whether the researcher’s summarization and depiction of their experience were accurate and apt ( Majabadi et al., 2016 ).

2.5 Credibility

In adherence to the tenets of phenomenological study, and to avert the researcher’s subjectivity from influencing the research results, the researcher continually reminded themselves during the research process to: (1) extricate themselves from the phenomena and underscore their role as “research tools”; (2) not to prefigure what the participants might describe, holding no anticipation regarding the outcome ( Moran, 2002 ; Lopez and Willis, 2004 ); (3) avert the researcher’s own preconceived notions as a piano educator and a pianist ( Lopez and Willis, 2004 ).

The processes of participant sampling, data collection, and data analysis in this study all adhere to the criteria of transcendental phenomenology ( Moustakas, 1994 ; Thomas and Pollio, 2002 ; Boddy, 2016 ). Transcripts and analyses of the study were circulated back to participants to confirm and amend the results ( Majabadi et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, the study was overseen by members of the supervisory committee ( Merriam and Tisdell, 2015 ), and the second and third authors, serving as members of the supervisory committee of the first author, reviewed and monitored the entire research process, providing invaluable guidance and feedback for the study.

This study endeavors to explore the experiences of tertiary student pianists with PRMD, focusing on their subjective thoughts and feelings. The research identifies four central themes: perceptions of PRMD, complex identity, coping strategies, and influences and meanings. Table 4 provides an overview of the primary themes, subthemes, and occurrences documented in this study.

Table 4 . Emerging themes and sub-themes.

3.1 Perceptions of PRMD

Participants described their perceptions associated with PRMD as multifaceted. The most immediate sensations included physical pain and discomfort, restricted physical activity, and negative thoughts and emotional responses.

3.1.1 Body perceptions

When participants were asked to recall when they discovered they were suffering from PRMD, most could only name a general period. They described this as “around the time of the college entrance exam,” “when I first entered the conservatory,” “when there was a final exam,” and “about a year ago.” Some participants had very vague or no recollection of PRMD at all. However, all participants could clearly remember the feeling of physical pain and discomfort, as described by a member of Focus Group 1:

"I do not remember the exact date, but about a year ago, I started having pain and swelling in my shoulders, lower back and neck. At the time, I did not think it was a big problem. I thought if I reduced my practice time, these feelings would go away. But last summer vacation, I spent two weeks in Beihai with my friends. During that time, my discomfort did not abate. I still feel pain and stiffness in my body every day." (Focus Group 1)

Pianist 5 mentioned that although she could not remember when the PRMD occurred and did not know she was suffering from periarthritis of the shoulder until the hospital diagnosed it, she could clearly remember the signs of injury in her body:

"At the time, my hand was very sore and sore when I lifted it up, and my arm also felt numb and swollen. In retrospect, in fact, during that time, I was able to be identified as having periarthritis of the shoulder, especially in the case of limited mobility of the shoulder joint, which was a very important signal." (Pianist 5)

The feeling of physical pain and discomfort persisted throughout the participants’ post-injury experience, not merely when suffering from PRMD. Participants reported experiencing physical discomfort while playing the piano, doing other tasks, or even doing nothing at all, and the pain even became more pronounced and severe over time:

"I am now quite helpless. I have noticed that the pain in my shoulder and arm seems to have become persistent. I now play the piano and write papers; even if nothing else, I would feel the pain and the stiffness of the shoulder. I feel like my health is getting worse." (Pianist 9)

3.1.2 Negative thought

After suffering from PRMD, participants had negative thoughts and feelings. This change mainly manifests in losing confidence in their ability to play, feeling that their self-esteem has been hurt, and feeling that their career development path is limited. A few participants with severe cases even developed musical performance anxiety:

"Periarthritis of the shoulder really made me feel pain in my heart at one point, and I even wanted to leave this world. Suffering from this disease hurts my self-esteem very much. Before I was a strong person, I thought I was invincible. But now that I'm sick, I have no control over my body, and I feel very uncomfortable." (Pianist 5)

"When I learned that I was suffering from tenosynovitis, I felt that the human body was too fragile and that it limited my soul. My ideals cannot be realized, my dreams are trapped by my body." (Pianist 4)

"I suffer from performance anxiety because of PRMD, and I feel like I have lost the ability to play a piece in its entirety on stage. During concerts, exams, or competitions, I can not control my heart rate, my anxiety, my shaking legs and the sweat in my palms. I may not be able to become a professional Pianist after graduation." (Pianist 7)

3.1.3 Emotional changes

Participants underwent a range of emotional changes after suffering from PRMD. However, the overarching trajectory was a progression from initial disbelief to eventual acceptance.

When the participants first learned that they had suffered from PRMD, they had difficulty believing and accepting that playing the piano had caused their injuries. They were also reluctant to accept the fact that they were injured. This disbelief was followed by feelings of sadness and frustration, as well as anxiety about future career development. Participants who tried various methods of pain relief and received professional treatment but did not improve felt helpless, hopeless, and even angry. However, after a longer period of PRMD, most participants began to accept their injuries and became more emotionally peaceful. Pianist 8 described his feelings of helplessness and despair:

"To be honest, I was an emotional wreck. I am so young, so I can not handle it. I felt very desperate, and I did not have big dreams. I just wanted to play the piano. So why is the world doing this to me? It is really hard for me to control my emotions. I am so helpless "(Pianist 8).

Pianist 4 presented a more comprehensive description of her emotional changes:

"When I first confirmed that I was injured, it was incredible. I was also worried that my ability to play would be affected. Then, there was anxiety and restlessness. My doctor told me I had to stop playing for a month. I was afraid I would not be able to play the piano again. But then, after a long period of therapy, my therapist told me that many pianists face the same problems as me, and I was relieved that I was not the one who suffered the most. Everyone else is playing, so I cannot give up." (Pianist 4)

3.2 Complex identity

The participants’ sense of their own identity is intricate and uncertain. While they take pride in their identity as pianists, they grapple with the doubts and uncertainties introduced by the identity of being student pianists. Concurrently, there’s an identity conflict between the pianist and the patient.

3.2.1 Future pianists’ identity

Though participants possess tertiary student identities besides being pianists, they identify as pianists as fervently as professional pianists do. They perceive the pianist identity as an embodiment of their personal value, capabilities, and societal standing. As Pianist 4 remarked, “Without the title of a pianist, I’m unsure of who I am or how I’d present myself to others.” Being a pianist also mirrors the participants’ strengths and passions. Pianist 9 elucidated, “This identity assures me of my proficiency at the piano and my potential to turn my passion into a profession.” Moreover, several participants felt a deep sense of honor and pride in their status as pianists. They were of the belief that others would value and acknowledge them due to their pianist identity. This recognition would not only bring them joy but also motivate them toward a career in playing. A member of Focus Group 2 shared:

"I am proud to be a pianist. I feel that I can be appreciated by others, although I am so insignificant when I am not playing the piano, which is also my motivation to become a professional pianist. I am satisfied that being a pianist allows me to get everything I want from my spiritual dimension." (Focus Group 2)

3.2.2 Nuanced identity of student pianists

A few participants drew a distinguishing line between “pianist” and “student pianist”—a differentiation that often exposes them to disregard, skepticism, and career uncertainties.

Pianist 10 highlighted how the well-being concerns of student pianists often go unheeded:

"Successful pianists have their own health management team… The average professional pianist also has access to good therapists. You see, like us as students, the university does not teach us how to deal with injuries, and the teachers just tell us to practice hard, no pain, no gain. All the physical impairments associated with playing the piano seem to be rationalized, and no one, including ourselves, will take our own body seriously anymore." (Pianist 10)

Pianists 6 and 11 discussed how student pianists’ abilities are readily doubted by the general public. Despite possessing remarkable skills, their expertise during public concerts, part-time teaching, or piano contests is often under scrutiny. Such skepticism intensifies when they are afflicted by PRMD. Pianist 12 narrated an instance when her condition became a subject of skepticism:

"Although I have given a lot of solo concerts, I know that some new audiences have doubts about my playing. After all, I am still a junior student. Especially after my injury, these doubts have increased, and I feel anxious and bitter about them." (Pianist 12)

Moreover, certain participants expressed that the identity of student pianists is fraught with uncertainty, and they cannot assure themselves of becoming professional pianists post-graduation. Suffering from PRMD increased this uncertainty, casting further doubt on whether their physical condition would sustain a long-lasting playing career. Pianist 9 described it in the following manner:

"I can not confidently tell people I am a pianist because I am still a student, and maybe no one will hire me after graduation, so I will say goodbye to the piano playing profession. Then, I got hurt again and was even more unsure…" (Pianist 9)

3.2.3 The dual identity between student pianist and patient

A segment of participants conveyed that post-PRMD, they wrestled with a dual identity: being a pianist and simultaneously a musculoskeletal patient. This stark juxtaposition subjects them to immense identity conflict and emotional strain. Pianist 2 shared his sentiments:

"Being a pianist is good for me, and it gives me a social identity. But at the same time, the physical pain reminded me that I was a sick person. So I am a pianist, and I am a patient at the same time, and it is so conflicted. I feel embarrassed, and others will have a negative opinion of me." (Pianist 2)

3.3 Coping strategies

The coping strategies reported by the participants included self-regulation and help from social relationships. Self-regulation was embodied in participants’ spontaneous improvement of behaviours that may lead to injury, cultivation of behaviours conducive to the remission of PRMD, and self-psychological regulation. Help from social relationships was embodied in assisting participants in dealing with PRMD-related problems and providing emotional support.

3.3.1 Self-regulation

The self-adjustment methods mentioned by participants include changing playing methods, adjusting living habits, and self-psychological adjustment. Most participants adjusted their playing skills, posture, and habits after the injury, primarily by improving the playing skills that may cause injury to the body, trying more ergonomic playing postures, and avoiding over-practising. The members of Focus Group 1 discussed the benefits of changing the playing method. One member mentioned:

"In the long-term learning of performance, we may neglect the correct way of playing because of the pursuit of beautiful timbre and superb technique. For example, if I play a grand work, in the past, I might overuse the power of my fingers in order to produce a strong note. Now, I think that the finger is only the fulcrum of the body's strength. As long as I pass the strength of the body smoothly to the fingertips, my fingers will not be so tired and so painful. The body should be one when playing the piano." (Focus Group 1)

Pianist 2 alleviated physical pain and discomfort by adjusting life habits:

"I think it is important for a pianist to have a good lifestyle. I now give myself time to rest during practice and usually pay more attention to rest and sleep. I have also started to do jogging and aerobic exercise every day to ease my discomfort from the point of view of improving my muscle capacity." (Pianist 2)

Finally, some participants found that self-regulation was also helpful. They would give themselves positive psychological suggestions before practising or playing the piano to adjust their psychology to a better state. For instance, Pianist 3 would tell himself before playing the piano, “I will definitely play this piece perfectly.” Some participants did meditation exercises to calm and relax their minds:

"Meditation reduces my psychological stress and anxiety. I would bring my consciousness back to my body. For example, I imagine that the pain in my body, especially my shoulders, is gone, and my body is light and warm. I do not know if it is a psychological effect, but every time I finish my meditation, I feel physically and psychologically relaxed, and I feel less pain." (Pianist 1)

3.3.2 Actively seek help from social relations

The help that social relationships provide to participants is mainly embodied in substantive help (problem-focused coping strategies) and emotional support (emotion-focused coping strategies).

3.3.2.1 Problem-focused coping strategies

Substantive, problem-solving-focused help is provided by piano teachers and therapists. Some of the participants’ piano teachers designed more scientific playing methods for them. They helped them choose pieces suitable for their physical conditions to reduce the possibility of injury due to playing the piano:

My teacher helped me adjust my playing skills after my injury. When choosing the repertoire, he no longer only let me play difficult works but also let me play a lot of difficult but emotionally powerful works. While the pain is relieved, I also get an improved sense of music. (Pianist 1)

In addition, all of the participants in the one-on-one interview had been treated by a healthcare professional, including TCM therapy, physical therapy, and medication:

"I have had triamcinolone injections, I have taken anti-inflammatory drugs. I also tried Chinese medicine treatment, acupuncture, massage and so on. I prefer to receive Chinese medicine treatment. I also had electrotherapy and massage. I also received acupuncture treatment from traditional Chinese medicine. I have tried everything I can think of." (Pianist 12)

3.3.2.2 Emotion-focused coping strategies

The participants’ experiences demonstrate that while only their piano teachers and healthcare providers were able to provide them with substantive help, they had a wide range of social connections that could offer emotional support, including their families, teachers, friends, classmates, and even some of the more distant listeners, viewers, and competition judges.

Pianist 5 discussed the care, understanding and love she received from her family and teachers after suffering from PRMD:

"I suddenly found that my teacher was friendly to me, and he was not overly strict with me as before. Now, he cares more about my emotions and my health, makes me put my body first, and tells me there are other good things in life besides playing the piano. My parents also began to understand my situation and stopped pushing me. I know they love me, they just want me to have a good future." (Pianist 5)

Pianist 8 mentioned the company and support of his classmates and friends during his playing career and coping with PRMD:

"I am lucky that on the road to pursuing my dreams and during the time I spent healing my body, I made a group of like-minded friends. We exchange experiences, share our thoughts together, and strive to be better together. I am grateful to them." (Pianist 8)

Pianist 12 mentioned that the acceptance and understanding of concertgoers were what kept her going as a professional pianist:

"I was in a recital when my fingers began to spasm because of tenosynovitis during the climax, and all five fingers stuck together like glue, so I had to stop playing. However, as I awkwardly bowed to the audience, there was a burst of applause. I felt very surprised. Instead of blaming me, the audience forgave and encouraged me. It was so healing for me that it made me feel like I had to be a professional Pianist no matter what difficulties I faced." (Pianist 12)

3.4 Influences and meanings

Participants reported that their experiences with PRMD negatively impacted their performance, lives, bodies, and minds, but they also garnered some positive insights from them.

3.4.1 Negative influences of PRMD

Participants conveyed that the most noticeable setbacks after suffering from PRMD were the deterioration in performance and the instability in their playing. These challenges not only imposed considerable psychological burdens and inconveniences but also posed obstacles to the progression of their future playing careers. Additionally, there was an increased likelihood of participants contemplating abandoning their playing careers. Pianist 1 mentioned that after suffering from PRMD, she could no longer play difficult and physically demanding works, even pieces that were previously manageable, and she could noticeably feel the decline in her playing ability:

"My body now cannot support me to play difficult piano pieces, such as Liszt's Etudes and Chopin's concertos. Even when I play pieces that I used to be able to do easily, I feel very difficult and physically uncomfortable. My playing dropped too much after the injury." (Pianist 1)

Pianist 11 expressed that suffering from PRMD affected his playing state, making it challenging for him to concentrate and immerse himself while playing, and the efficiency of his practice was also reduced:

"After the injury, getting into shape was hard for me. Physical pain distracts me and makes it difficult to calm down. Especially when the teacher assigned a new piece of music, I felt that my speed of mastering a piece of music was always slower than that of other students because I could not play it for a long time. I feel so anxious and under great psychological pressure." (Pianist 11)

Some participants described physical pain and discomfort as sources of distress and inconvenience in their lives, mainly as an inability to perform daily activities, housework, and physical exercise due to physical pain. Some participants experienced severe pain and discomfort in cold, wet weather. Participants with severe PRMD needed assistance even for basic daily activities:

"I feel that PRMD has seriously affected my daily life. When my lumbar disc protruded, I had to go to the hospital for acupuncture every day. It was really serious at that time. I could only rest in bed, and I needed help to walk and eat. I feel very embarrassed, very undignified, and at the same time disturbing the normal life of others." (Pianist 10)

Pianist 5 discussed the psychological stress she faced after suffering from PRMD and her confusion about future career development:

"Especially when the shoulder inflammation attacks, I feel very anxious and painful. I felt that I was unworthy of the expectations of my parents and piano teachers, and then gave myself a huge psychological pressure and burden. I feel a lot of remorse and remorse, and at the same time, I worry that if my illness worsens, I won't be able to become a Pianist in the future, and then I will fall into a confused state." (Pianist 5)

As student pianists who had not yet formally entered the professional world, the experience of PRMD significantly impacted participants’ future career plans. When discussing their career aspirations post-graduation, despite their passion for piano playing, some participants also leaned toward relinquishing the goal of becoming pianists due to the limitations imposed by their health conditions. As expressed by Pianist 7:

"I can not become a professional pianist. My current physical condition can not support me to be a professional pianist. I might be a teacher after graduation. I might teach children to play the piano or to be a music teacher in middle school." (Pianist 7)

3.4.2 Positive meanings of PRMD

While suffering from PRMD was physically and mentally distressing, some participants also derived positive meanings from their experiences associated with PRMD. These include being more determined to become a professional pianist dream, valuing the opportunity to play the piano more, becoming more aware of health issues, and learning to accept negative experiences in life. Additionally, participants mentioned that they would empathize with pianists who had similar experiences and use their own experiences and methods to help others, transitioning from victims to helpers.

Despite the physical and mental pain experienced by some participants due to PRMD, their determination to become professional pianists in the future grew stronger. Pianist 2 emphasized that playing the piano was the meaning of his life. Pianist 8 expressed, “Not playing the piano would make me lose the love of life,” and Pianist 12 stated, “The piano is where my soul is.” Pianist 1 described:

"Piano is my friend, my confidant, my career and my hobby. So, no matter how bad my health is, I will play piano for the rest of my life. I'm going to be a professional pianist because I can not be anyone but a pianist." (Pianist 1)

Pianist 12 mentioned that she currently cherishes every opportunity to perform in public:

"I know I cannot play as much as I used to, so I cherish every opportunity to perform. Tomorrow and the accident do not know who will arrive first, and I cannot guarantee the chance to play all the time, so all I can do is treat each performance as if it were my last" (Pianist 12).

Pianist 5 started paying more attention to her health after suffering from PRMD:

"I pay special attention to my health now, watching my diet and rest. I will also give myself time to rest and not over-practice as much as I used to. I also try to be positive and control negative emotions and thoughts. My personality is much better than before, and I am no longer depressed and stubborn." (Pianist 5)

A member of Focus Group 1 mentioned that her experience with PRMD enabled her to accept other negative experiences in her life more readily:

"To be honest, this is one of the biggest bad experiences in my life right now, leaving me depressed and confused. But after that, I had setbacks and other bad experiences, and I found that I took it easy. My heart will not fall into the trough and depression, but first, think about the solution to the problem. That is what this experience has brought to my life. Experience itself is not good or bad; it is what we make of it."(Focus Group 2)

Pianist 4 mentioned that her experience with PRMD led to volunteer to help other injured pianists:

"I feel a sense of empathy now for pianists who have the same problems as me, especially for pianists who have gone through them after me and have not dealt with them yet. I will tell them about my treatments and some of my pain relief; I will also tell them about my experience to make them feel a little better." (Pianist 4)

4 Discussion

This study explores the lived experiences of Chinese tertiary student pianists concerning playing-related musculoskeletal disorder (PRMD), including their subjective thoughts, feelings, and the meaning of their PRMD-related experiences. Research indicates that student pianists’ perceptions associated with PRMD are multifaceted. The first and most immediate reaction participants felt was physical pain and discomfort. When recalling their initial experience with PRMD, participants were generally vague about the timing and course of the injury but could clearly remember how their bodies felt and responded. Additionally, the physical pain and discomfort caused by PRMD persisted, with participants reporting varying degrees of pain both at the piano and in daily life, alongside a risk that this physical pain would worsen over time.

These results support previous studies which found that musicians suffering from PRMD are not well cared for and treated due to the lack of currently recognized effective preventive and therapeutic measures, thus enduring long-term physical discomfort at work ( Cruder et al., 2020 ). Moreover, the results illustrated that exposure to PRMD also induced changes in participants’ mindset and mood. After the injury, participants generally lost confidence in their playing ability, skills, and performance status, and felt uncertain about their career development post-graduation. Negative evaluations from others also affected their psychological state, leading to hurt self-esteem and even performance anxiety. Previous research has shown that musicians are susceptible to mental and emotional challenges, and that physical conditions, public evaluations, and poor performing experiences can result in psychological problems ( Santos and Queirós, 2019 ; Sorensen et al., 2021 ).

Past studies confirmed that musicians experience negative emotional reactions after suffering PRMD, including sadness and depression over the injury, anxiety and confusion over career development, pain and discomfort over physical condition, and anger and despair over the inability to change the status quo ( Sorensen et al., 2021 ). Howard’s (2004) research indicates that musicians’ experience post-injury is a cyclic process from loss to recovery, and musicians will eventually find a new balance and enter a new cycle. This study further corroborates Howard (2004) , finding that participants’ emotions follow a similar cycle—from disbelief to acceptance. After experiencing feelings of disbelief, sadness, anxiety, hopelessness, and anger, participants eventually came to terms with the fact that they had suffered a PRMD, approaching the PRMD-related experience more peacefully and rationally.

Previous literature suggests that musicians belong to a profession with a strong sense of identity and high career satisfaction, and it is precisely because of this that they have a high sense of self-efficacy in playing the piano ( Bandura, 1999 ), deriving happiness from their careers. Therefore, even when afflicted with PRMD, they continue to work ( Park et al., 2007 ; School and Zosso, 2012 ). The study by Park et al. (2007) investigated the reasons why tertiary music students are willing to continue to perform despite the high risk of injury. They found that music students also identified as musicians and were not likely to abandon their music careers easily. This study supports this view. Participants believe that being a pianist brings them pride and happiness, viewing it as their social identity that reflects their abilities, strengths, dreams, and self-perception. However, participants also experienced a sense of uncertainty and conflict stemming from identity. As student pianists, their health problems are easily overlooked, and the public readily questions their performance ability. A study by McCready and Reid (2007) showed that music students also had experiences of having their music-playing career interrupted due to PRMD. The participants in this study had not yet formally started their careers, and suffering from PRMD also exposed them to career uncertainty. Finally, participants also faced an identity conflict between being a pianist and a patient, which caused a psychological burden, embarrassment, and low self-esteem. Past literature has also suggested that suffering from PRMD can reduce musicians’ job satisfaction, cause them to experience a career crisis, and evoke a feeling of “lost identity” ( Sorensen et al., 2021 ).

The musicians’ descriptions suggest that their strategies for coping with injury are divided into two main categories: self-regulation and seeking assistance through social relationships. The concept of self-regulation comes from social cognitive theory (SCT), which proposes that self-regulation and self-efficacy can improve an individual’s sense of efficiency in behavior and performance ( Bandura, 2002 ). Participants were more likely to self-regulate when choosing coping measures, including improving playing methods, adjusting lifestyle habits, and self-psychological adjustment. Because coping with PRMD is a long process, participants do not have the help and support of others at all times. Previous literature has also confirmed the role of participants in self-regulation, such as the use of scientific playing methods to relieve musculoskeletal stress and promote muscle self-repair ( Ackermann et al., 2014 ; Pappa, 2019 ; Shanoff et al., 2019 ), improving the quality of life and exercise can alleviate the physical and mental pressure of musicians ( Lee et al., 2012 ; Ajidahun et al., 2019 ). Past research has also confirmed the benefits of psychological practices for musicians managing stress and coping with PRMD ( Kuo, 2012 ). This study further found that in addition to the emotional value provided by the professional treatment of psychotherapists and social relationships, self-psychological regulation conducted by participants, including positive mental suggestion, self-encouragement, and meditation, positively affected managing PRMD. Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (TMSC) proposed two coping strategies: problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. Problem-focused coping strategies include doing something to alleviate the pain people face, while emotion-focused coping strategies include reducing emotional pain and regulating emotional stress ( Sittichai and Smith, 2018 ). The assistance provided by social relationships to participants also encompasses these two dimensions. The participants’ piano teachers and therapists provided problem-focused assistance. This included help in adjusting their playing habits and techniques and professional therapy. In addition, social relationships such as family, friends, teachers, classmates, and even listeners and employers can provide emotional support for participants, including companionship, encouragement, understanding, and tolerance. SCT proposes that social and family support is the most important support for individual behavior ( Bandura, 2002 ), and past literature affirms the importance of trust, understanding, and a supportive work environment for musicians’ physical and mental health ( Santos and Queirós, 2019 ). The study also demonstrated the benefits of positive social relationships on participants’ coping with PRMD and future career development. Even emotional support that does not help them solve actual problems can help them approach PRMD-related experiences more rationally and optimistically.

Participants described the impact and significance of their experiences with PRMD. The negative impact of PRMD on participants was inevitable, and the most obvious impact was reflected in their piano performance. Cruder et al. (2020) proposed that musicians suffering from PRMD would have difficulty controlling their performance, leading to career uncertainty. This study supports the perspective of Cruder et al. (2020) that due to physical pain and discomfort after injury, participants faced a decline in performance ability and unstable performance status, and the difficulty of playing pieces was reduced due to physical conditions. They suffered from PRMD because of playing the piano, and their performance was affected and limited by PRMD after the injury. The psychological state and daily life of the participants were also affected by PRMD. This study, like previous literature, found that the participants also faced psychological stress and negative emotions in addition to physical pain ( Santos and Queirós, 2019 ), but the results of this study show that student pianists could adjust their psychology to a normal state through self-psychological adjustment and emotional support from social relationships. The results also demonstrate that the participants’ daily lives were affected by PRMD, and they may not be able to participate in daily labor and sports or even take care of their daily lives due to physical pain and discomfort. In the past, little literature mentioned the impact of PRMD on the daily life of musicians. Limited by the small sample size, this study may be unreliable, so more studies should focus on musicians’ lived experiences other than instrumental music.

Notably, this study found that participants’ experiences related to PRMD were also positive. Howard (2004) proposed that the experience of a musician’s injury is a cyclical process of loss to recovery, and musicians eventually find a new balance. In addition, there is little literature on the positive significance of PRMD for musicians because PRMD is a serious and potentially career-ending disease for musicians. However, the results of this study demonstrate that after long-term experience and coping with PRMD, participants became self-regulators, able to adjust their playing habits, living habits, and mental states, and re-establish high self-efficacy and high outcome expectations for piano performance ( Bandura, 2002 ). While receiving substantial help and emotional support from social relations, they also sympathized and assisted other injured pianists, thus establishing good interpersonal relationships. Participants would also begin to value health issues and careers and learn from PRMD-related experiences the mindset and courage to face other negative experiences in their lives.

This study is conducted within the context of China, and in comparison with prior literature, the results are infused with East Asian cultural characteristics. Primarily, the results mirror the stringent school education and family education prevalent in East Asia ( Bary and Chaffee, 1989 ). The participants often had ambitious parents and strict piano teachers, which forced them to practice excessively and increased the risk of PRMD. After injury, they also suffer from thoughts such as “failing to live up to the expectations of parents and teachers.” While existing literature indicates that oral drugs, injectable drugs, and surgery are prevalent treatments for musicians ( Shanoff et al., 2019 ; Matei and Ginsborg, 2022 ), participants in this study exhibited a stronger preference for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) treatment and expressed higher trust in TCM doctors. This contrasts with musicians in other countries who rarely consider TCM as their primary treatment choice. Finally, previous research indicates that injured student pianists, like professional pianists, are not inclined to easily abandon their playing careers ( Pappa, 2019 ), but many participants in this study tend to give up playing and pursue other music-related careers when they suffer from more severe PRMD. The participants had the same love for playing the piano as other pianists, but they thought health was more important. They described this choice as “another avenue to fulfill the musical dream” in their own words.

5 Implications

This study employed a transcendental phenomenological approach to examine student pianists’ experiences in China’s higher education institutions concerning playing-related musculoskeletal disorder (PRMD), focusing on their thoughts and feelings. Currently, most of the literature related to PRMD consists of quantitative studies, with few investigating the lived experiences of musicians, and even fewer studies on student pianists. This study is based on the experiences of student pianists without the researchers’ interpretation of their experiences. Such an approach can lead one back to the essence of the matter, to the nature of the phenomena experienced by the student pianist ( Moustakas, 1994 ).

This study utilizes Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) as a theoretical perspective ( Bandura, 1986 ) and emphasizes the importance of enhancing student pianists’ self-efficacy and outcome expectations, as well as encouraging student pianists to become self-moderators. SCT has not been used in studies of musician health before. This study extends the theory and finds a feasible theoretical perspective for subsequent studies related to PRMD.

This study further underscores the importance of providing student pianists with quality music education, health education, and healthcare to cope with PRMD and sustain their playing careers. This study also provides a perspective for young student pianists in the field of musician-related healthcare, affording relevant personnel the opportunity to understand and value the experiences of student musicians related to PRMD and their thoughts and appeals to tailor injury coping strategies to them.

6 Limitations

This study’s limitation lies in relying on telephone interviews for some participants, specifically professional pianists, due to their time constraints resulting from treatments, concerts, and rehearsals. The necessity to accommodate their busy schedules might have impacted the depth and quality of information gathered compared to face-to-face interviews. Despite efforts to ensure informed consent and maintain anonymity, the phone call approach may have introduced potential limitations, such as a potential loss of non-verbal cues and a different level of engagement that could influence the richness of the data obtained. In addition, this study is the first to investigate the experiences of Chinese musicians related to PRMD. Although the study subjects are a homogeneous group of tertiary student pianists, the findings cannot be generalized to the broader group of Chinese musicians. The research related to PRMD in China is still in its infancy, with little relevant literature and a lack of influential studies, leading to long-term neglect of musicians’ health issues, including their experiences related to PRMD. This study can serve as a preliminary study in this field in China, inspiring more people to pay attention to musicians’ health issues and experiences and establishing a supportive work environment.

7 Conclusion

This study investigated the experiences of Chinese tertiary student pianists related to playing-related musculoskeletal disorder (PRMD), providing a perspective for young Eastern Asian pianists in the field of performing arts medicine. Simultaneously, as the first study in China to explore the experiences of musicians suffering from PRMD, this study can serve as a preliminary study to inspire more people to pay attention to injured musicians. Future research needs to continue to explore the relationship between musicians’ lived experiences and PRMD, and how musicians’ experiences can be used to develop prevention and treatment strategies applicable to them. Future research also needs to focus on student musicians, including pianists, whose situations and experiences differ from those of professional musicians, yet the impact of suffering from PRMD on their physical and mental health and future careers is significant. Additionally, it is suggested that Chinese researchers employ quantitative studies to determine the prevalence and risk factors of PRMD in China, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the basic situation of PRMD among Chinese musicians. Researchers can also focus on the health problems of players of traditional Chinese instruments such as erhu, guzheng, pipa, and guqin to enrich the existing literature.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Ethics Committee for Research involving Human Subjects Universiti Putra Malaysia. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

MX: Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AM: Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. IS: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1303046/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: playing-related musculoskeletal disorder, tertiary student pianist, experience, China, subjective

Citation: Xiaoyu M, Musib AF and Selvarajah IV (2024) Subjective experiences of tertiary student pianists with playing-related musculoskeletal disorder: a transcendental phenomenological analysis. Front. Psychol . 15:1303046. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1303046

Received: 27 September 2023; Accepted: 09 April 2024; Published: 23 April 2024.

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*Correspondence: Miao Xiaoyu, [email protected]

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